{"page": 1, "printed_page": null, "text": ""}
{"page": 2, "printed_page": null, "text": "Digitized by the Internet Archive\nin 2007 with funding from\nIVIicrosoft Corporation\n\nhttp://www.archive.org/details/addressesproce1916natiuoft\n\n"}
{"page": 3, "printed_page": null, "text": "A,\ny^\n\nNATIONAL\n■\"\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF THE UNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nrT«Oetf<Sf '\"^ ^S\n\nAddresses and Proceedings\nOF THE\n\ni^\n\nFIFTY-FOURTH\n\nANNUAL\nHELD\n\n^\n\nNEW\n\nAT\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\n:-:\n\nJULY 1-8\n\n:i^\n\n1916\n\n1\n\nMEETING\n\nVOLUME\n\nLIV\n\ni\nA*>\n\n1916\n\npublisbeO bs tbc associationMICH.\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nOFFICE, ANN\n\nARBOR,\n\n^v-^\n\n"}
{"page": 4, "printed_page": null, "text": "m\n\nId\n\nComposed and Printed By\nThe University of Chicago Press\nChicago, Illinois. U.S.A.\n\n"}
{"page": 5, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\nAct of Incorporation .\nBy-Laws\n....\nCertificate of Incorporation\nCalendar of Meetings\nOflScers for 1915-16\n.\nSecretary's Minutes of General Sessions\nGENERAL\nAddresses of Welcome:\nI. Whitman\nII. Finley\nIII. Alexander\nIV. Mitchel\n......\nV. Maxwel\nWillcoxl\nVI.\nVII. StraubenmiUler\n\nPAGI\n\nZ\n\n12\n\n5\n\n21\n\nSESSIONS\n\n33\n......'\n\nPresident's Address — Johnson\nA League to Enforce World Peace — Taft\nOrganized Recreation — Foster\nThe Elimination of Illiteracy — Stewart\nFirst Aid to the Country Teacher— A Suggestion as to Vitalizing the Country\nSchools thru Our Present Teachers— E^g/e^/ow\nThe Secular Free Schools — Young\nThe Place of the University in a Democracy — Van Rise\nThe Place of the Normal School in a Democracy— ^«>ife .\nCitizenship in a Republic — Bryan\n:\nPreparation thru Education for a Democracy — Joyner\nThe Common School as an Instrument of Democracy — Pearse\n....\nThe War and Education — Hall\nWhat the Public Schools Can Do toward the Maintenance of Permanent Peace —\nAndrews\nMass Instruction thru Group Training — Martin\nThe Socialized Recitation — Hunter\nThe Education of the Negro — Frissell\nVocational Education — Shoop\nNational Aid to Vocational Education— ^e^r/ey\nIndustrial Education — Redfield\nPreparing Teachers for Leadership in All Special Education — Crabtree\nEducational Preparation for Foreign Service — Swiggett\nSalaries and Pensions of Teachers — Swain\nPensions for Public-School Teachers — Furst\n\n35\n34\n49\n\n54\n6738\n\n79\n77\n\n86\n83\n93\n\n4\n114\n119\n\n127\nlOI\n\n97\n\n106\n\n137\nIII\n\n.\n\nTeachers' Cottages — Preston\n.\n.\n•\nThe Junior High School — Johnston\nThe Junior College— /awe^ M. Wood\n•\n•\nA Teacher— Inscribed to the Beautiful Memory of One Who Gave Her Life to Her\nWork — Johnson\nUniversal Military Traming— Leonard Wood\n\n145\n\n122\n\n136\n157\n159\n142\n\n151\n\n"}
{"page": 6, "printed_page": null, "text": "vi\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\nPAGE\n\nChinese Education — Koo\nSome International Aspects of Public Education — McAdoo\nThe American School and the Workingman — Gompers\nNationalizing Education — Dewey\nThe Possibilities of a National University at the Capital — Fess\n\n.\n\n165\n170\n175\n183\n189\n\n.\n\n195\n196\n201\n205\n210\n215\n220\n222\n225\n\nI. Thomas D. Wood\n\"\n11, Rose\nThe New Ideal in Education — Better Parents of Better Children — Putnam\nSecretary's Minutes — New York Meeting\nEducational and Psychological Aspects of Racial Well-Being — Yerkes .\nThe Course of Study as a Test of Efficiency of Supervison — Yocum\n.\n.\nRural Education — Joyner\nThe Greater Thnit— Straus\nNormal School Preparation for Thrift Teaching — Owen\nReport of Committee on Health Problems in Education — Keyes\n....\n\n232\n235\n240\n246\n248\n254\n269\n274\n281\n285\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nSecretary's Minutes — Detroit Meeting\nThrift — An Educational Necessity — Straus\nThrift in Its Relation to Country Life — Wilson\nThrift in Relation to Industries — Dempsey\nThrift and Its Relation to Banking — Bexell . *\nThrift in Its Relation to Conservation — Stuart\nThrift in Relation to the Home — Blake\nA Memorial to Zachariah Xenophon Snyder — Keyes\nThe Function of the Graduate School of Education — Luckey .\nTopic : National Welfare and Rural Schools\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n.\nRelation of the Kindergarten and the Primary in the School of Childhood, University of Pittsburgh — Smith\nKindergartens of Yesterday and Tomorrow — Hill\nThe Demonstration-Play School of the University of California — Hetherington\n.\nLiterature for the Kindergarten Child — Greene\nArt in the Kindergarten — Cornell\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF HIGHER\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nAddress of Welcome — Willcox\nThe Education of School Committees — Lee\n\n290\n294\n298\n303\n307\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nPresent Tendencies in College Administration — Duggan\nThe Elective System — Its Functions and Its Limitations — Balliet\n.\n,\nThe Baccalaureate Degree as an Obstacle to Educational Progress — Bradley . .\nPossible Modifications in Our Educational Work Likely to Come as a Result of the\nGreat War — Russell\nThe Service of Business Schools at the Close of the Great War — Egbert . . .\nAn Experiment in Practical Commercial Education in the National City Bank of\nNew York — Schwedtman\nDEPARTMENT\n\n289\n\n311\n312\n318\n321\n324\n325\n329\n\nADMINISTRATION\n.\n\n337\n33^\n340\n\n"}
{"page": 7, "printed_page": null, "text": "vu\n\nCONTENTS\n\nPACK\n\n343\n\nFunctions and Methods of Boards of Education — Winser\nAfter the Architect — Snyder\nFunctions of the State in Local Administration — Finegan\nThe Business Man and the Public Service — Loeh\nA Reply — Young\nDEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION\n\n34S\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nFundamental Aims in the Teaching of Bo6)sktti>m.g— Bartholomew ...\"\nPenmanship in Business High Schools — Healey\nTypewriting in the Public Schools — Beygrau\nThe Organization of a Business-Practice and Office-Routine Course and How to\nMake It a Success in Business High Schools — McCarty\nEconomics in the Commercial High School— FemcJfe\nThe Relation of the Library to Business Education — Krause\nThe Teaching of Business English and Advertising in Business High Schools—\nHotchkiss\nHow Teachers Can Increase the Efficiency of Accounting and Bookkeeping Courses\n— Montgomery\nCommittee Reports\nCommercial Geography as an Element in Business Education — Goode.\nBusiness English: A Summary of Principles — Hosic\nThe Content and Presentation of Shorthand and Typewriting — Collins\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nOF NORMAL\n\nOF VOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n356\n\n375\n361\n379\n362\n383\n370\n387\n393\n393\n\n397\n398 391\n403\n407\n411\n415\n426\n429\n433\n435\n438\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSecretary's Minutes — Detroit Meeting\nExtension Work in Normal Schools — Salser\nSecretary's Minutes — New York Meeting\n•\n.\n.\nA Differentiated Course of Study for Normal Schools— P«7wa«\n....,••••\nNormal School Curricula — A Cniiqner— Balliet\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n367\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Peculiar Psychological Conditions and Social Needs of the Seventh and Eighth\nGrades — Snedden\nThe Organization of the Upper Elementary Grades Contrasted with the Organization of the Lower Elementary Grades and the High School — Shoop\n.\n.\nThe Necessity of Changes in the Curriculum of the Upper Elementary Grades, Both\nin Subject-Matter and in Content — Bradford\n.\nThe Intensive Study of Large Topics — McMurry\nThe Place of the Corporation and the Continuation Schools— CowweZ/gy\nWill Standard Tests Economize Time, Lead to a Broadening of the Subject-Matter,\nand Make for Efficiency of Both Teacher and Pupil ?—ra//\n....\nThe Educational Values Which the Child Carries Over from the Kmdergarten mto\nthe Primary Grades— £^^7/\nPractical Means of Unifying the Work of the Kindergarten and the Primary Grades\nI. Meriam\n11. Palmer\nIII. Balliet\nDEPARTMENT\n\n348\n365\n351\n\nAND\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Home from the Standpoint of U.taMh—Bigelow\nThe Influence of Architectural and Decorative kri— Warren\n\nPRACTICAL\n\n44^\n44i\n\n•\n\n449\n45°\n45\n\nARTS\n'\n\n,\n4 3\n4 7\n\n"}
{"page": 8, "printed_page": null, "text": "Viii\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\nPAGE\n\nEducation for an Age of Service — Appel\nVocational Education and Government Aid — Dodd\nArt a Vitalizing Force in Education — Warner\nArt Education for House Furnishing — Coffin\n.\nThe Domain of Art Education — Balliet ......,.,.\nArt Teaching vs. Practical Life — Chamberlain\nThe Relationship between Museums and Schools —\nRea\nGallup\nThe Art Instinct Universal — Ellis\nThe Essentials in Making Art Practical — Woodward\nDifferentiation in Art Training to Suit Individual Pupil's Needs — Farnum\nDEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION\n\n.\n\n.\n\n473\n479\n483\n489\n493\n496\n500\n503\n\n.\n\n504\n508\n512\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n517\nSocialization of the High School — Rynearson\n519\nMaking the High School Democratic — Churchill\n524\nOur Old Friend, the Examination — Mc Andrew\n527\nWhat High-School Studies Are of Most Worth ?— Herrick\n533\nThe Library in the Modern High School — Davidson\n538\nThe Need for an Aggressive Campaign for Better High-School Libraries — Johnston 539\nThe Relation of the High-School Library to Vocational and Technical Courses —\nHood\n543\nLibriiary Administration — Sullivan\nReport of Committee on Problems of High-School Libraries — Certain\n.\n.\n.\nI. Hall\nII. Morgan\nIII. High-School-Library Committee of the Southern Conference for Education and Industry\n\n546\n547\n548\n552\n\nA. Educational Guidance thru the High-School Library — Davis\n.\n.\n.\nB. The High-School Library and History Teaching — Morgan, Stewart .\nC. Instructional Phase of School-Library Work — Hopkins\n....\nD. The Librarian's Contribution to the Educational Standards of the High\nSchool — Logasa\nA Brief Summary of the Forthcoming Report of the National Joint Committee on\nthe Reorganization of High-School English\nThe Reorganized High School — Mills\nMilitary Training in the High School: Why and How? — Small\n.\n.\n.\n.\n\n553\n555\n556\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC\n\n559\n567\n57°\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nAbsolute Music in the Elementary Schools — Ripley\nWhat Should Be the Musical Equipment of the Secondary-School Graduate— ^Aerw\nMusic in the Normal School — Beach\nThe Child Voice: Responsibility of the Community toward It — Baker-Low .\n.\nMusic Education and Public Libraries — Kinkeldey\n....\n.\n.\n.\nThe Psychology of Esthetic Experience in Music — Washburn\nMechanical Inventions as an Aid to the Teaching of Music — Lewis\n.\n.\n.\nThe Folk-Song— ^am/er\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n557\n\nOF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Farm Bureau as an Agent in Local Development — Burrit\nField Exercises in^Their^Relation to Agricultural Teaching— Dam\n\n575\n577\n582\n5^7\n592\n59^\n600\n606\n608\n\nEDUCATION\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n.\n\n613\n614\n-619\n\n"}
{"page": 9, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\n\nThe Home Project in Secondary-School Agriculture— DenmV\nThe Rural School and the Reading Jiabit— Sanborn\n...\nRural-School Extension Work by the New York State College\nof Agriculture—\nTuUle\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF CLASSROOM\n\nTEACHERS\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nMoral Education: What the School Can Bo—Fahey ....\nVocational Guidance thruout the School Course—Johnston\n...\nWaste in Education — Hosic\nLIBRARY\n\n,\n\n68\n64^\n^ «\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nReport of the Committee on University and College Libraries— Farne^ Wood\n.\nJoint Administration of the High-School Library by the Board of Education and\nthe Public Library — Smith\nGeneral Principles Involved — Bostwick\nEducational Value of Bibliographic Training — Austen\nNormal School Libraries — Rice\nReport of Committee on High-School Libraries — Hall\nReport of the Elementary-School Committee — Power\nThe Rural-School Library\nI. Peters\nII. Stern\nThe Drama of Life in the Lyrics of the Folk — Crawford\nDEPARTMENT\n\n'ij°*\nfi^fi\n,\n632\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\n5-,\n655\n5^6\n660\n664\n669\n671\n67s\n676\n678\n680\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nPhysical Training in the Schools — Straubenmilller\nThe New York System of Physical Training— Crampton\nPhysical Training versus Military Tra-ining— Warden\nThe Health of College Women— ^aer\n\n681\n682\n685\n686\n690\n\nThe Organization of Athletics for Girls in the Elementary Schools— O'Keefe\n.\nDefining the Work of Physical Training in Relation to Playground and Recreation\nActivities — Haynes\n\n693\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCIENCE\n\n\"95\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n^99\nSecretary's Minutes\n702\nApplied Chemistry in Secondary Schools— Cwr/w\n704\n....\nW^/fJ/wflw\nAbstract—\nAn\n—\nChemistry\nof\nMethod in the Teaching\n• 705\n•\n.\n.\nThe New York State Syllabus of Applied Chemistry— Hancock\n7o8\nWhat Elementary Science Needs— Pa/wer\n— £/A«/ 7.10\nThe Relation of General Science to Later Courses in Physics and Chemistry\nthe Teachmg\nThe Relation of the Bureau of Standards to Physical Research and to\nof Physics— PFo//\n' '\n'\n\"\n^^6\n• 7i\n_\n•\nApplied Science in the College Course— Spahr\n719\n.\ng-^o//\nTeachin\nLocal Industries as a Source of Illustrative Material for Science\n* ^^6\n'\n'\nThe Conservation of Natural Resources thru Education— Goldrtch *\nStudying Fungi as a Pastime— MwrrJ/i\n^^\n^^^\nMethod in Science-Teaching— Z>^ey\n\n"}
{"page": 10, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\nPAGE\n\nTraining of Science Teachers\nI. Rohison\nII. Balliet\n\n, .\n\n734\n735\n\nThe Importance of Visual Instruction — Stitt\n737\nThe Museum as the New Force in Public-School Development — Osborn\n.\n. . 739\nThe Value and Importance of the School Museum — Rathmann\n....\n741\nCollection, Organization, and Circulation of Visual Aids to Instruction by State\nBureaus — Ahrams\n745\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF CHILD\n\nHYGIENE\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Work of the New York City Bureau of Child Hygiene — Baker\n.\n.\n.\nSocial Aspects of School Hygiene — Armstrong\nA Practical Course of Study in Hygiene — Walters\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\n.\nChild Hygiene, First Aid to the Uninjured — Hutchinson\nSchoolhouses and the Fire Hazard — Cooper\nThe Teaching of Home Nursing and the Care of Children to Elementary- and HighSchool Pupils — Stewart\nThe Physical Care of Rural-School Children — Clark\nCooperation in Health Administration — Small\nThe New York System of School Hygiene — Goldherger\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n767\n771\n776\n778\n\nOF SCHOOL PATRONS\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nThe Teacher's Responsibility as a Civic Factor in the Community — Harden\n.\n.\nEducation of the Immigrant — Alsherg\nReport of Committee on Education, Council of Jewish Women — Long .\n.\n.\nReport of the Southern Association of College Women — McKenny ....\nSocial Service in the Public Schools — McManus\nAdministration and Method in High-School Physical Training for Girls — B eider hase\nThe Boy Scouts of America — West\nDEPARTMENT\n\n751\n752\n756\n759\n762\n764\n\nOF SPECIAL\n\n783\n784\n786\n792\n795\n797\n801\n805\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSecretary's Minutes\n811\nDelinquency and Mental Defect — Davis\n815\nThe Mis-fit Child— Salmon\n.817\nChild Labor and Its Relation to Illiteracy — McKelway\n817\nEducational Work of a State Commission — Campbell\n819\nHistory of the Education of the BHnd — Methods and Ideals — Hayes\n.\n.\n. 819\nEducation of Blind Children of the City of New York — Edson\n....\n820\nPublic Libraries for the Blind — Bahr\n821\nSaving the Sight of School Children — Berry\n821\nCharitable Organizations Help — Goldman\n.\n.825\nThe Work of the Widener Memorial Industrial Training School for Crippled\nChildren — Creamer\n826\nCooperation between Educators and Physicians in Classes for Cripples — Taylor . 827\nThe Problem— Zeam^\n828\nIntroductory Explanation of the Analytic Synthetic Method of Teaching Reading\nto Deaf Children — Kaufman\n829\nRhythm — Thomason\n830\nTeaching of Language — Taylor\n832\nThe Physical Side of the Deaf Child— McAulife\n.>\n833\n\n"}
{"page": 11, "printed_page": null, "text": "CONTENTS\n\nThe Utilization of Residual Hearing— IFng^/\n.\n.\n.\n,\nMeasurement of Efficiency in Schools for the Desii— Johnson\nThe Pintner Tests— Zi//>a/ncyfe\n•\nThe Juvenile Court of New York City — Hoyt\nThe Delinquent — Shimer\n\n't^*\n8^6\n8^\n\nThe Girl Dehnquent— Ez^era^ ••••••••\nThe Big-Sister Movement— 5org\nOrganized Charity and the Delinquent — Geisman\nPreserving the Family — McClancy\nThe Social Worker — Thurston\nThe Work of the Visiting Teacher— rrwt\n.\nThe Work of the Bureau of Attendance, New York City Schools— Dam\n.\nThe Need of Fresh-Air Classes in PubUc Schools — Tupper\nSpeech-Improvement — McDonald\nThe Mission of the Speech Specialist — Greene\nWhat Is a \" Speech Clinic \" ?— Swift\nTone and Hearing — McAulife\nSpeech-Improvement in the Chicago Public Schools — Lyon\nSpeech Work in the Detroit Public Schools — Reed\nThe Need of Speech Work in the High Schools — Bullowa\nSpeech-Correction as a School Problem — Reigart\nOral Deformities in Their Relation to Defective Speech — Mitchell ....\nThe Economic Value of Speech-Correction — Wile\nThe Principal's Point of View of the Selection of Children for Special Classes — Knox\nThe Binet Scale and the Diagnosis of Feeble-Mindedness — Terman.\n.\n.\n.\nTraining of Teachers for Special Classes — Riggs\nThe Work of the Teacher of the Special Class— Allison\nThe Necessity for After Care of Children Discharged from Special Classes— Banker\nHow to Fill the Gap between the Special Classes and Institutions — Fills\n.\n.\nAfter-Care Work in Springfield, Massachusetts — Cheney\n\n8'*6\n8\n8«:i\n«\n«\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\n_\n\n8«c6\n858\n860\n3^2\n85^^\n35^\n353\n869\n870\n870\n873\n874\n875\n877\n879\n884\n887\n888\n889\n892\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\nSecretary's Minutes\nAddress of Welcome — Keeler\nResponse to Address of Welcome — Blair\nWhat Is Going On in the Woild— Butler\n.\nThe Ford Idea in Educsition— Marquis\n, •\n•\n•\n'. . \"\nDebate : The Best Organization for American Schools Is a Plan Which Shall Divide\nThese Schools into Six Years of Elementary Training and Six Years of Secondary Training\n\n^95\n9^1\n9<H\n9°?\n^^°\n\nI. Judd\nII. Pearse\nGreetings — Johnson\nThe Public School and the New American Spirit— ^ec/f/\nThe Superintendent as the Layman Sees Him— Churchill\nTo Whom Is the Board of Education Responsible ?—Winship .\n•\n.\nSome Suggestions for Improving the Rural-School Cmricxila.—Creelman\nd Course of\nJoint Discussion: The Minimum Essentials versus the Differentiate\nStudy in the Seventh and Eighth Grades\n\n917\n9^5\n9^'*\n935\n94°\n940\n947\n\nI. Cofman\n\n\"• ^\"\"s^^y\nIII.\nSnedden\n\n\"\n\n'''\"\"..\n• • •\n\n'\n\n958\n\n96s\n\n"}
{"page": 12, "printed_page": null, "text": "xii\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\nPAGE\n\nAddresses —\nFerris\nBrumbaugh\nWillis\nBooker T. Washington — ^An Appreciation — Corson\nHigh Points in the Los Angeles Plan — Francis\nSignificant Developments in Educational Surveying — Ayres\nThe Thirtieth Man — Finley\nDefiniteness and Compulsion in Education — Yocum\nManners and Morals — Our Problem — Carmalt\nScouting as an Educational Asset — West\n.\n\".\nThe National Morality Codes Competition — Fairchild\nROUND\n\n^\n\n976\n979\n981\n983\n988\n994\nlooi\n1004\n1008\n1012\n1019\n\n....\n\nTABLES\n\nRound Table of State and County Superintendents\nHow Not to Train Rural Teachers — Hyatt\nRural Supervision in the Mountains of the South — Burkes\nThe Status and Need of Rural Supervision — Monahan\n\n.\n\n' .\n\n1025\n. 1028\n1031\n\nRound Table of Superintendents of Cities with a Population of over 250,000\nA First Step in Establishing the Six-Three-Three Organization — Weet.\n.\n. 1036\nThe Determination of Educational Policies — Snyder\n1042\nThe Education of Foreigners for American Citizenship — Crist\n....\n1045\nRound Table of Superintendents of Cities with a Population between\n25,000 and 250,000\n\n• Community Activities as a Means of Motivation — Hunter\nTeaching Tenure — Keating\nA Study of Deviate Children — The Problem of Delinquency and Subnormality —\nJones\nVacation-Club Work — Beveridge\nShort-Unit Industrial Courses — King\nRound Table of Superintendents of Cities with a Population under 25,000\nReliable Measurements of a School System — Wilson\nThe Ethical as the Essential Factor in Training for Efficient Citizenship in a\nDemocracy — Cookson\nRound Table of Directors of Educational Research\n\n1049\n1055\n1058\n1060\n1063\n1067\n1069\n\nThe Two Phases of Educational Research and Efficiency in the Public Schools —\nMelcher\n\n1073\n\nStandardization of Teachers' Examinations — Courtis\nImproving Instruction thru Educational Measurement — Ballou\n\n1078\n1086\n\n....\n\nRound Table of Compulsory Education, School Census, and Child Welfare\nDoes a Strict Enforcement of the Compulsory-Education Law Assist Teachers\nand Supervisors in Their Work ?— Shallow\n\n1094\n\n"}
{"page": 13, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\n\nOF\n\n1857-1870\n\nThe National Teachers Association\n\nOrganized August 26, 1857, at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.\nPurpose— r(? elevate the character and advance the interests of the profession\nof teaching, and to promote the cause of popular education in the United\nStates.\nThe name of the association was changed at Cleveland, Ohio, on\nAugust 15, 1870, to the \"National Educational Associatiou.\"\nI 870-1 907\n\nNational Educational Association\nIncorporated under the laws of the District of Columbia, February 24,\n1886, under the name, \"National Education Association,\" which was\nchanged to \"National Educational Association,\" by certificate filed\nNovember 6, 1886.\nNational Education Association 1907of the United States\nIncorporated under a special act of Congress, approved June 30, 1906,\nto succeed the \"National Educational Association.\" The charter was\naccepted and by-laws were adopted at the Fiftieth Anniversary Convention held July 10, 1907, at Los Angeles, California.\n\nACT OF INCORPORATION\nAN ACT\n\nTO INCORPORATE THE NATIONAL EDUCATION\nOF THE UNITED STATES\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBe it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in\nCongress assembled:\n\nSection i. That the following named persons, who are now officers and directors\nand trustees of the National Educational Association, a corporation organized in the\nyear eighteen hundred and eighty-six, under the Act of General Incorporation of the\nRevised Statutes of the District of Columbia, viz.: Nathan C. Schaeffer, *Eliphalet Oram\nLyte, *JohnW. Lansinger, of Pennsylvania; Isaac W. Hill, of Alabama; Arthur J. Matthews\nO'Connor *Josiah\nof Arizona; John H. Hinemon, George B. Cook, of Arkansas; Joseph\nH. Cook, Lewis\nL. Pickard, Arthur H. Chamberlain, of California; Aaron Gove, *Ezekiel\nW. Twitmyer of\nC. Greenlee, of Colorado; Charles H. Keyes, of ConnecUcut; *George\n*J. Ormond Wilson, *Wiliiam T. Harris, Alexander T. Stuart, of the District\nDelaware;\n* Deceased.\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 14, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nof Columbia; Clem Hampton, of Florida; William M. Slaton, of Georgia; *FrancesMann,\nof Idaho; J. Stanley Brown, *Albert G. Lane, Charles I. Parker, John W. Cook, *Joshua\nPike, Albert R. Taylor, * Joseph A. Mercer, of Illinois; *Nebraska Cropsey, Thomas A.\nMott, of Indiana; John D. Benedict, of Indian Territory; John F. Riggs, Ashley V.\nStorm, of Iowa; John W. Spindler, Jasper N. Wilkinson, A. V. Jewett, *Luther D. Whittemore, of Kansas; William Henry Bartholomew, of Kentucky; * Warren Easton, of Louisiana; *John S. Locke, of Maine; M. Bates Stephens, of Maryland; Charles W. Eliot,\n*Mary H. Himt, Henry T. Bailey, of Massachusetts; Hugh A. Graham, Charles G. White,\nWilliam H. Elson, of Michigan; *William F. Phelps, *Irwin Shepard, John A. Cranston, of\nMinnesota; Robert B. Fulton, of Mississippi; *F. Louis Soldan, * James M. Greenwood,\nWilliam J. Hawkins, of Missouri; *Oscar J. Craig, of Montana; George L. Towne, of\nNebraska; *Joseph E. Stubbs, of Nevada; James E. Klock, of New Hampshire; James M.\nGreen, John Enright, of New Jersey; *Charles M. Light, of New Mexico; * James H. Canfield, Nicholas Murray Butler, William H. Maxwell, Charles R. Skinner, *Albert P. Marble,\nJames C. Byrnes, of New York; James Y. Joyner, Julius Isaac Foust, of North Carolina;\n*Pitt Gordon Knowlton, of North Dakota; Oscar T. Corson, Jacob A. Shawan, Wells L.\nGriswold, of Ohio; Edgar S. Vaught, Andrew R, Hickham, of Oklahoma; *Charles Carroll Stratton, Edwin D. Ressler, of Oregon; Thomas W. Bicknell, Walter Ballou Jacobs,\nof Rhode Island; David B. Johnson, Robert P. Pell, of South Carolina; Moritz Adelbert\nLange, of South Dakota; *Eugene F. Turner, of Tennessee; Lloyd E. Wolfe, of Texas;\nDavid H. Christensen, of Utah; *Henry O. Wheeler, Isaac Thomas, of Vermont; Joseph\nL. Jarman, of Virginia; Edward T. Mathes, of Washington; T. Marcellus Marshall,\nLucy Robinson, of West Virginia; Lorenzo D. Harvey, of Wisconsin; *Thomas T. Tynan,\nof Wyoming; Cassia Patton, of Alaska; Frank H. Ball, of Porto Rico; Arthur F. Grifl&ths,\nof Hawaii; C. H. Maxson, of the Philippine Islands, and such other persons as now are\nor may hereafter be associated with them as oflScers or members of said Association, are\nhereby incorporated and declared to be a body corporate of the District of Columbia\nby the name of the \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and by that\nname shall be known and have perpetual succession with the powers, limitations, and\nrestrictions herein contained.\nSec. 2. That the purpose and object of the said corporation shall be to elevate the\ncharacter and advance the interests of the profession of teaching, and to promote the cause\nof education in the United States. This corporation shall include the National Council of\nEducation and the following departments, and such others as may hereafter be created by\norganization or consolidation, to wit: the Departments, first, of Superintendence; second,\nof Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth,\nof Manual Training; sixth, of Art Education; seventh, of Kindergarten Education; eighth,\nof Music Education; ninth, of Secondary Education; tenth, of Business Education;\neleventh, of Child Study; tw^elfth, of Physical Education; thirteenth, of Natural Science\nInstruction; fourteenth, of School Administration; fifteenth, the Library Department;\nsixteenth, of Special Education; seventeenth, of Indian Education; the powers and duties\nand the number and names of these departments and of the National Council of Education may be changed or abolished at the pleasure of the corporation, as provided in its\nby-laws.\nSec. 3. That the said corporation shall further have power to have and to use a\ncommon seal, and to alter and change the same at its pleasure; to sue or to be sued in any\ncourt of the United States, or other court of competent jurisdiction; to make by-laws not\ninconsistent with the provisions of this act or of the Constitution of the United States;\nto take or receive, whether by gift, grant, devise, bequest, or purchase, any real or personal\nestate, and to hold, grant, convey, hire, or lease the same for the purposes of its incorporation; and to accept and administer any trust of real or personal estate for any educational\npurpose within the objects of the corporation.\n* Deceased.\n\n"}
{"page": 15, "printed_page": null, "text": "ACT OF INCORPORATION\nSec. 4- That all real property of the corporation within the District\nof Cc'umbia which\nshall be used by the corporation for the educational or other purposes\nof the corpora\ntion as aforesaid, other than the purposes of producing income, and\nall personal property\nand funds of the corporation held, used, or invested for educational\npurposes aforesaid\nor to produce income to be used for such purposes, shall be exempt from\ntaxaUonprovided, however, That this exemption shaU not apply to any property of\nthe corporation\nwhich shall not be used for, or the income of which shall not be applied to, the\neducational\npurposes of the corporation; and, provided further, That the corporation shall annually\nfile, with the Commissioner of Education of the United States, a report in writing, stating\nin detail the property, real and personal, held by the corporation, and the expenditure\nor other use or disposition of the same, or the income thereof, during the preceding year.\nSec. 5. That the membership of the said corporation shall consist of three classes of\nmembers— viz., active, associate, and corresponding— whose qualifications, terms of\nmembership, rights, and obligations shall be prescribed by the by-laws of the corporation.\nSec. 6. That the officers of the said corporation shall be a President, twelve VicePresidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, a Board of Directors, an Executive Committee, and\na Board of Trustees.\nThe Board of Directors shall consist of the President, the First Vice-President, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the chairman of the Board of Trustees, and one additional member\nfrom each state, territory, or district, to be elected by the active members for the term of\none year, or until their successors are chosen, and of all life directors of the National Educational Association. The United States Commissioner of Education, and all former\nPresidents of the said Association now living, and all future Presidents of the Association\nhereby incorporated, at the close of their respective terms of office, shall be members of\nthe Board of Directors for life. The Board of Directors shall have power to fill all vacancies\nin their own body; shall have in charge the general interests of the corporation, excepting\nthose herein intrusted to the Board of Trustees; and shall possess such other powers as\nshall be conferred upon them by the by-laws of the corporation.\nThe Executive Committee shall consist of five members, as follows: the President of\nthe Association, the First Vice-President, the Treasurer, the Chairman of the Board of\nTrustees, and a member of the Association, to be chosen annually by the Board of Directors,\nto serve one year. The said committee shall have authority to represent, and to act for,\nthe Board of Directors in the intervals between the meetings of that body, to the extent\nof carrying out the legislation adopted by the Board of Directors under general directions\nas may be given by said board.\nThe Board of Trustees shall consist of four members, elected by the Board of Directors\nfor the term of four years, and the President of the Association, who shall be a member\nex officio, during his term of office. At the first meeting of the Board of Directors, held\nduring the annual meeting of the Association at which they were elected, they shall elect\none trustee for the term of four years. All vacancies occurring in said Board of Trustees,\nwhether by resignation or otherwise, shall be filled by the Board of Directors for the unexpired term; and the absence of a trustee from two successive annual meetings of the board\nshall forfeit his membership.\n\nSec. 7. That the invested fund now known as the \"Permanent Fund of the National\nEducational Association,\" when transferred to the corporation hereby created, shall be\nTrusheld by such corporation as a Permanent Fund and shall be in charge of the Board of\ntees, who shall provide for the safekeeping and investment of such fund, and of all other\nof the\nfunds which the corporadon may receive by donation, bequest, or devise. No part\ntwoa\nby\nexcept\nexpended,\nbe\nshall\naccretions\nits\nor\nFund\nPermanent\nprincipal of such\nmeeting, upon\nthirds vote of the active members of the Association present at any annual\ntion has been\nthe recommendation of the Board of Trustees, after such recommenda\nthe proposed\nof\nnotice\nprinted\nafter\nand\napproved by vote of the Board of Directors,\nThe income 01 tne\nAssociation.\nthe\nof\nmembers\nactive\nall\nto\nmailed\nbeen\nhas\nexpenditure\n\n"}
{"page": 16, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPermanent Fund shall be used only to meet the cost of maintaining? the organization of\nthe Association and of publishing its annual volume of Proceedings, unless the terms of the\ndonation, bequest, or devise shall otherwise specify, or the Board of Directors shall otherwise order. It shall also be the duty of the Board of Trustees to issue orders on the Treasurer for the payment of all bills approved by the Board of Directors, or by the President and\nSecretary of the Association acting under the authority of the Board of Directors. When\npracticable, the Board of Trustees shall invest, as part of the Permanent Fund, all surplus\nfunds exceeding five hundred dollars that shall remain in the hands of the Treasurer after\npaying the expenses of the Association for the previous year, and providing for the fixed\nexpenses and for all appropriations made by the Board of Directors for the ensuing year.\nThe Board of Trustees shall elect the Secretary of the Association, who shall also be\nsecretary of the Executive Committee, and shall fix the compensation and the term of his\noffice for a period not to exceed four years.\nSec. 8. That the principal office of the said corporation shall be in the city of Washington, District of Columbia; provided, That the meetings of the corporation, its officers,\ncommittees, and departments, may be held, and that its business may be transacted, and\nan office or offices may be maintained, elsewhere, within the United States, as may be\ndetermined, by the Board of Directors, or otherwise in accordance with the by-laws.\nSec. 9. That the charter, constitution, and by-laws of the National Educational\nAssociation shall continue in full force and effect until the charter granted by this act shall\nbe accepted by such Association at the next annual meeting of the Association, and until\nnew by-laws shall be adopted; and that the present officers, directors, and trustees of said\nAssociation shall continue to hold office and perform their respective duties as such until\nthe expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and until\ntheir successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the\nNational Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the\ncharter granted by this act and adopt by-laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose\nterms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the \"National Education Association of the United States\"; and that the Board of Trustees of the corporation\nhereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive,\ntake over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and\npersonal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association,\nincorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and\nall its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and\nthe several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other\nperson having charge of any of the securities, funds, books, or property thereof, real or\npersonal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees\nof the corporation hereby created. Provided, That a verified certificate executed by the\npresiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the\ncharter granted by this act by the National Educational Association, shall be legal evidence\nof the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia; and, provided further. That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted\nby this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Association and its corporate existence shall be and are hereby extended until the thirty-first day\nof July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be\nextended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation law of the District\nof Columbia.\nSec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the\nNational Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the passage\nof this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or\nobligation, or the pa)maent of any sum due or to become due, or any claim or demand,\ni n any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released\nor impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obli-\n\n"}
{"page": 17, "printed_page": null, "text": "BY-LAWS\n\ngations and Uabilities, and to be held Ikble to pay and discharg\ne all of the debts UabiUtie.\nand contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the sarae effect\nas if such new cornora'\ntion had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such\ndebt or damages and no action\nor proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have\nabated or been discontinued byreason of this act.\nSec. II. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal,\nor modify this act of\nincorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall\nthereby be divested\nor impaired.\nApproved June 30, 1906.\nAccepted and adopted as the constitution of the National Education Association of\nthe United States by the active members of the National Educational Association in annual\nsession at Los Angeles, California, July 10, 1907.\n\nBY-LAWS\n(Amended at meeting of active members held in New York City, July 7, 19 16)\nARTICLE\n\nI— JVIEMBERSHIP\n\nSection i. Teachers, others actively engaged in educational work, and educational\ninstitutions as defined in Section 2, may become active members of the National Education\nAssociation of the United States upon the payment of an enrolment fee of two dollars\nand the annual dues for the current year.\nSec. 2. Educational institutions shall include schools, school boards, library\nboards, educational publishers, and such clubs and similar organizations as are distinctly\neducational or have educational departments properly organized with a definite membership.\nSec. 3. Educational institutions as defined in Section 2 may be enrolled as active\nmembers and represented by any person regularly connected with or a member of the\ninstitution, and such representative may exercise all the rights and enjoy all the privileges\nof active membership, including the right to vote at business meetings; provided, That\nsuch representative presents a certificate showing that the person named therein has been\nregularly elected as such representative of the faculty or membership of such institution;\nbut no person shall under any circumstances have the right to cast more than one\nvote.\n\nSec. 4. The annual dues of active members are two dollars, which shall be paid\nat the time of the annual meeting of the AssociaUon, or shall be sent to the Secretary\nbefore November i of each year. An active member may discontinue his membership\nby giving written notice to the Secretary before November i. An active member\nforfeits his membership by being two years in arrears. Those who have forfeited or\ndiscontinued their membership may exercise the option of renewing the same by paying\nall arrears and getting the publisht Proceedings of the intervening years, or of becoming\nmembers on the same terms as new members. Active members shall be entitled to the\npublisht Proceedings without coupon or other conditions.\nmembers,\nSec. 5. All life members and life directors shall be denominated active\nof the\npayment\nthe\nwithout\nmembers\nsuch\nof\nprivileges\nhave aU the rights and\nand shalldues.\nannual\n\nor the departments\nSec. 6. The right to vote and to hold office in the Association\nand hold office in\nvote\nto\nright\nthe\npaid;\nare\ndues\nwhose\nmembers\nactive\nall\nto\nis open\npaid.\nare\ndues\nwhose\nCouncil\nthe\nof\nmembers\nto\nopen\nis\nthe Council\na\nmay become an assodate member for one year by paying\nperson\nAnyof two\nSec.hip7. fee\ndollars.\nmembers\n\n"}
{"page": 18, "printed_page": null, "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSec. 8. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected, by the Board\nof Directors, corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall at\nno time exceed fifty. They shall not pay any dues.\nSec. q. The names of active and corresponding members shall be printed in the\npublisht Proceedings, or the Yearbook of the Association, with their respective educational titles, offices, and addresses.\nARTICLE\n\nII— ELECTION\n\nOF OFFICERS\n\nSection i. The President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, and Directors of the\nNational Education Association of the United States shall be chosen by the active\nmembers of the Association by ballot, at their annual business meeting, a majority of\nthe votes cast being necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office until the close\nof the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen,\nexcept as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their\nduties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall\nnot be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the terms for\nwhich they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected.\nARTICLE\n\nIII— DUTIES\n\nOF OFFICERS\n\nSection i. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association, and\nshall perform the duties usually devolving upon the chief executive of such an association.\nIn his absence, the ranking Vice-President who is present shall preside; and in the absence\nof all Vice-Presidents a chairman pro tempore shall be elected. The President shall\nprepare the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the Association,\nand, with the approval of the Executive Committee, shall determine the time and place\nof the general meeting of the Association and of the various departments not definitely\nfixt by these by-laws, and shall have the power to require such changes to be made in\nthe programs of the Council and the departments as will promote the interest of the\nannual meeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and\nchairman of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall sign all\nbills approved for payment by the Poard of Directors, and all bills approved or authorized\nby the Executive Committee between the meetings of the Board of Directors. On the\nexpiration of his term of office as President, he shall become first Vice-President for the\nensuing year, and shall be chairman ex officio of the Committee on Publication.\nSec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a fuU and accurate record of the proceedings of\nthe general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and\nof the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the Association as provided\nin the articles of incorporation and the by-laws, and, in all matters not definitely prescribed therein, shall be under the direction of the Executive Committee, and, in the\nabsence of direction by the Executive Committee, shall be under the direction of the\nPresident, and shall receive or collect all moneys due the Association and pay the same\neach month to the Treasurer, shall countersign all bills approved for payment by the\nBoard of Directors or by the Executive Committee in the interval between the meetings\nof the Board of Directors or on the approval of the President acting under authority of\nthe Board of Directors, or Executive Committee. The Secretary shall have his records\npresent at all meetings of the active members of the Association, of the Board of Directors,\nand of the Executive Committee. He shall keep a list of members as required by Section\n9 of Article I of these by-laws and shall revise said list annually. He shall be secretary\nof the Board of Directors, and a member of the Committee on Publication. He shall be\nthe custodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and\nthe Board of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his\nduties as may be required by the Board of Trustees.\nHe shall submit his annual report\n\n"}
{"page": 19, "printed_page": null, "text": "BY-LAWS\n\nto the Executive Committee not later than July i prior to the annual\nmeeting of the\nAssociation, which report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at\nits annual\nmeeting. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor\nall\nmoneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. The\nSecretary shall not print, publish, or distribute any official report or other document\nwithout the approval of the publication committee.\nSec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive from the Secretary and under the direction of\nthe Board of Trustees shall hold in safekeeping all moneys paid to the Association; shall\npay the same only upon the order of the Board of Trustees; shall notify the President of\nthe Association and the Chairman of the Board of Trustees whenever the surplus funds\nin his possession exceed five hundred dollars; shall keep an exact account of his receipts\nand expenditures, with vouchers for the latter; and said accounts, ending on the thirtieth\nday of June of each year, he shall render to the Executive Committee not later than\nJuly I, and when approved by said committee, they shall be transmitted by the committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the\nweek of the annual meeting and to the active members at their annual business meeting.\nThe Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be\nrequired by the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall\ntransfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association.\nSec. 4. The Board of Directors shall elect corresponding members as prescribed\nby Section 8 of Article I of these by-laws, shall elect members of the National Council\nof Education as provided in Section 3 of Article IV of these by-laws, shall have power\nto fill all vacancies in its own body and in the Board of Trustees; shall recommend to\nthe Executive Committee the place for holding the annual meeting of the Association,\nthe Council of Education, and the departments. The Board of Directors shall approve\nall bills incurred under authority of the Board of Directors, the Executive Committee,\nor the President and Secretary acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or\nExecutive Committee, shall appropriate from the current funds of the year the amounts\nof money ordered by the active members at their annual business meeting for the work\nof all special committees of investigation and research authorized and provided for by such\nactive members at their annual business meeting, shall make a full report of the 6nancial\ncondition of the Association (including the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and\nthe Board of Trustees) to the active members at their annual business meetm;?. and shall\ndo all in its power to make the Association a useful and honorable institution.\nSec. 5. The Executive Committee shall assist the presiding officer in arranging\nfor the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, of the National Council\nof Education, and of the various departments.\nThe Executive Committee shall recommend to active members at their annual\nor research,\nbusiness meeting the appointment of special committees for investigation\nby the active\nor\nCouncil\nNational\nthe\nby\nsuggested\nbeen\nhave\nmay\nwhich\nfor\nsubjects\nthe\ns; it\nmembership of the National Education Association or by any of its department\nons. When\nshall recommend the amount of money to be appropriated for such investigati\nthe active members at\nsuch special committees are provided for and duly authorized by\nhave general supervision\nshaU\nCommittee\nExecutive\nthe\nmeeting,\nbusiness\nannual\ntheir\nshall print suc^ reports,\nof them; shall receive and consider all reports made by them and\nthe Treasurer,\nSecretary,\nthe\nfrom\nreceived\nreports\nthe\nwith\ntogether\nand present the same,\nthereon,\nCommittee\nExecutive\nthe\nof\ntions\nrecommenda\nand the Board of Trustees and the\nAU such special committees\nmeeting.\nbusiness\nannual\ntheir\nat\nmembers\nto the active\nEducation Association.\nshall be appointed by the President of the National\noccurring in ^f^^ody of officers\nes\nThe Executive Committee shaU fill all vacanci\nthe Board of Directors, Board of Trustees, and\nin\nes\nvacanci\nexcept\ntion\nthe ofAssocia\noffice\nSecretary.\n\n"}
{"page": 20, "printed_page": null, "text": "8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSec. 6. The Board of Trustees shall require of the Secretary and Treasurer bonds\nof such amount as may be determined by said board for the faithful performance of their\nduties, shall make a full report of the finances of the Association to the Executive Committee not later than July i prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report\nshall be transmitted by the Executive Committee to the Board of Directors at the first\nregular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting of the Association. Itshall choose annually its own chairman and secretary.\nARTICLE\n\nIV— THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nSection i. The National Council of Education shall discuss educational questions\nof public and professional interest; propose to the Executive Committee, from time to\ntime, suitable subjects for investigation and research; have a report made at its annual\nmeeting on \"Educational Progress during the Past Year\"; and in other ways use its\nbest efforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education\nin general.\nSec. 2. The National Council of Education shall consist of one hundred and\ntwenty regular members, selected from the active membership of the National Education\nAssociation. Any active member of the Association is eligible to membership in the\nCouncil, and each membef shall be elected for six years and until his successor is elected.\nSec. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held at the time\nof the annual meeting of the Association. The Board of Directors of the Association\nshall annually elect ten members and the Council ten members, and each body shall\nfill all vacancies in its quota of members. No state, territory, or district in the United\nStates shall have at one time more than seven regular members in the Council.\nSec. 4. The annual meeting of the Council shall be held during the week of the\nannual meeting of the Association.\nSec. s. The absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings\nof the Council shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership. Persons\nwhose regular membership in the Council has expired shall be denominated honorary\nmembers of the Council during the time of their active membership in the Association,\nwith the privilege of attending the regular sessions of the Council and participating in its\ndiscussions. A member who discontinues or forfeits his active membership in the Association forfeits his membership in the Council.\nSec. 6. The officers of the Council shall consist of a president, a vice-president,\na secretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its by-laws, all of\nwhom shall be regular members of the Council. The secretary of the Council shall, in\naddition to performing the duties pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the\nAssociation a copy of the proceedings of the Council for publication.\nSec. 7. The National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by-laws\nfor its government not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or the by-laws of the\nAssociation; provided^ That such by-laws be submitted to, and approved by, the Board\nof Directors of the Association before they shall become operative.\nSec. 8. The powers and duties of the Council may be changed or the Council\nabolished upon a two-thirds vote of the Association taken at the annual business meeting\nof the Association; provided, That notice of the proposed action has been given at the\npreceding annual business meeting of the Association.\nARTICLE\n\nV— DEPARTMENTS\n\nSection i. The following departments are now (1914) in existence, to wit: The\ndepartments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary\nEducation; fourth, of Higher Education; fifth, of Vocational Education and Practical\nArts; sixth of Kindergarten Education; seventh, of Music Education;\neighth, of\n\n"}
{"page": 21, "printed_page": null, "text": "BY-LAWS\n\nSecondary Education; ninth, of Business Education; tenth, of Child Hygiene;\neleventh\nof Physical Education; twelfth, of Science Instruction; thirteenth, of School Administra-*\ntion; fourteenth, the Library Department; fifteenth, of Special Education; sixteenth\nof School Patrons; seventeenth, of Rural and Agricultural Education; eighteenth,\nof\nClassroom Teachers; nineteenth, for the Promotion of the Wider Use of Schoolhousestwentieth, of Educational Publications.\nSec. 2. The active members of the Association, and no others, are members of each\ndepartment of the Association.\nSec. 3. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time and place of\nthe annual meeting of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence, which\nmay hold its annual meeting in February of each year, or at such other time as may be\ndeterminefd by said department, subject to the approval of the Board of Directors of the\nAssociation.\nSec. 4. The object of the meetings of the departments shall be the discussion of\nquestions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The programs\nof these meetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents in conference with, and\nunder the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each department shall\nbe limited to two sessions, with formal programs, unless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association, except that a third session for business or informal round-table\nconference may be held at the discretion of the department ofl&cers.\nSec. s. The officers of each department shall consist of a president, a vice-president,\nand a secretary, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the department to serve\none year and until their successors are duly elected, and who shall, at the time of their\nelection, be active members of the Association. In case there is a vacancy in the oflBce\nof president of any of the departments, it shall be filled by an appointment made by the\nPresident of the Association. Any other departmental vacancy shall be filled by appomtment made by the president of the department.\nSec. 6. The secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the\nduties usually pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of\nthe proceedings of the meetings of the department for publication.\nSec. 7. All departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the exception\nstated in Section 3 of this article. They shall be named in Section i of this article in the\norder of their establishment and shall be dropt from the list when discontinued. Each\ndepartment may be governed by its own regulations in so far as they are not inconsistent\nwith the act of incorporation or these by-laws.\nSec. 8. A new department may be establisht by a two-thirds vote of the Board\nof Directors taken at a regular meeting of the board or by a two-thirds vote of the active\nmembers at any annual business meeting; provided, That a written application for said\ndepartment, with title and purpose of the same, shall have been made at the regular\nmeering of the board next preceding the one at which action is taken, or at the preceding\nin the\nannual business meeting, by at least twenty-five members engaged or interested\nA\nfield of labor in the interest of which the department is purposed to be establisht.\na\nupon\nDirectors\nof\nBoard\nthe\nby\ndepartment already estabUsht may be discontinued\nactive members\nthe\nof\nvote\ntwo-thirds\na\nby\nor\nmeeting,\nregular\na\nat\ntaken\nvote\ntwo-thirds\nhas been\nat any business meeting of the active members; provided, That announcement\nor at\nyear\npreceding\nthe\nboard\nthe\nof\nmeeUng\nregular\na\nat\naction\nmade of the proposed\nit\nwhen\ndiscontmued\nbe\nshall\nthe preceding annual business meeting. A department\n^\n•\nfails to hold a regular meeting for two successive years.\n\nARTICLE\n\nVI— COMMITTEES\n\nof the Association unless\nSection i. On the first day of each annual meeting\nt a Comnut ee on\nappoin\nshall\nnt\nPreside\nthe\nappointment has already been made,\nand a Committee on Necrology.\ns,\nmember\nactive\nseven\nof\ning\nconsist\nResolutions,\n\n"}
{"page": 22, "printed_page": null, "text": "lo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nconsisting of five active members, and on the third day of such meeting he shall\nappoint a Committee on Nominations, consisting of one active member from each\nstate, territory, and district represented at the meeting. Each state, territorial, and\ndistrict representative shall be appointed on the nomination of the active members in\nattendance from said state, territory, or district; provided ^ That three or more active\nmembers participate in said nomination in accordance with these by-laws; and\nprovided further, That in case of the failure of the active members of any state, territory,\nor district to nominate a member of the nominating committee in accordance with\nthese by-laws, the President shall appoint an active member from said state, territory,\nor district, to serve on said committee. At the regular meeting of the Board of Directors\non the first day of the annual meeting, the President shall appoint an Auditing Committee\nconsisting of three active members of the Association, no one of whom shall be either a\ntrustee or a director; to this committee shall be referred the report of the expert accountant, together with the communication of the President transmitting the same, as provided\nin Section 6 of this article; and the committee shall report its findings at the meeting of\nactive members. The chairman of each of the foregoing committees shall be designated\nby the President of the Association at the time of its appointment.\nSec. 2. The meetings of active members present from the several states, territories,\netc., to nominate members of the nominating committee shall be held on the first day of\nthe annual meeting of the Association, at such time and places as shall be designated\non the annual program by the President of the Association.\nSec. 3. The Committee on Nominations shall meet on the fourth day of the annual\nmeeting at 9:00 a.m., at a place designated by the President of the Association, and shall\nnominate persons for the following oflfices in the Association, to wit: one person for President, eleven persons for Vice-Presidents, one person for Treasurer, and one person from\neach state, territory, and district in the United States as a member of the Board of Directors. Itshall report to the active members at their annual business meeting.\nSec. 4. The Committee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meeting\nof active members, and, except by unanimous consent, all resolutions shall be referred to\nsaid committee, without discussion. This conmiittee shall receive and consider all\nresolutions proposed by active members, or referred to it by the President; some time\nduring the second day of the annual meeting of the Association the committee shall hold\na meeting, at a place and time to be announst in the printed program, for the purpose\nof receiving proposed resolutions and hearing those who may wish to advocate them.\nSec. 5. The Committee on Necrology shall prepare for the publisht Proceedings\na list of the active and corresponding members that have died during the year, accompanied bymemorial sketches whenever practicable.\nSec. 6. Within thirty days prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Association, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm, or corporation licenst to do\nbusiness as expert accountants; the accountants so appointed shall examine the accounts,\npapers, and vouchers of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and\ncompare the same, and shall also examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by\nthe Board of Trustees. The report of the said accountants shall be filed with the President before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by\nhim submitted with such comments as he may think proper, to the Board of Directors,\nat their meeting held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association.\nARTICLE\n\nVII— MEETINGS\n\nSection i. A stated meeting of the Association, of the Council of Education, and\nof each department shall be held annually at such time and place as shall be determined\nby the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee acting for the board in accordance\nwith these by-laws. An annual meeting of the Association and its subordinate bodies\n\n"}
{"page": 23, "printed_page": null, "text": "BY-LAWS\n\nJJ\n\nmay be omitted for an extraordinary cause, upon the written consent of\ntwo-thirds of\nthe directors of the Association, obtained by the Executive Committee.\nSec. 2. The annual meeting of the Association shaU be held in July,\nbeginning on\na day determined by the Executive Committee. Two sessions shall be held daily, unless\notherwise ordered by the President of the Association. The annual business meeting\nof\nthe active members shall be held on the fifth day of the annual meeting at ii:oo a.m.\nA regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held on the first day of the annual\nmeeting at 10:30 a.m. The first regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be\nheld as soon as practicable and within twenty-four hours after the close of the last session\nof the annual meeting, the place and time of the meeting to be announst in the printed\nprogram. The Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient\ntime and immediately following the meeting of the new Board of Directors referred to\nabove in this section. Special meetings of the trustees may be called by the chairman,\nand shall be called on request of the majority of the Board of Trustees. Due notice of\nall meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be given to every member of the board by\nthe secretary thereof.\nARTICLE\n\nVm— PROCEEDINGS\n\nSection i. The proceedings of the meeting of the Association, the Council, and\nthe departments shall be publisht under the^ direction of a committee consisting of the\nPresident, the First Vice-President, and the Secretary, the First Vice-President acting\nas chairman of the committee; provided. That in the opinion of the Executive Committee\nthe funds of the Association warrant the publication. Each member of the Association\nshall be entitled to a copy of the Proceedings. Associate members must make written\nappUcation to the Secretary on or before November i for a copy in order to obtain it.\nCorresponding members, and active members whose dues are paid, will receive the\npublisht Proceedings without written application.\nSec. 2. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any\nof the departments in the absence of its author, without the approval of the President\nof the Association or of the departments interested, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or\naddress be publisht in the Proceedings, without the approval of the Executive Committee.\nARTICLE\n\nIX— ELECTIONS,\n\nQUORUM\n\nSection i. The certificate of membership, in connection with the oflficial list of\nactive members, shall be accepted as evidence that members are entitled to vote.\nSec. 2. Representatives from twenty-five states and territories shall constitute\na quorum in all meetings of active members and of the Board of Directors.\nARTICLE\n\nX— APPROPRIATIONS\n\nbusiSection i. Unless otherwise ordered by the active members at their annual\nyear\neach\nAssociation\nthe\nof\nincome\ngross\nthe\nof\ncent\nper\n10\nness meeting, not less than\nm\nshall be set aside for such educational investigations and studies as may be ordered\naccordance with Section 5 of Article III.\n\nARTICLE\n\nXI— AMENDMENTS\n\nat the annual business\nSection i. These by-laws may be altered or amended\ntwo-thirds vote of the\na\nby\nor\nconsent,\nus\nunanimo\nby\nmembers\nactive\nthe\nmeeting of\nbeen substantiaUy\nhave\nshall\nnt\namendme\nor\non\nalterati\nactive members present if the\nthe one at which action\ng\nprecedin\nnext\nmeeting\nbusiness\nannual\nthe\nat\nwriting\nproposed in\nm the annual publisht\ndue announcement of the proposed action shall be made\nis taken;ngs.\nProceedi\n\n"}
{"page": 24, "printed_page": null, "text": "12\n\nNATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nNOW\n\nNATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nEDUCATION\n\nKNOWN\n\nAS\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nASSOCIATION\nTHE\n\nOF THE\n\nUNITED\n\nSTATES\n\nCERTIFICATE\nof Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of By-Laws under Act of Congress approved\nJune 30, 1906.\nWe, the undersigned, Nathan C. SchaefEer, the presiding ofl5cer, and Irwin Shepard,\nthe Secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles,\nCalifornia, on the loth day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Association held next after the passage of an act of Congress entitled \" An Act to Incorporate\nthe National Education Association of the United States, \"\nDo hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being\npresent, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached,\nand accepted the charter of the National Education Association of the United States,\ngranted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws as provided in said act and elected\noflScers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions\nDo hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has\nduly accepted said charter granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws, and is\nthe lawful successor to the National Educational Association.\nIn witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this 20th day of August, 1907.\nNathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary\n\nVERIFICATION\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nADOPTED\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nACTIVE\n\nMEMBERS,\n\nJULY\n\nlO,\n\nI907\n\n1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the charter\ngranted by an act of Congress entitled \"An Act to Incorporate the National Education\nAssociation of the United States,\" passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and\nSecretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder\nof Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the\nAssociation of the charter granted by said act.\n2. Resolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual meeting of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the journal of said\nmeeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately.\n3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the\ntitle \"National Education Association of the United States,\" and the dates \"1857-1907.\"\n4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect oflficers, and to organize\nunder the charter granted by the act of Congress.\nFiled in the oflSce of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, September 4,,\n1907.\n\n"}
{"page": 25, "printed_page": "13", "text": "CALENDAR\nNATIONAL\n\nTEACHERS ASSOCIATION,\n1857-1870\n\n1857— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized)\nJames L. Enos, Chairman.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\n1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO\nZ. Richards, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, Treasurer.\n1850— WASHINGTON, D.C.\nA. J. RiCKOFF, President.\nJ. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary.\nC. S. PENNELt, Treasurer.\ni860— BUFFALO, N.y.\nJ. W, BuLKLEY, President.\nZ. Richards, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n1861, 1862 — No session.\n1863— CHICAGO, ILL.\nJohn D. Philbrick, President.\nJames Cruikshank, Secretary.\nO. C. Wight, Treasurer.\n1864— ogdensburg. N.y.\nW. H. Wells, President.\nDavid N. Camp, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\ni86s— HARRISBURG, PA.\nS. S. Greene, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nZ. Richards, Treasurer.\n1866— INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\nJ. P. WiCKERSHAM, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nS. P. Bates. Treasurer.\n\n1868— NASHVILLE, TENN.\nJ. M. Gregory, President.\nL. Van Bokkelen, Secretary.\nTreasurer.\n\n1869— TRENTON. N.J.\nL, Van Bokkelen, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nA. L. Barber. Treasurer.\n1870— CLEVELAND. OHIO\nDaniel B. Hagar, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nW. E. Crosby. Treasurer.\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n1871-1Q07\n\n1873— ELMIRA, N.Y\nB. G. Northkop. President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n1874— DETROIT. MICH.\nS. H. Whtte, President.\nA. P. Marble, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n1875— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN;\nW. T. Harris, President.\nM. R. Abbott, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble. Treasurer.\n1876— BALTIMORE, MD.\nW. F. Phelps, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nA. P. Marble, Treasurer.\n1877— LOUISVILLE, KY.\nM. A. Newell. President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nJ. Ormond Wilson. Treasurer.\n1878 — No session.\n1879— PHILADELPHIA, PA.\nJohn Hancock, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nJ. Ormond\n\nASSOCIATION,\n\n1871— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJ. L. PicKARD, President.\nW. E. Crosby, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n1872— BOSTON, MASS.\nE. E. White, President.\nS. H. White, Secretary.\nJohn Hancock, Treasurer.\n\nWilson, Treasurer.\n\n1880— CHAUTAUQUA, N.Y.\nJ. Ormond Wilson, President.\nW. D Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan. Treasurer.\ni88i— ATLANTA,\n\nGA.\n\nJames H. Smart, President.\nW. D. Henkle, Secretary.\nE. T. Tappan. Treasurer.\n1882-SARATOGA\n\n1867 — No session.\n\nJames Cruikshank.\n\nOF MEETINGS\n\nSPRINGS.\n\nN.Y.\n\nG. J. Ohr, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Seaetary.\nH. S. Tarbell, Treasurer.\n1883-SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\nE. T. Tappan, President,\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins. Treasurer.\n1884— MADISON, WIS.\nThomas W. Bicknell, President.\nH. S. Tarbell, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins, Treasurer.\n\nt88s-SARATOGA SPRIxNGS, N.Y.\nF. I^uis Soldan, President.\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary.\nN. A. Calkins. Treasurer.\n1886-TOPEKA,\nKANS.\n13\nN. A. Calkins, President\nW. E. Sheldon, Secretary\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n1887— CHICAGO,\n\nILL.\nW. E. Sheldon, President.\nJ. H. Canpield. Secretary.\nE. C. Hewktt, Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 26, "printed_page": "14", "text": "14\n\nNATIONAL\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nEDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION,\n1871-1907 — Continued\n\n1888— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nAakon Gove, President.\nJ. H, Canfield, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewett, Treasurer.\ni889~NASHVILLE, TENN.\nAlbert P. Marble, President.\nJ. H. Canfielq, Secretary.\nE. C. Hewktt, Treasurer.\n1890— ST. PAUL, MINN.\nJ. H. Canfield, President.\nW. R. Garrett, Secretary.\nE, C. Hewett, Treasurer.\n1891— TORONTO, ONT.\nW. R. Garrett, President.\nE. H. Cook, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood. Treasurer.\n1892— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\nE. H. Cook, President.\nR. W. Stevenson, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n1803— CHICAGO, ILL.\n(International Congress of Education)\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n190a— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\nWilliam M. Beardshear, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCharles H. Keyes. Treasurer.\n1903— BOSTON, MASS.\nCharles W. Eliot, President\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nW. M. Davidson. Treasurer.\n1904— ST. LOUIS, MO.\nJohn W. Cook, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nMcHenry Rhoads, Treasurer.\n190S— ASBURY PARK and OCEAN GROVE, N.J.\nWilliam H. Maxwell, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJames W. Crabtree, Treasurer.\n1906 — No session.\n1907— LOS ANGELES, CAL.\nNathan C. Schaeffer. President.\nIs win Shepard, Secretary.\nJ. N. Wilkinson, Treasurer.\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nOF THE UNITED STATES\n\n1894— ASBURY PARK, N.J.\nAlbert G. Lane, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nJ. M. Greenwood, Treasurer.\n\n1908— CLEVELAND, OHIO\nEdwin G. Cooley, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Treasiu^er.\n1909— DENVER, COLO.\nLorenzo D. Harvey, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer.\n\n189s— DENVER, COLO.\nNicholas Murray Butler, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill. Treasurer.\n\niQio— BOSTON. MASS.\nJames Y. Joyner, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, Treasurer.\n\n1896— BUFFALO, N.Y.\nNewton C. Dougherty, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n\nlOii— SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\nElla Flago Young, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nDuRAND W. Springer, Treasurer.\n\n1897— MILWAUKEE, WIS.\nCharles R. Skinner, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n1898— WASHINGTON, D.C.\nJ. M. Greenwood, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n1899— LOS ANGELES, CAL.\nE. Oram Lyte, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nI. C. McNeill, Treasurer.\n1900— CHARLESTON, S.C.\nOscar T. Corson, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nCarroll G. Pearse, Treasurer.\n1901— DETROIT, MICH.\nJames M. Green, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nL. C. Greenlee, Treasurer.\n\niQi 2— CHICAGO, ILL.\nCarroll G. Pearse, President.\nIrwin Shepard, Secretary.\nKatherine D. Blake, Treasurer.\n1913— SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH\nEdward T. Fairchild, President.\nDurand W. Springer, Secretary.\nGrace M. Shepherd. Treasurer.\n1914— ST. PAUL, MINN.\nJoseph Swain, President.\nDurand W. Springer, Secretary.\nGrace M. Shepherd, Treasurer.\n1915— OAKLAND, CAL.\n(International Congress on Education)\nDavid Starr Jordan, President.\nDurand W. Springer, Secretary.\nGrace M. Shepherd, Treasurer.\n1916— NEW\n\nYORK CITY\nDavid B. Johnson, President.\nDurand W. Springer, Secretary.\nGrace M. Shepherd. Treasurer.\n\n"}
{"page": 27, "printed_page": "15", "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\nTHE UNITED STATES\n\nOF\n\nOFFICERS FOR 1915-16\nGENERAL\nDavid B. Johnson\nDxmAND W. Springer\nGrace M. Shepherd\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\nSecretary\nTreasurer\n\nRock Hill, S.C.\nAnn Arbor, Mich.\nBoise, Idaho\n\nVICE-PRESIDENTS\nDavid Starr Jordan, Chancellor, Leland Stanford Junior University\nStanford University, Cal,\nMrs. James M. Greenwood\nKansas City, Mo.\nMary C. C Bradford, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nDenver, Colo.\nJohn D. Loper, Superintendent of Schools\nPhoenix, Ariz.\nJohn E. Bray, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nCarson City, Nev.\nJosephine Corliss Preston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nOlsrmpia, Wash.\nWalter R. Siders, Superintendent of Schools\nPocatello, Idaho\nW. N. Sheats, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nTallahassee, Fla.\nMason S. Stone, State Superintendent of Education\nMontpelier, Vt.\nJ. George Becht, Executive Secretary, State Board of Education\nHarrisburg, Pa.\nFrank L. Crone, Director, Bureau of Education, Department of Public Instruction Manila P.I.\nBOARD\nCarroll G. Pearse, Chairman\nJames Y. Joyner, Secretary\nAgnes E. Doherty\nRobert J. Aley\nDavid B. Johnson\n\nOF TRUSTEES\n\nMilwaukee, Wis\nRaleigh, N.C\nSt. Paul, Minn\nOrono, Me\nRock Hill, S.C\nEXECUTIVE\n\nTerm expires i n 1918\nTerm expires in 1916\nTerm expires in 1917\nTerm expires in 1919\nEx officio\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nDavid B. Johnson\nDavid Starr Jordan\nGrace M. Shepherd\nCarroll G. Pearse\nGeorge B. Cook\n\nPresident\nFirst Vice-President\nTreasurer\nChairman Board of Trustees\nMember by Election\n\nRock Hill, S.C.\nStanford University, Cal.\nBoise, Idaho\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nLittle Rock, Ark.\n\nDurand W. Springer\n\nSecretary\n\nAnn Arbor. Mich.\n\nBOARD\n\nOF DIRECTORS\n\nDirectors ex officio\nGrace M. Shepherd, Boise, Idaho\nDavid B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S.C.\nCarroll G. Pearse. Milwaukee. Wis.\nDavid Starr Jordan, Stanford University, Cal.\nDurand W. Springer. Ann Arbor, Mich.\nLife Directors\nIS\nCorson, Oscar T.. Columbus, Ohio\nEliot. Charles W.. Cambridge. Mass.\nFairchild. E. T.. Durham. N M.\nGove, Aaron, Denver, Colo.\nGraham, H. A Mount Pleasan , Mich.\nGreen, James M.. Trenton NJ^\nHarvey. Lorenzo D.. Menominee. Wis.\n\nBicKNELL, Thomas W., Providence, R.I.\nBoard oj Education, Nashville. Tenn.\nBrown. Elmer Ellsworth. New York. N.Y.\nButler. Nicholas Murray. New York, N.Y.\nCLAXTON, P. P.. Washington, D.C.\nCOOK, John W., DeKalb, 111.\nCooLEY. Edwin G.. Chicago, 111.\n\n"}
{"page": 28, "printed_page": "16", "text": "l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nJewett, a. v., AbUene, Kans.\nJordan, David Starr, Stanford University, Cal.\nJoYNER, James Y., Raleigh, N.C.\nMarshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills, W.Va.\nMaxwell, William H., New York, N.Y.\nParxer, Charles I., Chicago, 111.\nPearse, Carroll G., Milwaukee, Wis.\nScHAEFFER, Nathan C, Harrisburg, Pa.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSkinner, Charles R., Watertown, N.Y.\nState Teachers Association of Illinois\nSwain, Joseph, Swarthmore, Pa.\nTaylor, A. R., Decatur, 111.\nTeachers Institute, Philadelphia, Pa.\nWhite, Charles G., Menominee, Wis.\nYoung, Ella Flagg, Chicago, 111.\n\nDirectors by Election\nAlabama\nW. F. Feagin, State Superintendent of Education\nMontgomery\nArizona\nCO. Case, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. . . . Phoenix\nArkansas\nGeorge B. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Little Rock\nCalifornia\nSusan M. Dorsey, Assistant Superintendent of Schools\nLos Angeles\nColorado\nAnna L. Force, Principal, Lincoln School\nDenver\nConnecticut\nFred. A. Verplanck, Superintendent of Schools\nSouth Manchester\nDelaware\nA. Henry Berlin, Principal of High School\nWilmington\nDistrict of Columbia. . . E. L. Thurston, Superintendent of Schools\nWashington\nFlorida\nGeorge M. Lynch, State Supervisor of Rural Schools\nGainesville\nGeorgia\nM. L. Brittain, State Superintendent of Education\nAtlanta\nIdaho\nW. R. Siders, Superintendent of Schools\nPocatello\nIllinois\nR. O. Stoops, Superintendent of Schools\nJoliet\nIndiana\nMilo H. Stuart, Principal, Manual Training High School . Indianapolis\nIowa\nL. H. MiNKEL, Superintendent of Schools\nFort Dodge\nKansas\nJohn F. Eby, County Superintendent of Schools\nTopeka\nKentucky\nJ. G. Crabbe, President, State Normal School\nRichmond\nLouisiana\nThomas H. Harris, State Superintendent of Education\nBaton Rouge\nMaine\nRobert J. Aley, President, University of Maine\nOrono\nMaryland\nCharles J. Koch, Superintendent of Schools\nBaltimore\nMassachusetts\nRobert J. Fuller, Superintendent of Schools.\nNorth Attleboro\nMichigan\nFred L. Keeler, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Lansing\nMinnesota\nAgnes E. Doherty, Teacher, Central High School\nSt. Pau\nMississippi\nE. E. Bass, Superintendent of Schools\nGreenville\nMissouri\nHoward A. Gass, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Jefferson City\nMontana\nW. K. Dwyer, Superintendent of Schools\nAnaconda\nNebraska\nF. M. Hunter, Superintendent of Schools\nLincoln\nNevada\nB. D. Billinghurst, Superintendent of Schools\nReno\nNew Hampshire\nHenry C. Morrison, State Superintendent of Public Instruction\nConcord\nNew Jersey\nJohn W. Carr, Superintendent of Schools\nBayonne\nNew Mexico\nAlvan N. White, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Santa Fe\nNew York\nJohn H. Finley, State Commissioner of Education\nAlbany\nNorth Carolina\nF. M. Harper, Superintendent of Schools\nRaleigh\nNorth Dakota\nCharles C. Root, Superintendent of Schools\nBismarck\nOhio\nOklahoma\nOregon\nPennsylvania\nRhode Island\nSouth Carolina\nSouth Dakota\nTennessee\nTexas\nUtah\nVermont\nVirginia\nWashington\nWest Virginia\nWisconsin\nWyoming\nAlaska\n\nJacob A.'Shawan, Superintendent of Schools\nColumbus\nEdwin S. Monroe, Superintendent of Schools\nMuskogee\nJ. A. Churchill, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Salem\nReed B. Teitrick, Deputy State Superintendent of Public\nInstruction\nHarrisburg\nWalter E. Ranger, State Commissioner of Public Schools. Providence\nJ. E. Walmsley, Professor of History and Political Science,\nWinthrop Normal and Industrial College\nRock Hill\nM. M. Ramer, Editor, The Associate Teacher\nPierre\nBruce R. Payne, President, George Peabody College for\nTeachers\nNashville\nR. J. Tighe, Superintendent of Schools\nEl Paso\nD. C. Jensen, Superintendent of Schools\nBrigham City\nGuy Potter Benton, President, University of Vermont. . . T Burlington\nFrances S. Williams, President, State Primary Teachers\nAssociation\nLynchburg\nElmer L. Cave, Superintendent of Schools\nBellingham\nM. P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Schools\nCharleston\nNellie Minehan, Vice-Principal, Jefferson Street School. . . Milwaukee\nC A. Duniway, President, University of Wyoming\nLaramie\nL. D. Henderson, Superintendent of Schools\nJuneau\n\n"}
{"page": 29, "printed_page": "17", "text": "DEPARTMENT\nHawaii\nPhilippine Islands\nPorto Rico\n\nOFFICERS\n\nVaughan MacCaughey, Professor of Botany, College of\nHawaii\n'\n„\n.,\nFrank L. Crone, Director of Education\nRalph S. Garwood,\nDean, CoUege of Agriculture and Manila\"\nMechanic Arts, University of Porto Rico\nMayaguez\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nNational Council\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nRobert J. Aley, President, University of Maine\nOrono, Me.\nAugustus S. Downing, First Assistant Commissioner of\nEducation\nt\nAlbany, N.Y.\nWilliam B. Owen, Principal, Chicago Normal College.. . Chicago, 111.\n{David\nB. Johnson, President, Winthrop Normal and In/\"J^\"^CoUeg«-.\n\"•■;•-••-••••-••\nRockHiU,S.C.\nA. J.\nMatthews, President,\nNormal School of Arizona. . . Tempe,\nAriz.\nEllen C. Sabin, President, Milwaukee-Downer College. . Milwaukee, Wis.\nKindergarten\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMary B. Fox, Dean of Women, Chicago Kindergarten Institute\nChicago, 111.\nElla C. Elder, Supervisor of Kindergartens\nBuffalo, N.Y.\nFanny A. Smith, Principal, Fannie A. Smith Kindergarten\nTraining School\nBridgeport, Conn.\nElementary\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nAda Van Stone Harris, Director of Elementary Practice\nTeaching, Public Schools\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nBertha M. McConkey, Assistant Superintendent of\nSchools\nSpringfield, Mass.\nMarie Turner Harvey, Teacher, Porter Rural School,\nAdair Co\nKirksville, Mo.\nSecondary\n\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nSecretary\n\nEdward Rynearson, Principal, Fifth Avenue High School Pittsburgh, Pa.\nEmma J. Breck, Head of English Department, The University School\nOakland, Cal.\nWalter J. Beggs, Teacher of Latin, Johnson High School St. Paul, Minn.\nHigher\n\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nSecretary\n\nEllwood P. Cubberley, Professor of Education, Leland\nStanford University, Cal.\nStanford Junior University\nShjney E. Mezes, President, College of the City of New\nNew York, N.Y.\nYork\nJohn E. Rouse, Head of School of Education, James MilliDecatur, lU.\nkin University\nNormal\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nLivingston C. Lord, President, State Normal School. . . . Charleston, DL\nLewiston, Idaho\nGeorge H. Black, President, State Normal School\nDimon H. Roberts, Superintendent of Training DepartYpsOanti. Mich.\nment. State Normal College\nSuperintendence\n\nCharl^ton, W.Va.\nM. P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Schools\nPresident\n•\nFirst Vice-President... . Lawton B. Evans, Superintendent of Schools. . . . . . -^ . • ^\"g\"\"*-^\nBoston Ma^\nSchool\nTrammg\nen\nKindergart\nPrincipal.\nWheelock,\nLucy\n.\nent.\nSecond Vice-Presid\nbaginaw. oa. .\nE. C. Waejuner, Superintendent of Schools\nSecretary\n\n"}
{"page": 30, "printed_page": "18", "text": "l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPresident\n\nFrank A. Parsons, President, New York City School of\nFine and Applied Arts.\nNew York, N.Y.\nA. H. Chamberlain, Secretary, California Coimcil of Education\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nLeonard William Wahlstorm, Head of Manual Training\nDepartment, Parker School\nChicago, HI.\nFlorence E. Ellis, Art Director, American Crayon Company\nSandusky, Ohio\n\nVocational Education and Practical Arts\n\nVice-President\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMusic\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nFrances Ellen Dutting, Assistant Professor of Music,\nHunter College\nNew York, N.Y.\nCharles H. Farnsworth, Associate Professor of School\nMusic, Teachers College, Columbia University\nNew York, N.Y.\nConstance Barlow-Smith, Assistant Professor of School\nMusic, School of Music, University of Illinois\nUrbana, 111.\nBusiness\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJ. L. Holtsclaw, Director, High School of Commerce. . . Detroit, Mich.\nL. Gilbert Dake, Department of Commerce, Manual\nTraining and Commercial High School\nOakland, Cal.\nClyde I. Blanchard, Instructor of Business Economy,\nExtension Division, University of California\nBerkeley, Cal.\nChild Hygiene\n\nPresident\nLinnaeus N. Hines, Superintendent of Schools\nCrawfordsville, Ind.\nVice-President........ Lewis M. Terman, Associate Professor of Education,\nLeland Stanford Junior University\nStanford University, Cal.\nSecretary\nC. Ward Crampton, Director of Physical Training,\nCity Schools\nNew York, N.Y.\nPhysical\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nE. B. DeGroot, Director, Department of Physical Education, Public Schools\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nBaroness Rose Posse, President, Posse Normal School of\nGymnastics\nBoston, Mass.\nMay G. Long, Supervisor of Physical Training, Public\nSchools\nEverett, Wash.\nScience\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nJames E. Peabody, Head of Department of Biology,\nMorris High School\nNew York, N.Y,\nWilliam A. Hedrick, Head of Department of Physics,\nMcKinley Manual Training School\nWashington, D.C.\nJohn C. Packard, Head of Science Department, High\nSchool\nBrooklyn, Mass.\nSchool Administration\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nO. M. Plummer, Director, Board of Education\nNorth Portland, Ore.\nGeorge W. Auch, Board of Education\nDetroit, Mich.\nFrank M. Bruce, Business Manager, American School\nBoard Journal\nMilwaukee, Wis.\nLibrary\n\nPresident\nViu-President\nSecretary\n\nIrene Warren, Former Librarian, School of Education,\nUniversity of Chicago\nChicago, 111.\nCasper Carl Certain, Professor of Rhetoric and Public\nSpeaking, Alabama Polytechnic Institute\nAuburn, Ala.\nGrace D. Rose, Librarian\nDavenport, Iowa\n\n"}
{"page": 31, "printed_page": "19", "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOFFICERS\n\nig\n\nSpecial\nPresident\nVice-President\n\nElizabeth E. Farrell, Inspector of Ungraded Classes,\nDepartment of Education\njjg^ York N Y\nLewis M. Term an, Associate Professor of Education,\n\nSecretary\n\nLeland Stanford Junior University\nFrances E. Cheney, Teacher of Special Classes\n\n' Stanford University QJ\nSpringfield, Masa.\n\nSchool Patrons\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nMrs. Louis Hertz, Council of Jewish Women\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nMrs. Philip N. Moore, Trustee, College for Women,\nUniversity of the South\nSewanee, Tenn.\nMrs. E. L. Baldwin, Chairman, California State School\nPatrons\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nRural and Agricultural\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nGeorge A. Works, Professor of Rural Education, Cornell\nUniversity\nIthaca, N.Y.\nHenry N. Goddard, State High School Inspector, Department of Education\nMadison, Wis.\nW. S. Taylor, Associate Professor of Agricultural Education, University of Texas\nAustin, Tex.\nClassroom\n\nPresident\nVice-President\nSecretary\n\nTeachers\n\nMary E. Adkisson, Teacher, East Denver High School. . Denver, Colo.\nIsabel A. Ennis, President, Class Teachers Organization\nof Brooklyn\nNew York, N.Y\nMaryV. Donoghue, Sixth Grade Teacher, Stewart School, Chicago, 111.\n\n"}
{"page": 32, "printed_page": "20", "text": ""}
{"page": 33, "printed_page": "21", "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\nOF THE\n\nFIFTY-FOURTH\n\nANNUAL\n\nMEETING\n\nOF THE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF\nTHE UNITED STATES\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nN.Y., JULY i-8, 1916\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nSUNDAY\n\nIn accordance with an establisht custom, Sunday, July 2, was observed as Educational Sunday by a large number of the churches of New York City, on which date the\nrespective pastors held special services, preaching sermons on educational topics, as\nfollows:\nCathedral of St. John the Divine — Dr. Robert Johnson, Rector of the Church of the\nSaviour, Philadelphia, Pa., conducted services at 11 :oo a.m. and at 4:00 p.m.\nMarble Collegiate Church — Rev. Oliver Paul Bamhill conducted services at 11 :oo A.11.\nand at 8:00 P.M.\nCentral Presbyterian Church — Seats were reserved for the members of the N.E.A.\nat services conducted by Rev. John McNeill, at 11 :oo a.m. and at 4:30 p.m.\nBroadway Presbyterian Church — Rev. Walter Duncan Buchanan conducted a service\nat 1 1 : 00 a.m. to which all were cordially invited.\nBrick Presbyterian Church — Services were conducted by Rev. Albert Parker Fitch,\nPresident of Andover Theological Seminary.\nTrinity Church — Rev. Lawrence T. Cole, Headmaster of Trinity School, New York\nCity, conducted services.\nSt. Patrick's Cathedral— Solemn High Mass was celebrated at 11:00 a.m. Sermon\nand music.\nFifth Avenue Presbyterian Church— The members were invited to attend services at\nthe usual hours.\nTemple Emanu-El— The regular service was held on Saturday, July i, at 10:30\nA.M. A vesper service was also held at 5 : 30 p.m. Friday.\nCentral Jewish Institute — A reception was tendered to the Jewish teachers in the\nCentral Jewish Institute on Sunday, at 3 : 00 p.m. On Saturday, July i , a Sabbath service\nwas dedicated to education and an appropriate sermon given by Rabbi Herbert S. Goldstein, of the Congregation Kehilath Jeshurun, and General Director of the Central Jewish\nInstitute.\nCalvary Baptist Church— Rev. Joseph W. Kemp, Pastor, preached a special sermon\nin the morning, entitled \"Christ, the Great Teacher.\"\n\nFIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS\nAfternoon, July 3, 2:00 o'clock\nwas\nThe Fifty-fourth Annual Convention of the National Education Association\nopened in Madison Square Garden, New York, N. Y., at 2 : 00 p.m. on July 3.\nStanford Junior University, StanVice-President David Starr Jordan, of Leland\nford University, Cal., presided at the opening of the session.\nOPENING\n\nSESSION— Monday\n\n"}
{"page": 34, "printed_page": "22", "text": "22\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\nMUSICAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPROGRAM\n\n1. American Overture\n\nTohani\n\n2. (a) \"I Know a Bank\"\nlb) \"Where the Bee Sucks\"\nArne\n(c) \"Over Hill, Over Dale\"\nMendelssohn\n(d) \"All thru the Night\" (Folk-Song)\n(e) \"Hey, Ho! For Merry June\"\nVincent\n3. March— (\"Aida\")\nVerdi\n4. \"America\" (Audience)\nOrchestra — Pupils from Brooklyn and Queens high schools\nCharles Yerbury, Conductor\nGlee Club — Girls' Club of Public School 13, Manhattan\nLillian Josephs, Conductor\nAfter the musical program, Margaret Clark, College of Speech Arts, Denver, Colo.,\nread the fortieth chapter of Isaiah.\nInvocation — Very Rev. William A. Grosvenor, D.D., Dean, Cathedral of St. John\nthe Divine, New York City.\nAddresses of Welcome: Charles S. Whitman, governor of the state of New York,\nAlbany N.Y.; John H. Finley, president. University of the State of New York and state\ncommissioner of education, Albany, N.Y.; Charles B. Alexander, regent, University of\nthe State of New York, New York City; John Purroy Mitchel, mayor of New York City;\nWilliam G. Willcox, president, Board of Education, New York City; William H.\nMaxwell, superintendent of schools, New York City; and Gustave Straubenmiiller,\nacting superintendent of schools. New York City.\nA response to the addresses of welcome was made by Vice-President Jordan.\nFollowing the addresses of welcome and the response, Vice-President Jordan introduced David Bancroft Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College,\nRock Hill, S.C., president of the National Education Association, and transferred to him\nthe conduct of the convention.\nPresident Johnson then delivered the presidential address, which was entitled \"The\nRural Home and the Farm Woman.\"\n\"A National Program of Education\" was the title of an address given by P. P.\nClaxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\nWilliam H. Taft, Yale University, New Haven, Conn., gave an address on \"A League\nto Enforce World Peace.\"\nThe following committees were announst by President Johnson:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\n\nWilliam B. Owen, of Illinois, Chairman\nH. J. Waters, of Kansas\nGeorge L. Towne, of Nebraska\nW. C. Bagley, of Illmois\nArthur H. Chamberlain, of California\nR. J. Tighe, of Texas\nAlvan H. White, of New Mexico\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nA. E. Winship, of Massachusetts\nN. C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania\nE. E. Bass, of Mississippi\nH. H. Seerley, of Iowa\nF. M. Harper, of North Carolina\nJ. E. Walmsley, of South Carolina\nM. P. Shawkey, of West Virginia\nNECROLOGY\n\nJ. L. McBrien, of District of Colimabia, Chairman\nM. A. Cassidy, of Kentucky\nCharles H. Keyes, of New York\nM. L. Brittain, of Georgia\nT. W. Palmer, of Alabama\nFollowing the announcements, the convention adjourned to Monday evening, the\nactive members of the Association reassembling by states at 5:30 p.m., either in sections\nof the Green Room, Hotel McAlpin, or at their respective state headquarters, for the\nselection of members of the nominating committee.\n\n"}
{"page": 35, "printed_page": "23", "text": "JOURNAL\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\nSECOND\n\nsession-Monday Evening, July 3, 7:30 o'clock\nPreceding the opening of the session, the foUowing musical program\nwas given:\n1. Overture (\"Orpheus\")\n.\n.\nna l l\nO^enbach\n.\n2. \"The Lost Chord\" (Chorus)\n3. \"BarcaroUe\" (\"Tales of Hoffman\")'\n'.:''••\nnffJ!h^!l\nOfenbach\n...\n4. March-Folkonger\nOrchestand\n5. \"America\" (Chorus\nAudience)\n''.'..'''\nMcCdbe\nra— Manhatt\nan and Bronx high schools\nChorus— Boys from DeWitt CUnton High School\nJ. P. Donnelly, Conductor\nAfter the musical program, the meeting was caUed to order by President Johnson,\nand the following addresses given:\n\n\"Organized Recreation\"— Warren Dunham Foster, department editor, The\nYouth's\nCompanion, Boston,\nMass.\n\"The Elimination of Illiteracy \"—Cora Wilson Stewart, president, Kentucky Illiteracy\n'\nCommission, Frankfort, Ky.\n\"First Aid to the Country Teacher— A Suggestion as to Vitalizing the Country\nSchools\nOur Present\nInstitute,thru\nBlacksburg,\nVa. Teachers\"— J. D. Eggleston, president, Virginia Polytechnic\n\nSECOND\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nTHIRD SESSION— Tuesday Evening, July 4, 7:30 o'clock\nPreceding the addresses of the evening, the following musical program was given by\nthe Boys' Band of the Parental School under the direction of Frank R. Rix, director of\nmusic, public schools. New York City:\n1. Patriotic Songs (Audience and Chorus of Teachers)\n2. \"Godof Our Fathers\"\n3. \"Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean\"\n4. \"America\"\n5. \"American Hymn\"\n\nBix\nMcCabe\n, Kellar\n\nFollowing the musical program, the meeting was called to order by President Johnson, and the following addresses given:\n\"The Secular Free Schools \"—Ella Flagg Young, Chicago, III.\n\"The Place of the University in a Democracy\" — Charles R. Van Hise, president,\nUniversity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\n\"The Place of the Normal School in a Democracy\"— John R. Kirk, president, State\nNormal School, Kirksville, Mo.\n\"Citizenship in a Republic\" — William Jennings Bryan, Lincoln, Nebr.\n\nTHIRD\nFOURTH\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nAfternoon, July 5, 2:00 o'clock\n\nPreceding the opening of the session, the following musical program was given:\n1. \"American Overture\"\nTobani\n2. Part Songs: Arranged by Frank R. Rix\nMendelssohn\n(a) \"Be Not Afraid\" ('^Elijah\")\nib) \"Lift Thine Eyes\"\nPaderewskt\n(c) \"Minuet\"\n^^*^\n(J) \"Calm as the Night\"\n3. \"Melody of Peace\" (Orchestra)\n'^'^^\n4. March— \"The Stars and Stripes\"\nOrchestra— Brooklyn and Queens high schools\nCharles Yerbury, Conductor\nChorus— Gu-ls from Public School 50, Manhattan\nHelen Mulvihill, Pianist\nFrank R.^Rix, Director\n\n"}
{"page": 36, "printed_page": "24", "text": "24\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nFollowing the musical, the meeting was called to order by President Johnson, and\nthe following program given:\n\"Preparation thru Education for a Democracy\" — ^James Y. Joyner, state superintendent ofpublic instruction, Raleigh, N.C.\n\"The Common School as an Instrument of Democracy\" — Carroll G. Pearse, president, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis.\n\"The War and Education\" — G. Stanley Hall, president, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.\n\"What the Public Schools Can Do toward the Maintenance of Permanent Peace\"\n— Fannie Fern Andrews, secretary, American School Peace League, Boston, Mass.\n\"Mass Instruction thru Group Training\" — O. B. Martin, United States Department\nof Agriculture, Washington, D.C.\n\" The Socialized Recitation \" — F. M . Hunter, superintendent of schools, Lincoln, Nebr.\n\nFIFTH\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nEvening, July s, 7:30 o'clock\n\nAfter a musical program given by the Hampton Institute Quartette and the Boys'\nBand of the Parental School, President Johnson called the meeting to order and the\nfollowing addresses were given:\n\"The Education of the Negro\" — Hollis B. Frissell, principal, Hampton Normal and\nIndustrial institute, Hampton, Va.\n\"The Education of the Alien\" — John H. Finley, state commissioner of education,\nAlbany, N.Y.\n\"Vocational Education\" — ^John D. Shoop, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\n\"National Aid to Vocational Education\" — Homer H. Seerley, president, Iowa State\nTeachers College, Cedar Falls, la.\n\"Industrial Education\" — William C. Redfield, Secretary of Commerce, Washington, D.C.\nAt the close of the program. President Johnson announst the following Committee\non Nominations:\nCommittee on Nominations\nJames Y. Joyner, of North Carolina^ Chairman\nR. E. Tidwell\nAlabama\nIrving S. Cutter\nNebraska\nA. J. Matthews\nArizona\nCharles Priest\nNevada\nGeorge B. Cook. . . .*. .Arkansas\nWallace E. Mason. . . .New Hampshire\nMary Carmichael\nCalifornia\nL. S. Thompson\nNew Jersey\nH. V. Kepner\nColorado\nJ. B. Taylor\nNew Mexico\nW. S. Beacon\nConnecticut T. E. Finegan\nNew York\nC. J. Scott\nDelaware\nH. E. Sayne\nNorth Dakota\nE. L. Thurston\nDist. of Columbia\nJ. A. Shaw an\nOhio\nGeorge M. Lynch\nFlorida\nF. W. Wenner\nOklahoma\nJessie Muse\nGeorgia\nL. R. Alderman\nOregon\nW. R. SiDERS\nIdaho\nJ. G. Becht\nPennsylvania\nJ. S. Brown\nIllinois\nValentine Almy\nRhode Island\nAnna Wilson\nIndiana\nJ. E. Walmsley\nSouth Carolina\nH. H. Seerley\nIowa\nC. T. King\nSouth Dakota\nR. P. Willis\nKansas\nJ. R. Lowry\nTennessee\nM. A. Cassidy\nKentucky\nA. W. Evans\nTexas\nW. B. Jack\nMaine\nE. G. Gowans\nUtah\nMoLLiE R. HoBBS\nMaryland\nGuy Potter Benton. . .Vermont\nClarence W. KiNGSLEYMassachusetts A. H. Hill\nVirginia\nH. M. Slauson\nMichigan\nR.M.White\nWashington\nIsabel Williams\nMinnesota\nJoseph Rosier\nWest Virginia\nE. E. Bass\nMississippi Mary D. Bradford. . . .Wisconsin\nJohn R. Kirk\nMissouri\nRalph R. Garwood\nPorto Rico\nR. J. Cunningham\nMontana\n\n"}
{"page": 37, "printed_page": "25", "text": "JOURNAL\n\nFOURTH\nSIXTH\n\nOF PROCEEDINGS\n\n2-\n\nDAY'S PROCEEDINGS\n\nSESSION— Thursday Afternoon, July 6, 2:00 o'clock\nMUSICAL PROGRAM\n\n1. \"Wedding March\"\n...\nlt ^ ; «.n\nMendelssoh\n2. Chorusesf\n(a) \"He Watching over Israel\" ....\nMendpk.nhn\n(6) \"Barcarolle\" (\"Tales of Hoffman\")\n'\nOfflJTi.\nOJenbach\n.\n.\n(c) \"Border Ballad\" .\nr^/) \"Beautiful Ship from Toyland\"\n^,^Z\n(e) \"Good-Night, Beloved\"\n.\n.\n.\n!\npf^Zi\n3. \"The Lost Chord\"\nSolos (Orchestra).\n....'::\nby Schwartz (Stuyvesa\n.' 'fidUmn\nnt High School),\nFinkelstein (DeWitt Clinton High School), and\nIda Distilli (Washmgton Irving High School)\n4. March— \"The Whip\"\n.\nHoltzman\nHigh School Orchestra— Joseph P. Donnelly, .Conductor\nChorus— Graduating Class Public School 52, the Bronx\nEthel V. Cooledge, Conductor\nAfter the musical program, the meeting was called to order by President Johnson,\nand the following addresses given:\nTeachers\nLeadership\nAll Special\nEducation\"— James W. Crabtree, \"Preparing\npresident. State\nNormalfor School,\nRiver inFalls,\nWis.\n\"Educational Preparation for Foreign Service\"— Glen Levin Swiggett, Assistant\nSecretary- General, Second Pan-American Scientific Congress, member, Committee on\nEducation, National Foreign Trade Council, Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C.\n\"Salaries and Pensions of Teachers\" — ^Joseph Swain, president, SwartSnore College,\nSwarthmore, Pa., chairman, Committee on Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions.\n\"Teachers' Cottages\" — ^Josephine Corliss Preston, state superintendent of public\ninstruction, Olympia, Wash.\n^ \"The Junior\nHigh Urbana,\nSchool\" 111.\n— Charles H. Johnston, professor of secondary education,\nUniversity\nof Illinois,\n\"The Jimior College\" — James M. Wood, president, Stephens Junior College,\nColumbia, Mo.\nSEVENTH\n\nSESSION— Thursday Evening, July 6, 7:30 o'clock\n\nPreceding the opening of the session, the following musical program was given;\n1. March— (\"Aida\")\nVerdi\n2. {a) \"My Heart Rejoices\" (Chorus— Air arranged by F. R. Rix from\n\"Sampson and DeUlah\")\nSaint-Saens\nSchubert\n(b) \"Who Is Sylvia?\"\nHandel\n(c) Largo (Arranged by F. R. Rix)\n3. \"Melody of Peace\" (Orchestra)\nSousa\n4. March— \"The Stars and Stripes\"\n5. Singing by Chorus and Audience\nschools\nOrchestra from Brooklyn and Queens high\nCharles Yerbury, Conductor\nChorus of Girls from Washington Irving High School\nLawrence Mooney, Conductor\nMiss Caron and Mr. Mattfeld, Accompanists\n\nPresident Johnson called the meeting to order after the musical program and the\nfollowing addresses were given:\n\" Readings from His Own Poems \"—Robert Underwood Johnson, secretary, American\nAcademy of Arts and Letters, New York, N.Y.\n\" The Story of My Life \"—Anna Shaw, Moylan, Pa.\n_\nTraining\"-Leonard Wood, major general, United States\nMilitary\nl\n\"Universa\nArmy, New York, N.Y.\n\n"}
{"page": 38, "printed_page": "26", "text": "26\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n\"Chinese Education\" — V. K. Wellington Koo, ambassador from China to the United\nStates, Washington, D.C.\n\"Trust in Humanity\" — Thomas Mott Osborne, warden of Sing Sing, Ossining, N.Y.\n\"Some International Aspects of Public Education\" — William G. McAdoo, Secretary of the Treasury, Washington, D.C.\n\nFIFTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS\nEIGHTH\n\nSESSION— Friday Evening, July 7, 7:30 o'clock\nMUSICAL PROGRAM\n\n1. March—\n2.\nChorus: (\"Carmen\")\n(a) \"The Pilgrim's Chorus\"\nih) \"Fairest of Nations\" (Arranged by Rix)\n3. March — (\"Le Prophete\")\n4. \"American Overture\"\nUnited Orchestras\n\nBizet\nWagner\nVerdi\nMeyerbeer\nTohani\n\nJoseph P. Donnelly and Charles Yerbury, Conductors\nJimior Glee Club, Evander Childs High School\nGrace Smith, Conductor\nFrank Downey, Accompanist\nAfter the musical numbers the announcement was made that the judges had awarded\nthe prizes for the best essays on the subject of \"Thrift, with an Outline of a Method by\nWhich the Principles of Thrift May Be Taught in Our Public Schools\" as follows:\nFirst prize, Teresa M. Lenney, New Rochelle, N.Y.; tied for second prize, Frances V.\nFrisbie, Indianapolis, Ind.; Alfred F. Howes, Manchester, Conn.; Isadore Kaplan,\nBrooklyn, N.Y.; Cora L. Swafford, Minneapolis, Minn, Special mention was given to\nthe essays by the following: T. W. DeHaven, Houghton, Mich., and Evelyn King Gilmore, Selma, Ala.\nThe winners in the school contest were as follows:\nFirst, Nellie Harrington, Washington, D.C; second, William Denniger, Scranton,\nPa.; third, Ruth Carver, Louisville, Ky.; fourth, Charles Lane, Imperial, Cal.; fifth,\nLaura A. Yeater, Mannington, W.Va.; sixth. Eleanor Webster, New Brighton, Pa.;\nseventh, Nettie Mart, Jamestown, N.D.; tied for eighth place: Abram Green, Scranton,\nPa.; Zitella McClellan, Kaysville, Utah; Firman DeMaris, Vineland, N.J., and Evan\nAlsip, Imperial, Cal.\nThe meeting was called to order by President Johnson and the following program\ngiven:\n\"The Gary Plan\" — William A. Wirt, superintendent of schools, Gary, Ind.\n\"The American School and the Working Man\" — Samuel Gompers, president,\nAmerican Federation of Labor, Washington, D.C.\n\"Nationalizing Education\" — John Dewey, professor of philosophy, Columbia\nUniversity, New York, N.Y.\n\"Possibilities of a National University at the Capital\" — Simeon D. Fess, Member\nof Congress from Ohio, Washington, D.C.\nPresident Johnson presented the President-elect, Robert J. Aley, President, University ofMaine, Orono, Me., who spoke as follows:\nI appreciate very greatly the honor which you have conferred upon me by making\nme your President for the coming year. I realize that the responsibility of the position\nis very great. The program of this year has been the best ever presented to the Association. Itmakes it very difficult indeed for the officers of the coming year to meet\nexpectations. An acceptable program for 19 17 is possible only if the membership will\nunite and co-operate to produce it. I feel sure that I shall have the hearty support and\nhelp of all of you.\nAfter brief remarks of thanks and appreciation, President Johnson annoimst the\nadjournment of the Convention.\nD. W. Springer, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 39, "printed_page": "27", "text": "JOURNAL\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE\n\nOP PROCEEDINGS\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n^^\n\nON\n\nRESOLUTIONS\nResolved That the National Education Association\nexpresses its appreciation\nof the\nle orga\nsures taken by the Committee of Arrangements toinsnT\nmeasures\nto insure eThTs^c\nthe succeS^\nof thh m^ti^/\ncZTi^^^\n^^\nlarge advance enrolment, the greatest in the history\nionn T^^t\nAs^ciatio\nthe As^ciat\nof the\ni^ t^^ history of\nSfJ^!fL\nl^.??i'\nvision\n^ various\nof satisfac\ntoryJ^I^i!?\nrooms for^^^^^^^\nholding the\nmeetmgs of departments iheore^a\nnformi*\"^\n'i^^^\"^\n„,.i.„\"_\nr^„^o«„\nth,^\nmemherc\nvisitme\nthe\nfor\ninformat\nof\nization\n.\nion\n, V r* t 4^ ' ^ . u visitmg members, the courteous welcome and\neenerous\nhospitahty\nof officials, teachers, and citizens of all classes, the reUable and iffoiS\ngenero\nLT.^l°l/^!r2^^ ?.^ti^i!ltPP!?\"^S_^i^ P-blic press insure that the New^?\nsetting a new standard for future meetings.^^^ ^^\"^^ meTroi^SV'Se'i^tion'Lid'as\n?„J^?.5llT!!^^\n!^!f:L'°l°li^'\nResolved, That the\nPresident of this Association be authorized to name a committee\nof active members of whidi committee the President of the Association shaU\nbe\na member, to request the President of the Umted States to appoint a commission to investigate and report upon the condition of the woman on the farm and of the rural home of\nthe United States.\nResolved, That the National Education Association indorses the co-operative movement for the promotion of citizenship education inaugurated by the Bureau of Naturalization ofthe Department of Labor.\nResolved, That the National Education Association urges upon the Congress of the\nUnited States the appropriation of fifty thousand dollars to be administered thru\nthe\nUnited States Bureau of Education for the purpose of disseminating information as to\nthe methods, standards, and establisht practices in the education of immigrants, and in\nstimulating the extension of the necessary educational facilities looking to the Americanization ofthe foreign-born or alien residents of this country.\nResolved, That the National Education Association agam declares its belief in equal\nsuffrage for men and women and urges upon its members the support of such measures\nas will hasten the consummation of this end.\nResolved, That the National Education Association calls the attention of the American\npeople to the fact that teaching is a profession demanding for its successful practice a\ntechnical training that will put the teacher in possession of profft<=<5ional standards; that\nthese professional standards can be maintained only by the emp oyment of superintendents, supervisors, and teachers who have unquestioned professional qualifications for their\nwork; that the members of the teaching profession can have and serve but one client,\nthe public; that the public, therefore, owes a duty to itself and the members of the profession to see to it that only professional considerations enter into the employment,\nretention, and dismissal of teachers. The Association believes that the public can elevate\nand strengthen the professional status of teachers and thereby serve itself by securing\nlegislation that shall embody the following provisions:\n1. The powers and duties of superintendents of schools should receive definition\nby legislative enactment. Definite professional qualifications should be required by all\nappointees to office. The term of the superintendent of schools should be not less than\nthree years; the power of nominating all teachers and members of the educational staff\nshould be given the superintendent.\n2. The tenure of office of teachers should, after a probationary period, be permanent.\nRemoval should be possible only for inefficiency, immoraUty, or grievous neglect of duty.\nSalaries should be fixt so as to insure to teachers a standard of living in keeping with the\nmade upon them. Retiring allowances or pensions should be prodemands\nprofessional\nvided either by\nstate or local action.\nResolved, That the National Education Association gives expression agam to the\nconsciousness that the school is an institution developt by society to conserve the weUbemg of humanity, and that on this solid foundation all subordinate auns and uses of the\nschool should be made to rest. Assembled as it is in a time of world-wide disturbance,\nconcern, the Association affirms its\ndoubt, and uncertainty,■\" and\n. of ,consequent\n,-!.., nationalf .._.:._ i._^\n—•-\"'• and between\nxxxx^« „*i,^x ..XIV, knowledge\n\nv.x ^^^ .**w\n\n.\n\n.\n\n- •* j\n\ni\n\n^ ,-fc\n\nit declar^ its\nrests and to incline the will of men and nations toward acts of peace;\nour\ndevotion to America and American ideals and recognizes the pnonty of the clauns ot\nrecoros ii^\nbeloved country on our property, our minds, our hearts, aiid our livesthe Itnation\nwM\nconviction that the true poUcv to be followed, both by the school and by\nparU^n\ninterference\nsectarian\nfrom\nfree\nschool\npublic\nAmerican\nthe\nkeep\nto\nis\nit serves,\npolitics, and disputed public poUcies, that it may remam unimpaired m its P^^^f^l^^;\nor the state, ^ay mtroduce\nthe whole people. While it recognizes that the community,seem\nwise and prudent, yet ii\nmay\nas\nschools\nthe\ninto\ntraining\nmiHtary\nof\nelements\nsuch\n\n"}
{"page": 40, "printed_page": "28", "text": "28\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nbelieves that such training should be strictly educational in its aim and organization,\nand that military ends should not be permitted to pervert the educational purposes and\npractices of the school.\nWilliam B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, 111.,\nChairman.\nH. J. Waters, president, Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan,\nKans.\nGeorge L. Towne, editor, Nebraska Teacher, Lincoln, Nebr.\nW. C. Bagley, professor of education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.\nArthur H. Chamberlain, executive secretary, California Teachers' Association, San Francisco, Cal.\nA. E. WiNSHiP, editor, Journal of Education, Boston, Mass.\nN. C. Schaeffer, state superintendent of pubMc instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.\nE. E. Bass, superintendent of schools, Greenville, Miss.\nH. H. Seerley, president, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, la.\nFrank M. Harper, superintendent of schools, Raleigh, N.C.\nJ. E. Walmsley, professor of history, civics, and political economy, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S.C.\nM. p. Shawkey, state superintendent of schools, Charleston, W.Va,\n\n"}
{"page": 41, "printed_page": "29", "text": "GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCJATION\nADDRESSES\nI.\n\nCHARLES\n\nS. WHITMAN,\n\nGOVERNOR\n\nOF WELCOME\nOF THE STATE\n\nOF NEW\n\nYORK, ALBANY, N.Y.\n\nIn behalf of ten miUion patriotic American citizens-residents\nof the commonwealth\nof New York-I extend a most cordial welcome to this distmguis\nht body of the nation's\nleaders in public education who have come from every state in our\nUnion to deUberate\nand determine upon general policies by which you may render to the\nnation in the discharge ofyour duties a more vital and effective service.\nThere is no class of public servants whose labors are more appreciated\nby the people\nof the whole country, and there is no agency of the government so well equipt to\npreserve\nthe traditions of our national life and to prepare the future generations successfull\ny\nto meet the great social, economic, and industrial problems which our rapidly developing\nand advancing civilization must encounter. You should not underestimate the importance ofyour profession nor the influence which you are exerting in the development of\nAmerican citizenship. The free-school systems of our American states are the greatest\ndemocratic institutions which have been establisht by the government of any nation in the\nworld. There is no institution more sacredly cherisht by a people whose government is\nestablisht upon the prmciples of individual freedom and justice than the American common\nschool — the public school.\nThere are 20,000,000 children under the instruction of the teachers of this country\nwho in a few years will take their places among the citizens of the nation. This number\nrepresents one-fifth of the entire population of the country. Employed in the instruction\nof these children is an army in excess of one-half million teachers who are under the\ncommand of several thousand trained supervisory school oflScers. For the support of these\nschools, the people of this country vote taxes upon their property annually in excess of onehalf billion dollars. Therefore, when I contemplate the proper marshaling of these mighty\nforces, when I observe the earnest and patriotic devotion of the American teacher, and\nwhen the schools are in active operation and I can each morning hear the tramp of the\nfeet of 20,000,000 American boys and girls marching to the schoolhouses which have been\nestablisht in every city, village, hamlet, mountam-top, and valley of the nation — representing as they do the people of every nation of the world — there to learn the lesson of\nobedience, patience, industry, tolerance, self-reliance, and patriotic devotion to their\ncountry, I know that the ideals of our republican institutions are establisht upon enduring\nfoundations.\nI am gratified to be able to claim title to membership in your great fraternity, for some\nof the most valuable experience and discipline which I have received came thru my service\nas a teacher. I am also gratified to state, in the presence of this representative national\nbody of men and women engaged in educational work, that in a year of great and troublesome demands upon the treasury of the state, I approved the largest appropriation for\n29\nNew York has ever appropriated\nthe support of the common schools of the state which\nfor her public-school system. I also found it a great personal satisfaction to give executive approval to every dollar appropriated by the legislature for educational purposes\nwhich had the approval of the commissioner of education.\nAgain, I extend to you the state's heartiest welcome and accor.d to you the freedom of\nall of our public buildings and public mstitutions and extend to you the privilege of tiie\n\n"}
{"page": 42, "printed_page": "30", "text": "30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nstate's domain, her rivers, her lakes, and her mountains. May the deliberations of your\nconvention result in that improvement in our educational interests which you all desire\nand in which the people of the country will cooperate in order to make it effective.\nn.\n\nJOHN H. FINLEY, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW\nCOMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, ALBANY, N.Y.\n\nYORK, AND STATE\n\nAfter our governor has spoken for the whole state, we who have further words of\nwelcome to speak must appear as decimal or as common fractions, even tho we try to\nmagnify ourselves into improper fractions. And since he has, to enter another elementary\nfield, given the \"principal parts\" of the state's welcome, and has conjugated that welcome\nin all its usual moods and tenses, from the first person, singular number, indicative mood,\nand present tense, to the gerund, I betake myself for my word to that conjugation known\nas the \"periphrastic\" — that conjugation which is as a fraction added to a whole number,\nan auxiliary added to a verb. And I employ particularly the periphrastic in the mood\nand tense of the about-to-be, and so express to you the welcome of the state- which-is-about\nto-be — the state for which the children in our schools are being trained and mobilized, the\nstate which, with the states you represent from Maine to California, will send its youth to\nthe borders of the nation-of-tomorrow.\nSome of you saw that great map of this state at the Panama-Pacific Exposition, showing in relief every hill, mountain, and vaUey, creek, lake, and city in this state — the physical\nstate of the ten millions over which Governor Whitman presides. But that which\nattracted thousands to it and stirred them was not the mere microcosm of this physical\nempire. It was the flashing of the thousands of little incandescent lamps, of varying\ncolors: now the pink showing the Indian schools; now the green showing the nurses*\ntraining schools; now the blue showing the libraries; now the red showing the high\nschools; and, finally, the dazzling blaze of white lights representing the 11,642 elementary\nschools in the state. They are the beacons of the state-about-to-be; they are the fires\nupon the altars at which democracy is praying every day for the state-of- tomorrow; they\nmark the sites of the camps where she is today preparing for the defense of those ideal\nthings which alone justify the defense of her physical borders today.\nAt the headquarters of the National Guard in this city last week, I saw a map upon\nwhich ofl&cers were marking the numbers gathered from all parts of the state to be sent\nto the borders of our land, under a federal plan of strategy and command. But we have no\nfederalized educational army. We have only a general, an eloquent general. The\nnation depends almost solely upon the educational militia of the several states for that\nwhich is fundamentally essential to the pursuit of national ideals. It is especially important, therefore, that we should have such a national conference as this to consider how we\ncan most helpfully and effectively cooperate as states for making and defending spiritually\nand physically the nobler nation-of-tomorrow. And we must realize that we have a task\nrequiring a devotion and faith and valor comparable with that of the soldier, but demanding arichness, thoroness, and breadth of preparation and knowledge, and an ability to\nlead and patiently to endure, even beyond his. For the way to the spiritual borders of our\nnation-that-is-to-be lies thru the schoolhouse door. Here is our greatest task: to bring\nour schools into conscious service to a great national constructive program of aspiration\nfor tomorrow.\nPresident Wilson in a speech last Friday night said: \"Look for the rulers of the\nfuture. Can you pick out the families that are going to produce them ? Can you pick\nout the localities that are gomg to produce them ? \" No, but he can be sure that they\nare being prepared by you and those whom you represent. This is not a convention of\nmen and women who will nominate presidents; it is a convention of those who will prepare\nmen who will be fit to be presidents, for, as Chesterton has said, \"democracy is ever\ndreaming of a nation of sovereigns.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 43, "printed_page": "31", "text": "^^^\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME\n^\n■\n\n.\n\n<5^\n\nWhen seized as a spy in the opening days of\nwar in Europe, I finaUy procured reW«\nby stating that I was a minister of educaUon in\none of thereat staled ^,^,7^\nIt ^ in hod\nUiat capaci\nty-nnnthat\neducat\nIStates\nwould rather\nisterof of\nstat^rf't:^^^^^^^\nthan even\ngovern\norionin in\nthethestateol-today-that I Sd my\nwelcome to that of the gover\n™y\nnor.\nin.\n\nCHARLES\n\nB. ALEXANDER,\n\nNEW\n\nNEW N.Y.,\nYORK REGENT,\nYORK,\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF THE STATE OF\n\nOn behalf of the Board of Regents of the University of\nthe State of New York an\nancient and honorable command in the educational army\nand the most comprehensive\neducational organization in the world, I welcome you, the\nofficers of the army for the\ndefense of the nation of tomorrow.\nThe Board of Regents is, as I have said, an ancient body,\nbom out of the bitter\nexperiences of the terrible years 1776-84. The law estabUshing it\nwas the\nproject for national preparedness considered by the legislature of the state first important\nof New York\nIt grew out of the \"America first\" movement of 1774-87, when the fathers\nand mother^\nof the late colonies refused longer to send their sons over the water to receive training,\nand\nwhen American boys first demanded an introduction into an American and not an\nEuropean culture. It was the first step in the establishment of democracy, the beginning of\nthat first great organization of the forces of a new society, a movement whose spiritual\ninfluence spread at least as far as France, and which in some considerable measure fumisht\ninspiration for the institutions of the France of today.\nThe Board of Regents was bom ahnost under the clouds of battle. It has seen the\nnation gird itself many times for war. It has played some part in the War of 181 2, the\nMexican War, the Civil War, and the Spanish-American War. It may be due to this\nexperience that the somber years of 1914, 1915, and 1916 did not find the Regents entirely\nwithout guidance or precedent, or the desire (for I have said that the Board was honorable\nas well as ancient) to meet the situation promptly, frankly, and fully. As every American industry and organization is domg today, we tried to examine our plant, which is not\nthe task of a day, for there are 2,168,358 children, 61,355 teachers, 12,000 public elementary schools, 1,000 high schools and academies, 40 colleges and universities, 8 schoob\nof technology, 30 schools of medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, and optometry 140 training\nschools for nurses, 5 colleges for teachers, 10 normal schools, 114 training schools for\nteachers, 560 free public libraries, and over 100 institutions and associations for the promotion ofscience, literature, art, history, etc., in the state of New York.\nWe made this examination in order to determine what essential service we could render\nto the state in a status of war or a status of peace, what new service or modification of\nservice was required in the changed world of today, what reorganization of methods or\nchange of plant would be required in the new world order of tomorrow.\nOur deliberations have not been finisht. Some things we deem valid have been\nembodied in law, and shortly will be embodied in a prescription for the physical wellbeing of every pupil from eight years upward, and for the military training of young men\nfrom sixteen to eighteen years of age — a prescription designed primarily to develop those\nqualities essential to everyone in meeting the obligations of citizenship.\nWe are particularly glad to welcome you to our state, to a common deliberation on the\nproblems of our national needs and duties, because as officers you should be able to plan a\ncampaign that will be at once tme to our professional and national ideals, and adequate\nto the unquestioned peril of our times. New York wishes the educators from the kindergartners to the university presidents to know that then- work is known and appreciated,\nand that the educational forces of this state delight to honor them.\nThe Regents have only once before m the history of this state met in the city of New\nThey deemed it a mark of appreciation of your coming to convene here today as\nYork.\n\n"}
{"page": 44, "printed_page": "32", "text": "32\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nan organized body and to attend with their ofl&cers this convocation. In addition to this,\nthey instructed me some months ago, as one of their number resident in this neighborhood,\nto organize a committee of leading citizens, ladies and gentlemen, to constitute a Conmiittee\nof Arrangements and Hospitality. I am chairman of this committee, and. on their behalf\nalso I bid you welcome to the hearts and hospitalities of this metropolis.\nThis is a captured town, a conquered state. You are its owners and captors, and the\nonly terms we beg from you are that you will feel that you are surrounded by devoted\nand appreciative comrades, and that you will enjoy every moment of your stay.\nIV.\n\nJOHN PURROY\n\nMITCHEL, MAYOR\n\nOF NEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nIt is my very pleasant duty to extend to the members of the National Education\nAssociation the welcome of the city of New York. We are indeed glad in New York that\nyou should have chosen this city as the site for this convention, and we feel that your\ndeliberations here may be productive of enormous good to us in our great undertaking of\npublic education, and we feel, on the other hand, that we have here problems and imdertakings whose study may be productive of good for you.\nThe size of the problem of public education in this city is greater than that of any\nother single community in the world. Here New York maintains some 684 school buildings, in which we house upward of 24,000 teachers and impart instruction to 900,000\npupils; and on that work the city of New York expends this year upward of $41,000,000.\nThis city, in common with most of the communities of the country, feels the pinch of\nfinancial pressure. It needs every available dollar for the development of its great\nphysical plant and for the conduct of the processes of its government, but I say to you\nthat New York City does not grudge one single dollar that it expends on public education, and it stands ready today, as it has at all times in the past, to appropriate to this\ngreat purpose every dollar the necessity for which can be demonstrated to the financial\nauthorities of this city.\nI do not know whether the time which you are able to spend here will permit of a closer\nstudy of any of the detailed problems of education that we face in New York, but, if it does,\nthen I would recommend to you especially a consfderation of those two newer experiments\nthat New York City inaugurated a little more than a year ago. As a result of a visit to\nthe Middle West paid by the president of the Board of Education and myself as mayor, we\ndetermined to attempt to extend the activities of the Department of Education in the field\nof industrial training. We brought here to the city of New York Dean Schneider, of the\nUniversity of Cincinnati, to set up for us the same plan of cooperation between industry\nand the schools that he inaugurated and conducted so successfully in that city, and, since\nthat time, since the initiation of this plan, which is now going forward successfully under\nthe guidance of the local officers of the Board of Education, we have undertaken an\nindustrial survey in order to learn, as far as we may, the needs of industry, and to adapt\nour plan of industrial education to those needs.\nAt the same time we establisht here the Gary experiment. We brought from Gary,\nInd., Mr. Wirt, superintendent of the school system of that city, and askt him to apply\nto a number of schools in New York the system that he had workt out at Gary, in order\nthat we might determine how far that plan is adaptable to New York City's peculiar\nrequirements and needs. The experiment is going forward today in from eight to twelve\nschools, and, on the basis of the data there gathered, the Board of Education of this city\nwill determine how far that plan may be extended to the school system of New York, and\nhow far thru it, if it be adopted, we may solve the most difficult financial problem that we\nface, namely, that of providing a sufficient school plant in buildings to give a seat to every\nchild in the city of New York.\nPresident Jordan said that the futiure of the Republic is being determined in the\nschools of the Republic. Indeed, that is true. And because it is true there rests upon the\n\n"}
{"page": 45, "printed_page": "33", "text": "k\n\nSessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n\nOF WELCOME\n\n33\n\nteachers of the RepubUc a heavy obligation to direct\nthe mind of the boys and rirls of\nAmerica into those measures that will develop the ideals\nof America and beget 1^1^\na patriotism that wiU make sure the future of our country\n. If I were a member of yo^r\nprofession today, I would search my soul and ask whether\nI were domg all that in mv\npower lay to buUd up in the youth of this country that spirit\nof national patriotism that\ngave birth to the Repubhc, and that has kept it aUve at the periods\nof crisis in our national\nlife. We are today observing the workmg of profound forces.\nWe see this countrv\nattempting to solve the most fundamental of all problems of\ndemocracy-the problem\nof making democracy efficient to protect and perpetuate itself.\nWe see that problem\ndaUy working toward solution; and it rests with the teachers of\nthe country to help it\ntoward solution.\nI believe that no country has insured its future which cannot rely on\nthe ready and\ntrained service of its men to ward off national disaster. I beUeve that no\ncountry can\nsecure that ready and trained service that does not begin to teach it in the schools\nof the\ncountry. And I would say to you that I should like to see the educational system of the\nUnited States take leadership in this great matter, and begin, while it is trammg the\nyouth\nof the country, to teach them to understand the ideals of America, and to develop that\nnational patriotism of which I spoke, and also to make themselves strong physically and\nfit to take their places among the forces of defense of the Republic, yes, and to train them\nadequately to take their places in those forces. This, it seems to me, is the great lesson of\nthis year, the lesson that we should take to heart, the lesson that we should teach to the\nyouth of this country, the lesson that must sooner or later sink into the consciousness of\nthe people of the United States if they would not some day have it seared into that consciousness bydisaster.\nV.\n\nWILLIAM\n\nG.\n\nWILLCOX,\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nBOARD\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nIt is my great pleasure, on behalf of the Board of Education of the Cityof New York,\nto extend to you a cordial greeting and hearty welcome. It is indeed a privilege to be permitted to speak to this great gathering of representative men and women from all parts\nof our country, drawn together by a bond of common interest in the great cause of public\neducation. The city of New York is honored by your presence. We deeply appreciate\nyour interest in the great problems which so vitally concern our civic and social welfare\nand your far-reaching influence in the school and in the community.\nIn a government resting not upon force, not on autocratic authority, but on intelligent public opinion, education is the very cornerstone of the structure. As the publicschool pupils of today are the citizens of tomorrow, so the permanence and progress of\nour democratic institutions rest in the hands of the pubUc-school teachers. The public\nschool is not a philanthropic institution, but represents a great investment of public\nfunds from which the community expects, and rightfully expects, large dividends in inteUigent and efficient citizenship. Faced with this great responsibility and opportunity, it\nis indeed fitting that the members of this Association should meet to take counsel together\nand share with each other the results of their experience and study. Such exchange molds\npublic opinion in the educational world and furnishes new inspkation for the work.\nIn welcoming you to the hospitality of New York, I welcome you also to a veritable\nieast of educational wisdom and deep drafts of inspiration for your future tasks. While\nthe National Education Association has provided this intellectual banquet, the teachers\nand superintendents of our New York school system have been unsparing m their efforts\nto provide for your physical comfort and entertamment. The Board of Education is\nglad to indorse and cooperate in the undertaking, but it should be clearly understood that\nthe New York teachers and superintendents are your hosts, and are entitled to all the\ncredit for the hospitality which you are to enjoy.\non of achievement.\nThe greatest satisfaction in any field of effort is the satisfacti\ninto pleasure. In\ndrudgery\nfrom\nwork\nteacher's\nthe\ntransform\nsuccess\nand\nEnthusiasm\n\n"}
{"page": 46, "printed_page": "34", "text": "34\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe inspiration of this great convention, may you all find new courage for your work, new\nappreciation of its importance, and new pride and satisfaction in its results.\nBut your responsibility and your great opportunity for service are by no means limited\nto the classroom. Today the demand, which like a bugle call echoes and re-echoes thru\nour educational army and thrills its ranks with patriotic enthusiasm, is a call for loyal,\nunselfish, and united citizenship to rally to the protection of our democratic principles\nand institutions in this great crisis in the world's history.\nThe urgent cry for preparedness, to protect our country against any danger of military\naggression, imperative as such preparedness is imder present conditions, must never for\none moment blind our eyes to the inspiring vision of the great mission and destiny of\ndemocracy, not to make war but to prevent war, not to support and continue the senseless\neffort to settle differences by force, not to attempt to advantage one nation at the expense\nof another, but to promote among nations, as among individuals, the dominance of moral\nlaw and public opinion and to hasten the day when the rule of might shall give way to the\nrule of justice thru which alone permanent progress of civilization is possible.\nTo you is given the high privilege and opportunity of holding ever before the future\ncitizens of America this inspiring vision of universal peace and international justice and\nof educating and molding public opinion to wield a mighty influence in transforming that\nvision into a world-wide reality.\nVI.\n\nWILLIAM\n\nH. MAXWELL,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, NEW\n\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nLetter of Welcome\nTo the President and Members of the National Education Association:\n\nJime 30, 19 16\n\nLadies and Gentlemen: With profound regret I am constrained by long continued illness to absent myself from your meetings in Greater New York. Even the word\nof welcome which, on behalf of the city's teaching force, I wish so much to say, I am\nunable to utter in person. That word, however, will be fitly spoken by my colleague,\nActing City Superintendent Gustave Straubenmiiller.\nYou will permit me, however, to say in this letter that the National Education Association meets this year in a city which is worthy of your serious study. It is worthy of your\nstudy, in the first place, because, fifty-nine years ago, in Brookl)ai, now part of Greater\nNew York, largely thru the efforts of Superintendent John W. Bulkley and Principal\nThomas W. Valentine, the National Education Association had its birth; and, in the\nsecond place, because this city has been, for many years, the greatest melting-pot in\nAmerica, in which people from all the nations of Europe are fused into some semblance of\nthat Americanism at which we all aim, however far short we are of attaining.\nAt this time we are witnessing the most dreadful war, and probably the most allpervading in its effects, that the world has ever known. Under the influence of this stupendous struggle and the no less stupendous results we anticipate, the American people\nseem to have made up their minds very definitely to two lines of national policy which, for\ngood or for evil, are bound to affect American civilization for ages to come. One of these\nlines is to tolerate in their home or foreign policies no influence that is not wholly thoroly\nAmerican. The other is that our people, particularly our young men and young women,\nshall be willing and prepared to defend efficiently their coimtry, should it ever be assailed\nat home or abroad, and to enforce the nation's will, should it ever be resisted. In this\ncradle of the National Education Association, in this great melting-pot of the nation, surely\nthe National Education Association should speak with no uncertain voice in order to proclaim to our people and to each individual teacher what elements constitute that Americanism, that particular kind of patriotism which, thru the instrumentahty of the school and\nthe home, should be woven on the universal loom of life. Equally is it the duty and the\nprivilege of the National Education Association to announce to statesmen, to legislators,\n\n"}
{"page": 47, "printed_page": "35", "text": "Sessions]\n\nADDRESSES\n—\n\nOF WELCOME\n■\n\no5\n\nand to civilians the inethods of preparedness that wiU be truly\nsuccessful in preparinK\nour people for the duties of war as well as of peace.\nPerhaps you wiU allow me, as a veteran in your ranks, and as once your\nPresident to\nstate a few rules to which training for preparedness must conform, if it is to\nserve the\npurposes intended.\n1. If military training is to be employed, it must be universal military training\nfor all\nyouths between certain ages. To limit military training to the students m high\nschools\nor any other kind of school is to make the school undeskable to an mcreasmgly large\nsection of the population, to exclude from war those who, in their own selfish interests,\nwould seek to avoid war, and to limit the fighters of the nation to those who are best\nequipt to do the nation's everyday work. If the voluntary army system should break\ndown as break down it must under the stress of grave peril, military training for all is the\nonly fair, the only safe rule. And, if it be wisely administered, it will enhance the efficiency\nof the man, not only for war, but for every duty of life.\n2. All our youths should be taught trades or professions by which they may increase\ntheir value to themselves and to the community. We must see to it that no idle class lives\nand moves and has its being in America.\n3. Neither military training nor the leammg of trades should be permitted to interfere with that cultural training, particularly in the time-honored elementary subjects of\nreading, language, ciphering, drawing, and the rudiments of literature, history, and\ngeography, upon which we- must depend to prevent military training from degenerating\ninto militarism, and the practice of trades into the unintelligent slavery of routine. There\nhas been found no eflacient way of teaching a boy to be a soldier or a mechanic, other than\nto set apart a certain period of his life in which he shall devote himself, almost exclusively,\nto acquiring automatic eflSciency in the practices of war or the minutiae of a trade.\n4. But the greatest thing of all in education is to develop that reverence for country\nwhich shall be content with no policy that does not make our country worthy of reverence,\nthat shall make service to the community and to our fellow-men the highest motive for\nevery study and every practice, and that shall make that charity which suffereth long and\nis kind the greatest thing in the world.\nMay your meeting be so inspired and so administered that it shall be an everlasting\nguide in the city of its birth, in this, the greatest melting-pot of our citizenship.\nYours, with kindest and most grateful remembrance,\nWilliam H. Maxwell\nCity Superintendent of Schools\nvn.\n\nGUSTAVE\n\nstraubenmuller, acting city superintendent\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nop schools\n\nAfter the multiplicity of hearty welcomes you have listened to, beginning with the\nsalutation of the representative of the people of the state of New York, and ending with\nthe sweet greetings of the eight-hundred thousand New York school children, can I do\nmemorable Shakespeare year, than to hark back to the \"old reliable\" for\nin this\nbetter,\nof greeting:\nmy words\n\n\"Sir, you are very welcome to our house:\nIt must appear in other ways than words,\nTherefore, I scant this breathing courtesy.\"\nMay you not\nOur house, fellow-teachers, is open to you \" in other ways than words.\"\nyour expenences in it.\nonly enjoy the offered hospitality of \"our house,\" but also profit by\nas well as of the twenty-thousand teachers\nThat is the wish of Superintendent Maxwell\nwhom I have the honor of representing here today.\nindustry is \"reflected m our\nThe fierce international competition in commerce and\nAdaptation to the needs 01\nwork.\nschool\nin\nchange\nsome\nfor\nschools. There is a demand\n\n"}
{"page": 48, "printed_page": "36", "text": "36\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe age, cooperation of all educational agencies, some kind of school control of working\nchildren from fourteen to eighteen years of age, and thoroness in all branches should be\nour watchwords.\nWhile it is true that our schools must meet the needs of the present and the future,\nyet we should not break forever with the experiences and lessons of the past in the spiritual\nevolution of the child. While we teachers are simply transmitters of the culture and\ncivilization of the present generation to the rising generation, yet we should not permit\n\"hysteria or social tornadoes\" to upset the judgments of our calmer moments. Let us\nencourage the needful and discourage the temporary and sensational.\nIn these days, when the nerve tissues are being overtaxt and the muscular tissues\nare being neglected an equilibrium should be establisht. How? The body must be\nstrengthened and the brain cells must be safeguarded. But how can we do so when the\ninventions and discoveries during the past two decades have added so much to the stock\nof knowledge required, even by a child, to meet the exigencies of modem social, industrial,\nand commercial life ? We can do so by strengthening the body, eliminating waste, improving the technique of teaching, imparting proper methods of study, and encouraging\ninitiative.\nLet us hope that this convention will close \"on its most optimistic note\" and that you\nwill gather inspiration for renewed efforts in that most beautiful task of the teacher —\npreparing the forces that will battle for the development and improvement of the human\nrace against those that would lead the human race to degeneration and decay.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nPRESIDENTS\nTHE RURAL\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nADDRESS\nTHE FARM\n\nWOMAN\n\nDAVID BANCROFT JOHNSON, PRESIDENT, WINTHROP NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL\nCOLLEGE, ROCK HILL, S.C, PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL\nEDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\nTrue education concerns itseK with that which has to do with the welfare of society outside of the schoolroom as well as with the instruction and\ntraining of the children inside of it. Educators should take a broader view\nthan they often do of their relation to society and should come in more\nvital and sympathetic contact with the people in all their community life.\nIf they would do this more generally, the high calling of teaching would\nhold a still higher place in the esteem of men.\nThe institution I represent is earnestly endeavoring in its extension\nwork to effect improvement in the rural homes, in the rural community,\nand in the conditions surrounding the farm women and children in our\nsection of the country, and I wish to quicken, if possible, your interest in\nthis great cause. The rural home has much to do with the condition of\nthe rural school, and the rural school should have much to do with the\ncondition of the rural home.\n''The neglect of the woman in the country is one of the most serious\nindictments that can be drawn against our civilization,\" and it is one of the\n\n"}
{"page": 49, "printed_page": "37", "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n~\n\nADDRESS\n— —\n\n«57\n\nmain causes of the unsatisfactory agricultural conditions\nm our land\nThe farm home is the beginning and end of every day's work.\nIt differs\nfrom the town home in this respect. The farm home is an essentia\nl part\nof the farm business. If the farm home and the farm woman are not what\nthey should be, the farm business and home training cannot be what they\nshould be. The home is the foundation stone of civihzation. Upon it\nmust rest the welfare of the people. In it originate the forces determining\nthe public sentiment upon which the laws and institutions of a country\nmust rest. The ideals of a country are made during early childhood in\nthe homes, and ideals determine the character of a nation as well as of an\nindividual. As is the home, so is the community, the state, and the nation.\nThis is just as true of the country home as of the city home. Hence the\nvital importance of this question of the rural home and the farm woman.\nThe welfare of the whole country— urban and rural— is involved in the\nweKare of the agricultural people who constitute such a large proportion\nof the whole population, and the success and happiness of the agricultural\npeople are involved in the welfare of the farm woman and the condition of\nthe rural home.\nIf the farm woman's health and strength are conserved by time-saving\nand labor-lightening conveniences, and she is given the requisite time and\ntraining, she can make life in the rural home interesting, wholesome, and\nsatisfying, as indeed she has done already in so many instances. She could\ndo much to promote the health and happiness and the mental and spiritual\nwell-being and working capacity of her family, to enrich country life and\nmake it attractive, and thus to reduce farm tenancy — one of the greatest\nobstacles of the day to farm progress. The country has many natural\nadvantages over the city for making home life what it should be, and it\nonly remains for these advantages to be recognized and utilized.\nWith a view to making some contribution to this vital problem of\nimproving rural conditions, which we all agree need improving in the\ninterest of all the people, both urban and rural, I have made some study\nof the rural home and the farm woman. A correct diagnosis must precede\ncorrect treatment of the patient. In pursuance of this undertaking, I prepared aquestionnaire of thirty-eight questions for the farm woman, and sent\nit out over the country districts of my section, asking the county agents of\ncounty women's and girls' clubs to have the farm women of the average\nfarm answ^er them. Time permits me to give neither the questions nor\ntheir answers in full. Suffice it to say that the questions were designed to\nsecure information as to all the activities of home and community lifethe economic, the social, and the esthetic. Speci^c repUes were askt\nrelaxation,\nas to conveniences, food-supply, comforts, opportunities for\naskt for\nwe\ncases\nall\nIn\ncommunity.\nthe\nin\nwork\nfor\nfor entertainment,\nas to\nexplanation of conditions that were not approved, and suggesUons\nthe\ndemonstrated\nanswers\nThe\neffected.\nbe\nmight\nhow desired changes\n\n"}
{"page": 50, "printed_page": "38", "text": "38\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmagnitude and the importance of the work, and the necessity, not only of\nstrengthening the agencies already in operation, but also of setting to work\nadditional and stronger forces. This investigation, covering but a limited\npart of our great country, has made only a beginning. It shows, however, that the rural home and the farm woman should claim the careful\nconsideration of every thoughtful and patriotic citizen.\nThe rural home must be made more comfortable, convenient, sanitary, attractive, efficient, and educative, and the farm woman must be\nrelieved of the deadening drudgery, grind, and' monotony which now, in\nso many cases, take all sweetness and light out of her life, render her incapable of making the home the force for good that it should be, and of\ntransmitting to her children the physical, mental, and spiritual vitality\nneeded by them to succeed in life. If there were running water in the\nrural home, the farm woman would be relieved of much of the terrible\ndrudgery which now leaves neither time, strength, nor interest for recreation, reading, and attention to the cultural and educative side of the home.\nWhy is it that the men on the farm will readily buy expensive labor-saving\nmachinery for the fields, and yet not secure such labor-saving appliances\nfor the home, altho they cost much less than the field machinery ?\nOne of our extension workers exhibited at one of the conferences for\neducation in the South a modest little house designed and equipt to\nmeet the needs of people of limited means living in the country. It was\nshown that a rural home could be built at small cost, with regard for the\nconveniences of the farm woman, and equipt with labor-saving appliances, including water-works, to do away with unnecessary drudgery.\nIt was shown that $200 would furnish engine, bathroom, kitchen, and\nstationary washtub, and the power to do the work which is now making\nthe farm woman old before her time. It would do much to improve the\nrural home to place full and detailed information concerning this model\nhome in the hands of the people of the country.\nLet us remember, however, that it is not sufficient to give the farm\nwoman running water in the house and all of the conveniences of a model\nhome. Country life must be made socially satisfying. Clarence Poe, editor\nof the Progressive Farmer^ truly says: \"The rural problem, in its last\nanalysis, is nothing more nor less than the problem of developing a satisfying country life, and such a life must respond both to the social and material\nwants of man. It must be both financially and socially satisfying.\" In\nsome of the richest farm sections of the United States, where farmers have\nattained to the highest degree of prosperity, the farm owners are retiring\nmost rapidly from the farms because farm life, even when financially\nsatisfying, is not socially nor intellectually satisfying.\nIn order that country life may be satisfying, the people must have\neducation and own their homes, must cooperate with each other in rural\ncommunity activities, and must have rural community organization for\n\n"}
{"page": 51, "printed_page": "39", "text": "Sessions]\n\nPRESIDENT'S\n\nADDRESS\n\n—\n■\n.\no\"\nthe promotion and support of an educational, religious, social, business, and\nintellectual community life. At the very foundation of improvement of\nagricultural conditions is the improvement of rural public schools. The\nstartling exodus from the rural districts to the cities all over our country\nis attributed by many to the lack of proper educational and social conditions in the country— conditions which the properly organized and conducted country school might supply. From social and economic surveys\nit has been found that in Illinois about 95 per cent of the landowners who\nmove to town do so because of the inadequacy of the country school. The\ncountry school which is to improve agricultural conditions and keep good\ncitizens on the farms and make good citizens on the farms must relate its\nwork to the full life of the people served by it, must educate the children\nfor country life instead of away from it, and must relate universal elements\nof education to country community needs, must train the children for their\nfuture work in the home, on the farm, and in the social life around them;\n\nmust be a \"community center of education, instructing both children and\nadults in terms of country life and pointing the way to community prosperity and welfare\"; must concern itself with the business and social life\nof the people, promoting helpful and profitable cooperation and neighborliness. It cannot neglect the health, the recreation, nor the social ideals\nof the people.\nThe course of study needed for the kind of country school I have\ndescribed must be determined by the needs of the social and economic\nlife of the community, and these must be clearly fixt by a social and economic survey of the community. It is not necessary to discard the fundamental studies, but it is necessary to relate these studies more closely to\nagricultural life. New leaven must be put into old essentials, some subjects of the old traditional curriculum which fail to express the activities\nand needs of the community must be discarded, and new subjects that are\nneeded for agricultural progress must be added, such as nature-study,\nagriculture, manual training, domestic science and art, farm-management\nand marketing, and rural sanitation.\nThe country school which is to improve rural conditions must have an\nefficient teacher, and that means a teacher who appreciates both the needs\ntrained\nand opportunities of work in a rural community and who has been\nis m\nespecially for teaching a country school in the right way— one who\nmust\nschool\ncountry\na\nof\nteacher\nefficient\nThe\nHfe.\nsympathy with rural\non m terms\nbe not only a good teacher of subject-matter, \"giving instructi\n-leader.\ncommumty\ngood\na\nalso\nbut\nchild,\"\nthe\nof\nent\nof local environm\n. Under\nprogress\nrural\nShe must be able to stimulate local campaigns for\nfarmers' clubs and\nher leadership there will be road-unprovement, good m the rural home\nent\nimprovem\nand\ninstitutes, country-church progress,\nIt has been said that\nShe must be imbued with the spirit of civic service.\nthat of the mnethe master-word of the eighteenth century was \"Uberty,\n\n"}
{"page": 52, "printed_page": "40", "text": "40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nteenth century, \"knowledge,\" and that of the twentieth, is \"service.\"\nEvery teacher, but especially the teacher of the country school, must catch\nthis spirit of service of the twentieth century.\nIn addition to the rural school organized and conducted for rural betterment, there are other agencies at work for rural uplift, especially for uplift\nof the rural home, and these may be strengthened and extended and made\nto reach and benefit more fully the farm woman. After the farm woman\nhas been given a good, attractive, convenient home, equipt with laborsaving appliances, she will have to learn how to manage the home in the\nbest way. Of greater importance than the question of \"the high cost of\nliving\" is that of \"the high cost of wasting,\" but of greater importance\nthan both of these is that of \"the high cost of ignorance.\" One of the\nbest remedies for the poor home is the teaching of home economics\nin all of its phases. The farm women of tomorrow may be taught home\neconomics as pupils of today in the eflficient country school, thru girls'\ncanning clubs, and in other ways, and the present farm woman will\nget some help from these sources thru her children, who should be\ngiven credit at school for housework done at home in accordance with\ndirections given at school. Movable schools of homemaking, the visiting\nhousehold demonstrator, home institutes for women, homemaking clubs,\nhousewives' bulletins, correspondence courses, and the rural-school teacher\nwho has been trained in home economics and who will give instruction in\nhomemaking to mothers' clubs offer much promise for the women of the\nopen country. Of all the agencies the neighborhood teacher with agricultural and home economic training and the right spirit of civic service\nought to be the most effective. I rejoice that two-thirds at least of our\nnormal schools are contributing effectively to the solution of this farm\nwoman and rural-life problem by giving their students training in home\neconomics. Over two hundred and fifty colleges and universities are\ngiving definite courses of instruction in household science. I believe that\nthe visiting supervisory teacher of home economics for a county could\nrender a service of inestimable value in improving school and home conditions. The home-economics extension work of normal schools and colleges\nfor rural communities is producing gratif3dng results. The Smith-Lever\nbill offers great promise for the development of home-betterment work for\nthe country. The Rural Credits act just now being passt by Congress\nwill do much to better rural conditions and rural homes. On the whole,\nI think the outlook for the betterment of rural-life conditions is full of\nhope. Our people are waking up to the vital importance of the rural\nproblem to the welfare of the whole country as never before in our history,\nand are girding themselves for a great, intelligent, and united effort to\ngive help where it is most needed. I think we can thank God and take\ncourage.\n\n"}
{"page": 53, "printed_page": "41", "text": "Sessions]\n\nA LEAGUE\n\nA LEAGUE\nWILLIAM\n\nH. TAFT,\n\nTO ENFORCE\n\nWORLD\n\nTO ENFORCE\n\nWORLD\n\nYALE UNIVERSITY, NEW\n\nPEACE\n\nPEACE\nHAVEN, CONN.\n\nThis is an assembly of those who direct the formmg of character of the\nyouth of the country and who, because of their inteUigence and attention\nto the issues of the day and their standing m the community, exercise a\nsubstantial influence in f rammg and making effective the popular will. This\nmeeting, therefore, gives an exceptional opportunity to spread to the\nfour corners of the United States the consideration of a constructive plan\nfor national and human betterment. I seize this chance to bring before\nyou the program of an association already organized and active to promote\na league to enforce world-peace.\nOur program is limited to the establishment of such a league after the\npresent world-war shall close. We are deeply interested m brmging this\nwar to a close, and we would rejoice much in successful mediation, but, in\norder to be useful, we limit our plan to the steps to be taken when peace\ncomes, and to an international arrangement between the powers after war\nceases.\nThe League was organized on Bunker Hill Day, a year ago, in Independence Hall, at Philadelphia. Its program contemplates a treaty\nbetween the great powers of the world, by which the signatories agree to\nbe bound to four obligations: the first is that all questions arising between\nthe members of the league shall be submitted to a judicial tribunal for\nhearing and judgment; the second, that all questions which cannot be\nsettled on principles of law and equity shall be submitted to a council of conciliation for hearing and a recommendation of compromise; the third, that\nif any member of the league commits acts of hostihty against another\nmember before the question between them shall be submitted as provided in the first two articles the remainder of the members of the league\nshall jointly use forthwith their economic and mihtary forces against the\nmember prematurely resorting to war and in favor of the member prematurely attackt; the fourth, that congresses between the members of the\nleague shall be held from time to time to formulate and codify rules of international law to govern the relations between the members of the league,\nunless some member of the league shall signify its dissent within a stated\nperiod.\nI. Considering the fourth clause first, the question arises: What is\nmternational law? It is the body of rules governing the conduct of the\nnations of the world toward one another, acquiest in by all nations. It\nlacks scope and definiteness. It is found in the writings of international\n\nof those\nof arbitration, and m the'decisions Court\njurists, in treaties, in the resultsinternation\nof\nal law, like the Supreme\nmunicipal courts which apply\nof\nrules\nthe\ndetermine\nto\ncases\nthe United States and courts that sit in prize\nis\nIt\ninternational law governing the capture of vessels in naval warfare.\n\n41\n\n"}
{"page": 54, "printed_page": "42", "text": "42\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nobvious that a congress of the league, with quasi-legislative powers, could\ngreatly add to the efficacy of international law by enlarging its application\nand codifying its rules. It would be greatly in the interest of the world\nand of world peace to give to such a code of rules the express sanction of the\nfamily of nations.\n2. Coming now to the first proposal, involving the submission of all\nquestions at issue, of a legal nature, to a permanent international court,\nit is sufficient to point out that the proposal is practical and is justified\nby precedent. The Supreme Court of the United States, exercising the\njurisdiction conferred on it by the Constitution, sits as a permanent international tribunal to decide issues between the states of the Union. The\nlaw governing the settlement of most of the controversies between the states\ncannot be determined by reference to the Constitution, to statutes of\nCongress, nor to the legislation of the states. Should Congress in such\ncases attempt to enact laws, they would be invalid. The only law which\napplies is that which applies between independent governments, to wit,\ninternational law. Take the case of Kansas against Colorado, heard and\ndecided by the Supreme Court. Kansas complained that Colorado was\nusing more of the water of the Arkansas River which flowed thru Colorado\ninto Kansas than was equitable, for purposes of irrigation. The case was\nheard by the Supreme Court and decided, not by a law of Congress, not by\nthe law of Kansas, not by the law of Colorado, for the law of neither applied.\nIt was decided by principles of international law.\nMany other instances of similar decisions by the Supreme Court could\nbe cited. But it is said that such a precedent lacks force here because\nthe states are restrained from going to war with each other by the power\nof the national government. Admitting that this qualifies the precedent\nto some extent, we need go no farther than Canada to find a complete\nanalogy and a full precedent. There is now sitting to decide questions of\nboundary waters (exactly such questions as were considered in Kansas versus\nColorado) a permanent court, consisting of three Americans and three\nCanadians, to settle the principles of international law that apply to the\nuse of rivers constituting a boundary between the two countries and of\nrivers crossing the boundary. The fact is that we have got so into the\nhabit of arbitration with Canada that no reasonable person expects that\nany issue arising between us and that country, after a hundred years of\npeace, will be settled otherwise than by arbitration. If this be the case\nbetween ourselves and Canada, and England, why may it not be practicable\nwith every well-establisht and ordered government of the great powers?\nThe second Hague conference, attended by all nations, recommended\nthe establishment of a permanent international court to decide questions of a\nlegal nature arising between nations.\n3. The second proposal involves the submission to a commission of\nconciliation of all questions that cannot be settled in court on principles\n\n"}
{"page": 55, "printed_page": "43", "text": "Sessions]\n\nA LEAGUE\n\nTO ENFORCE\n\nWORLD\n\nPEACE\n\nof law or equity. There are such questions which may lead to war, and\nfrequently do, and there are no legal rules for decision. We have'such\nquestions giving rise to friction in our domestic life. If a lady who owns\na lawn permits children of one neighbor to play upon that lawn and refuses\nto admit the children of another neighbor, because she thinks the latter\nchildren are badly trained and will injure her lawn or her flowers, it requires\nno imagination to understand that there may arise a neighborhood issue\nthat will lead to friction between the families. The issue is, however a\nnon-justiciable one. Courts cannot settle it, for the reason that the lady\nowning the lawn has the right to say who shall come on it and who shall be\nexcluded from it. No justiciable issue can arise, unless one's imagination\ngoes to the point of supposing that the husbands of the two differmg ladies\ncame together and clash t, and then the issue in court will not be as to the\ncomparative training of the children of the families.\nWe have an analogous question in our foreign relations, with reference\nto the admission of the Chinese and Japanese. We discriminate agamst\nthem in our naturalization and immigration laws and extend the benefit\nof those laws only to whites and persons of African descent. This discrimination has caused much ill-feeling among the Japanese and Chinese.\nWe are within our international right in excluding them, but it is easy to\nunderstand how resentment because of such discrimination might be\nfanned into a flame, if, thru lawless violence or unjust state legislation,\nthe Japanese might be mistreated within the United States.\nWe have had instances of the successful result of commissions of conciliation where the law could not cover the differences between the two\nnations. Such was the case of the Behring Sea controversy. We sought\nto prevent the killing of female seals in the Behring Sea and asserted our\nterritorial jurisdiction over that sea for this purpose. The question was\nsubmitted to international arbitrators, and the decision was against us, but\nthe arbitrators, in order to save to the world the only valuable and extensive\nherd of fur seals, recommended a compromise by treaty between the nations\nconcerned, and accordingly treaties have been made between the United\nStates, Great Britain, Russia, and Japan, which have restored the herd to its\nformer size and value. So much, therefore, for the practicable character of\nthe first two proposals.\nThe third proposal is more novel than the others, and gives to the whole\nplan a more constructive character. It looks to the use of economic means\nfirst, and mflitary force if necessary, to enforce the obUgation of every\nmember of the league to submit any complamt it has to make against\ncourt\nanother member of the league, either to the permanent international\nthat\nby\naction\nfinal\nawait\nto\nand\non,\nconciHati\nor to the commission of\nnot the purtribunal before beginning hostiUties. It wUl be observed it is\narmies\nactmg\njomtly\nthe\nor\nboycott\neconomic\nthe\nuse\nto\npose of this program\nthe compromise recomof the league to enforce the judgment declared or\n\n"}
{"page": 56, "printed_page": "44", "text": "44\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmended. These means are used only to prevent the beginning of war before\nthere has been a complete submission, hearing of evidence, argument, and\ndecision or recommendation. We sincerely beheve that in most cases, with\nsuch a delay, such a winnowing-out of the issues, and such an opportunity\nfor the peoples of the differing countries to understand one another's\npositions, war would generally not be resorted to. Our ambition is not to\npropose a plan, the perfect working-out of which will absolutely prevent\nwar, first, because we do not think such a plan could perfectly work, and,\nsecondly, because we are willing to concede that there may be governmental\nand international injustice, which cannot be practically remedied except\nby force. If, therefore, after a full discussion and decision by impartial\njudges or a recommendation by earnest, sincere, and equitable compromisers,\na people still thinks that it must vindicate its rights by war, we do not\nattempt in this plan to prevent it by force.\nHaving thus explained what the plan is, let us consider the objections\nwhich have been made to it.\nThe first objection is that, in a dispute between two members of the\nleague, it would be practically difficult to determine which one was the\naggressor and which one, therefore, in fact began actual hostilities. There\nmay be some trouble in this, I can see, but what we are dealing with is a\nworking hypothesis, a very general plan. The details are not workt out.\nOne can suggest that an international council engaged in an attempt to\nmediate the differences might easily determine for the league which nation\nwas at fault in beginning hostilities. It would doubtless be necessary, where\nsome issues arise, to require a maintenance of the status quo until the issues\nwere submitted and decided in one tribunal or the other; but it does not\nseem to me that these suggested difficulties are insuperable or may not be\ncompletely governed by a detailed procedure that of course must be fixt\nbefore the plan of the league shall become operative.\nThe second objection is to the use of the economic boycott and of the\narmy and the navy to enforce the obligations entered into by the members of\nthe league upon the recalcitrant member. I respect the views of pacifists\nand those who advocate the doctrine of non-resistance as the only Christian\ndoctrine. Such is the view of that Society of Friends which, with a courage\nhigher than that of those who advocate forcible means, are willing to subject\nthemselves to the injustice of the wicked in order to carry out their ideal\nof what Christian action should be. They have been so far in advance of\nthe general opinions of the world in their history of three hundred years, and\nhave lived to see so many of their doctrines recognized by the world as just,\nthat I always differ with them with reluctance. Still it seems to me that\nin the necessity of preserving our civilization and saving our country's freedom and individual liberty, maintained now for one hundred and twentyfive years, we have no right to assume that we have past beyond the period\nin history when nations are affected by the same frailties and the same\n\n"}
{"page": 57, "printed_page": "45", "text": "Sessions]\n\nA LEAGUE\n\nTO ENFORCE\n\nWORLD\n\nPEACE\n\ntemptations to cupidity, cruelty, and injustice as men. In our domestic\ncommunities we need a police force to protect the innocent and the just\nagamst the criminal and the unjust, and to maintain the guaranty of life,\nliberty, and property. The analogy between the domestic community and\nthat of nations is suflaciently close to justify and require what is in fact an\ninternational police force. The attitude of those who oppose using force\nor a threat of force to compel nations to keep the peace is really like that\nof the modern school of theoretical anarchists, who maintain that if all\nrestraint were removed and there were no government, and the children\nand youth and men and women were trained to self-responsibility, every\nmember of society would know what his or her duty was and would perform\nit. They assert that it is the existence of restraint that leads to the violation\nof right. I may be permitted to remark that with modern fads of education\nwe have gone far in the direction of applymg this principle of modem\nanarchy in the discipline and education of our children and youth, but I\ndo not think the result can be said to justify the theory, if we can judge from\nthe strikes of school children or from the general lack of discipline and\nrespect for authority that the rising generation manifests. The time has\nnot come when we can afford to give up the threat of the police and the use\nof force to back up and sustain the obligation of duty.\nThe third objection is that it would be unconstitutional for the United\nStates, thru its treaty-making power, to enter into such a league. The\nobjection is based on the fact that the Constitution vests in Congress the\npower to declare war. It is said that this league would transfer the power\nto declare war away from Congress to some foreign council, in which the\nUnited States would have only a representative. This objection grows out\nof a misconception of the effect of a treaty and a confusion of ideas. The\nUnited States makes its contract with other nations under the Constitution\nthru the President and two-thirds of the Senate, who constitute the treatymaking power. The President and the Senate have a right to bind the\nUnited States to any contract with any other nation covering a subjectmatter within the normal field of treaties. For this purpose the President\nand the Senate are the United States. When the contract comes to be\nperformed, the United States is to perform it thru that department of the\ngovernment which by the Constitution should perform it, and which\nshould represent the government and should act for it. Thus, the treatymaking power may bind the United States to pay to another country under\ncertain conditions a million dollars. When the conditions are fulfilled, then\nUnder\nit becomes the duty of the United States to pay the million dollars.\ndollars from\nthe Constitution only Congress can appropriate the million\nmake that\nthe treasury. Therefore it becomes the duty of Congress to\nthe\ndishonors\nit\nso,\ndoes\nit\nIf\nit.\nmake\nto\nappropriation. It may refuse\nperto\neither\npower\nwritten obligation of the United States. It has the\nhowever, does\nform the obligation or to refuse to perform it. That fact,\n\n"}
{"page": 58, "printed_page": "46", "text": "46\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nnot make the action of the treaty power in binding the United States to\npay the money unconstitutional. So the treaty-making power may bind\nthe United States under certain conditions to make war. When the conditions arise requiring the making of war, then it becomes the duty of\nCongress honorably to perform the obligation of the United States. Congress may violate this duty and exercise its power to refuse to declare war.\nIt thus dishonors a binding obligation of the United States. But the\nobligation was entered into in the constitutional way and it is to be performed in the constitutional way. We are not lacking in precedent.\nIn order to secure the grant of the Canal Zone and the right to finish the\ncanal, the treaty-making power of the United States agreed to guarantee\nthe integrity of Panama. The effect of this obligation is that if any other\nnation attempts to subvert the government of the Republic of Panama or to\ntake any of her territory, the United States must make war against the\nnation thus invading Panama. Now, Congress may refuse to make war\nagainst such a nation, but if it does so, it violates the honor of the United\nStates in breaking its promise. The United States cannot make such a\nwar unless its Congress declares war. That does not make the guaranty\nof the integrity of Panama entered into by the treaty-making power of the\nUnited States unconstitutional. So here, when conditions arise under this\nleague to enforce peace which would require the United States to lend its\neconomic means and military force to resist the hostile action of one member of the league against another, it would become the duty of Congress to\ndeclare war. If Congress did not discharge that duty, as it has the power\nnot to do under the Constitution, it merely makes the United States guilty\nof violating its plighted faith.\nAgain, it is said that to enter into such a league would require us to\nmaintain a standing army. I do not think this follows at all. If we become,\nas we should become, reasonably prepared to resist unjust military aggression, and have a navy sufficiently large, and coast defenses sufficiently weU\nequipt to constitute a first line of defense, and an army which we could\nmobilize into a half-million trained men within two months, we would\nhave all the force needed to do our part of the police work in resisting the\nunlawful aggression of any one member of the league against another.\nFourthly, it has been urged that for us to become a party to this league\nis to give up our Monroe Doctrine, under which we ought forcibly to resist\nany attempt on the part of European or Asiatic powers to subvert an independent government in the Western Hemisphere, or to take from such a\ngovernment any substantial part of its territory. It is a sufficient answer to\nthis objection to say that a question under the Monroe Doctrine would\ncome under that class of issues which must be submitted to a council of conciliation. Pending this, of course, the status quo must be maintained. An\nargument and recommendation of compromise would follow. If we did\nnot agree to the compromise and proceeded forcibly to resist violation of\n\n"}
{"page": 59, "printed_page": "47", "text": "Sessions]\n\nA LEAGUE\n\n_\n\nTO ENFORCE\n_\n\nWORLD\n\nPEACE\n47\n\nthe Doctrine, we would not be violating the terms of the league\nby hostUi\nties entered upon thereafter. More than this, as Professor\nWilson of\nHarvard, the well-known authority upon international law, has\npointed out\nwe are already under a written obligation to delay a year before beginni\nng\nhostiUties, in respect to any question arising between us and most\nof the\ngreat powers, and this necessarily includes a violation of the Monroe\nDoctrine. It is difficult to see, therefore, how the obUgation of such a\nleague as this would put us in any different position from that which we\nnow occupy in regard to the Monroe Doctrine.\nFmally, I come to the most formidable objection, which is that the\nentering into such a league by the United States would be a departure from\nthe policy that it has consistently pursued since the days of Washmgton,\nin accordance with the advice of his farewell address, that we enter into no\nentangling alliances with European countries. Those of us who support\nthe proposals of the league beUeve that were Washington Uvmg today\nhe would not consider the league an entangling alliance. He had in mind\nsuch a treaty as that which the United States made with France, by which\nwe were subjected to great embarrassment when France attempted to use\nour ports as bases of operation against England when we were at peace with\nEngland. He certainly did not have in mind a union of all the great powers\nof the world to enforce peace, and while he did dwell, and properly dwelt, on\nthe very great advantage that the United States had in her isolation from\nEuropean disputes, it was an isolation which does not now exist. In his\nday we were only three and a half miUions of people, with thirteen states\nstrung along the Atlantic seaboard. We were five times as far from Europe\nas we are now in respect to speed of transportation, and we were twentyfive times as far away in respect to speed of communication. We are now\none hundred millions of people between the two oceans and between the\nCanadian line and the Gulf. We face the Pacific with CaHfornia, Oregon,\nand Washington, which alone make us a Pacific power. We own Alaska,\nthe northwestern corner of our continent, a dominion of immense extent,\nwith natural resources as yet hardly calculable, and with a country capable\nof supporting a considerable body of population. It makes us a close\nneighbor of Russia across the Behring Straits; it brings us close to Japan with\nthe islands of the Behring Sea. We own Hawaii, two thousand miles out\nto sea from San Francisco, with a population including seventy-five thousand\nJapanese laborers, the largest element of that population. We own the\nPhilippine Islands, one hundred and forty thousand square miles, with\neight millions of people under the eaves of Asia. We are properly anxious\nto maintain an open door to China and to share equally in the enormous\ntrade which that country, with her four hundred teeming millions, is bound\nto furnish when organized capital and her wonderful labormg populations\nshall be intelligently directed towards the development of her naturaUy\nthe Chinese\nrich resources. Our discrimination against the Japanese and\n\n"}
{"page": 60, "printed_page": "48", "text": "48\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npresents a possible cause of friction in the resentment that they now feel,\nwhich may lead to untoward emergencies. We own the Panama Canal\nin a country which was recently a part of a South American confederation.\nWe have invested four hundred millions in that great world-enterprise to\nunite our eastern and western seaboards by cheap transportation, to\nincrease the effectiveness of our navy, and to make a path for the world's\ncommerce between the two great oceans.\nWe own Porto Rico with a million people, fifteen hundred miles out at\nsea from Florida, and we owe to those people protection at home and\nabroad, as they owe allegiance to us.\nWe have guaranteed the integrity of Cuba, and have reserved the right\nto enter and maintain the guaranty of life, liberty, and property, and to\nrepress insurrection in that island. Since originally turning over the island\nto its people, we have had once to return there and restore peace and order.\nWe have on our southern border the international nuisance of Mexico, and\nnobody can foresee the complications that will arise out of the anarchy\nthere prevailing. We have the Monroe Doctrine still to maintain.\nOur relations to Europe have been shown to be very near, by our experience\nin pursuing lawfully our neutral rights in our trade upon the Atlantic\nOcean with European countries. Both belligerents have violated our rights\nand, in the now nearly two years which have elapst since the war began,\nwe have been close to war in the defense of those rights. Contrast our\npresent world-relations with those which we had in Washington's time. It\nwould seem clear that the conditions have so changed as to justify a seeming\ndeparture from advice directed to such a different state of things. One may\nreasonably question whether the United States, by uniting with the other\ngreat powers to prevent the recurrence of a future world-war, may not\nrisk less in assuming the obligations of a member of the league than by\nrefusing to become such a member in view of her world-wide interests. But\neven if the risk of war to the United States would be greater by entering\nthe league than by staying out of it, does not the United States have a\nduty as a member of the family of nations to do its part and run its necessary\nrisk to make less probable the coming of such another war and such another\ndisaster to the human race ?\nWe are the richest nation in the world, and, in the sense of what we could\ndo were we to make reasonable preparation, we are the most powerful\nnation in the world. We have been showered with good fortune. Our\npeople have enjoyed a happiness known to no other people. Does not this\nimpose upon us a sacred duty to join the other nations of the world in a\nfraternal spirit and with a willingness to make sacrifice if we can promote\nthe general welfare of men ?\nAt the close of this war the governments and the people of the belligerent countries, under the enormous burdens and suffering from the great\nlosses of the war, will be in a condition of mind to accept and promote such\n\n"}
{"page": 61, "printed_page": "49", "text": "Sessions]\n\nORGANIZED\n\nRECREATION\n\n49\na plan for the enforcement of future peace. President . WUson, at\nthe head\nof this administration and the initiator of our foreign poHcies under\nthe Constitution, and Senator Lodge, the senior RepubUcan member of the Committee on Foreign Relations, and therefore the leader of the opposition on\nsuch an issue, have both approved of the principles of the league to enforce\npeace. Sir Edward Grey and Lord Bryce have mdicated their sympathy\nand support of the same principles, and we understand that M. Briand, of\nFrance, has similar views. We have found the greatest encouragement in\nour project on every hand among the people. We have raised a large fund\nto spread our propaganda.\nI ask your sympathy and support.\n\nWARREN\n\nDUNHAM\n\nFOSTER,\n\nORGANIZED\n\nRECREATION\n\nDEPARTMENT\nBOSTON,\n\nEDITOR, \"tHE Y0UTH*S\nMASS.\n\nCOMPANION,\"\n\nNo better demonstration of my subject could have been arranged than\nthe music we have just had. In any plan for organizing recreation, music\nmust play an important part. Here we thousands have been singing\ntogether the common hymn of our common country. Singing together in\nthe solemn joy of the singing has tended to weld our many thousands of\nindividual minds into one great community mind. That welding is the\ntask of organized recreation — to create the community mind. I am going\nto tell you how one town made this community state of mind its own, and,\nby so doing, organized its recreation. Perhaps I should better say that,\nby organizing its recreation, it made this state of mind its own. The two\ngo hand in hand.\nThis town — Homewood is a good name for it— had real community\npride, not community bumptiousness. Homewood said, \"Homewood is a\ngood town, but can make itself a much better town by organizing its recreational life.\" Homewood admitted without argument that all boys and girls\n—and their fathers and mothers— are entitled to the joy of life. It admitted\nthat havmg a wholesome good time is a social, not an individual matter.\nHomewood knew that it was under bond to humanity to see that every one\n'of its children had that sort of carefuUy planned play that would carry\nhim victorious thru the struggle of life.\n^ Homewood knew that the organization of recreation is a highly specialized profession. In it, competence must be supreme over incompetence.\nHomewood lookt about for that one of its institutions that would lead in\norganizing its recreation. Homewood realized that all the people and aU\ntheir institutions had to be back of its attempt to organize its recreation.\ninstitution\nIn its search for leadership, Homewood came upon the one\nmsUtuone\nthe\nby all the people,\nthat represents all the people, is paid forleadership\nothers put\nthe\nall\nthan\ntrained\nmore\nit\nwithin\nhas\nthat\ntion\n\n"}
{"page": 62, "printed_page": "50", "text": "50\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ntogether. So it was the Homewood schools that organized Homewood\nrecreation. And nearly everywhere else it will be the school, the one allembracing democratic institution, that will perform this task.\nPerhaps you teachers are tired of being told of new tasks that only you\ncan carry. You will be told of more in the future than you have been told\nof in the past. Until the sunset of all time, it will be you teachers who will\nlead in the fight to socialize humanity. You cannot educate man unless\nyou socialize him. M.en and women who are not trained in soul and mind\nto labor together efl&ciently for the common good are not educated. You do\nnot educate a lad until you give him the will and the means to devote\nhimself to the well-being of the common run of plain folks. The educated\nman is the man who can do heartily and well for the joy of the doing.\nOrganized recreation is the doing together of that which gives joy in\nthe doing. It is primarily unselfish, cooperative. Tom Sawyer helpt\nHomewood get its working definition. Tom made the whitewashing of\nAunt Polly's fence the most desirable thing in the eyes of his boy friends.\nThe whitewashing was well done because the whitewashers took joy in the\nwhitewashing, even to the strip for good measure along the ground. Homewood remembered that work is effective in so far as it takes on the great characteristic ofplay — joy in the doing. The Homewood school man began his\ntask by taking account of stock. He found that the need was knowledge\nof what to do and how to do it. Homewood had most of the play machinery\nthat it needed. Much of it was in the wrong hands, in the hands of those\nwho were using it for selfish, not community, ends.\nThen, knowing conditions, the Homewood school adopted a recreation\nplatform for Homewood. Senator Depew has likened the platform of\na political party to that of a car. \"You do not stand on it; you use it\nas a means of entrance.\" So Homewood used its recreation platform as a\nmeans of entrance into a thoroly socialized community life. Homewood\ncombined the parts of its recreational program into a living organism that\nput Homewood life upon an efficient cooperative basis.\nI. The Community Center. — Everything in organized recreation focuses\nat the community center, the most vital factor in every recreation program.\nHomewood followed L. J. Hanifan's definition: \"The coming together of a\ngroup of people for social intercourse, intelligent stimulus, and constructive\nplans of common interest constitutes a community center.\" A community\ncenter is an idea, not a place.\nHomewood soon learned that it is not what you do nor where you\ndo it but how you do it that brings success. Your center must be the very\nembodiment of neighborliness. At the same time you must manage each\nactivity with precision and skill. The center will not manage itself. Its\ntechnique is highly specialized. Homewood school men mastered it because\nthey open-mindedly set themselves to do so and hired the best professional\nhelp.\n\n"}
{"page": 63, "printed_page": "51", "text": "Sessions]\n\nORGANIZED\n\nRECREATION\n\nThe motion picture, used for community service,\nbrought Homewood\npeople to the centers and there gave them something very\nmuch worth\nwhile. Homewood's motion pictures competed succes\nwith commercial theaters, yet presented nothing which was not in sfully\nharmony with the\ndignity of the school and in furtherance of its broad educational purpos\nes.\nJust plain folks discovered that the motion picture takes everywhere to them\nthat it destroys for them the otherwise galling limitations of time,\nspace!\nand circumstance. It gives them not pictures but actual transcripts of Ufe\nas it is and life as they want it to be. Do we wonder that over night the\nmotion picture has become a great teacher ? or perhaps the great teacher?\nthat we hail it as the greatest aid to education since the invention of\nprinting ?\nIn Homewood nothing was wrong with the motion picture. Somethmg\nwas decidedly wrong with the hands that had seized upon it. The Homewood school had left the motion picture to the commercial amusement\ninterests instead of putting it to work for educational and social ends. At\nlast, however, the school made its alliance with the motion picture. It\nhad found that schools, women's clubs, and churches everywhere are presenting recreational motion pictures for community service. In its own\ncommunity centers and schools Homewood is now using the best in drama,\nliterature, science, and travel. Young folks and old come to be entertained\n— as is their right — and stay to be entertained and educated. Homewood\nfinds that good motion pictures cost money, but that its people are more\nthan willing to pay for what they get.\nI cannot go into detail, for Dr. Johnson has given me a topic as limitless\nas the power of the motion picture. The brief statement of what Boston,\nSpringfield, and other cities have done and what you can do is told in a leaflet that you can secure free from Eva Whiting White, director. Department of Extended Use of Public Schools, School Committee, Boston.\n2. Special-Day Festivals. — All Homewood comes together to celebrate\nspecial-day festivals that promote good-fellowship, encourage intelligent\ncooperation, develop local leadership, and relate constructively to the\nlife of Homewood.\nThe fall \"get-together\" occasion is a community fair, tied right into\nthe life of the people. Homewood had always said that the farming country\nround about was part of the town, but the farmers never believed this\nstatement until this community fair was held. The fair makes the growing\nof good potatoes and the baking of excellent bread a matter of community\ninterest and pride. The community fair gilds the common tasks of daily\nknow, is recreation: the putting of joy into the\nlife.\ndoing. That gilding, you\n\n3. Music— Homewood uses music as the great welding and sociahzing\nforce of its community life. Homewood realizes that music is the only\nod\nart that is within the reach of the trained and untrained alike. Homewo\n\n"}
{"page": 64, "printed_page": "52", "text": "52\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmakes community music accomplish as much for community soHdarity as\ndid the singing school beloved of its grandfathers.\nHomewood paid attention to the example of a near-by village, the\nleaders of which had tried again and again to form a successful cooperative\nonion-selling society. The farmers were unable to do business together.\nThen they organized a singing society. They sang together for the fun of\nsinging together, not for the music they produced. They acquired the\nhabit of doing things together efficiently. A successful cooperative onionselling organization was the inevitable result.\n4. Clubs in Agriculture and Home Economics. — The Homewood boys'\ncorn clubs teach the farmers of today and tomorrow how to grow more\nand better com. More important, however, they teach farmers of today\nand tomorrow how to do worth-while things together for the joy of the\ndoing, not for cash prizes.\nThe canning clubs perform great service in conserving tomatoes that\notherwise would go to waste. The greatest product they conserve, however,\nis the girlhood of today and the womanhood of tomorrow. In the districts\nabout Homewood, the canning club made the first effective attack upon the\nlonely monotony of rural feminine life. And making rural feminine life\nhappy again is the first prerequisite to the solution of our greatest American\nproblem — the rural problem.\nIn Homewood, mothers' clubs, millinery clubs, cooking clubs, manualtraining clubs, and half a dozen other different kinds, put the spirit of cooperative fun into the teaching of utilitarian subjects. The girls invite\ntheir fathers and mothers and brothers and other girls' brothers to simple\nschool feasts of their own preparmg. The schoolhouses take the place of\nmany a questionable resort as a meeting-place for the young men and\nwomen of Homewood. Their fathers and mothers, too, have learned that\nthe school really belongs to the people after all. When the time comes for\naction upon the school budget, the city government is liberal in its appropriation. The poHticians do not care about education, but the people do,\nbecause of Homewood's organization of recreation. Indeed, Homewood's\norganized recreation is not very popular with the politicians because it has\ntransferred title to Homewood from them to the plain folks.\nThe parent Chautauqua Institution is an excellent example of the\nsuccessful mixing of school work and recreation, much to the added effectiveness ofeach.\n5. Cooperation with Outside Agencies, — In Homewood, the Boy Scouts,\nCampfire Girls, Audubon Society, Knights of King Arthur, and half a dozen\nother organizations are useful. No one of them tries to answer the whole\nrecreational need of the community. Homewood makes each one much\nmore useful, however, by binding it up into the whole community enterprise.\n6. Drama and Folk-Play. — Homewood gives simple dramas really its\nown. Homewood knows that the drama has no substitute as the free and\n\n"}
{"page": 65, "printed_page": "53", "text": "Sessions]\n\nORGANIZED\n\nRECREATION\n\nnatural mode of expression for the passions, longin\ngs, and ideals of the\npeople. Careful and intelligent planning put drama and\nfolk-play actuaUv\nat work in the daily life of Homewood.\n7. Athletics and Playground.— 1 have told Homewood's story\nHomewood began its organization of recreation with athleti backward.\ncs and the\nplayground, really the most ununportant part of its community enterpri\nIn Homewood, as everywhere else, many people thought that recreaU se.\non is\nconfined to the athletic field and playground. Homewood was wise,\nhowever, in proceeding from the definite, physically tangible playground to the\nmuch more important but less easily senst recreational undertakings that I\nhave outlined. In Homewood, no child has to walk more than a half-mile\nto reach a playground. In addition to regular physical training instruction\nin the schools, Homewood teaches every child games for playground and\nhome use. Athletics are for all. The emphasis falls upon teamwork, not\nupon individual competition.\nThe corn-club boy near Homewood who raises more com than his\nfather has become a useful community institution. Just as useful, however,\nis the working farmer of forty whose record m the pole vault at a county\nmeet is better than that of his son.\nAfter Homewood had . experimented briefly with volunteer direction,\nit hired a professionally trained supervisor. At first Homewood worried\nabout the cost, but it soon found that, altho recreation costs money\nand a lot of it, recreational enterprises ultimately come very near paying their way. Money is not the important factor. The best steel equipment is expensive, but the apparatus for the first country playground\nin which I had a hand cost $7.40. Since that time, however, we have\nnot been so needlessly reckless in spending money for country playgrounds.\nIf you really want to know how to build a country playground with\nbrains instead of money, and if you want a copy of Homewood's recreation\nprogram, write to either the United States Bureau of Education, Washington, or to the Extension Department of The Youth's Companion, Boston,\nMass., for a copy of Neighborhood Play, pubhsht jointly by the United\nStates Bureau of Education and The Youth's Companion. The booklet is\ntheoretically out of print, but I have hidden a few thousand copies which\nwill be available to you as long as the supply lasts.\nYou may be interested to know, in passing, that more than half a\nhundred of America's leading authorities cooperated to formulate this\nsimple recreation program of Homewood. Before its pubUcation in The\nYouth's Companion for April 8, 1915, it was tried out in several typical\ncommunities. Later it was developt by the Recreation Committee of the\nSouthern Conference for Education and Industry. I have been told of\nliterally hundreds of communities that have adopted all or a part of this\nm it.\nsimple Homewood recreation program. There is not anything new\n\n"}
{"page": 66, "printed_page": "54", "text": "54\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIt is merely a simple formulation of principles and methods that are\nobvious — or should be.\nProbably you have been saying, \"Homewood has confused recreation\nand life.\" You are right. Homewood has confused recreation and life.\nThat is why Homewood has made its recreational life efficient and its community life efficient. No more than education, is recreation a thing apart\nfrom life. Recreation is life itself, for without it life will not go on.\nThere are thousands of Homewoods. This simple recreation program is\ntransforming community life everywhere. When you have this recreational program, or a large part of it, read into the life of your community, you will have it started well on its way toward the millenium.\nWhy ? Because the efficient operation of these principles inevitably\nmakes for the right state of mind — community mind. Organized recreation is doing something together for the joy of the doing. Organized\nrecreation is that which puts zip, fire, force, spirit, Han, driving power,\norganization, cooperation, into the community.\n\nTHE ELIMINATION\nCORA\n\nWILSON\n\nSTEWART,\n\nOF ILLITERACY\n\nPRESIDENT,\nKENTUCKY\nFRANKFORT,\nKY.\n\nILLITERACY\n\nCOMMISSION,\n\nThe niovement to eliminate illiteracy started in Rowan County, Kentucky, inthe year 1911, when the moonlight schools were first establisht for\nthe redemption of illiterate women and men. Moonlight schools now dot\nportions of a territory extending from the coast of Maryland to the coast\nof California, and from Michigan in the north to Louisiana in the south.\nAnd even in quarters where the movement exists and does not bear the\nname of the moonlight school, it bears the unmistakable stamp of an idea\nthat emanated solely from it. In 19 14, the first illiteracy commission in\nthe world was created by the Kentucky legislature, its purpose being to\nseek illiterates and to bring to them speedy relief. Now the popular\nfancy of statesmen wise and great, who wish to prove their devotion to the\npeople and their interest in the welfare of the state, is to create illiteracy\ncommissions. The time will come when this age when counties have\ntheir thousands, cities their tens of thousands, and states their hundreds of\nthousands of ilHterates will be known in educational history as one of the\ndark ages. Excuses will be sought for our long negligence and explanations\nwill be made for our seeming indifference. Relief from illiteracy will appear\nso simple that such a waste of human intellect will seem unnecessarily\ncriminal.\nSome of us now excuse our negligence of the adult ilhterate by saying\nthat he is difficult to approach. Others say that, in reality, he does not\nwish to learn.\n\n\"This is the most unkindest cut of all\" — to deny him his\n\n"}
{"page": 67, "printed_page": "55", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nELIMINATION\n\nOF ILLITERACY\n\nportion and then to say that it is done by his own desire. It is unkmd\nfirst, because it is untrue. Then it is unkind because, even if he chose\nto\nremain in ignorance, his judgment should not be accepted m this any more\nthan in any other matter vital to himself and to the state. But he does\nnot choose to remain in ignorance. He craves to learn. He hungers and\nthirsts for knowledge. You seldom find an illiterate who does not accept\nwith joy and gratitude an opportunity when that opportunity is oflfered\nin a spirit of sincerity and good faith. In Rowan County, out of 1 152\nilliterate, we found but four who refused instruction, and these did not\nrefuse it, I am sure, because they did not want it, but simply because they in\nsome way misunderstood. Our county iUiteracy agent in LesHe County\nlast year visited 1000 illiterates to offer them instruction in the moonhght\nschools. He found but two out of the thousand who were not eager and\nglad to learn.\nMost of the illiterates labor under the fallacy which has been communicated tothem by those who are educated, and ought to know better,\nthat the state of plasticity of the mind is limited by the law which fixes the\nage of school attendance, and that at twenty and twenty-one, or whatever\nthe limit of the school age may be in the different states, the undevelopt\nbrain dries up or evaporates, or that the walls thicken and nothing can\npenetrate. One of the first needs in the elimination of iUiteracy is to\nremove the doubt of illiterates and to convince them that they can learn;\nnext to teaching them, this is the highest privilege that I know. No sweeter\nrevelation was ever made to mortal than that which is made to an iUiterate\nwhen a friend of education and of his tells him that simple truth, that he\ncan learn to read and write much more quickly than can a child. Whether\nit is his earnestness of purpose, whether his hunger for knowledge long\ndenied, whether because of an already large store of knowledge gained in\nthe school of life and needing but the perusal of a book to crystallize it or\nthe use of a pen to express it, or whatever may be the cause, it is true that\nhe can learn, if normal, within a time so incredibly short that those who\nnever saw him do it cannot even conceive. Of course, there are some\ndense minds, and there are teachers who make learning a long-drawn-out\nprocess— a tiresome thing. Mrs. A. J. White, the woman who wrote the\nfirst letter to me from the moonlight schools, learned to read and write\nin ten lessons.\nThe best way of eliminating iUiteracy is to teach the Uliterates. The\nbest plan we have found for reaching Uliterates is to approach them in\nperson in a humble spirit and offer them an opportunity. Since they cannot\nread placards, letters, nor notes of invitation, how else are you going to\nreach them ? The best hour to teach them is at evening time; for Uliterates, more than any others, are chained to labor by day, and evening is\nthem\ntheir leisure time. The best place that we have found for teaching\nsmce\nbut\ngrant,\nI\nplaces,\nother\nare\nis in the moonlight school. There\n\n"}
{"page": 68, "printed_page": "56", "text": "56\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nilliteracy is twice as prevalent in rural as in urban sections, of necessity, the\nmoonlight school, which is a rural and small-town institution, will minister\nmore largely than any other in its eHmination. We have moonlight schools\nprincipally in the public schoolhouses; but not in the schoolhouses alone.\nIn Kentucky, we have moonlight schools in the schoolhouses; moonlight\nschools in homes; moonlight schools in the women's clubs; moonlight schools\nin distilleries and factories; moonlight schools in the mines; moonlight\nschools in penitentiaries and jails. The proper persons to teach the illiterates are the public-school teachers. They are trained, prepared, and\nstationed for the work. It is their duty and their privilege and their\nopportunity for distinguisht patriotic service. We should not expect\nlaymen, or church people to cure an evil in our field, nor should we submit\nto their performing a duty which is so clearly and essentially our own.\nNo paid service to illiterates can equal that of the volunteer teacher. His\nservice has in it a spirit which paid service can never approach. Some\nday I expect to see institutions in all communities, rural and urban, where\ngrown men and women receive elementary instruction, and to see them provided with salaried teachers, but I prefer not to see it while the purpose of\nsuch schools is solely the emancipation of illiterates; for I do not believe\nthat there should be a charge for helping a brother out of the ditch, nor\nfor loosing his fetters, nor for unlocking his prison door.\nI repeat that there is but one way to eliminate illiteracy and that is to\nteach the illiterates. There is but one time to teach them, and that is now.\nIt is a problem which has come up in this decade for solution and it will not\ndown until we have solved it and given to every illiterate his chance. They\ncannot wait for a system of state or governmental aid. We must work out\nsuch a system at the same time that we are eliminating illiteracy, so that\nilliteracy once rooted can never appear in alarming numbers nor blight any\nindividual long in the future. We must so quicken the public conscience\nthat the pages of statute books, now so silent as to the treatment of adult\nilliteracy, will have on them laws both for its prevention and its cure. We\nmust create such overwhelming sentiment in favor of providing opportunities for iUiterate women and men that states will vie with each other in\nprovisions for their redemption. We must make ilHteracy statistics\nappear so shameful, so lurid, and so startling as to appall all who read them.\nWe must bring those who read them to see in such figures the pathetic picture of the benighted men and women which they represent. We must\nmake them understand that behind those figures there are facts, fearful,\nappalling, starthng facts, for behind them lurk most of the poverty, the\ndegradation, lawlessness, the shiftlessness, the crime to be found in this\ncountry. We must create such public sentiment that the county or state\nwith an illiterate in it must explain and feel compelled to explain, and being\nunable to explain, will apologize and reform. We must so perfect our\nmethods of taking the census that every illiterate in county or state will be\n\n"}
{"page": 69, "printed_page": "57", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nELIMINATION\n\nOF ILLITERACY\n\nknown and will know that he is known, and unfavorably known,\nto the\nentire citizenry. We must create a wholesome contempt for a wilful\nilliterate, a profound pity for a helpless one, and an extreme pride in a\nredeemed one.\nIf the states which are striving to eliminate illiteracy are attempting an\nimpractical and impossible thing, if they are wasting time and energy\nchasing a will-o-the-wisp, then the leaders here can do no more kind or noble\ndeed than to restrain them from further effort, to dissuade them from their\ncourse. If, on the other hand, they are solving a vital educational problem\nand solving it successfully; if they are ehminating iUiteracy and with it are\neliminating its attendant evils, then, those from states which are neglecting\ntheir illiterates and leaving them to grope in darkness must feel that they\nare guilty of a serious omission, if not a flagrant wrong.\nYou who live in states where illiteracy has not concerned the pubUc\nconscience, and where its elimination has not been agitated nor discusst,\nand where no effective remedy has been proposed or tried, may believe it\nwhen the skeptic tells you that it cannot be done, that it is not worth\nwhile, or that the time might be more profitably spent in the elimination of\nchild illiteracy alone. But let the skeptic tell it to Ambrose Witton, that\nKentucky teacher who taught eighty-two iUiterates within six weeks last\nyear — all that his district had — let him tell it to Leslie County, where six\nhundred illiterates broke their chains and escaped last fall from the bondage\nof illiteracy; let him tell it to Tatnall County, Georgia, where from 1835\nilliterates, they have subtracted all but 50, and these they propose to subtract this year. Let him tell it to North Carolina, where, says Dr. Joyner,\nthey taught 10,000 to read and write in one month of moonlight school last\nyear; let him tell it to old Kentucky where, in two years, we have taught\n40,000, and where, by the year 1920, we intend to wipe it out. Let him tell\nit to any who have ever known the thrill of teaching a single illiterate and\nhave witnest his ardent pursuit of knowledge, his ready mastery of the\nsubjects taught, his joy in the discovery of a single truth, his gratitude for a\nlittle help; let him tell it to those who know that next to his own development the dearest gift that can be bestowed upon a child is an enlightened\nparentage, and that if it cannot come before his birth and before his own\ndevelopment, it had better come after than not to come at all. Let the\nskeptic tell it to any of these and read in their eyes the measure of pity for\none so deluded.\nThose who delight in transferring to canvas the beauties of earth and\nsky, in tracing fair form and beauteous color may do it; those who delight\nin transforming marble block into figures of noble proportion and speaking\nlikeness may do it; those who delight in perfecting the form and fragrance\nand color of flowers and in enriching the flavor and hue of fruits may do\nit; those who delight in impressing first lessons upon the plastic mind of a\nlittle child, molding his character and coloring his very soul, may do it;\n\n"}
{"page": 70, "printed_page": "58", "text": "58\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nbut let it be mine to cany the light to the illiterate man as he sits in his\nmental darkness, straining his eyes gazing after his vanished opportunity,\nand agonizing in his secret soul over the precious thing which he has lost.\nLet it be mine to bring to him a new opportunity, a new hope, and a new\nbirth. It is a task too holy, too Christ-like for me, I must confess, but I\ncrave that merit and that alone which will fit me for this task.\n\nFIRST AID TO THE COUNTRY TEACHER— A SUGGESTION\nTO VITALIZING THE COUNTRY SCHOOLS THRU\nOUR PRESENT TEACHERS\nJ. D. EGGLESTON,\n\nPRESIDENT, VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC\nBLACKSBURG,\nVA.\n\nAS\n\nINSTITUTE,\n\nIn the time at my disposal, it is impossible with so large a subject to\ngive more than a bare outline of suggestions. What is here outlined is\nbeing done in spots, here and there, in the country districts. It needs to\nbe done everywhere. Nothing is suggested here that has not been tried\nsuccessfully.\nFrom examination of statistics publisht in 1913 by A. C. Monahan,\nof the United States Bureau of Education, it is perfectly obvious that, for\nthe next generation or two, at least, from 30 to 40 per cent of all children\nwho live in the open country will remain in the hands of teachers in the\none-teacher schools. The instability of the rural teaching force of the United\nStates is well known. In fact, statistics show the average term of ofl^ice\nof rural teachers in the United States to be about three years. What is\nthe preparation of these teachers for the business of citizen-making?\nA study made by the superintendent of public instruction of Kansas shows\nthat of the total number of rural elementary teachers in both one- and tworoom schools, less than 5 per cent were college and normal graduates; 31\nper cent were high-school graduates; 4 per cent had a partial college or\nnormal course; 20 per cent had partial high-school courses; and 36 per cent\nhad no high-school education at all. The number of experienst teachers\nwas only 20 per cent of the whole. Statistics from other states show that\nsimilar conditions exist thruout the country.\nIf all the teachers in our rural schools were competent citizen-makers;\nif they were men and women not only with energy and foresight, but also\nwith the proper training and the vision of the country community as it\nmight and should be; if they were all backt by school boards anxious and\nable to make their work effective — then it might be excusable to drop them\ndown into their respective schools to do their work with only such help as\nthe county and state superintendents can give them, supplemented by\nteachers' institutes, summer normal courses, and the very limited forms\nof extension work which the states offer. But, however well the modern\n\n"}
{"page": 71, "printed_page": "59", "text": "Sessions]\n\nFIRST\n\nAID\n\nTO THE\n\nCOUNTRY\n\nTEACHER\n\nov\n\nnormal schools may fit the teachers of the future for rural\nwork, statistics\nshow that few of the teachers actually in service have had\nany normalschool training, or indeed, any professional training at all.\nNow, fortunately, most of these teachers are willing, and\neven eager\nto learn. But to expect them to adopt a social outlook, and to evolve\na course of study outside of the textbooks without help, is to expect\nthe\nimpossible. What, actually, do they face when they enter the schoolroom\nfor the first time? A lifeless course of study, a variety of \"subjects\"\nrequired by law, and usually required to be taught from a prescribed textbook! The duck-and-goose method of stuffing the children with materials\nscoopt out of a textbook will not justify the faithful labor of the teachers,\ntrained or untrained; will not justify the subUme and pathetic faith of the\nchildren; will not justify the financial outlay of the taxpayers. And yet,\nthe great majority of untrained and inexperienst teachers are as little\ncapable of freeing themselves from it unaided as the average farmer is\ncapable of freeing himself from worn-out and inefficient agricultural methods\nwithout the aid of a demonstration agent. So long as teachers are unable\nto attend the normal schools, it is essential to the development of efficiency\nin the rural schools that the normal schools, or their equivalent, should\ngo to them. Yes, more. Demonstration methods must be used with\nthem as with those who have received the traditional training in agriculture. They need not merely to be told, but to be shown how to base\nthe course of study upon the activities of the community; how to derive\nthe materials of education out of the everyday activities of the children\nas normal members of the community.\nWho is going to be the actual demonstration agent for the country\nteachers? Hitherto we have relied principally upon the county superintendent, not only to administer the business affairs of the school system\nunder his jurisdiction, but also to supervise the work of the teachers and\nto give them the outlook and the training which only the few have been\nable to secure from the normal schools. It has become increasingly evident that the county unit is so large that not even the most competent\nsuperintendent can attend to both the administrative and the supervisory\nwork.\nTo carry inspiration and technical training to the teachers who cannot\ngo to the training schools, several states have made statutory provision\nfor closer supervision than the unaided county or township superintendent\ncan possibly give. In different states these new officials go by different\ntitles— supervisors, inspectors, supervising teachers— but under any name,\ntheir work is to carry first aid to the rural teacher while -she is on the job\nof citizen-making. The work of the supervisors has resulted in better\ndaily programs and courses of study; better equipment and buildings;\nmore school libraries; a deeper interest among the patrons; and, best of\nall, the quality of the teaching has greatly improved.\n\n"}
{"page": 72, "printed_page": "60", "text": "6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIn some of the southern states, the emphasis in supervision has been\nplaced on simple industrial work. I wish to dwell on this somewhat at\nlength, because, with a great many other students of the rural-school\nproblem, I hold that the country school is not performing, and cannot perform to its full ability, its function of making citizens, by the mere extension of the present school term, and by a continuance of the present course\nof study largely based on textbook work, and only slightly related to the\nlife of the community in which it is situated. I believe this to be universally admitted now. The day is already at hand when the rural school\nmust control the food-supply of this nation. The child should get, at the\nschool and thru the school, everything that he needs for his normal growth\nas a citizen. A purely academic course of study — the kind that we now\nhave — causes the school to become an active emigration bureau, and either\ndepopulates the community, or, at least, keeps it at a stagnant standstill.\nThe value of any theory is in its application — the value of an education\nlikewise.\nThose of us thruout our common country who have taken an active\ninterest in this matter of revitalizing the rural schools have been imprest\nnot only with the great benefit that has been the result of the supervisory\nwork mentioned above, but also with the new life that has come into our\nrural communities where agricultural demonstration and extension work\nhas been done, and with the new life that has come into the country schools\nwhere there has been a cooperation between the schools and the extension\nforces.\nThe general plan as workt out in some of the counties is for the school\nauthorities and the extension departments of agricultural colleges to employ\njointly supervising industrial teachers, whose duties include the supervision\nof the teaching work of the country schools during the session, and the\norganization and supervision of the girls' garden and canning clubs during\nthe spring, summer, and early fall. In this way the supervising teacher\ncomes into intimate contact with, and helps to direct, the school work of\nthe boys and girls, and also directs these school girls in their garden and\ncanning work during vacation. This work is done by women. Thus far\nwe have been unable to link the boys' club work directly with the course\nof study, except in a hmited number of schools where agriculture is taught.\nIn addition to supervising the schools during the session, these teachers\norganize garden clubs in the spring, and act as demonstration agents in\ngardening, poultry-raising, and domestic science for the girls, and their\nmothers, during the vacation months. Many of them therefore are\nemployed the year round. They do anything and everything that will\nshow the community how to improve its school and its life. They insist\non painted or whitewasht schoolhouses; on clean school yards; clean\nwindows; clean rooms; clean floors; fresh air in the schoolroom; clean\nouthouses; and clean children. They help the teachers to arrange their\n\n"}
{"page": 73, "printed_page": "61", "text": "6i\nSessions!\n\nFIRST\n\nAID\n\nTO THE\n\nCOUNTRY\n\nTEACHER\n\ndaily program; they sometimes take charge of\nand teach their classesthey introduce cooking sewing, and manual traini\nng, even into the most'\nisolated one-room schools. They show the teache\nrs how to correlate workhow to use the abundant, but now neglected, materi\nals of community life\nto enrich the course of study; they visit the homes\nof the people and\norganize school leagues; they suggest ways to raise\nmoney for school\nimprovements.\nThe supervising teachers are required to submit a monthl\ny accounting\nof their time, and they themselves are supervised by the\ncounty\nsuperintendents and other school and extension authorities.\nI have visited counties both before and after this supervisory\nwork was\nundertaken, and I do not exaggerate m saying that I have seen the school\nwork and the agricultural work of community after community Hterally\nrevolutionized. What a thrilling thing it is to see the people of a community absolutely a unit in community-improvement, with the school as the\ncenter and the dynamo, sending out both the inspiration and the direction\nof everything that goes to improve the community life. And to me one\nof the most beautiful things about this form of cooperation is that it need\nnot, and should not, draw the color line. In fact, in some communities\nthis revitalization began first in the schools for colored children, and the\nresults were so markt that it attracted the favorable attention of the white\npeople. In the last eight years, this cooperative supervisory work has\ncaused the schools for colored children in the state of Virgmia to make\nmore progress than in the previous thirty-six years combmed.\nI know of two very rural counties where a supervising teacher began\nwork in the one-room and two-room schools, equipping each of them at an\nexpense of $12 for the cooking utensils and $5 for the tools for the boys.\nThe boys used the tools to make cupboards, tables, and shelves for the\nworkroom, which was built by the community. The girls made muslin\ncurtains for the cupboards; the cupboards were made from ordinary boxes.\nThe girls made napkins for the tables by hemstitching sugar-bags, saved\nat home. The pupils bring the supplies for the kitchen larder from home\nand cook potatoes, rice, soup, eggs, coffee, breads, and cakes. The cooking\nclass serves something hot for lunch every school day. The girls and boys\nlearn how to set the table, how to serve a meal, and how to eat a meal —\nmuch neglected factors in educating our country children.\nBy studying the distribution of food stuffs, the sources of textiles, the\nmeasurements necessary for making garments, the relative quantities of\nmaterials needed for cooking, the children learn the geography, arithmetic,\nspelling, writing, reading, and language of the everyday life, instead of\nlearning these things as subjects related to an artificial life.\nHow is this started ? Simply by having a teacher who knows how and\nwho goes from school to school and shows the teacher and children in each\nschool how to do these things, and in this way develops in the teacher, and\n\n"}
{"page": 74, "printed_page": "62", "text": "62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nin some of the pupils, the capacity to lead, so that before long the visits\nof the industrial teacher need not be so frequent.\nThe boys go into the woods, select the wood, cut and prepare it for use.\nThey have made farm rakes, ax handles, tables, bookshelves, tabourets,\numbrella stands, hatchet handles, picture frames, hall trees, etc. As this\nindustrial teacher well says: ''These country boys may not turn out as\nmany articles, or as well-made ones, as the more regularly conducted classes\nof the city schools with elaborate equipment, but we are aiming to make\nmen, not furniture.\"\nIn the schools in these counties this teacher has shown the teachers\nand children how to make good mats and baskets out of the wild honeysuckle that grows profusely along the roadways, and how to make baskets\nout of pine needles and corn shucks and the ordinary willow. One of the\nprettiest sights in one of these counties was that recently seen of a group\nof twelve happy children making baskets under the trees at the school,\nwhile another group of the older girls were in the workroom, cooking and\nsewing, and the larger boys were in another part of the school yard making\na fireless cooker and a seed-tester — every child busy doing something purposeful, and, therefore, every child happy and keeping good order, even if\nthey were laughing and talking. This is education. This is making efficient citizenship. This is the function, and the sole function, of the pubUc\nschool. And out of all this work, and out of the boys' corn-club work and\nthe girls' garden-club work can be got, and should be got, and, I am glad\nto say, in schools like these that I have just described are got, the very best\nlessons in language, writing, reading, spelling, geography, arithmetic,\ngeometry, and botany, as well as lessons in industry, in keen observation,\nin judgment, in patience, in will-power, in that purposeful work which goes\nto mold into efficient citizenship the boy power and the girl power now\ngoing to waste in most of our country communities; in that purposeful\nwork which spells character — the only thing on God's earth that is worth\nliving for, the only thing on earth worth dying for, and the only thing we\ncan and must carry into the presence of that great Maker whom all of\nus must meet.\nPractical industrial training for rural children can be taught in the\nsmallest rural schools. If we are to wait for elaborate equipment, for a full\nschool treasury, and for teachers already trained for this purpose, we will\nwait until Gabriel blows his trumpet. I have never seen a community so\npoor and so backward that practical industrial training could not be introduced in its schools, and successfully conducted.\nAt present this work is being done only in spots; it should be universally done. And one of the best things about it is that it takes more effort\nthan it does money; it is a matter not so much of finance as of attitude.\nIt does not need an elaborate equipment, but it does need a consecrated\nand profound belief that such work is education of the very best sort — the\n\n"}
{"page": 75, "printed_page": "63", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSECULAR\n\nFREE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nsort that makes good citizens. It requires nothing in\nthe world but a Uttle\npiece of land for farm or garden work, and not even that\nmuch for the\nmdoor work. Manual training can be started with a boy,\na broom handle\nand a knife. And it is a fact that when we find a method\nby which the\nvery poorest and most needy person m a community can improv\ne hunself\nor herself, that method can reach equally well every other citizen\nm the\ncommunity— rich or poor. The method here outlined comes nearer\nthan\nanything else I know to enabling men and women, boys and girls, to\nturn\nadverse conditions into solid achievements.\nThe plan, as already tried, helps to break up the isolation to which the\ncitizen-maker in the small rural school is subjected; gives her a definite and\ninteresting aim, and this tends to hold her in one place; helps her to prepare herself while teaching; and puts life into a moribund course of study.\nTHE SECULAR\nELLA\n\nFLAGG\n\nFREE SCHOOLS\n\nYOUNG,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nThe public schools of today were known originally as the free, the\ncommon schools. The state constitutions under whose authority statesupported school systems were estabhsht employ the terms \"free\" and\n*' common\"; \"free,\" \"common,\" and \"public\" are used interchangeably\nat the present time.\n\"Free\" was written into the title of this paper because it points the\nAmerican spirit and attitude toward education. Thought is free. \"The\nuniverse of experience is her provmce.\" Therefore education, thought's\nassistant, helping mind to deepen and interpret experience, should be made\nfree to all. \"Secular\" does not appear in the articles on education in the\nstate constitutions, but \"sectarian\" is used in forty-six of the forty-eight\nconstitutions now in force. \"Secular\" is introduced here as the opposite\nof \"sectarian.\"\nImportant questions have arisen in the life of the free school. Occasionally they have become local issues in politics, but they have not developt\ninto crises hostile to the perpetuity of the pubUc-school systems. Interest\nin different questions has not always been of equal mtensity in all sections\nof this widespread country; but the variations in interest have been m\nintensity only— the lines of thought that map the course of the public\nschools are essentially coincident thruout the nation.\nThe aim of America's free schools is to develop intelligence and morality\ncommunity, and political life. A govetnment of the people,\nmdividual,\nm\nby the people, and for the people must, if it is to continue, be supported by a\npeople intellectually awake and morally courageous. How to elevate the\nindividual and a special part of the community is the problem of education in\nthe limited confines of the private and the church schools, but how to elevate\n\n"}
{"page": 76, "printed_page": "64", "text": "64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe individual, the community, and the state thru common possession,\ncommon understanding, and common practice of the higher moral and\nintellectual life is the special problem of America's common schools. The\ndoors of the common schools open to all children and youths, whatever be\ntheir ancestry, their social life, their belief or non-belief in eternal life.\nEducation is not a problem in and of itself; it is not a problem whose\nsolution can ever be arrived at for all time. It is a problem whose origin\nand solution are in the traditions, the quality of the social consciousness,\nand the trend of present-day activities of the people, the nation wrestling\nwith its conditions. It is a problem whose conditions change with the\nlife of a people. When a new condition is injected into the problem of\neducation, its meaning is often obscured by the medley of traditions, the\nconfusions in the social consciousness as regards its purpose, and the\nrapidly changing trend of present-day activities in this young nation of\nmany religions and of many Old World peoples.\nThe solution of the problem with its new condition is often far afield\nfrom what in the beginning seemed to be the issue at stake.\nEach of the forty-eight states controls its public-school system, yet\nthe issues in the forty-eight systems may be groupt under two heads:\nsubjects of instruction, and taxation for maintenance. Sometimes the\nissues sway to and fro under both heads, so closely related are ideals of\nuniversal education and ideas of its pecuniary value. Today the first group,\nsubjects of instruction, is in the foreground, with vocational training and\nreligious instruction pressing hard for attention, to the exclusion of other\nsubjects. Vocational training is rapidly approaching settlement in\nthose states in which differences of opinion have been greatest. It promises\nsoon to have passt the stage of discussion and to be considered wholly from\na. constructive point of view. ReUgious instruction is much more a subject\nof discussion among the clergy of the various communions than among\nthe members of the public-school teaching force.\nWith a full realization of the unreadiness of this Association to touch\nthe question of religious instruction in its public meetings, altho it is a\ncommon subject of private conversation, I shall make a brief statement of\nthe influence of secularism on public-school instruction. The subjects that\nhave been influenst by secularism are history, science, mathematics, and\nethics.\nHistory is often the innocent cause of anxiety and trouble for teachers in\nthe free schools. Sometimes the public-school teacher finds himself quoting\nwith commendation an author whose treatment of controverted points, all\nunwittingly to the -teacher, savors of infidelity or condemnable theology to\nthe sectarian watching with the tenets or history of his church in mind.\nAnd yet with experience the teachers in the secular schools learn to read\nwith intelligence the accounts written by writers of opposing sects, and to\nappreciate the necessity for reading both sides if an attitude of fairness\n\n"}
{"page": 77, "printed_page": "65", "text": "Sessions!\n\nTHE\n\nSECULAR\n\nFREE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nis to be developt in the minds of American high-school\nboys and girls so that\nthey shall be just, not bigoted. Certainly one is oblige\nd to admit that it\nneeds a Daniel to speak of the theological wars of mediae\nval times the\nrelation of Henry VIII to the Church of England, and other\nform the major part of the history of the Middle Ages as now subjects 'that\nwritten The\nhistory of our own country presents only a few instances in which\nreference\nIS made to sectarian difficulties: the settlement of the Purita\nns m New\nEngland, the banishment of Roger Williams, the settlement of Maryl\nRoman Catholics and Protestants. In the public school, the ecclesiand by\nastical\nhistory of the Puritans is centered on the separation effected m Englan\nd,\nthe banishment of Roger Williams is accompanied by a remark on the\nlack, at that time, of religious toleration as known m the United States\ntoday, the settlement of Maryland is pointed out as one in which religious\nand political toleration was practist, Catholics and Protestants living and\nworking together harmoniously.\nWith the present tendency to rule out of the free or pubUc school all\nsectarianism, there will be developt ere long an equally strong tendency to\nquestion the ability of a teacher whose knowledge of history has been\nacquired in a sectarian school to teach history as required in the state\nschools. A partial solution of the difficulty may seem to lie in the omission\nfrom school histories of all wars and controversies based upon reUgion. But\nthe fact remains that to do so would mean the elimination of whole centuries ofEuropean history, and make the progress of civiHzation and even\nthe fate of nations largely inexplicable. Moreover, it would be especially\ncalamitous at a time when historians are raising history to the rank of a\nscience, and offering, in their impartial treatment of the data of the past,\nan example of that disciplined spirit and universal outlook which are\nperhaps the most precious elements of citizenship as well as of education.\nScience is taught in the secular public school as a study of the lifeprocesses of nature. The idea of development, evolution, is basic. The\nhypotheses that were accepted in the past as the unchangeable laws of the\nuniverse are presented briefly, in order to point out the strides made by\nscientific study in gaining a conception of the coherency of the world. The\nopenness of mind of the scientist, his readmess to recognize the unexpected,\nand the need for modification of accepted hypotheses, fit the boy and girl\nfor citizenship in a country in which the people are to be the government.\nThe problem of reconciling a supernatural origin of the universe with the\nhypotheses of twentieth-century science does not arise.\nMathematics has settled its problems of theology in so far that there is\nneither secular nor sectarian arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and trigonometry. Since the days of Galileo and Copernicus, astronoiny has not occupied\na prominent position as a subject of dispute.\nWe now come to our last subdivision of subjects taught— morals and\nethics, or the foundations of character. This Association has, m lectures,\n\n"}
{"page": 78, "printed_page": "66", "text": "66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nin discussions, in committee work extending cfver several years, and in\ndeclarations of its fundamental principles, iterated and reiterated its demand\nfor a higher, a more intelligent type of morality, if this country is to fulfil\nits high destiny. With varying degrees of success the public schools in\nwidely separated districts are working out a constructive morality that\nshall buttress the moral conceptions of the boys and girls coming from\nhomes representing many nationalities, all t3rpes of religions, and innumerable moral standards.\nThe free schools are, in their character as secular schools, constructing\na new ideal of the state or public free school. Some superintendents, principals, and teachers have not the educational insight necessary to work out the\nmeaning of morality and intelligence in seK-government as the chief aim\nof America's public schools. Intelligence in commerce and industry, in\nscience and letters, seems to such minds to comprehend the whole. But,\nin many schools thruout this country, the public free schools, the secular\nschools, are incorporating in their daily practice the beginnings, the foundations, of civil and pohtical liberty. A few specify their efforts by giving\nthem a new name: pupil government, a self-governing school, studentcontrol. The great majority seek no name; they merely develop a better\ngovernment, one more nearly like that which a democracy should have.\nTeachers who are studying the causes of the failure of education to prepare\nall boys and girls to encounter successfully the duties that will be theirs\nafter graduation from the elementary and high schools know the cause of\nmuch of the failure. Knowing it, they have ceast to conduct the school as\nthe kingdom of the teacher whose young subjects are graded in morality in\ndue proportion to their degree of obedience to the laws of that kingdom\nas laid down by the principal or teacher. Thirty years ago Colonel Parker,\nwho understood government by the people as a government whose beginnings should be practist by little children as well as the older ones, used\nevery morning to ask all gathered in general assembly of the Cook County\nNormal School, ranging from kindergartners to elementary, high-school\nand normal students, and teachers: *'What is the word for to-day?\"\nBack came the answer, \"Responsibility.\" It was not responsibility in\nobedience to laws promulgated as laid down by a being who could not make\na mistake. It was active responsibility — active in doing the right; responsible in endeavoring to know the right at that particular moment, and under\nthat particular condition, and then doing it. The colonel had vision\nthat connected the training of the free school with our form of government\nand its special needs. In the reaction against the old conception of school\ngovernment and discipline, many traditions have been eliminated, particularly those founded on the assumption that unquestioning obedience is\nof itself the cardinal virtue. But certain traditions of this democracy are\nretained, chief among which, written into the preamble of the constitutions\nof forty-one states, is the behef that thru \" the goodness of Almighty God\n\n"}
{"page": 79, "printed_page": "67", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSECULAR\n\nFREE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n5-\n\nwe enjoy the blessings of civU and religious liberty.\" The phraseology\nis\nnot the same in the forty-one preambles, but the content is unfaUing recognition of the Supreme Ruler of the universe and gratitude for the freedom,\nthe liberty, which is to be perpetuated for posterity. Five states, New\nHampshire, Delaware, Vermont, Tennessee, and Oregon, while not writing\nsuch belief into their preambles, have asserted m their respective declarations ofrights, or bills of rights, incorporated m their state constitutions,\n\"the right to worship Almighty God accordmg to the dictates of conscience.\" This tradition of the godly foundation of our state governments\nexprest in the documents authorizing the estabUshment of systems of free\nschools, is treasured by the great army of public-school teachers— an\narmy whose rank and file are, almost without exception, communicants in\nsome one of the divisions of the church of God.\nIn each state constitution is an article on education. The articles on\neducation or on school lands, with two exceptions, contain positive restrictions on the levying of taxes or the making of appropriations for \"sectarian\nschools\" or for \"religious instruction.\" Different constructions are given\nto the meaning of religious instruction. The secular schools have construed such instruction to include lessons in the catechism and tenets of\nany church, the repetition or recitation of church prayers, the smging of\nchurch hymns, the practice of genuflections or bodily attitudes associated\nwith church service. This construction makes religious and sectarian\ninstruction synonymous. The judiciary in some states, notably in Wisconsin, has defined religious instruction; the judiciary of each and every\nstate will in time be called upon to define religious instruction for its state.\nYears hence, this National Education Association may attempt a new\ndefinition.\n\nI\n\nThus far, however, no construction of the meaning of reUgious instruction obliges the secular free schools to limit their instruction to a commercial, autilitarian view of life; and no construction of sectarian or\nreligious instruction forbids the common schools to teach so that the boys\nand girls shall impress on their minds and engrave in their hearts the truth\nthat purity in life and thought is the first essential in achieving dominion\nover oneself.\nThe men and women who for a long time insidiously, and m recent times\nboldly, have tried to reduce the enrolment of girls in the pubUc high schools\nin different sections of this country should weigh well the significance to\ntheir own souls of their un-American procedure.\nwhere\nTwo communions, the Roman CathoUcs and the Lutherans,\nwithdrawn\nthey have been able financially to build schoolhouses, have\nm order\nschools,\nfree\npubUc\nthe\nfrom\nn\nchildre\nof\nds\nthousan\nof\ns\nhundred\nmt of Uie\nthat all subjects taught them shall be presented from the standpo\nmemberits\nm\ning\ncompris\nchurch. The Religious Education Association,\nthe\nfrom\nand\ntions\ndenomma\nant\nProtest\nship clergy and laity from all the\n\n"}
{"page": 80, "printed_page": "68", "text": "68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Genera\n\nEpiscopal church, adopted in March of this year a declaration of principles\nin which it is insisted that opportunity for religious instruction shall be\ngiven those being educated in the public schools, but that such instruction\nshall be given by the home, the church, and the private school.\nWhat is the corollary to this conviction of the church, Protestant and\nCatholic, that more religious instruction and training must be given to the\npublic-school children ? I sincerely hope the corollary is not that in course\nof time sectarian schools will supplant the public schools. If such a corollary follows, the solution of the problem of rehgious training will be far\nafield from the issue that now seems to be at stake — a higher degree of\nspirituality in America.\nThe instruction that will develop a fine conscience, reverence for the\ngood, a life of action and renunciation worthy to be everlasting, is greatly\nto be desired. The freedom, civil, political, and religious, that was written\nby the American people into their respective state constitutions is greatly\nto be desired.\nWe, the secular free-school teachers, must be a potent force in the\nsolution of this problem before us. As we advance and retreat in our efforts\nto divine the means by which this instruction and this freedom shall be\nmade effective in education, we can say, \"America, because you build for\nmankind, we build for you.\"\n\nTEE PLACE\nCHARLES\n\nOF THE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nR. VAN HISE, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY\n\nIN A DEMOCRACY\nOF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS.\n\nThe university movement reacht its first large development in this\ncountry in the endowed institution. Indeed, until 1850, secondary\neducation was mainly in the private academy. The university as a taxsupported institution was only slowly recognized, and the great development of institutions of this class has been within the past twenty-five years.\nUntil a few years ago, the endowed institution was dominant; but in recent\nyears the rise of the state university has been marvelous. The two classes\nof institutions have special peculiarities which are sources both of strength\nand of weakness.\nTHE ENDOWED\n\nINSTITUTION\n\nThe great strength of the endowed institution is its relative freedom\nfrom the necessity to reflect immediate needs. This has given it great\nadvantage in development along its own lines. The humanities, the social\nsciences, the pure sciences, art — all are strong in the endowed institutions.\nThe trustees of the institutions do not feel the necessity of considering to\nany greater degree than they desire the special needs of the community or\nstate in which they are located. In consequence of this situation, and\n\n"}
{"page": 81, "printed_page": "69", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nIN A DEMOCRACY\n\n6q\n\nbecause of the development of the endowed institutions before the expansion ofapplied science, the endowed universities in their teaching, m their\nproductive scholarship, in the languages broadly, in pure science, and in\nart are stronger than the state universities. They have accompUsht great\nthings in the past in the advancement of knowledge and the creation of\nscholars. In these fields, and doubtless in others, they will mamtain their\nprimacy for a considerable period in the future. These characteristics are\nmatters of special pride and gratification to the professorial staffs of the\nendowed institutions.\nWith the undoubted advantages which go with this situation, there\nare dangers. One of the dangers of the independence of the endowed\ninstitution is that it may think too much of its own advancement and not\nrecognize sufficiently that it is in fact a pubUc trust. In consequence of\nthis, its students, its faculty, its alumni, its staff may think too much about\nthe advancement of the institution and too little about the advancement\nof the commonwealth in which it is located.\nThe second danger in the endowed institution is that it may feel a\nspecial obligation to one class of men — those that support it. Of necessity\nthe funds of the endowed institution come from the well-to-do or the rich.\nIn consequence of this fact the institution may to an undue extent reflect\nthe spirit and interests of this class. In saying this I do not mean to imply\nany dishonesty; but it is inevitable that the spirit of the institution does\nto some extent respond to its environment.\nTHE STATE UNIVERSITIES\n\nThe earlier state universities, in both the South and West, were modeled\nas closely as possible upon the eastern institutions; and the development\nof the two classes has been in a large measure parallel. In all fundamental\nlines there is no substantial difference between the endowed and the state\nuniversity. As compared with their points of likeness, their elements of\ndifference are subordinate. Still, in recent years there have appeared in\nstate institutions certain tendencies which differentiate them to some\nextent from private foundations.\nSome time ago I askt a professor who, for a number of years, had been\nat a state university and since that time has been in one of the largest eastern\ninstitutions, as to the most characteristic difference between them. I explained that I meant as to spirit, not as to size, prestige, nor income. The\nanswer was that the state university feels a special obligation toward the\nstate which supports it, whereas the endowed university feels no exceptional\nobligation to the commonwealth in which it is located. It appears to me\nthat this statement gives the chief distinction between the two classes of\ninstitutions.\n\nwealth\nThe state university does feel a special obligation to the common\nduty.\nfirst\na\nas\nion\nobligat\nthis\nzes\nrecogni\nit\nIndeed,\nin which it is situated.\n\n"}
{"page": 82, "printed_page": "70", "text": "70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nBy all known methods it disseminates information discovered in all parts\nof the world to the people of the state. The state university feels bound\nto become the scientific adviser of the state. It feels bound to investigate\nthose questions which concern the interests of the state. If its state is\na potato-producing region, it studies the diseases of potatoes; it inquires\ninto the conditions of tuberculosis in the state, both animal and human,\nand devises laws for its elimination; it values the public utilities for the\nstate officers; it assists the legislative committees in problems of political\nscience; it develops courses for training teachers for the secondary schools;\nit provides for professional training, from courses in agriculture to courses\nin household science. Its field of investigation covers all of the practical\nproblems of the state — agricultural, industrial, political, social, and moral.\nIn short, the university aims to become the instrument of the state in its\nupbuilding — material, intellectual, and spiritual. Beginning with the same\naims as private foundations, this has gradually become the special purpose\nof the state university — a purpose which is more nearly reaUzed in the\nhighly developt institutions than in those less advanst.\nBecause of the development, as applied sciences, of a large number of\nsubjects which in the past were merely arts, the state university has made\na great contribution. Agriculture, home economics, and many other\nsciences are rapidly becoming professions; and the number who follow\nthese vocations in the professional spirit is increasing at an amazing rate.\nThus these subjects are transformed from manual to intellectual vocations.\nIn this work of expanding the boundaries of the professions beyond law,\nmedicine, and the ministry to include a vast number of vocations, the\nendowed institutions have shared, especially as regards commerce, engineering, and journalism; but in this great movement the state universities\nmay fairly claim a very important position, if not one of leadership.\nThe state universities, like the endowed institutions, have special\npoints of strength and of weakness. The strength of the state university\nlies in its close relations to the state. These relations between the university and the state bind them closely together. The growth of the university isdependent upon the state. The state owns the university; and\nevery citizen feels himself to be a stockholder in that ownership. But\nassociated with these close relations, which are the strength of the state\nuniversity, are also its most serious dangers. These are that the university may be politically controlled, and that it may be hampered in its\nwork.\nTo the first of these dangers, a state university is especially exposed\nin its earlier years. It speaks well for the democracy of this country that,\nas the states have developt, the danger of political interference in the university government has steadily become less. At the present time, there\nis no serious danger of political control in any of the older and stronger\nstate universities.\n\n"}
{"page": 83, "printed_page": "71", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTEE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nIN A DEMOCRACY\n\nyj\n\nThe other danger of the close association of the university\nwith the\nstate— the danger of interference with its work— has two aspects\nit may be demanded that the teaching which looks toward materia:l first\nends\nshall be strong, while the humanities may be allowed to remain weak or not\nproperly developt; and, secondly, freedom of teaching and investigation\nmay be mterfered with. The former is probably the more imminent\ndanger for the majority of the institutions.\nIt is natural, indeed inevitable, that the people should demand that\neffective teaching, research, and extension of knowledge shall be provided\nin agriculture, in engineering, and in other lines from which a financial\nreturn from the investment may be shown. These demands are right and\nshould be fully met by the university, but \"the hfe is more than meat and\nthe body is more than raiment.\" Shall the people demand of their university that it provide for their material needs and neglect the people\nthemselves— their intellectual, artistic, moral, and spiritual development?\nThe capacity of a state university to make the man himself, as a subject\nof study and capable of advancement, maintain a paramount position,\nwill be the crucial test of the state university. The university authorities\nmust insist that man shall not become subordinate to material gain. If\nthe people will support a state university in which these ideals obtain, then\nit can be truly said that a democracy is a success.\nThe remaining danger of the close association of the state with the\nuniversity is the possibility of interference with the freedom of teaching\nand investigation. If such interference occurs, it is likely to be indirect\nrather than direct, and is therefore all the more insidious. A sentiment\nmay be developt or a situation may arise in a state such that the professor\nfeels that he is not free to teach the truth as he sees it. To quote a phrase,\nhe may feel that he must shade the truth somewhat.\nFor my own part, I have no doubt that in all the states in which the\nstate universities are strongly establisht the overwhehning majority of the\npeople are in favor of absolute freedom of teaching and investigation. But\nfrequently the deep-seated dominant sentiment does not express itself, and\nthere are always some who would place limitations upon the field of a university. But a university must insist that the whole domain of physical\nand human phenomena belongs within its scope; pure science, applied\nscience, politics, morals, religion, are proper fields of study for a university.\nNo part of the domain of human experience, knowledge, and ideas can be\nset off as forbidden ground.\nIn making this statement I do not mean to imply that the state university should dogmatize. The facts concerning any subject should be\nconbroadly dealt with; none should be hidden; their bearmgs should be\nalways\nand\nthem,\nfrom\nflow\nwhich\ns\nprinciple\nthe\nto\nsidered with reference\nsubject\nwithout bias. The attitude of the professor in regard to every\nattitude of\nshould be that of a candid judge, not that of an advocat^the\n\n"}
{"page": 84, "printed_page": "72", "text": "72\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nan absolutely free and fearless judge who feels heavily the responsibility\nof his position of trust. The professor should consider the problem before\nhim in the Ught of pure reason, with no thought but to find the truth,\nwholly uninfluenst by popular sentiment or passion. Shall the university\nbe free to teach that a certain practice in agriculture is wrong, and to\nadvocate a new and improved practice, and shall the same principle not\napply in poUtics and in morals ? Such a position would be intolerable.\nNo institution which does not handle the humanities, in all their amplifications, under the same principles under which it handles the pure and\napplied sciences, is worthy of the name of a university.\nTHE COMMON\n\nIDEALS OF THE ENDOWED\n\nAND STATE UNIVERSITIES\n\nThe development of the graduate school in the state universities, which\nhas brought to the foreground in those institutions the advancement of\nknowledge and the creation of scholars, has eHminated the greatest difference which existed between the endowed universities and the state universities. The recent deliberate adoption, by a number of the larger\nendowed institutions, of the definite policy of carrying out knowledge to\nthe people, has brought the endowed institution closer to the state university. In every fundamental, their duties are alike. They are the\ninstitutions of the country upon which democracy must depend for leadership in the humanitites, in science, in art, in politics.\nIt is by the free contest of ideas and ideals, often widely diverging, that\nprogress is made. It is evident that no group of men has the right to\nassume that it has a monopoly of truth. The staff of a university,\nabove most groups of men, should recognize the complexity of the facts,\nthe impossibility of arriving at the absolute, and so without fear and\nwithout bias, with firmness, but with profound humility, present their ideas\nto the world to be accepted if found good and to be rejected if found inadequate.\nAt the inauguration of President A. Lawrence Lowell, of Harvard\nUniversity, among the many high notes sounded, one clearly rang out\nabove all others. Said James Bryce: *'The university should reflect the\nspirit of the times without yielding to it.\" That is to say, the university\nmust truly serve present needs, but it should also stand above them and\nlead to higher ideals.\nThe unrest which has characterized the first decade of this twentieth\ncentury has led to many new proposals in all fields. The conservatives\nhave sometimes been disturbed because questions have arisen which in the\npast have been regarded as settled. On such questions, it has sometimes\nbeen said that the university should let the battle be fought out by others\nwithout any attempt at leadership. This position the university must\nfirmly resist. Times of unrest, when new and important issues are arising,\nwhen old convictions are being questioned, are times when the men of\n\n"}
{"page": 85, "printed_page": "73", "text": "Sessions)\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN A DEMOCRACY\n\nlearning, who should know the facts broadly, and who have no purpose\nbut the greatest good of the greatest number, should be absolutely\nfree.\nThe progress of the nation wiU continue. The old ideals and ideas\nwill be modified. The human race is ever moving upward and onwardbut such movement always involves vexation, strife, dissention, often\npain on the part of those who are disturbed in their convictions. No\nadvance has ever been made without suffering; such is the cost of progress.\nTimes of unrest, of changing ideas and ideals, are, above all, the times when\nthe university should be most active in the guidance of public opinion.\nAdvancement in the entire realm of ideas and ideals is the place of the\nuniversity in a democracy.\n\nTHE PLACE\n\nOF THE NORMAL\n\nJOHN\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nR.\n\nKIRK,\n\nSTATE\n\nSCHOOL IN A DEMOCRACY\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nKIRKSVILLE,\n\nMO.\n\nThe question of the place and function of the normal school in a democracy raises other questions which are preliminary and fundamental. These\nquestions are: (i) whether the people in a democracy should express the\nwill of the democracy; (2) whether the judgment and the will of the democracy should determine the character and the extent of its institutions;\n(3) Whether there should always be in the democracy a dominant group\nconstitutuig a speciaUzed higher inteUigence to do the thinking of the\ndemocracy for the democracy, and to determine for the democracy what\nthe character and the limitations of the institutions and the utiUties of\nthe democracy should be.\nThe answer to these questions is that a democracy is not obliged to do\nits business by proxy. The people of the democracy have a right to think\nand act for themselves. Otherwise there is no democracy.\n\nThere is great temptation to base official action upon the idea that educational advancement must have origm and first take form in the mmds of the\nhighly cultured few; but a great deal of the most serviceable part of American education at the present time did not have birth in the brain of higher\neducation circles. As a matter of fact, a large part of what is best in our\nscheme of education was forst mto the curriculum, and many of the former,\ntraditional, non-functioning elements of the now somewhat expurgated\nof the\ncurriculum were forst out of the curriculum by the pressure of the will\nawakening democracy.\ndemocracy at\nIt is altogether fortunate that the rank and file of the\neducation\nhigher\nin\nup\nlockt\nnt\njudgme\nund\nion-bo\ntradit\nthe\nle\ntimes overru\nno question as to the\ncircles; and it is quite certam that there would now be\nof the democracy\nwiU\nthe\nif\nacy,\nthe normal school in the democr\nplace of\ncould be allowed to get at the issue.\n\n"}
{"page": 86, "printed_page": "74", "text": "74\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe normal school is of the democracy and for the democracy. From\nthe outset in the days of Horace Mann and David P. Page, the normal school\nhas been, by reason of its agitations, a source of contention and rivalry, or,\nby reason of obsequious conservatism and flabby formahsm, a negligible\nquantity in educational advancement. Its chief obstacle has always been\ntraceable to higher education circles; and whenever the democracy has\nsought to establish normal schools, just then the existing higher education\ninstitutions have obstructed in toto the will of the democracy, or they have\nsought to dictate specifically what the curricula of such schools should not\ncontain. They have not as a rule cared very much what superficialities\nor dogmas might get into the normal-school curricula, provided there could\nbe assurance that the alleged sphere of existing institutions was not trespast upon.\nUntil some twenty odd years ago, college and university men, as a\nrule, regarded the professional preparation of teachers as unnecessary.\nHence they naturally enough opposed the normal schools. But they now\nseem to believe in the preparation of teachers. In any event, about 80 per\ncent of all the colleges are obliged to have departments of education in order\nto avoid bankruptcy, while the best student-getting agency of the university isits school of education.\nBut the adjustment of the normal school to its place and function is\ngradually being grappled with by the people of the democracy. Each\norganized movement, on the part of external agencies, for the limitation of\nthe normal school brings the issue to a more acute stage and final settlement\nnearer.\nThe long-dominant minority in each of the great political parties of\nAmerica finds increasing difliculty in obstructing or manipulating the will\nof the democracy. The political dictator no longer enjoys a bed of roses.\nAnd so in education, any group of interested existing institutions combining\nto limit the field of an institution establisht by the democracy, and for the\nservice of the democracy, must more and more reckon with the sensitized\nwill of the democracy.\nThe initiative and referendum, the political equality of men and women,\nthe recall of judges and their decisions — these and kindred ideals are working in the minds of the democracy. Universal education awakens the\ndemocracy. The elements of the democracy begin to think more freely for\nthemselves. In education, the normal school, long limited and handicapt\nby external interference, begins more effectively to function, and thereby\nit justifies the hope and the confidence of the democracy.\nLet one illustration suflSce. A great educational foundation, with\nbenevolent tho misguided purpose, enters a state of the Middle West. After\ninvestigation, it instigates reorganization of public higher education, with\nview to the establishment of one single, centralized, dominating institution\nin the state, with power to confer all the higher degrees, and thereby to\n\n"}
{"page": 87, "printed_page": "75", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nIN A DEMOCRACY\n\n75\n\nsubordinate and control all other public education agencies. There are\nsome months of agitation. Finally, representatives of the democracy\nin overwhehning preponderance make reply, and say, in substance: \"You\nmust take your hands off this institution of the democracy, which is to\nprepare teachers for all the public schools of the democracy. We, ourselves,\nwill determine the place and function of our normal school.\"\nThe mvestigators, in turn, declare that it is unwise and uneconomical\nand wasteful for the democracy thru its own representatives thus to transact its own business, but the representatives of the democracy promptly\nproceed to enforce the will of the democracy, and vote larger sums of money\nfor an expanding teacher-producing agency, with great buildings, laboratories, libraries, gymnasiums, hospitals, athletic fields, and faculty, such as\nthe earlier college man had not dreamt of; and the representatives of the\ndemocracy make these incontrovertible declarations: \"All public-school\neducation is the business of the democracy. You of the centralized higher\neducation circles have had your eyes too much on the dead past. You\nhave not wanted our children to have the instruction that would best function in their lives. You have obstructed the highest good of the greatest\nnumber. We are obliged to declare our freedom, and to think and act for\nourselves. We have decided to have schools of our own, in which to educate teachers to direct all the activities of all the children in all the schools\nof the democracy.\"\nThe ideal of the democracy is further exprest by a young governor of a\nmiddle-western state. He had graduated from the university. He loved\nhis Alma Mater, but he believed in the democracy. The schoohnaster\nvisited the governor, and said: \"Governor, the people want teachers in the\nhigh schools and in the elementary schools to teach manual arts, fine arts,\ndomestic arts, cookery, civics, commercial studies, physical education,\nmusic, and other motivating subjects. Ought the normal school to do\n\"The normal\nwhat the people want done ? \" And the governor answered:\nThe\nschool is to produce teachers for the public schools of the democracy.\nwhat\nout\nfind\nmust\nschool\nlaw says so. The people say so. The normal\ncollege to\nit takes to produce capable teachers. You cannot wait for the\nof ^e\npart\nNo\ndo any part of it. The coUege has no exclusive sphere.\nanybody.\nof\nsake\nthe\nfor\nsubject-matter in education can be monopolized\nor calculus or\nTherefore, in the normal school you may teach Horace\n• .r a\nwhatever else is needed to make good teachers.\"\nore, is defined\ntheref\nracy,\ndemoc\na\nin\nschool\nl\nnorma\nthe\nof\nThe place\ndo. It is an exclusively\nand determined by what it is called upon to\nschool with means and\nl\nnorma\nvocational institution. The fuU-grown\nand women to teach and\nopportunity and freedom prepares mature men\nkind and grade. It covers\nsupervise teaching in the public schools of every\nstudies of coUege grade. Its\nfour or more years in academic and pedagogic\nor's degree are exactly equal\nrequirements for entrance and for the Bachel\n\n"}
{"page": 88, "printed_page": "76", "text": "76\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nto those of the best colleges. Its graduates do not need to be recast, nor\nregraduated, nor relabeled by any other institution in order to secure permanent recognition in the teaching profession. They take rank, as they\nshould, with the graduates of the medical college and the law school. A\nfew of them already have good standing as graduate students. In the near\nfuture, large numbers of them will, after varying periods in teaching, enter\ngraduate courses at their own will and pleasure. Not all of the states\nwill in the near future have the full-fledged normal school. This will in\npart be due to interfering outside interests, in part to the unfruitful conservatism and caution of the normal-school administrators themselves.\nBut the short-course normal school, prematurely cut off at the end\nof the second year beyond the high school, cannot be regarded a permanency.\nIts inadequacy too often has to be explained by those who love it best.\nIn many states it has been, and in some states it is now, reasonably serviceable. It is representative of a transition stage. It will be outgrown\nbecause good teachers cannot be made out of typical high-school graduates\nin two years' time.\nThe short-course normal school will have to be adandoned because the\nclassifying of young intending teachers at the time they leave high school\nplaces public-school organization on an unsound basis. It arbitrarily puts\none group of intending teachers, without regard to natural endowments,\ninto the shorter-course normal school, there to be mechanically trained and\ndrilled as professional elementary teachers, while another group, with equal\ndisregard for natural ability, is sent into the longer-course university or\ncollege, to be made over into high-school teachers.\nThis traditional, arbitrary, and indefensible classification forces upon\nus the policy of keeping all the children from the first grade to the eighth\ngrade inclusive under teachers who have the shorter preparation and who\ndraw the lower salaries, and of furnishing for all the children above the\neighth grade teachers of longer preparation and higher salaries. But it is\nperfectly clear, as any sensible man or woman ought to know, that it takes\nas much scholarship and skill and ability to teach successfully in the sixth\ngrade as it does to teach in any class in the high school; and a square deal\ndemands as much salary for the one as for the other.\nWhenever we analyze these conditions, we see how unnatural and\nwasteful is the arbitrary classification of intending teachers which we now so\nwidely practice. But the full-fledged normal school of the twentiethcentury does not artificially and abnormally force one group of students into\nthe mold of elementary teachers, and another group into the mold of highschool teachers. It differentiates the students gradually by natural processes, and not by premature conventional classifications.\nThe typical student does not, and cannot, begin to know himself or\nherself, until some time in the third or fourth year beyond the high school,\nand is not known by teachers earlier than that time. Therefore, it is a\n\n"}
{"page": 89, "printed_page": "77", "text": "S''\"\"\"''\n\nCITIZENSHIP IN A REPUBLIC\n■\n\n,\n77\nwasteful and indefensible classification which\nseeks to determine the special\nprofessional function of the intending teach\ner prior to the junior or\nS\n^^luui\ncollege year.\nBut the twentieth-^^^^^^ school is\nin process of constant\nreadjustment. It will always have many forms\nof undergraduate coUege\ncourses. It wiU always include a large part of\nthe now slowly dissolving\ncollege of liberal arts. It wiU utilize all the avaUable\nknowledge needed by\npubhc-school teachers in the elementary schools and\nhigh schools of citv\ntown, village, and rural community.\nThe place of the twentieth-century normal school is within\nand of and\nclose to the community life of the democracy. It will always\nconduct\nextensive and intensive studies, rational experimentation, and\nnever ending\nbut always varying demonstrations of all serviceable pedagogical procedu\nre.\nIts place will always be among the leaders of constructive and productive\neducational thought in the state and the nation.\n\nCITIZENSHIP\nWILLIAM\n\nJENNINGS\n\nIN A REPUBLIC\nBRYAN, LINCOLN, NEBR.\n\nIt is worth crossing half the continent to be able to join with the teachers\nof the United States in celebrating this, the 140th anniversary of our\nnation's independence. Your Association represents thirty thousand\nteachers, the responsible instructors of the great majority of our twenty-five\nmillion school children. You stand next to the nation's spiritual advisers\nin the importance of your work — the head being second only to the heart in\nthe influence which it exerts on human destiny and happiness.\n\"Out of the heart are the issues of life,\" says the Wise Man, but the\nheart needs a trained mind to assist it if the life is to be largely fruitful.\nThe heart directs, but education multiplies the individual's power and\ncapacity for service. As educators you deal with morals as well as with\nmmd and manners, and you share with the clergy the distinction of bemg\nthe most poorly paid of all public servants, if payment is measured by\nsalary alone. This injustice may be remedied in part, and should be\nremedied as far as possible, but there is one factor in the equation which\ncannot be eliminated. The preacher and the teacher find a satisfaction in\nthe consciousness of being helpful to others, and this satisfaction is, m itself,\nno small compensation. It is a great privilege to be able to enter into the\nlife of the young, to lead their thoughts into the right chamiels, to mold\ntheir opinions on vital questions, and to implant in them the ideals\nwhich control their lives. This opportunity, and the joy which comes\nwith it, must be taken into account in estimating relative success. W^at\neducator, approaching the end of his career, would exchange his place in\nthe hearts of his pupils for all the money coUected by one who has\n\n"}
{"page": 90, "printed_page": "78", "text": "78\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nabsorbed from the world without contributing in like proportion to\nsociety's progress?\nWhile the teacher is primarily concerned with the development of mind\nand character, he cannot be indifferent to that which affects the body's\nwelfare. Physical exercise is so essential that the gymnasium has come to\nbe a part of every well-equipt school, and the teacher is expected to share\nin the enthusiasm which athletics excite.\nJust now an effort is being made to substitute military training for the\ngames of the playground. I hope that the teachers in our public schools\nwill not yield to the clamor of militarism. Peace and not war is the normal\nstate of man, and the teacher may well insist upon the postponement of any\nproposed changes in school method until such changes can be considered\nwith calmness and deliberation.\nIf it is thought wise to give more attention to the physical development of our youth, the means can be found in a closer imitation of the\nGreeks, who by their national games provided contests which contributed\nto physical development. This Association might with propriety consider the wisdom of encouraging such a system. State and national prizes\nwould stimulate an honorable rivalry which would be immensely valuable\nto our boys and girls, as measured by progress toward physical perfection. Ten million students contending for the honors awarded for skill\nand endurance in athletics would materially raise the average of health\nand strength.\nAs the teacher deals not only with students but with embryo voters — a\nterm which will soon be applied to women as well as to men — it is in keeping\nwith this day that I submit for your consideration a few fundamental\npropositions in connection with our government. I am led to do so by the\nconviction that we delay too long the teaching of the science of government.\nA majority of our voters do not go beyond the eighth grade of the common\nschool,' and therefore assume the responsibilities of citizenship without a\nclear and comprehensive understanding of the principles and methods of\nthe government under which they live. I am sure I voice your sentiments\nwhen I plead for greater simplicity in the treatment of this subject, that it\nmay be brought to the attention of the students at an earlier period in their\nschool life.\nI venture to present ten propositions:\n1. The social ideal tbward which the world is moving requires that\nhuman institutions shall approximate toward the divine measure of rewards,\nand this can only be realized when each individual is able to draw from\nsociety a reward proportionate to his contribution to society.\n2. The form of government which gives the best assurance of attaining\nthis ideal is the form in which the people rule — a government deriving its\njust powers from the consent of the governed — the form described by\nLincoln as \"a government of the people, by the people, and for the people.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 91, "printed_page": "79", "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nA DEMOCRACY\n\n79\n\nThis being\npeople\nnment, it is their duty to Hve for it m time of\npeace, and the\nto die for 'sit, gover\nif necess\nary, in time of war.\n3. The chief duty of governments, in so far as they\nare coercive is to\nrestram those who would interfere with the malien\nable rights of the indi\nvidual, among which are the right to life, the right to Hberty\n, the right to the\npursuit of happiness, and the right to worship God according\nto the dictates\nof conscience.\n4. In so far as governments are cooperative, they approach perfecU\non\nin proportion as they adjust with justice the jomt burdens which it is necessary toimpose, and distribute with equity the mcidental benefits which come\nfrom the disbursement of the money raised by taxation.\n5. Competition is so necessary a force in busmess that pubUc ownership\nis imperative wherever competition is impossible. A private monopoly\nis indefensible and intolerable.\n6. \"Absolute acquiescence in the decision of the majority\" is, as\nJefferson declares, \"the vital principle of repubUcs, from which is no appeal\nbut to force, the vital principle and immediate parent of despotism.\"\n7. As acquiescence in the permanent existence of a wrong is not to be\nexpected, it is the duty of every citizen to assist in securing a free expression\nof the will of the people, to the end that all abuses may be remedied as soon\nas possible. No one can claim to be a good citizen who is indifferent. Civic\nduty requires attendance at primaries and conventions as at the polls.\n8. The government being the people's business, it necessarily follows\nthat its operations should be at all times open to the pubUc view. Freedom\nof speech is essential to representative government, and pubhcity is essential\nto honest administration. \"Equal rights to all and special privileges to\nnone\" is the maxim which should control in all departments of government.\n9. Each individual finds his greatest security in the intelligence and\nhappiness of his fellows, the welfare of each being the concern of all, and he\nshould therefore exert himself to the utmost to improve conditions for all\nand to elevate the level upon which all stand.\n10. While scrupulously careful to hve up to his civic responsibihties, the\ncitizen should never forget that the larger part of every human life is\nlived outside of the domain of government, and that he renders the largest\nservice to others when he brings himself into harmony with the law of\nGod, who has made service the measure of greatness.\nPREPARATION\nJAMES\n\nY. JOYNER,\n\nTHRU\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSTATE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nRALEIGH,\nN.C.\n\nFOR A DEMOCRACY\nOF PUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nThe tersest, truest definition of democracy yet formulated by an\nAmerican was that which burst from the breaking heart of Abraham Lincoln on the battlefield of Gettysburg: \"Government of the people, by the\n\n"}
{"page": 92, "printed_page": "80", "text": "8o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npeople, for the people.\" Beginning with this inspired definition of the\nmost difl&cult and beneficent form of human government, let us consider\ntogether this highest and hardest responsibility and duty of the American\nteacher, \"Preparation thru Education for a Democracy.\"\nThe most important task and duty of the American school and the\nAmerican teacher is preparation of the American children of each generation, who are to become the American people of the next, for government\nby the people and for the people. Upon the wise performance of this task\nand duty depend the strength and perpetuity of our American democracy,\nand, in the light of world-conditions today, upon it may depend the preservation and perpetuation of democracy in all the earth. The trinity of\nagencies for the performance of this high task are the home, the church,\nand the school. From the very constitution of our civilization, the heaviest\npart of this task in America must fall upon the public school.\nFrom the very nature of a democracy, all authority must be derived\nfrom the consent of the governed and must be exercised for the benefit of\nthe governed. Democracy, therefore, lays a heavier burden upon the individual than any other form of government, and its perpetuity, success, and\nstrength are more dependent upon the intelligence and character of the\nindividual citizen. Liberty, fraternity, equality are cherisht and distinctive principles of democracy. Government of the people and for the\npeople is more dependent than any other form of government upon the\ncooperation of the people, upon a recognition of the brotherhood of man,\nand upon a correlative consideration for the rights, duties, and obligations*\nmoral, civic, and political, each for each, each for all, and all for each.\nEducation that provides preparation for democracy must lay special\nemphasis upon the distinctive principles and the distinctive virtues\ndemanded for efficient democratic government.\nVocational education for the preparation of the great industrial masses,\nconstituting 90 per cent of the total population of the United States,\nfor more efficient and profitable work is not only an economic necessity\nin a democracy, but also a democratic right and obligation. Without it\nthis vast majority cannot have equality of opportunity to work and to live,\nto get the most for themselves, and to contribute the most to others. But\nvocational education will prove in no high sense a preparation for democracy\nunless there be developt with it a sense of obligation and a desire and\ndetermination to use increast efficiency to give more as well as to get more.\nThe dominant aim of education in a democracy should be preparation\nfor the patriotic performance of the duties and the obligations of\ncitizenship therein thru the acquisition of the knowledge and the cultivation of the virtues demanded therefor. Education is a process of\ngrowth, not of manufacture. The teacher's relation to it is one of guidance,\nstimulation, and cultivation. Every public school in America, therefore,\nshould be a place for the inculcation of democratic principles and for the\n\n"}
{"page": 93, "printed_page": "81", "text": "8i\nSessions]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nA DEMOCRACY\n\ncultivation of democratic virtues. These flourish most and grow\nbest in an\natmosphere of democracy. First of all, therefore, the school must\nitself be\na democracy, and the teacher, a democratic governor, not a despot— a wise\nguide, not a dogmatic dictator. Virtues grow from the practicing of them\nnot from the preaching of them. The school that is to prepare for citizenship ina democracy must offer the widest opportunities and the stronge\nstimulation for the constant exercise of the virtues most needed for it. st\nSelf-reliance, self-determination, self-direction, self-restraint, selfgovernment are individual virtues most essential to the successful exercise\nof the privileges of political self-government and for the proper restraint\nof the freedom of democracy. Cooperation, teamwork for the common\ngood, consideration for the rights of others, tolerance of the views of others,\nfreedom and independence of thought, and prompt obedience to properly\nconstituted authority are other virtues the cultivation of which is an\nessential part of preparation for citizenship in a democracy.\nThe wise teacher whose dominant aim is preparation thru education\nfor a democracy will j&nd innumerable opportunities in the schoohoom\nand on the playground for the stimulation and cultivation of these virtues.\nHe should make his schoolroom and his playground a little republic where\nlessons in good citizenship in a democracy are taught every day by precept and example, where the characteristic virtues of democracy are constantly called into practice, and where its highest ideals are constantly held\nbefore the children. Here are to be found the same human types and\nclasses — rich and poor, strong and weak, selfish and unselfish, gentle and\nrude, modest and brazen — the same human relations and obHgations, tasks\nand burdens, joys and sorrows; the same human passions, ambitions, and\ntemptations, as are to be found in the larger schoolroom and playground\nof the republic, but all in a formative and directable state.\nHere, then, is the task and the opportunity of the teacher as a citizentrainer: wisely to direct and stimulate and help to regulate the work and\nconduct of each child, to aid in the creation of the right atmosphere and\nof the right public opinion, to make everything count most toward the\nformation of the character, the ideals, and the habits of good citizenship\nin a democracy.\nIt is a belittling of this great work to postpone special attention to it\nin the school till the last year or two in the high school, and imagine that\nwe have discharged our duty in this respect when we have given the children\na few hours' instruction a week, for a year or less, in some textbook on\ncivics. However valuable such instruction may be in its proper time and\nplace, it is but a minor part of this larger and longer work.\nTraining for citizenship for the child begins consciously or unconsciously with his first day in school and continues to his last. With him\nschool is life, and everything that he thinks and feels and hopes and suifers\nfor\nand learns and does and hears and sees there has its part in his traming\n\n"}
{"page": 94, "printed_page": "82", "text": "82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncitizenship. He is daily living the life, forming the character, fixing the\nhabits of good or bad citizenship in a democracy, by the way he does his\nwork, regulates his conduct, performs his duties, and discharges his obligations growing out of his various relations to schoolmates and teachers in\nschoolroom and on playground. There is scarcely a school task, duty, or\nplay that cannot be made to contribute to this end.\nFar more important as a preparation for a democracy than the knowledge acquired during these school days are the habits formed, the desires\nkindled, the ambitions awakened under the wise and sympathetic guidance\nof a teacher with soul and consecration and dynamic personality.\nAbove all, the child should come out of the public school of this republic filled with a spirit of democracy, fired with a love of democracy, aflame\nwith a zeal for democracy, grateful for the blood-bought blessing of democracy, determined to live for it, and, if need be, to die for it. Feeling,\ndesire, motive — these are the steps to action. Constant appeal must be\nmade to these thru history, biography, literature, thru the celebration of\npatriotic days, thru the dramatization of patriotic events, and thru the\nutilization of patriotic emblems.\nThe crowning gift of God to man is democracy builded upon Christian\ncitizenship. Every public schoolhouse in this republic should be a holy\ntemple of democracy, every public-school teacher a high priest daily ministering atits altar. The direst calamity that could befall humanity would\nbe \"for government of the people, by the people, for the people to\nperish from the earth.\" Preparation thru education for its duties and\nobligations is the ordained means for its preservation.\nCenturies ago in England, because of his influence in making two kings,\nthe Earl of Warwick won the title of ''king-maker.\" In America today,\nevery teacher in every public school is, in a truer sense, a king-maker; for,\nif he be true to his high calling, he is a maker of many good American\ncitizens, every one of whom is a ruler and a king.\n\nTHE COMMON\nCARROLL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAS AN INSTRUMENT\n\nG. PEARSE,\n\nPRESIDENT,\nMILWAUKEE,\n\nOF DEMOCRACY\n\nSTATE NORMAL\nWIS.\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nFor two and a half centuries, the American common school has stood as\nthe most notable instrumentality for advancing and strengthening and\nperpetuating the sentiments of democracy among the people of this nation,\nand the most powerful agency for giving American hearts to the children\nof immigrants from foreign lands, which any nation has ever known.\nThe founders of the Republic lookt upon a national system of public\nschools as an institution primarily of social and political nature and expediency. It seemed to them not a means of producing elegant and cultured\n\n"}
{"page": 95, "printed_page": "83", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTEE\n\nCOMMON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\ng\n\nor even intelligent men and women, except as intelUgent citizen\nship could\nthe better ground itself in the traditions and the underly\ning principles of\nour government; it was not thought of as a plan by which the\nindustrial\nefficiency or the vocational value or skill of the people might be\npromoted\nand built up. A national system of public schools seemed to them desirable\nbecause from its then scattered schoolrooms might come forth a homogeneous people, speaking a common language, familiar with the same literature, fired by the same burning eloquence of the national leaders with which\nthe school had made them familiar, filled with the sentmients of political\nequality and personal responsibility for good government without which\nour system of public rule must break down.\nIt is true that since the crusade of Horace Mann two generations ago\nwe have added to our idea of the state's duty; we have come to think not\nonly that the school should give this fundamental and primarily political\neducation to all its children, but that every youth reared m the state should\nhave open to him the higher education which can be had in the high school\nand the university.\nWe believe that this more extended education pays, not only in the\nold sense of giving to the state more competent and better disposed selfgoverning citizens, but also in that the more extended training, besides the\nadded capacity which it gives for appreciating and practicing the duties of\ngood citizenship, is a good financial investment, increasing the citizen's value\nto himself or to his employer, as a producer, as well as his value to the\ncommunity, as a spender of that which he has received for his produce.\nBut still the excuse for a public-school system remains what it was. It is\na means of rendering more successful the working, and more certain the\nperpetuity, of democratic government.\nFor many years it has been true that the industries once carried on in\nthe American home no longer form a part of the home's activities; the children in fewer and fewer families are trained by their parents in habits of\nuseful labor; more and more of our people live in towns, where, as things\nare now, children not only have less chance to work, but less opportunity for\nplay, and for engaging in any kind of vigorous, wholesome physical exercise.\nFor these and other reasons, the boys and girls in our schools miss an\nimportant part of their education, which was once carried on at home and\nwhich greatly assisted the school in its work of turning out resourceful and\nsuccessful men and women, fit to grapple with life. Our common schools\nhave not been, and are not, as successful in their work as they might be.\nMany boys and girls, failing to receive the benefits of the home work and\ntraining, and, as a result, lacking industry and application and initiative\nand mental and physical power, do not do as weU as they ought to do in\nthe school. Many of them fail to pass, and clog up the primary and\nlower grammar grades. Many, humiliated and shamed by their failure,\nleave school, unfit to meet the duty which Ues beyond the school.\n\n"}
{"page": 96, "printed_page": "84", "text": "84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nFrom another direction, our educational system has had trouble. The\nuniversity has been built up on top of the college. Four years in high\nschool, four years in college, four or five years in the university, or in the profes ional ortechnical school, bring the student, who often suffers a year, or\ntwo or three, of retardation, to the end of his professional preparation and\nto the beginning of his professional career at twenty-eight or twenty-nine\nor thirty years of age, or even at an age beyond thirty. This is from\nthree to six years too late, and there is now tremendous pressure to shorten\nthe system of academic preparation. The university wants its students\nearlier; the college wants the high school to send its product on to college\nsooner; it also wants the high-school student to come to college better\nversed in Latin and algebra and other studies on which the college studies\nare, to a large extent, based. High-school people are nervous and restive\nunder this criticism and demand. They have been accustomed to defer\nto the colleges and universities, and are in many instances anxious to carry\nout the later suggestions, in order to rehabilitate themselves in college\ngood graces.\nPublic-school men have tried different remedies to retain their unpromising and unsuccessful pupils thru the grammar grades. The industrial class,\nthe prevocational class — which is usually the industrial class under another\nname — ^and the disciplinary class fot laggard and troublesome grammarschool pupils, all of these have been tried at one time or other, at various\nplaces. Some degree of success has sometimes been attained; the public\nschools are still working on the problem from their standpoint.\nBut now comes another proposal from the standpoint of the college,\n•It is remembered that in Europe — notably in England and in Germany —\nthose boys who are to go to college are taken out from the mass of the\nchildren at ten or twelve years of age and set to learning Latin and algebra\nand the other subjects which are considered most important as college\npreparatory work. In this way, the children of the families of the upper\nclasses, and that small number of children of humble birth who give brilliant\nintellectual promise, are separated from the children of the masses at the\nage of twelve or thereabouts, and are given a preparation for college that is\nmost satisfactory to the authorities of the higher schools.\nIn the United States today, the universities wish to demand the college\ncourse from those who come to them; the colleges wish the high school to\ngive more thoro grounding in college-fitting subjects; the high schools wish\nto please the colleges. Over all hangs the necessity of sending young men\nout to the work of life two or three years earlier than at present. Neither\nthe university nor the college wishes to have these years cut from its apportionment oftime; the high school is willing to become a relatively more\nimportant factor. Hence comes the proposition that the two years be\nsaved by taking them away from the elementary schools. The seventh and\neighth grades are to be cut away from the other elementary grades and\n\n"}
{"page": 97, "printed_page": "85", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nDEMOCRACY\n\ng\n\nattacht to the high school. The six-and-six plan is to be\nadopted-^ sixyear elementary school, followed by a six-year high school.\nLooking at this first from the high-school standpoint, a number\nof young\npersons— that relatively small contingent who go to college—\nwould\ngo more\nthoroly trained and prepared in those things which the college demand\ns.\nThese might even come in at such an age that they would save a part, or all*\nof the two or three years which are now worrying the coUege and university!\nBut it would do another thing. It would bring the boys and girls at the\nage of twelve years into the high schools, where the essential feature is\ndifferentiation of courses, the separation of students mto groups, accordmg\nto the ultimate purpose of their studies. Thus at the age of twelve, instead\nof at the age of fourteen as under the present plan, we should have our\nyoung people in the high school separated into groups on the basis of \"probable future employment.\"\nThere 'are enough agencies already which tend to separate our people into\nclasses and to destroy their soUdarity and to give\nthem a narrowed and selfish\noutlook on life. Powerful economic and social agencies of this sort assail\nthem constantly after they leave the schoolroom. It would be inexcusable\nfor the school to contribute to this growth of separateness and lack of a\ncommon knowledge and of common experiences, which would result if the\ntime of making choices and entering upon careers were to be moved downward from the end of the fourteenth year to the end of the twelfth year\n— young people looking toward commerce by themselves, those destined\nfor industries by themselves, those directed toward the higher education by\nthemselves. No more powerful wedge to cleave our people into classes has\never entered into our public life than would be the estabhshment of this\ntwelve year limit of the time during which American children should be\neducated together, with common experiences and common aims, and permitted to grow together toward a conomon American citizenship.\nTurn now to the common school as part of the six-and-six plan.\nEvery practical school man knows that the leadership of the younger children in a school by the members of the higher classes is a tremendously\nimportant affair. The younger students are interested in their older\nschoolmates and in their doings, and, to a large extent, take their ideals\nand standards from them. To take the seventh and eighth grades away\nfrom the elementary schools would be to deprive those schools of the\nbenefit which the influence of those older students might confer.\nIt is known to all practical school men also that it is not easy to keep\nstrong men and the more competent women in the service of the elementary\nschool; these are constantly tempted away by the more attractive salaries\nand working conditions of the secondary schools and by the competition\nof business. With the seventh and eighth grades transferred to the high\nschool, the outrush of these people would be very greatly increast, both\nbecause the increast high-school membership would require more high-\n\n"}
{"page": 98, "printed_page": "86", "text": "86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nschool teachers, and because the young children left in the elementaryschools, including the sixth grade and the grades below, could be controlled\nby persons with less personality and less force, so that the positions in the\nelementary schools would to a large extent fall to those less qualified\nfor leadership.\nIn schools of this sort, then, the children of the people would be educated\n— schools filled with children too immature to understand or to receive\nthe impress of Americanism and national consciousness; schools in which\nthe children would be deprived of the leadership of their elder, and bolder,\nand more capable companions; schools presided over and taught by instructors who could control and manage young children still in the obedient\nstage, but who would be in many instances deficient in the higher and more\nimportant qualities of leadership.\nThe stamp and hallmark of citizenship would thenceforward be put upon\nthe future American citizen in the secondary school, the six-year high\nschool; and this secondary school can never produce the kind and quality\nof citizenship most to be desired. Groupt, from the time they reach an\nage when the ideals of citizenship and nationalism are formed, in separate\ncourses, each with reference to his *' probable future employment,\" that\ncommon knowledge and common experience which might in the years from\ntwelve to fourteen do so much to mold the coming citizens into a true and\ncommon pattern of thought and sentiment would no longer be possible,\nnor thought desirable in the secondary school, which would swallow him up\ntwo years earlier than now. In that school his standards and ambitions and\nattitude toward life would be swayed and shaped by his already determined future career.\nOn the other hand, the American common school, so long the nursery and\nstronghold of common national knowledge and experience, the laboratory\nwhere Russian, Polish, Italian, Irish, and German children, with those of our\nearly American stock, have met and studied, and workt, and played, and been\ntransformed into young Americans, will be no longer the American common\nschool as we have known it, but will have become the American infant school.\nNo duty just now resting upon the American people is more vital or\npressing than to see that this thing, this mutilation of the common school,\ndoes not come about — that the American common school be not reduced\nto a position of little influence as an instrument of democracy.\n\nG. STANLEY\n\nHALL,\n\nTHE WAR\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nCLARK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nWORCESTER,\n\nMASS.\n\nIn regard to teaching in the schools and colleges on the subject of the\npresent war, in its many and rich relations to geography, history, economics,\netc., we find, in a recent survey of local conditions, measures ranging all\n\n"}
{"page": 99, "printed_page": "87", "text": "Sessions!\n\nTHE\n\nWAR\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n,\n\no\n07\n\nthe way from timid prohibition of aU allusions to\nthe war to the heroic\nextreme of giving it a weekly and even daily place,\nand of utilizing to the\nuttermost, and m as many subjects as possible, the unprec\nedented wealth of\nmterest it has everywhere generated. To my own\nmind there has been\nnowhere m the whole history of education a more sublime\nspectacle than that\nof the children and youth in this country, representing\nall the warring\nnationalities, foUowing together the actual mcidents of\nthe great struggle\nand their relations to place, time, and human welfare-doing this\nimpartially, asbefits the true spirit of neutraUty, in the effort to know and understand. Education here has an unprecedented opportunity. The awful\nheritage of racial and national enmity that has come down thru so many\ncenturies, even from the Crusades, and which has been fanned by so many\nwars, has, thank God, no place on these shores. All of us, save the Indians\nalone, are immigrants or descendants of immigrants; and while Jews,\nIrish, Teutons, Germans, Saxons, and all the rest who have come here not\nonly may but should maintain loyalty to their fatherland, conserve its\ntraditions and customs, cultivate its literature and language, to give our\nown national life variety and to prevent stagnation, we insist only on a\nparamount loyalty to America, and that all must agree to differ and never\nto allow these Old World rancors to break out into open conflict here nor to\ninterfere with the prime duties of citizenship. I have heard college and\neven high-school pupils, lined up in debate, advocate with all the ardor of\nyouthful conviction the cause of both sides of the war, singing alternately\n\"Rule, Britannia,\" \"Die Wacht am Rhein,\" and the \"Marsellaise,\" but\nin the end joining, sometimes hand in hand, in singing \"The Star-Spangled\nBanner\" as a doxology; and I lately attended a three-day university\nconference where eminent statesmen and professors of each of the belligerent powers in turn presented the cause of his fatherland, each having\ninnings on successive days or sessions, and, while each remained unconvinst,\nall agreed to differ as by a gentleman's agreement. This high and ideal\nneutrality is possible only in this country. It is such illustrations of the\nimpartial judicial attitude that make us thrill and tingle with patriotic\npride, and realize that the true verdict of history about this war, whenever\nit comes, will be that of intelligent and matured American opinion. To\ndevelop and strengthen such sentiments in the rising generation is, in my\njudgment, the supreme and unique present duty of the half-miUion American\nteachers. This is the way of freedom and permanent peace, and it is our\ntrue national destiny, which the world now looks to and calls upon us to\nlead in realizing.\nOne thing that war is surest to do is to bring members of a common\ncountry together. As all gregarious animals huddle in danger, so in war\nmen drop differences of party, creed, and rank, and unite against a common\nfoe. There is greater toleration and mutual sympathy and aid. Early\nin August, 1914, trains in France, Germany, and other countries were\n\n"}
{"page": 100, "printed_page": "88", "text": "88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncrowded with people flocking from their summer homes in the country back\nto the city, six weeks earlier than usual, simply to be with others, to join\nthe crowds on the street, early and late. Social barriers were forgotten,\nstrangers became friends, and everywhere the instinct of the herd dominated\nthe selfish interests of the individual. In war the state tends to approach\nthe condition of the hive, where the worker bee works itself to death in a\nfew months for the good of the hive — which goes on perpetually — or of the\nant hill, where the warrior class seems to long to die for its insect country.\nSo in desperate crises of battle soldiers face greater odds in closer formation,\nbecause even contact of elbows makes for psychic unity, strength, and\nbravery, so that they attempt feats of valor they could and would not\nbe made to perform if they were a few yards apart. Thus, as some offset\nto its horrors, war reduces egoism and inclines people to sacrifice property,\ntime, ease, and even life itself to a larger whole, the commonweal; and\ngetting ready to do this is the true inner preparedness that should now\nand here have its appeal to us and thru us touch and form the hearts of the\nrising generation.\nAnd what is country, which now calls men to rally to and face the awful\nchance of death under its flag ? Hegel said that the state was the supreme\nembodiment of absolute reason, and therefore the best mundane incarnation of the Divine. Rothe thought that it should now take the place in\nman's love and devotion of the church itself. The education department\nof France has for two decades striven to develop the highest possible love\nand devotion to la patrie and to make this a veritable religion; and Japan\nhas made the state almost a divinity, the supreme object of the love and\ndevotion of all its citizens. Devotion to the state and its institutions, which\neven in ancient Athens was good enough for Socrates to choose to die for,\nmakes perhaps the best and highest fore-school of religion; and as the soul\nso naturally passes from nature to nature's God, so patriotism impels us to\nrise from love of country to love of God. Precisely this transition is now\noccurring, and the present war is already beginning to bring about a great\nand unique revival of religion.\nAll the now voluminous literature on war psychology shows that it is\nreversionary, plunging man back to his basal nature, or immersing him in\nprimitive instincts and emotions. When the soldier reaches preparation\ncamps, the work of drilling and the close day and night companionship with\nhis fellows makes his old life seem dull and monotonous by comparison, and\neven home, after the first few weeks, begins to seem a little far off and unreal\namid the intense occupations and .interest that absorb his energies. When\nhe reaches the trenches, he can think of nothing but his own personal\ncomfort and safety, and when the charge of attack or defense comes, he is so\nmad with the brutal instinct to kill in order not to be killed, that he often\nacts with the utmost heroism, or perhaps cowardice, without knowing it;\nand when it is all over it often takes hours for him to realize what he has\n\n"}
{"page": 101, "printed_page": "89", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\n■ WAR\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\no^\n^\n\nbeen thru, done, suffered, or seen, so that he comes\nback to the memory of\nhis larger environment and recalls his distant home\nand famUy as if wakine\nup to his old self again. Sometimes, after it is all over,\nthe grip of battle\npersists so that he remains long under the speU of its delusi\nons and thinks\nhimself still in the awful fray. His soul, nerves, muscle\ns, and eyes have\nbeen subjected to such strams that he may never be quite\nthe same again\neven if he has had no scratch of harm; and the quahty of his future\nparenthood may have suffered subtle deterioration from fear, rage, and\ntension\nthat utterly possest him. The psychic life of the soldier is narrowed and\nintensified and he is thrown back to the old plane of the brutal strugg\nle to\nsurvive by overcoming the enemy.\nAmid all this regression, there are old, half-forgotten, good instincts\nalso that awaken. For immemorial ages, historic and prehistoric man\nhas always and everywhere been a religious anunal, subject to countless\ngods, rites, and superstitions. For ages he lived in tribes, hordes, clans,\nto the members of which he was bound by ties closer even than those of\nclassic friendship— closer even, some tell us, than those of romantic love.\nThe individual was little more than a single cell in the larger social organism,\nwhile he and it alike were felt to be always subject to higher powers that\ncontrolled the life and fate of both the units and the whole which they composed. From the closest of all brotherhood ties that once bound each to\neach, and also from the constant sense of dependence upon supernal agencies,\nwhich in the childhood and youth of our race were so long an ever-brooding\npresence, science, industry, and civiKzation have long tended to set man\nfree, so that the ties that once bound man to man and all to the unseen have\ngrown weak as selfishness has grown ruthless, and each tries to be, do,\nand get the most that is possible for himself, ignoring the claims of others\nand forgetting the interests of the whole. Between companions in arms\nthe ancient close ties of brotherhood strongly tend to be restored; and\nnever so much as in moments of great danger, is the sense of being in the\nhands of a power not ourselves, so irresistible.\nAs in the field, so at home, differences of party, creed, race, wealth,\neducation, tend to be forgotten in a common purpose, and radicals and conservatives, rich and poor, Jews and Gentiles, laborers and capitahsts, skeptics and believers, aristocrats and peasants, work together and contribute\neach in his way to bear the common burden with a new sympathy and\nsolidarity. The- colonies of England and France, the loyalty of which had\nseemed wavering, volunteered regiments, and home-rule advocates, parties\nof opposition, and even militant femmism reduced and even suspended\nactivities, and many a workingmen's organization resolved not to strike\ntill peace came. In Germany most socialists fell into Hne; in Belgium men,\nwomen, and children died and suffered in the mterest of the one supreme\ncause of country, while in England millions volunteered for the front\nwithout conscription. If love is measured by what men wiU sacrifice or\n\n"}
{"page": 102, "printed_page": "90", "text": "go\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nrisk to attain its object, how dear must each country be to those who have\npaid such a price for it and made it in a new sense the larger self of each!\nThis war is bringing about a remarkable revival of religion, both at home\nand in the field. We have all wondered that France could fight so persistently and desperately with no great victory or glory to sustain its courage. One (if not the chief) reason for this moral miracle is found in the\nnew religious soul that appeared in her literature on the very eve of the\noutbreak of the war.\nOnly a few years ago, near the end of the hundred years of the Concordat, when France threw off the power of the church, she seemed drifting\nback toward the secularism of the Revolution or the Commune. But now\nmany of the most influential intellectuals have become God-seekers, and\nsome of them might almost be called modern apostles of religion. Bertrand's Saint AugusHn, the chief literary sensation of three seasons ago,\nread everywhere, is fairly infectious with the spirit of the last of the church\nfathers, and the author ends by calling upon all who read his book to pray\nfor him that he may be like Augustine; and the book itself is an appeal to\nall to help the great Bishop of Hippo to establish the eternal City of God\non earth. Juliette Adam, dean of literary women of France, the George\nSand of today, who not many years ago wrote her very confessional book\nentitled The Pagan, now, in a new work entitled The Christian, renounces the\npaganism she has profest for a lifetime and announces her conversion\nto Christ, and is no less ardent in her new faith than was Tolstoy. Psichari,\na grandson of Renan, who lately fell at the head of his battery of artillery,\nleft a story that thrilled France, telling how after a stormy youth he had\nfound religion at the head of a military expedition in Mauretania. The\ntext of his book is the story of the Roman centurion in the New Testament\nwho sent to Jesus, with faith that he could heal by word at a distance.\nSoldier and Gentile tho the petitioner was, Jesus hastened to do all that he\nwisht, which shows how our dear Lord on earth respected the true soldier,\nfor he did thus to no one else. A grandson of Pasteur, who died heading a\ncharge on the Marne, also a literary star, left behind him a book sold and\nread everywhere, urging that no man can be a mature, complete man who\nis not a Christian, and that every true Christian is a soldier, and every true\nsoldier a Christian, because both consist in finding something the individual would die for if called to do so. The Holy Mother, Saint Genevieve,\n(the patron saint of Paris), Joan of Arc, three lives of whom appeared in a\nsingle year, are especially glorified thruout France now, because each of\nthese three greatest of women represents the life of devotion and selfsacrifice to which men are called and instinctively inclined in times of great\npublic trouble and danger. I cannot pause even to name here many other\nnovels, dramas, poems, great pictures, which show how a renaissance of\nthe very heart of Christianity in academic, cultured France, all of it spontaneously, independent of the church, has developt. This, when seen a\n\n"}
{"page": 103, "printed_page": "91", "text": "Sessions!\n\nTHE\n\nWAR\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nlittle later in its true historic perspective, will show, to paraphrase\nAugustine,\nthat as the hearts of youths and maidens turn to love in its season,\nso the\nsoul of man is normaUy Christian and, however far it may seek, call\nnever\nfind true rest save in God.\nSo, too, in Germany we now find the very same trend, altho it came a\nlittle later and is shown in a different way. Here much if not most of the\nbest literature of the last few decades centered about the problems of\nNietzsche and his superman, whose chief duty was to make the most of\nhimself, develop hhnself to the uttermost, with httle regard for the interests\nof inferiors. There is a long list of such writings, from Widmann's Beyond\nGood and Evil, to the effusions of the fecund tho unspeakable Wedekind\nwho, as the war broke out was read and played everywhere, and who teaches\nthat life means a struggle in which the weak should be left, if not helpt, to\nperish, while the best is he who gets the most and best of everything he wants\nby whatever means. Now, however, if we can accept the testimony of the\nmost competent witnesses, the tide here has turned in the opposite direction.\nBergmann says that the chief culture effect of the war in Germany is the\ndevelopment of deep and strong religious feeling, and that the student soldier\nwho went out with Nietzsche in his knapsack now reads the New Testament,\nthe sale of which has immensely increast. In this war, he says, \"men\ndesert philosophy and become Hke children seeking their father's hand.\"\nKohler tells us how Gottesdienst has developt with Kriegesdienst, and\nsays that in the trenches we are seeing how no man can really offer his\nlife for his country without being toucht by the divine love of his fellowcountrymen and native land. Another writer tells us that in addition to\nthe three fronts Germany faces she is now facing a fourth, God and heaven.\nAt home and at the front men are reconsecrating themselves to the Goci of\ntheir childhood and their parents. Hirschfeld tells us of the religious\nmysticism and high moral ideahsm war is developing as it drags on its\nawful train of disaster.\nIn France and Germany, where culture had so largely separated itself\nfrom the church, the war is bringing a great and spontaneous turn of the\ntide back to the very core of Christianity, viz., the subordination of self\nto the service of God and man. The flood tide in this direction may be\nquite as strong in England or in Russia, but so far it has found expression\nmainly in the channels of the estabhsht church, and has not, as among the\nGauls and Teutons, broken out new ways for itself; but it is there.\nHere, then, we see the only ray of hope that good may in the end\ncome out of this awful holocaust. Was this river of blood and tears necessary to wash away the sms of selfishness which have developt in those lands\nthat are most advanst in modern civilization ? Was it necessary to bring\nthem back to the first principles of altruism and to teach the lesson that\nlife is service ? Will the millions of lives and all the newly inflamed hates\nas\nteach those who dwell together as citizens in each land to live more\n\n"}
{"page": 104, "printed_page": "92", "text": "92\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDt/CAtlON\n\nASSO'ClAfib^\n\n(General\n\nbrethren among themselves, and, if so, is this precious treasure worth the\nawful price ?\nMeanwhile, what is the lesson wafted to us more clearly every day from\nthe long-drawn battle lines and from the afflicted homes ? Is it not that\nof a preparedness that is not mere parade, procession, or pageantry, but\ninner and moral? Is not every class prejudice, every racial or religious\nantagonism, every social barrier that is broken down, the most effective\nkind of preparedness ? Must we not all now feel the call to rich and poor,\nlaborers and capitalists, learned and ignorant, to get together, understand\neach other, pool our interests, and to devise new ways of cooperation?\nDoes not the spirit of true preparedness suggest to our legislators that there\nare things above party, and also that in coming political campaigns zest\nfor opposing candidates and platforms be tempered with moderation,\nbecause we are all members of one body ? We are told that the most thrilling slogan in Germany is the cry, \"Deutschland iiber Alles.\" What about\nthe same slogan, ''America above all,\" here? Are we not each and all\ncalled to rise to a higher moral and rehgious plane and to find new points of\nconnection here between patriotism and religion, since a republic is, after\nall, more or less a theocracy ? Should not North and South, East and West,\nwage-earner and employer, men and women, members of every and of no\nchurch, seek fresh points of rapport, sympathy, toleration, each with each,\nand is there not a new oracle, the voice of which is now heard in every\nearnest soul, telling us that all men or organizations that set any class\nagainst any other in this great republic are treasonable to true preparedness?\nPreparedness makes a yet closer and yet more personal appeal. As\nthe Greek athletes and the German Turners under Jahn celebrated physical\nbeauty — the former, youth and health for the glory of Hellas and its gods —\nso now personal duty and the motive to keep our own condition, both\nphysical and moral, at its highest point, should have an added motive in\nthe thought that our country may need the very utmost we have or can be\nor do. Not only the idle rich, but cloistered and sequestered knowledge,\nnot put to practical service, have now new and merited censure. But\nthe most efficient of all preparedness always was and will be personal\npurity and social righteousness, a life of justice and integrity, and of appetites and passions controlled and ever refined for higher functions.\nThus the war calls each of us today to examine ourselves and, first of all,\nto make peace, harmony, and poise within, till we find something in our own\nbreasts which we love so much more than we love life itself that we would\nlive or die for it as the gods decreed. Only those who have found this precious\nsuper-personal worth or value, and performed in their hearts the choice that\nmust be made if the call comes, have learned in so doing the chief lesson\ntaught us by these awful days, and are fitted for true and full citizenship\nin the new world that ought to, and doubtless will, emerge out of what now\nseems the greatest moral catastrophe that has ever befallen Christendom.\n\n"}
{"page": 105, "printed_page": "93", "text": "Sessions)\n\nTHE\n\nWHAT\nFANNIE\n\nFERN\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n'\n\nPERMANENT\n.\n\nPEACE\n\nTHE PUBLIC SCHOOLS CAN\nTOWARD\nMAINTENANCE OF PERMANENDO\nT PEACE\nANDREWS,\n\nSECRETARY,\nAMERICAN\nSCHOOL\nPEACE\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nV<3\n\nTHE\nLEAGUE\n\n*\n\nIn these days of world-war we feel more keenly than ever\nthe responsibility ofthe great trust imposed upon us as educational workers. Fired\nwith a deep sense of loyalty, we are eager to assume the obligations\nwhich\nthe new national conditions may demand. We are not yet clear\nas to the\ncourse, for the world is still unsettled, but we do know that this greates\nt\ncrisis of the world's history will effect a new conception of the meanin\nand\npurpose of the educational process. No one can ignore the fact thatg after\nthe European war we shall live in a changed world. The terrible events\nof the past two years have brought us face to face with this startling\nreality, and no one conversant with the history of education can fail to\nunderstand what its significance may become as an agency for restoring\ncivilization. We are forst to ask ourselves the question: What part shall\nthe American public school take in the new world-order ?\nOur first problem is to determine what the service is which education\nshould render to the state. We have long understood that education is\nintended to preserve and to promote a true devotion to American traditions,\nbut we have been driven by the succession of events to recall to our minds\nthe definition of American ideals. The founders of the RepubHc proclaimed freedom, democracy, and justice as the principles in which they\nput their faith, and when the great conflict came for the preservation of the\nUnion, these principles survived. Today, as the United States plays a\nmighty role in the family of nations, she still proclaims freedom, democracy,\nand justice as her abiding principles.\nIt was inevitable that the political development of the United States\nshould be influenst by the dominant ideas in world poUtics. We became\nan independent nation when individualism absorbed the thoughts of people.\nAs this idea was gradually supplanted by that of nationalism, which found\nexpression in the desire for conquest, gave rise to the concert of the great\npowers in Europe, and enunciated the Monroe Doctrine in the Western\nHemisphere, the United States focust its purpose on the building of a nation\nin which freedom, democracy, and justice should be the governing principles. This was a mighty task, but after a century of national life we\nwere able to show the world the unique spectacle of a union of forty-eight\nstates containing representatives from all the races of the world, working\ntogether and abiding by the laws of the central government, each state\nretaining its identity, having its local laws and local government, pursuing its own ideals, yet remaining loyal to the whole. But the nineteenth\ncentury pushed the idea of nationahsm to its extreme limits. The nation\ncame to be conceived as an end in itself and a form of patriotism developt\n\n"}
{"page": 106, "printed_page": "94", "text": "94\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthruout the world which recognizes the nation as the highest human purpose. The logical result of this conception is the present war of empires,\nthe culmination, let us hope, of that idea which has so permeated the world\nwith its baleful influence.\nAnd what was the role of education during this period of nationalism ?\nIt reflected the political ideal. The heroes of each nation were those who\nhad contested most successfully against the welfare of other nations. The\nteaching of geography was mostly confined to the growth of the individual\nnation, with little regard to its relations with other peoples. The emphasis\nin history was placed on wars and political history, with almost entire\nignoring of the economic, social, and educational development of the nation,\nand the connection of these forces with world-wide movements which made\nthis development possible. The German system of industrial and commercial education, inaugurated by Bismarck, developt that intensified\nspecialization which to a supreme degree ministers to the one idea of\nnationalism. Education in England, altho providing for a broader outlook on human relations, is in its true essence but a devotion to the internal\nneeds of the British empire.\nFollowing the impulse of nationalism, the idea of internationalism\nbegan to develop. At the very end of the nineteenth century representatives of the nations met for the first time in the world's history in a conference to consider the maintenance of general peace. This first Hague\nconference is described by international jurists and statesmen as the\nbeginning of a new epoch for international law and international relations.\nIt seemed to have ushered in a period in which the endeavor should be to\nsubstitute the reign of reason for that of force. The idea of internationalism appeared to be gaining increasing support thruout the civiUzed world\nwhen the present war checkt its progress and stunned the hopes of those\nwho had expected that the new idea would usher in an era of peace and\njustice. These hopes were founded, not merely on the action of the governments, but also upon the unity and solidarity of the human race, illustrated\nin the last half-century by a myriad of examples of interdependence and\nactive cooperation in all the lines of human activity.\nThe spirit of internationalism is reflected in education by the international exchange of university professors and students, the international\nvisits for the study of educational systems and methods, the formation of\ninternational poUty clubs in colleges and universities thruout the world,\nthe organization of the school peace leagues of the United States and of\nGreat Britain, the increast interest in the study of international law, and\nthe holding of international educational congresses and conferences. The\nrecommendation, outlined in the resolutions of the International Congress\non Education at Oakland last summer, for the appointment of educational\nattaches to the legations and embassies thruout the world, is a potent\nmanifestation of the spirit of internationalism.\nThis idea is most strikingly\n\n"}
{"page": 107, "printed_page": "95", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAND\n\nPERMANENT\n\nPEACE\n\nillustrated in the calHng of the International Conference on Educati\non by\nthe Dutch government for the purpose of discussing educational problem\ns\ncommon to the nations and for the ultimate aim of estabHshing an international bureau of education. It is indeed a markt contradiction that this\ndiplomatic conference, aimed to create world standards in education and\nto promote those world ideals for which all civilization should strive, should\nhave been put aside on account of war, participated in by those very nations\nwhich had appointed delegates to the Conference. Neither the political\nnor the spiritual internationalism was able to prevent this war, for the\nidea of nationalism was still too predominant.\nIn this condition of world disorder, what is the service which education\nshould render? Heretofore the role of education has been to serve the\nnation as the nation has defined its service. Hereafter, if education is to\nbecome effective in imparting ideals that will advance the higher interests\nof civilization, it must lead over all other forces. Education should become\nthe essential agency in the restoration of civilization. It should teach the\npeople of each and every nation to understand the true place of their\ncountry among the nations of the earth; it should inculcate the idea that\nthe peoples are partners in ideals and purposes, and that above all other\nthings they should prize the fruits of their own civiHzation; it should\ndevelop a new conception of national rights and international obligations;\nand it should help to spread the conception of world-friendship and worldloyalty. Education will be able to serve this larger cause of humanity\nonly if it comes to its own as the intellectual and moral guide for the nation.\nThis calls for high leadership, for it implies nothing less than the creation\nof a new national life in all countries, the breaking down of national barriers,\nand the internationaUzation of education itself.\nAnd what part shall the American public school take ? Have we the\nleaders who can act in this momentous time ? Reared in a country whose\nfoundation principles are freedom, democracy, and justice, what group of\neducators is better prepared to take up the task ? World-brotherhood is\nbut the expansion of American faith. But it is a new task and fraught\nwith great difficulties. It involves a reorganization of the instruction\ngiven in geography and history, an extension of the work in civics and\nethics to a world basis, and a simultaneous effort to secure the cooperation\nof educational workers in all lands for the realization of a world patriotism\nbased on justice and good-will. It is a different problem from the proposed plans for the readjustments of courses of study, for the training of\nleaders in educational positions, or for reorganizations in educational\nbut it in no way conflicts with these necessary and urgent\nadministration,\nreforms.\nThe new task involves the putting-forth of a national ideal in education.\nThe present situation forbids delay, for at this very time an attempt is\nhostile\nbemg made to force ideas into our educational system which are\n\n"}
{"page": 108, "printed_page": "96", "text": "96\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nto our traditions. There are some people in this country who, in the\nname of patriotism, are asking the schools to stir up fear of other nations\nthru compulsory military training. The American public school needs an\nofficial spokesman, a national department of education, which can speak\nwith authority. When proposals are made to introduce new ideas into\nthe schools, the opinion of this department should be sought. Experts\nin education, and not the military, commercial, religious, nor any other\nclass of people, should decide what should go into the schools. This expert judgment should be based on a well-establisht educational ideal, and\nthere should be but one ideal for the nation. In the midst of the extraordinary circumstances of the time in which we live, when the United States\nseems to be destined to assume a responsibility in laying foundations for a\nnew civilization, when educational duties imply contacts beyond our border,\nthe functions of our educational department should be officially sanctioned.\nThe office of the United States commissioner of education should be second\nto no other office in our government. He, with an advisory staff, should\ndefine our educational ideal and should devise measures to incorporate\nit into our educational system. It should be the patriotic duty of every\ntown, city, and state to foster this ideal in the schools.\n■ What should this ideal be ? Certainly it should be international. It\nshould imply some motive lying outside and beyond ourselves. It should\nbe impelled by the impulses of freedom, democracy, and justice, and by\nthe high hope that on the pages of the world's history the United States\nwill stand out as a nation which remained true to its purpose in the service\nof humanity. God grant that it may be given to the teachers of America\nto lift this light on high for the illumination of the world.\n\n"}
{"page": 109, "printed_page": "97", "text": "Sessions!\n\nMASS\n\nMASS\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nTHRU\n\nGROUP\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nTHRU\n\nGROUP\n\nO. B. MARTIN,\n\nUNITED\n\nTRAINING\n\n97\n\nSTATES\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nTRAINING\nOF AGRICULTURE\n\nD.C.\n\n'\n\nOnce upon a time, not so long ago, a Rhodes scholar from South Africa\nspent a year in this country studying the development of our agriculture\nand the methods of agricultural instruction in operation here. It was my\ngood fortune to visit some of our field workers and field meetmgs with him.\nUpon one occasion in the state of Oklahoma we attended a general round-up\nmeeting in the morning in a certain village. In the afternoon we witnest\nan enthusiastic baseball game between the team of that village arid a good\nstrong country club not far away. While we were looking at the game\nthis young man said: \"I should like very much to carry the great America\ngame of baseball back to my people. How do you think I should do itn?\nDon't you believe that I could carry two dozen baseball\nbooks with me,\nget together a husky bunch of youngsters in a schoolho-rule\nuse, and have them\nstudy the regulations in order to master the game ? \" I told him I did not\nbelieve he could get satisfactory results that way. That is the way not\nto do it. I advised him to get two nines of young men; put one bunch\nat the bat and the other in the field, each man in his place. The pitcher\nwould learn to pitch by pitching; the catcher would learn his part by the\nsame process; the man at the bat would take to his function Uke a duck to\nwater, and all of the rest of the team in the field would soon learn that it\nwas their business to stop the runner at the first, or, at all events, to prevent\nhis going around the diamond. After the game had been going on for a\nweek or ten days, the players could read the rule book to good advantage,\nand they might have frequent opportunity to use it as a book of reference.\nThis Rhodes scholar was planning to take up some teaching work not fully\ncovered in some of the books on pedagogy. He is a coach, or trainer.\nThousands of public-school teachers have depreciated and discounted\nthe word \"teach\" until it does not begin to mean as much as the word\n\"train.\" Solomon evidently had that in mind when he said: \"Train up\nthe child.\" A trainer of wild animals has some lessons worth while for the\nteacher of boys and girls. A baseball coach or a football coach is a teacher\nof high order, because he gets other people to do things well, and furnishes\nsuccessful object-lessons to thousands of people without becommg conspicuous himself.\nA county woman agent enrols seventy-five giris, distributed in groups\nof from six to ten in various parts of a county. These girls grow one-tenth\nof an acre of tomatoes each. They learn about hotbeds, cold frames, transplanting, pruning, staking, and tomato diseases. They get interested in\nmaking successful demonstrations, and they read and study books, buUetins,\nhave\nand papers. They make their uniform caps, aprons, and dresses ; they\nhke\njust\nia,\nparaphernal\nclub\nother\ntheir own badges, emblems, pennants, and\n\n"}
{"page": 110, "printed_page": "98", "text": "98\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nthe ball teams. When the harvest season comes, they put the fruit in cans,\njars, and bottles. Incidentally they learn about sanitation, sterilization,\nand preservation. At the community and county fairs and at the school\nexhibits they demonstrate their skill as a group and as individuals, just\nas much as the football teams do on Thanksgiving Day. They can and\npreserve tomatoes, make puree, catsup, and tomato paste. During the\ncourse of the year's work their families and their neighbors become interested\nin what they are doing, and at public meetings the girls make reports on what\nthey have done and tell about what they have learned. Prize reports and\nessays are publisht in the papers, and circulars, leaflets, and bulletins are\nwidely distributed. At the end of the year practically all of the women and\ngirls in the county, and most of the men and boys, know more about the\ntomato and its products than they ever knew before. Because of the\nknowledge gained and the skill acquired these girls are prepared to look\nafter the surplus fruits and vegetables in the orchards and gardens. Their\nexamples have stimulated many others to do likewise. Still others strive\nto surpass them in similar lines of work. One small woman can swing a\nwhole county.\nWhen the next year begins these same girls plan to grow tomatoes again\nand also to grow some other vegetables which can be utilized to good advantage with the tomatoes. For instance, one group of girls in a southern\ncounty decided to grow pimento peppers. They reasoned out that, inasmuch as the pepper is a cousin to the tomato, they might be able to grow\nthem to good advantage. They also decided that these peppers would do as\nwell in our southern climate as in Spain. They have made delicious chutneys\nand other relishes. They supplied their own pantries and sold more than\nthree thousand dollars' worth of pepper products the first year. A county\nagent sent in a weekly field report which read somewhat as follows: \" I have\nnot done anything for the past three weeks except to train eighty-seven girls\nin the making of Dixie Relish. However, hundreds of girls and women\nhave learned how to make this relish from the club members. There has\nbeen a great deal of discussion about it all over the county, and the editor\nof the county paper wrote an editorial upon the subject.\" The agent evidently filled the whole atmosphere with the aroma of Dixie Relish. Thus\nthe club members utilized the vegetables which they grew and also instructed\nthe whole county.\nPerhaps the most interesting phase of this system of teaching by demonstration that has been developt in recent years is that known as the home\ndemonstration work. Nearly five hundred women agents in the southern\nstates alone are promoting this work now. Every one begins with the idea\nof doing one thing at a time and doing it well. They proceed on the theory\nthat the popular mind is as simple as the mind of a child, even tho the\npeople may be generally intelhgent. They know, too, that it takes time to\nget masses of people to move. A home demonstration agent may be\n\n"}
{"page": 111, "printed_page": "99", "text": "Sessions]\n\nMASS\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nTHRU\n\nGROUP\n\nTRAINING\n\nanxious to instal water-works, to improve sanitary conditions, to instal\nlabor- and time-saving devices and conveniences to beautify the home and\nits surroundings; but she must realize that all of these things cannot be\nundertaken at once. So, many of them have begun with the fireless cooker.\nWith this simple homemade device they utiUze products grown by the girls\nand their mothers in the gardens and poultry yards, and at the same time\nteach incidental lessons. Incidental teaching is helpful because it meets a\nneed which has been discovered and felt. It hits the mark. Confidence is\nsecured and leadership establisht. If these same agents were to go into\nthe homes professedly to teach cooking in an academic and didactic way,\nthey would not be welcome. They gain their entrance in an indirect way\nand give their instruction in supplementary fashion, or as accessory after the\nfact, as the lawyers say. Some have used the iceless refrigerators in the\nsame way. The point is that it is easy to get the second step after the first\none has been properly taken. The construction of the same useful homemade device or convenience by ten or twelve women in a community is\nthe best possible basis for a meeting for study of a phase of domestic\nscience or even the whole subject of home improvement. Comparatively\nfew minds deal in abstractions. The popular mind, as a whole, grasps the\nconcrete and only the concrete.\nA county woman agent who can take some shotgun cans, a small barrel\nchurn, a thermometer, a butter mixer, and a little simple brick-shaped butter\nmold and get one hundred women in different parts of a county to make\ngood butter is a teacher of a higher order than a teacher of Uterature, music,\nart, or languages in a so-called select and finishing school for young ladies.\nQuite a number of county agents have already done this definite piece of\nwork in the making of farm butter. These women have scientific knowledge\nand skill and they also have powers of personality. Incidentally, I believe,\ntheir work constitutes a health campaign more potent than that bemg promulgated byhealth commissions and sanitary boards. They manage to\nget doors and windows screened and flytraps made. Oftentimes they get\nrunning water into the home because they have such fine opportunity to\nshow the need of it. They might lecture on these things until they and\ntheir audiences both became tired, but leadership in this work is not\ndevelopt by much talking. They must get results. They must estabUsh\nobject-lessons so that he who runs may read. They must have objectlessons so that dozens may learn from each one. If an agent should go to\nelse\na home at midnight and train a girl to make better jeUy than anybody\neven\nin that community, the rest of the neighbors would learn the process\n'\nif they never see the agent.\na quarter ot a\nthan\nmore\nthat\nknow\nto\nt\nDoubtless it may be of interes\nn stat^\nsouther\nfifteen\nthe\nin\nup\nlined\nmillion men, women, boys, and girls are\nment.\niprove\nhome-m\nand\nment\nevelop\nfarm-d\nalone to furnish object-lessons in\nIt is\n.\ncountry\nthe\nof\nrest\nthe\nin\nt\nA similar organization is being develop\n\n"}
{"page": 112, "printed_page": "100", "text": "lOO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nsafe to say that ten or twelve people profit directly from each example of\ngood work done by these club members and demonstrators. It is difficult\nto estimate the number who profit indirectly. I believe that number really\napproaches the entire population of the communities and counties where the\nwork is done. It is interesting, also, that there are about nine hundred men\nand nearly five hundred women in the South who are trainers of this great\narmy. The whole organization constitutes a new system of education in\nthis country. It has not been excelled in any other country nor in any other\nage. In fact, there is nothing in the history of civilization which surpasses\nin scope, volume, and possibiUty the great plans of extension work being\ndevelopt by the United States Department of Agriculture, in cooperation\nwith the agricultural colleges and certain other colleges, under what is known\nas the \"Lever Act. ' ' In five more years this fund will yield ten million dollars\nannually. The force of agents will increase, and if all of these agents are as\neffective trainers in their line as the great baseball and football coaches are\nin theirs, the whole map of the country will be changed and the fate of our\ncivilization of the future determined. Other nations have fallen because of\nthe depletion of the soil and the decadence of the homes. This nation, in\ncooperation with the states which compose it, will make the greatest effort\nin the history of civilization to build up a sound agriculture and a great\nhome life.\nThe Greek housewife gave to us the word \"economics.\" The Greek\nword from which it is derived means home regulation or home management. The Greek woman managed the home while her husband's occupation was mainly that of the warrior. She was responsible for supporting\nand rearing the family. She was wise, shrewd, and thrifty. She had rules,\nregulations, system, and thoroness in the conduct of the institution for\nwhich she was responsible. Every time we use the word \"economy\" or\n\"economics\" we compliment this mistress of the home. Men have appropriated the word \"economics\" in order to give standing to their enterprises,\nboth financial and political. They are even extending the word \"economics\" into other lines. This kind of appropriation has gone on to such\nan extent that it seems necessary now to prefix the word \"home\" to the\nword \"economics,\" notwithstanding the fact that we are actually saying\n\"home-management.\" The extension work being conducted by the United\nStates Department of Agriculture and various leading colleges of this\ncountry is a nation-wide effort to restore, reinstate, and re-establish the\nwise practices of the wise and thrifty housewife.\nIt takes a great teacher to do a practical thing in an ideal way. We\nneed to concrete our ideals. Too many ideals are abstract and some are\ntoo ethereal for public consumption. The best instruction that can be\ngiven to the women workers is the instruction given by the founder of this\nwork when he said: \"You can add to the comforts of the home, shape its\nenvironment into lines of beauty, and increase its attractiveness, until the\n\n"}
{"page": 113, "printed_page": "101", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIALIZED\n\nRECITATION\n\nhome shall become the greatest magnet of our\npeople.\" The enUre pro-am\ncalls for mass mstruction, and this must be done\nby individual coaclZ\nawiuig\nand group-trammg\nThe evolution of the organization has been as wonder .\nful as the unfolding\nof the work of mdividuals and groups. In 12 years\nan organization of goo\nmen agents with 150,000 demonstrators has been devel\nopt. Five y^rs\nago there were only 2 women agents and less than 300\ngirls. Today we\nhave 472 women agents in the 15 southern states alone, riding\non horseback, in automobiles, on trains, and even walking, in m buggies\norder to visit\nthe club members and demonstrators in their gardens, in their homes\n, and\nin the schools. The total enrohnent in 1916 is 63,531, includ\ning ghk and\nwomen. The simple garden and cannmg work has grown untU demonstrations are now made in bread-making, poultry-raising, butter-making, and\nhome-equipment and improvement in general.\nOne of the most faithful pioneers of the work expresses the following\nopinion as to its future prospects:\nWithin my angle of vision I see, for this great work, a rich and rising day which is\nours to enjoy, ours to fill with brave efforts and achievements, under the brighter light\nof hope and promise that now shines upon us. May the inspiration we receive enable\neach of us to carry more constant and vital good into rural homes and greater happiness\ninto human lines, remembering that today's opportunities- are the best of all opportunities and that the future bears, for our work, still the better best in all of its fruitfulness.\n\nTHE SOCIALIZED\nFRED M. HUNTER,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nRECITATION\nOF SCHOOLS, LINCOLN, NEBR.\n\nThe other day I heard a thoughtful and forceful speaker declare that\n\" the battles of democracy in the twentieth century are not to be fought\nfor the rights of the individual, because these battles have been fought\nand won, and the principles of individual Uberty estabUsht, but for the\nproper assumption of duties and responsibiUties toward society by the individual.\"\nFor several decades our excess of democracy has been developing into\nan exaggerated individuahsm. So pronounst and universal and so overmastering aprejudice has it become that it is more frequently the stumblingblock of social progress in much of our community life than any other one\nforce. But a new trend of democracy has come with the ideals of social\nresponsibility and social service; and a new community consciousness\nseems springing into being everywhere as an ideal of social democracy.\nWith this awakening of community purpose comes a new responsibihty of the profession. In what terms may a community measure the\nresults of its school system as a social agent ? In what terms may a school\nman measure his system by agencies already existmg m his organization ?\nBoth questions are pointed toward precisely the same mark, and in answer\n\n"}
{"page": 114, "printed_page": "102", "text": "102\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nlet me suggest that the final measure of the worth of the school system is\nto be found in the universality with which it trains the children of the\ncommunity to assume fully the duties and responsibilities of membership\nwithin it, \"saturates them with the spirit of service, and provides them\nwith the instruments of effective self -direction.\"\nThe questions in social administration on which most of our leaders\nagree seem to be about as follows: (i) What is the holding power of the\nschool system ? (2) What rates of progress in the various school steps do\nchildren make as a whole ? (3) What is the type and quality of instruction ? (4) What is the type and quality of the supervision ? (5) What is\nthe social quality and method of development of the curriculum ?\nThe crux of this scale of measurement lies in the social quality of the\ncurriculum and in the methods used in its classroom application. A curriculum and a type of classroom process which eliminate from the school\nsystem at the adolescent period, or shortly thereafter, all children but onehalf of I per cent, and graduate only fifty-six at the apex of the scale for\neach thousand entering at its base (in an average of 386 cities), is not\nassuming its responsibility in community development. A system which\nmaintains a curriculum and classroom activities so slightly attractive, so\nlittle related to the real life of the community, that 67 per cent of those\ndropping out at the adolescent period leave from \"choice,\" and not from\neconomic necessity (Alice P. Burrows' survey of labor certificate pupils.\nBorough of Manhattan), is hardly the social agent that the modern ideal\nof democracy has a right to expect.\nWe must have the socialized curriculum as an expression of the activities,\nthe life, and the ideals of the best in the community, working itself out\nthru the socialized recitation process, in which the center of gravity is not\nin the teacher nor in the subject-matter, but in the child and his practice\nof life-activities. Dr. Dewey has blazed the way with this:\nI should like to refer to the recitation. We all know what it has been — a place\nwhere the child shows off to the teacher and the other children the amount of information\nhe has succeeded in assimilating from a textbook. From this other standpoint, the\nrecitation becomes pre-eminently a social meeting place; it is to the school what spontaneous conversation is at home, excepting that it is more organized, following definite\nlines. The recitation becomes the social clearing-house where experiences and ideas are\nexchanged and subjected to criticism, where misconceptions are corrected, and new lines\nof thought and inquiry are set up.\n\nThe vital element in such a recitation process is its connection with the\nlife of the community. .Children must learn citizenship and acquire the\nability to get along in the world by practice in meeting the problems of\nyouthful citizenship which their miniature communities of home and school\nhave to offer them. They will do real thinking, gather real data, work\nthem over in an organized way, and form conclusions from them only as\nreal problems confront them. Teachers can no longer delude themselves\nwith the comfortable belief that piling up a storehouse of information for\n\n"}
{"page": 115, "printed_page": "103", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIALIZED\n\nRECITATION\n\nuse at some future time and in case of emergency,\nand the concomitant\nwhettmg of the mental activities that incidentally\ngoes with it, constitutes\neducation Nor can they take refuge behind that\nancient and convenient\nbulwark, the theory that the habits and abiUties\ndevelopt in the acquisi\ntion of knowledge in a given field are transferred instan\ntly and without\nloss to any other convenient and desired field. It has\nbecome aU too\napparent to the world of practicaUties, and has been proved to\naU reasonable intents and purposes by the profession, that no such thing\nthat abilities to think and to do in given fields of endeavor come happeiisas a result\nof continual practice in meeting and overcoming obstacles in those\nfieldsthat ideals of life and of right relationship to one's neighbors, and of\nserv^\nice to one's fellow-men, take root and grow and fructify thru contacts\nwith\nsmall social groups that occasion the formation of conclusions upon these\nmatters. No amount of precept nor of textbook knowledge acquired thru\nschoolroom practice ever accomplisht these ends. If the essential practice\nis not offered in the home and school, it will be got elsewhere, and under\nunfavorable environment, and thru the spur of wrong stimuU.\nBut a recitation may offer real problems, and may stimulate the right\nsort of habits and activities on the part of the children in their solution, and\nyet fail in the one great essential as viewed in the light of modem social\ndemocracy. Unless there be a real stimulus to group thinking and cooperative effort, rising out of the school experiences of the children and\ntheir contact with each other, the recitation has done nothing more than\naccomplish an added step in the development of a httle group of individualists. To quote Dewey again:\nWhere the school work consists of merely learning lessons, mutual assistance, instead\nof being the most natural form of cooperation and association, becomes a clandestine\neffort to relieve one's neighbor of his proper duties. So thoroly has this been the prevalent atmosphere of the schoolroom that for one child to help another has become a school\ncrime!\n\nTo summarize: The socialized classroom should be the product of the\nsocialized course of study. It should be motivated from contact with real\nlife. It should offer stimulus to the pupils to solve real problems upon\ntheir own initiative rather than because of the pressure of authority from\nthe teacher. It should lead the pupils into original research in which they\ngather data, organize them, learn to recognize values in their use, and\nreason to conclusions concerning them. And, more important than all,\nit should inspire in the pupils a spirit of social cooperation in their thinking\nand doing.\nThis ideal for our schoolroom activities is not merely the mental vaporizing of the theorists. It is already a practical reahty in many schools.\nIt has been applied to the classroom work of teachers in all subjects, from\nthe manual arts of the primary and intermediate grades to the most formal\nof the high-school classics.\n\n"}
{"page": 116, "printed_page": "104", "text": "I04\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe boys of the technical high schools of Los Angeles plan the\nelementary-school buildings built by the board of education. The pupils\nof the Woodward High School in Cincinnati operate a large farm successfully. Ihave personal knowledge of a group of boys in an elementary\nschool who constructed all of the concrete walks on the grounds of their\nschool.\nLet me cite an example from my own experience in the development of\ncooperative activity in civic instruction. In Lincoln, a Junior Civic\nLeague has been organized thru the cooperation of a Commercial Club\nwhich is thoroly alive to its civic duty. This league has a club in each\nschool consisting of the boys of Grades V to VIII. The total membership\nis over 1400. Two clubs of this league meet each week at the Commercial\nClub Building. There the members listen to an address of some twenty\nminutes, upon a topic concerning citizenship, given by some leading business\nor professional man. They then divide into groups of twenty or thirty\nand spend the remainder of the half-day visiting the civic or industrial\ninstitutions of the city. During the past year they made over 122 such\nvisits. To becomfe members the boys take the ephebic oath as their pledge\nof assumption of civic responsibility:\nWe will never bring disgrace to this, our city, by any act of dishonesty or cowardice.\nWe will fight for the ideals and sacred things of the city, both alone and with many. We\nwill revere and obey the city's laws and do our best to incite a like respect and reverence\nin those above us who are prone to annul or set them at naught. We will strive imceasingly to quicken the public's sense of civic duty. Thus in all these ways we will transmit\nthis city not only not less but greater, better, and more beautiful than it was transmitted\nto us.\n\nThe various clubs have succeeded in accomplishing many things in\na civic way. One club succeeded in running a near-by tobacco shop out\nof business thru a boycott of its wares. Others have succeeded in getting\nvacant lots and unsightly places cleaned up and made sightly and attractive.\nThey have succeeded in numerous instances in getting the city authorities\nto place street lights where needed. Recently they took a complete census\nof the city, in cooperation with a committee of the Commercial Club.\nDuring the summer, in conjunction with a like organization of the girls,\nthey conduct a market for the school and home gardens. I know a group\nof them who have attackt with much zeal a problem suitable for organized\ncharity work. The boys of this club learned that the mother of a small\nbaby and several other small children living in their neighborhood had not\nsufficient funds to buy milk for the baby. These boys undertook in an\norganized and cooperative way the problem of furnishing this family with\nmilk thruout the winter.\nAlmost all of the civics instruction, much of the geography, and some\nof the history work in actual classroom practice centers about the activities\nof this league. Why should not instruction in history, civics, and geography\n\n"}
{"page": 117, "printed_page": "105", "text": "Sessions!\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIALIZED\n\nRECITAT\nION\n■\n\nD\n\nSO gravitate toward the real work and life of the commun\nity ? Why should\nnot as much of real value and real thinking come from the\nuse of knowledge\nand of subject-matter in the solution of everyday proble\nms as in the mere\nparrot-like exercise of memory in classroom reproduction\nthere any\ngood or sensible reason why such questions as the follow?ingIsshould\nnot\nconstitute the bone and marrow of our instruction in the formal\nsubjects?\n(These questions have been used in history- and civics-tests.)\nSuppose that a large, new factory has come to Lincob, bringing\n500 working men\nlargely foreign, who settle with their families in an isolated commmiity,\nliving\ncheaply\nas possible. From what you have learned of civics and citizenship what can asthe\ncommunity dofor these people, (i) thru its government, city, county, or state; (2) thru\nits\nschools; (3) thru the Commercial Club; (4) thru its religious and civic organizaU\non;\nand (5) thru the management of the factory itself as influenst by public opinion ?\nShould a community take care of its poor and unfortunate thru some well-organized\nsociety or thru promiscuous giving? (Outlme your answer under three good reasons,\nwriting a paragraph on each.)\nShould the United States maintain and defend the Monroe Doctrine at the cost of war\nwith a foreign power ?\nNote.— Arrange your answer in the form of four specific and definite statements\nwhich give the evidence you have gathered in your history studies. You may defend\neither side of the question.\nIn your judgment, what attitude would George Washington take toward the nations\nengaged in the present European War, if he were president of the United States at the\npresent time ? Answer this from what you have learned of George Washington as a man\nand from what you know of the way in which he handled the questions of his administration. List the things which he did which cause you to answer as you do.\nShould the United States keep a standing army of one million men, of which\nNebraska's share would be about 10,000 ? (This would probably mean military service\nof about one year for each young man between eighteen and twenty-one years of age.)\nAnswer from what you know of our own wars of the past and of the European wars you\nhave studied. Number and list your reasons.\nShould the United States keep a navy as large as Great Britain's ? Answer from\nwhat you know of the Civil War, the War of 181 2, and the Revolutionary War. List\nyour reasons.\n\nWhy should not our English themes concern matters of everyday Uving ?\nLiterature of eternal merit has always grown from the life of the generation\nthat produced it. Let me give you an example of an oral composition produced by a lad of twelve years durmg a skth-grade recitation in English\nin a city having a well-socialized curriculum and a sociaUzed type of classroom process. I believe you will agree with me that it possesses real\nliterary merit.\nThe First Money I Ever Earned\nnight\nAbout seven years ago my father was an engmeer on the G. R. L R.R. One\nsaid\nThey\nman.\na\nkilled\nand\ntram\nanother\ninto\ntrain\nhis\nran\nhe\nin a fierce snowstorm,\nit worried him\nthat he was not guilty because it was not his fault. He felt so bad and\nwe raised vegetables.\nso that he gave up his job. He bought a ten-acre tract of land and\nbroken heart. After\na\nof\ndied\nhe\nsays\nMother\ndied.\nfather\nmy\nyears,\ntwo\nIn about\nthe vegetables, and my\nthis my mother, my little sister, and I workt very hard to raise\n\n"}
{"page": 118, "printed_page": "106", "text": "lo6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nbiggest brother peddled them. One evening mother called us all to her and told us we\nwould have to give up the place and do something else as we could not go to school and\nkeep up the place. She said we had best sell and go down town. We bought a home\nand mother takes in washing and we children help her all we can.\nLast fall at fair time, as I was passing the fair grounds, I thought maybe if I askt\nthe manager for a job he would give me one. So I did. He told me to come the\nnext morning. I ^^orkt all week and made ten dollars. That was the first money\nI ever earned. I bought these clothes and my books and gave the little I had left to\nmother.\nI want to grow up to be an honest man. I want to earn enough to make me comfortable but not enough to make me unhappy. I would like to be an engineer, but every\ntime I mention it mother cries so, I do not know for sure what I will do.\n\nWhat has been done in attacking this problem of creating a socialminded generation thru the schools of the country is only a beginning.\nThe wave of faith in the efficacy of the doctrine of socialization must spread\nthruout the length and breadth of the land. It must become the dominant\nmental and moral attitude of our great democracy. Our schools will then\ncome into their own as agents in perpetuating the best of our ideals of the\npast and in building a grander social democracy for the future.\n\nTEE EDUCATION\nHOLLIS B. FRISSELL,\n\nOF THE NEGRO\n\nPRINCIPAL, HAMPTON NORMAL\nINSTITUTE, HAMPTON,\nVA.\n\nAND\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nLast February, in the town of Tuskegee, Ala., I attended the funeral of\nBooker T. Washington, a former pupil of mine at Hampton Institute, one\nof the most distinguisht citizens of this country, and perhaps the foremost\nNegro of the world. Henry Watterson, of the Louisville Courier-Journal^\ndeclared that no man since the Civil War had meant so much in the uplift\nof the South as had Booker Washington. In the simple funeral service\nthat was held these words were used: \"Thanks be to God which giveth\nus the victory.\"\nBooker Washington's life was a distinct victory — a victory for Tuskegee\nand Hampton, for th^ state of Alabama, for the whole country, for the whites\nas well as the blacks — that a Negro, born in slavery, could have secured\nthe opportunity for such wonderful service. It was a victory for true ideas\nof education — education which trains the heart and the hand, as well as\nthe head, education which produces faith, love, humiUty, service, for these\nwere his distinguishing characteristics, and these he owed largely to that\nexcellent white southern Virginia home from which he came, and to the\nschool where he learned to beUeve in love and labor with the whites and\nblacks; where he learned to have a high respect for the moral and intellectual value of the labor of the hand; where he gained humility in coming\nin contact with that great man. General Armstrong, the principal of the\n\n"}
{"page": 119, "printed_page": "107", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF THE\n\nNEGRO\n\n^y*\n\nHampton School; and where he gained the great though\nt of service to men\nof every race.\n\nAfter Washington's death, meetings in his memory\nwere held in every\npart of the country. In the poor log church\nes of the South, Negro men and\nwomen gathered, and, as they sang \"Swing Low,\nChariot,\" they told\nof their great leader who was gone. In the city ofSweet\nWashington, members of\nthe Cabinet joined with private citizens in a great pubUc meetin\ng to do\nhonor to this son of a slave. In New York City, thousands were turned\naway from a great meeting, held in Carnegie HaU, where Seth Low presided,\nand Wmiam G. WiUcox, the president of the Board of Education of New\nYork, told of Booker Washington's influence on him. James Hardy Dillard,\na southern man and the head of the Jeanes Fund Board, said that as he\nstood by Washington's grave he tried to think of another man who had\ndone as much for the South as Booker Washington had done and he could\nnot think of such a man.\nWhen the question of Booker Washington's successor was raised, the\nminds of the Tuskegee Board of Trustees turned to the same school from\nwhich Booker Washington had come. They thought of Robert R. Moton,\na man who had been trained in the Hampton School and had for years\nheld a responsible position as commandant of cadets. The vice-president\nof the board, the president of an Alabama bank, was sent to Virginia to\nmake inquiries as to the candidate. From the governor of the state of\nVirginia, from business men, from working men, from all classes, there came\nonly one testimony as to the tact, the kindliness, and the devotion of this\nVirginia Negro. Robert R. Moton had won, as had Booker Washington, the\nconfidence and respect of the whole community in which he Uved. He had\nstarted in Virginia an association known as \"The Negro Organization\nSociety,\" thru which at least 350,000 Negroes in Virginia have been influenst\ntoward securing better homes, better schools, better farms, and better health.\nA few weeks ago I attended the inauguration of Principal Moton at\nthe great Tuskegee School. Charles Henderson, governor of Alabama, the\nheads of the leading white and colored institutions of the commonwealth,\nthe leading men of the town of Tuskegee, thousands of Negroes from all\nparts of the country, representative leaders from the North and the South,\nall came to welcome Robert Moton to this most important position to\nwhich he had been called— a position which is considered by many to be\none of the greatest importance in the country.\nI have called your attention to these two Negroes because their Uves\nand work seem to have illustrated, as fuUy as any I could have chosen,\nfact,\nthe type of education which should be given to all Negro youth— in\nto all youth, whether white or black.\npossest of\nWashington and Moton had become, thru their education,\nh, love,\non-fait\neducati\nof\nare the finest fruits\nqualiti\ncertain y,great\n. es which\nservice\nhumilit\n\n"}
{"page": 120, "printed_page": "108", "text": "Io8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThru contact with the best representatives of the white race in Virginia,\nthey had gained faith. Washington, in the Virginia home where he was\nbrought up, gained a strong behef in an unseen force called Education. By\nfaith he workt his way thru the school by the labor of his hands. By faith,\nbeing called like Abraham, he went to Alabama. He saw the vision of\nanother Hampton, and, in the midst of difficulties that would have overcome\na faithless man, he built up that great institution, known thruout the\nworld as Tuskegee Institute. Washington's education gave him faith in\nthe white race. We speak as tho what we call race prejudice belonged to the\nAnglo-Saxon race. This great war is largely the result of the inability of\none race to understand and believe in another.\nPerhaps education has no more important duty than to help our youth\nto see the good in other men of other races. This knowledge and this\nfaith Washington gained early. He Hved in a home in Virginia where two\nraces workt together in harmony, and he was trained in a school where\nthe red and the black and the white races are taught to cooperate. Washington learned, as he said in his Atlanta speech, that \"the representatives\nof two races can be brothers-in-Christ without being brothers-in-law.\"\nIn all the work of the Hampton School, where Booker Washington was\ntrained, white and black men, from North and South, workt together and\nhe learned to work with them. He gained a faith in them which made\npossible the tremendous achievements of his after-life.\nThe education of Booker Washington and Robert Mo ton gave them a\nbelief in the Negro race. In his speeches thruout the country, Dr. Moton\nhas been accustomed to dwell upon the great advantages that have come\nthru slavery, in that millions of this black people have gained a knowledge\nof the English language, of the Christian religion, of regular habits of work.\nDr. Moton, however, has deplored the lack of faith which some of the\nmembers of his race have in their own people as one of the results of slavery.\nDr. Moton has exprest his thankfulness to Hampton because it has brought\nhim to love and respect the Negro melodies, the Negro folk-lore, and to\nbelieve that, just as truly as God brought the children of Israel out of\nEgypt for a distinct purpose, so he brought the Negro from Africa to this\ncountry to accomplish a definite end.\nBooker Washington and Robert Moton gained from their education\nthe greatest power in the world — the power of love. As Moton learned his\nletters from the daughters of his father's master, he gained at the same time\na love for the people of another race which has never left him.\nWhen askt what was the secret of Washington's success, Moton\ndeclared without hesitation: '^His love for his fellowmen.\" It was his\nlove for his fellowmen which made it possible for Booker Washington\nhonestly to declare in his Atlanta speech: \"No man, either white or\nblack, from North or South, shall drag me down so low as to make me\nhate him.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 121, "printed_page": "109", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTBE EDUCATION\n\n0^ THE NEGRO\n\njog\n\nAt the Hampton School where Booker Washington and Robert\nMoton\nwere trained there was an earnest endeavor to make the ordinar\ny duUes\nthe chief means of an education. The academic department was used\nto\ndignify and glorify the work of the hand. Washington and Moton went\nforth from Hampton with the love of men who beheved that thru the\ndaily activities of Ufe their race was to be trained for service. The result\nwas that a Tuskegee soon followed a Hampton.\nAhnost the only recreation Washington found was in his garden, with\nhis horses and cows, his chickens and pigs. It was this which made him\nfeel that his mission in life was to help the conmion man do the common\nthings in an uncommon way. The education of Washington and Moton\nbrought with it the love that is not puft up— the most real humihty.\nNo one could meet Booker Washington without being imprest with\nhis modest self-respect. I knew him perhaps as well as any white man.\nI do not remember that he ever talkt to me of himself nor of what he had\ndone. He received the highest honors which the universities of the land\ncould bestow. He was received by the Queen of England. He was accustomed to hold large audiences spellbound by his wonderful power of\nspeech, and yet he remained to the day of his death the same quiet,\nunassuming man.\nAfter one of his greatest honors had been conferred upon him, on his\nreturn to Tuskegee, his wife observed him taking down one of his oldest\nsuits of clothes. When she askt him why he was doing this he said:\n\"I am going down to see my old friends in the town of Tuskegee and I do\nnot want them to think I have a swelled head.\"\nWhat was there in the education he had received which gave him\nthis modesty? His life had to do with things rather than with words.\nHe had come up against the great laws of nature and of God in the things\nthat he had had to do. The word \"modesty\" comes, as you know, from the\nword modus which means \"measure.\" Washington had measured himself\nalongside the great things that had been done and were to be done, and\nhe felt his own littleness. Again he was a devoted follower and disciple\nof that modest soldier. General Armstrong. He had known some of the\nbest representatives of a race that had far greater advantages than had\ncome to the African. That contact brought modesty. \"Blessed,\" says\nthe Good Book, \"are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth.\" And the\ngreat inheritance of this Negro came largely thru his meekness.\nPerhaps the most striking characteristic of these two Negro leaders\nwas their thought of service. From their earliest days they had learned\nto serve. In those Virginia homes from which they came, like the great\nMaster whom they foUowed, they were the servants of all. Their thought\nwas not that of being ministered unto but of ministering. In the Hampton\nthey\nSchool, where they were trained— in the sawmill and on the farm— this\nof\nresult\nThe\nn.\ninstitutio\nthat\nof\ngood\nthe\nfor\nwere daily working\n\n"}
{"page": 122, "printed_page": "110", "text": "no\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ntraining was to make them seek the good of others rather than their own.\nInstead of seeking the city after graduation, both of them went forth to\nthe rural districts where the great masses of their people lived. Instead of\ndevoting themselves to a type of education which laid emphasis upon the\nornaments, they both gave themselves to industrial education, which was\nmost unpopular in the early days of the Negroes' freedom. It is true of\nboth of them that instead of seeking their own they sought another's good.\nThere is a verse of Scripture which is quite as true in education as it is in\nreligion: \"He that saveth his life shall lose it, and he that loseth his life\nshall save it.\" Washington and Mo ton have given their lives, not to their\nown aggrandizement, but to the service of their people.\n\"It pays,\" said General Armstrong in the memoranda which he left\nafter his death, \"to put God and country first and one's self afterward.\"\nThis was Armstrong's great educational platform, and because he taught\nit and these Negroes learned it, all men have risen up to call him blessed.\nUpon a bulletin, in front of a church in New York, I saw these sentences:\n\"Faith, humility, charity, cheerfulness — these are the things we need to\nbe converted to,\" and underneath was the name of Ruskin. Faith, love,\nhumility, service — these should be the results of Negro education, as well\nas of all education.\nI have tried to show you that in the case of Booker Washington and\nRobert Moton we have Negro leaders who are largely the result of the\nkindly training of Negro youth by the best representatives of another race\nthat had a broader and better inheritance. In at least one of the southern\nstates, it has been made unlawful for teachers of the white race to instruct\ntheir brothers and sisters of the black race. In several others, compulsory\nsegregation of the two races is being advocated. Dr. Moton is accustomed\nto say in his public addresses that the Negro, like the Italian, the Frenchman, the Slav, is happier with the men of his race, and that there is a\nnatural segregation among races, but that compulsory segregation which\nresults in poor, unpaved, ill-lighted, poorly policed streets, filthy cars,\nunsanitary homes and schools which produce crime and disease, is a menace\nto the white man and produces in the black man a fear for his own well-being.\nJohn E. White, of Atlanta, who represents an increasing body of\nintelligent southern white men, pleading before a northern audience that\nthe whites and blacks be allowed to live and work together, told this story\nrecently:\nThe guests of a Swiss hotel looking out from their veranda saw three men bound together\nby a rope making their way along a difficult mountain path. Suddenly there was a cry of\nhorror as two of the men were seen falling and dangling over the abyss, held only by the rope\nwhich connected them with the third man, who held a secure position. They watcht in\nsuspense. After a few moments, the rope gave way. The two men fell into the awful\nchasm below and were dasht to pieces on the rocks. The third man returned to the hotel,\nbut he observed that he was shunned by all the guests. Even the waiters seemed to avoid\nhim. He finally approach! a man and askt the reason for this strange action toward one\n\n"}
{"page": 123, "printed_page": "111", "text": "Sessions)\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nwho had escaped from a great danger. Said the man whom\nhe addrest: \"Sir it was founH\non mvestigation that the rope was cut.\"\n'\n\nThe white race is heir to all the ages. Its members have\na secure position\ngained after centuries of struggle. These blacks are\nthe disinherited\nchildren. Don't cut the rope.\nVOCATIONAL\nJOHN D. SHOOP,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nIn entering upon the discussion of the subject assigned to me by those\nwho have formulated the program of the evening, I am deeply conscious\nof the conviction, that doubtless rests in the minds of this audience, that\nno roadway of approach is possible that does not already bear the footprints ofthoughtful investigation, no angle of perspective remains that\ngives promise of novelty of research. Nor is it necessary that we assume\nthe attitude of the aggressive promoter or of the forensic enthusiast. In\nlogical conviction the question has long since advanst beyond the argumentative stage. In restricted, tho effective apphcation, the movement\nhas triumphantly past the tests in the field of experimentation. It may\nbe well, for a brief period, to review the evolutionary stages that mark tht\nroadway of progress, and to enumerate certain tenets of faith which have,\nby common consent, found permanent lodgment and organic embodiment\nin our modern educational creed.\n1. Continuity of progress in the line of individual and social achievement isconditional upon the maintenance of the parity of hand and brain.\n2. Our education, if it is to create the standards of efficiency which the\nage demands, must be underlaid with the substructure of reaUsm.\n3. In harmony with the inexorable laws by which the processes of\ncivilization have been directed, actual and individual experience is essential\nto an understanding and appreciation of any field of action in the domain\nof life.\n4. Discipline in the abstract, and power undirected, may be produced\nby running the educational machinery empty, but it fails in the dynamic\ntests which are appHed in the world of affairs.\n5. Motive and purpose are strengthened by a consciousness in the\nstudent mind of an objective point toward which a line of action or effort\nis directed.\n\n6. Training for a specific caUing in life to which natural tendencies are\nadapted is a legitimate function of public education.\n7. Preparation for a chosen sphere of action, if rationally supported and\nreinforst, is a training for any caUing or vocation, kindred in nature.\n8. The intangible and immeasurable attainment that we call culture\nis not of the aerial type, which draws its sustenance from heights\n\n"}
{"page": 124, "printed_page": "112", "text": "112\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ninaccessible to the masses, but is rather in its basic proportions the fifth\nessence, that which we distil from the common experiences of life.\nIt is not our province nor purpose to amplify these declarations, which\nare axiomatic in their nature, except as they may serve to reinforce the\nfoundations that should underlie the structure of vocational education.\nThe realistic foundation in education for which tlie age is calling is born\nof an extremity for which vocational education is the opportunity. The\nburden of criticism of the product of our schools today finds expression in the\ncharge of the lack of the sense of individual responsibility. The extent to\nwhich this deficiency may be charged against the school itself is open to\nquestion. That the condition exists may well be adjudged sufficient reason\nto demand our attention. Someone has said that you can always distinguish the dog that has been raised in a flat. He invariably wags his tail\nupward and downward. There is not space at command for the lateral\nswing. The absence of the sense of responsibility in the youth of today\nindicates only too plainly that the training of the earlier home to habits of\nregularity and promptitude is lost in the transformation of our domestic\nexistence into vertical neighborhoods. Let us bear testimony to the wisdom of those who as a remedial agency have originated the boy-scout and\nthe camp-fire girls movements. Vocational education must come into the\nbreach that is being created thru the readjustment of our mode of life.\nThe companionship of father and son is waning to a condition that is almost\nincidental. The era of domestic apprenticeship of the child to the occupational interests of the parent is passing. Despite our aversion to distinct forms of paternalism, the child is more than ever before in our history\nthe ward of the public, and the future is increasingly contingent upon the\nsacredness with which this same pubHc regards the duties of its legitimate\nguardianship.\nWe have mentioned the inconsistency of running the mental machinery\nempty. The touch of the reahstic gives zest to the work and joy to the\nworker. The school may not be able to cope with the problem. The\nmultiform and multitudinous channels thru which the currents of industry\nare directed baffle the resources of the schools to imitate or duplicate. Nor\nis it consistent to anticipate that we shall ever be able to cover the field in\ndetail.\nCooperation and capitalization are the media of connection. The\ngenius of educational management is in no place more forcibly exemplified\nthan in its ability to capitalize, thru the creation of cooperative relations,\nthe educational resources which should be available in the provinces of\nindustry, commerce, and the professions. The interplay of interests\nbetween the school and the shop, the classroom and the commercial world,\nconstitutes the most promising and hopeful indications of the final solution\nof the problem of vocational education. Nor do we fear the danger signals\nflaunted by those who wail over the possibilities of error in choice. The\n\n"}
{"page": 125, "printed_page": "113", "text": "Sessions]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nsame law of conservation which precludes the destru\nction of energy in thi.\nchanging forms to which the world of matter is\ncontinuously subjected\napplies m the machine which we call human. Your own\nlives will afford\nthe convincing illustration.\nIn the restrospect and review of the agencies of experi\nence and education that mark the pathway of the one with whose life history\nthe writer\nis most familiarly acquainted— the years of apprenticeship\non the farm\nemployed in the mastery of the crude implements of the earUer\ntype\nhusbandman, a term of service in the remote section of the commerof the\ncial\nworid known as the country store, a series of vacation engagements in\nthe\nsteaming and stifling atmosphere of a canning factory, an introduction to\nthe exacting requirements of entries involving debits, credits, and balance\nsheets behind the counter of the village bank— should each present itself\nfor evaluation and justification, the decree would be that while in the\nrange of possibility for each a more potent substitute might have been\nselected, none of the experiences mentioned could be eliminated from the\nelements out of which the composite of personahty is formed without\nreducing the resultant in the scale of value and efficiency.\nFor a moment I would dwell upon the vocational tendencies of our education as an antidote for the erroneous tests which we sometimes apply in\ndetermining the values of our school products. Only a few days since I was\nin conference with a business man of large responsibility. During the interview an incident occurred which left its impress as a forcible illustration\nof the standards of efficiency which the business world is now establishing.\nAn applicant of experience presented his plea for a position on the strength\nof his claims of ability as a salesman. The shrewd man of affairs withheld\nall inquiries or interrogations, but reaching down in his pocket he placed\nupon the table a few crisp bank notes, and said: \"Here are two hundred\ndollars. I am in the market to purchase. Sell me something.\" The test\nwas significant. It sets forth in forcible manner the attitude of the world\ntoward the schools. The determining factor in efficiency is quality, not\nquantity. The question is one of a working capacity whose efficiency is\nmeasured in units of dynamic achievements.\nIn the sphere of constructive ethics, vocational education has intimate\nand vital association. The problem of morals is one of transmutation of\nenergy. Virtue and vandalism differ, not in quahty of force, but m the\nchannels thru which the creative energy finds its outlet. The most significant term in the language, aside from creation, is control. Vocational education, adjusted to a happy balance that gives poise to the actions and\nefforts of youth, will create righteous channels for turning the overflow of\nlife into fields of constructive and creative promise.\nThe problem that remains for us is that of wisdom in guidance and\nrational control. In our eagerness to realize on the field of promise which\nvocational education offers, we should not be insensitive to the dangers that\n\n"}
{"page": 126, "printed_page": "114", "text": "114\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nmay attend. In the heat of a strenuous political controversy the inquiry\nwas submitted to a distinguisht American statesman: \"What is an\ninsurgent?\" The reply was prompt and characteristic, ''An insurgent is\na progressive who is exceeding the speed limit.\" The incident has its\nanalogy in the province of education. Conservatism, the great governor\nof the engines of progress, must hold to its legitimate limitations the force\nthat is carrying our schools into the province of vocations. For we live\nin an age in which values are measured increasingly by material standards.\nIndustry is supreme. The commercial spirit is in the air. The hunger for\nindustrial empire will not be appeased nor thwarted by the readjustment\nof our world relations at the close of the mighty conflict. The province of\neducation and the highest duty of the educator must ever be that of the\nsentinel who challenges the attempt of the unrestrained ambitions of industry to encroach upon the God-given liberties of the child. To this sacred\ntrust we shall ever be true, and it is fitting tonight that, in this great assembly, canopied by the colors that quicken the spirit of loyalty, and encircled\nby the emblem that stirs to the depths the well-springs of patriotism, we\nplight anew on the altar of devotion our vows of fidelity to the cause of\npopular education, the perpetuity of democracy, and the rights of childhood.\nAnd from the deliberations of such as these there will come forth a\nvocational education in which there will be no place for avarice or greed,\na vocational education consonant in purpose with the spirit of the Occident,\na vocational education unhyphenated in its origin and nature, a vocational\neducation peculiar to a nation on which the decrees of fate have set the\nseal of destiny, and whose form and content shall embody the freedom and\nvirtue that we call \"American.\"\n\nNATIONAL\nHOMER\n\nH.\n\nSEERLEY,\n\nAID TO VOCATIONAL\nPRESIDENT,\nIOWA\nSTATE\nCEDAR FALLS, IOWA\n\nEDUCATION\nTEACHERS\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nDistribution of power. — In perfecting the union of states in the organizing of the United States government, it was agreed that everything should be left to the authority and the management of the separate\nstates, except such functions as were admittedly of a general and universal interest at the time. Recognizing the necessity for progress, development, and improvement, provision was made whereby the future\ncitizens of the new country could amend, reorganize, or expand this fundamental law of the Union, adapting the government to later-day necessities\nand requirements. It was not recognized in this beginning how many and\nhow great would be the interests and the needs that would become universal\nand therefore national as consequence of the changes in civilization and\nthe requirements of government that a few years of experience and develop-\n\n"}
{"page": 127, "printed_page": "115", "text": "Sessions]\n\nNATIONAL\n\nAID\n\nTOJVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nmerit would bring, because it was assumed that\nthe American neonle .nH\ntheir descendants would be residents from\ngeneration tTg^eS t^\nsame states where they were then living and\nhence they were thereby better\nthat had to do with their own amelioration, as\nwell as with the training\nand education of their children. It was not\nrealized in 1776 what a vast\nextent of territory would eventually constitute the\nUnited States It was\nnot anticipated what extensive influence the new form\nof govermnent would\nhave in world affairs. It was not appreciated what multi\ntudes of immigrants of aU nations and of all races would make America\ntheir home It\nwas not recognized what problems of the mightiest kind\nwere to caU for\nsolution at the hands of the masses. In consideration of all\nthese things\nand the limitations of a weak and scattered people divided on funda\nmental\nissues, the construction of a constitution of such wide apphcation\nand of\nsuch capable efficiency as a permanent basis of organization is a consta\nnt\ntribute to the statesmanship of the members of the convention that gave\nit to the world. At that time, commerce, transportation, means of information, opportunities for culture, interest in worid enterprises, and public\ndemands for human enterprise and service had not yet appeared as the\nmighty problems of civilization that the present age is compelled to recognize. At that time, it was beUeved by the leaders of society and government that state and local affairs were of much more importance in their aim,\nmuch more essential in their purpose, and much more notable in their\ninfluence than would ever be those kinds of business that were national in\ncharacter and universal in application.\nThe power to amend. — Recognizing the inabihty to know the future or\nto construct human government as a perfect plan for all time, provision was\nmade whereby the greatest developments could be accepted and the most\nastounding changes in policy could be made to meet adequately the exigencies and the experiences of administration and of legislation. History\nshows that many developments that were originally local and state have\nbecome universal and national and that many modifications and changes\nthat have had to come from decade to decade have given the people of the\npresent as important problems to solve as were ever considered during the\ndays of settlement, of controversy, or of union. So true has this been\nthat there is today scarcely any important and great interest that does not\nhave both its state and its national problems, which are receiving state and\nnational attention. Legislation, administration, control, have thus become\njoint interests rather than separate interests, joint aims rather than separate\naims, and joint necessities rather than separate necessities.\nThe province of education.— There may have been a tune when the community interests were so large, the state interests so minor, and the national\ninterests so indefinite, that the educating and training of the children was\nsolely a community affair. Thereby the community protected itself against\n\n"}
{"page": 128, "printed_page": "116", "text": "Ii6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nignorance and inefficiency by seeing to it that the coming people were prepared to maintain the civilization, the moraUty, and the character of this\nindividual locality. Life was simple in those days because the industries,\nthe occupations, and the activities were limited in their scope, their serviceableness, and their intensity; because the tendency for the people to go\ninto remote places, there to organize new interests and undertakings as new\nopportunities offered was still an unknown experience. But after awhile\nthere came a time when it became necessary for the state as a corporation\nto assume charge of certain developments formerly communal in scope,\nwhen it was recognized that it was the absolute duty of the state to see that\nevery child born within its borders should have the guaranteed opportunities\nof education and training. This was done by granting state subsidies in\nmoney, and then by requiring supervision, organization, and inspection,\nso that all schools should possess certain absolute standards, and so that the\nheritage of the citizen, guaranteed by the policy of the Republic, was able\nto be realized and appreciated. Since the actual residence of the uneducated\nand the untrained was easily transferred to any other location within the\nstate, the burdens that accompanied incapability, degeneration, and degradation, occurring from the neglect of the state to care properly for the children and youth, rested upon society in general rather than upon the\ncommunity that produced such conditions. This fact made prevention\nof ignorance, dependence, and indigence of the highest importance, since\nit emphasized the fact that education and training, when realized in their\ncompleteness, reduced the necessity for discipHne, correction, and restraint,\nand insured the prosperity and success of civilization. So prominent did\nthis doctrine become that illiteracy of any kind at any place was considered\na menace to democratic government, that a lack of a knowledge of the\nEnglish language was regarded as very undesirable in the United States,\nand that incapability to work efficiently at some productive occupation\nwas decided to be entirely unnecessary and incompatible in these modern\nattempts at civilization. Hence there developt compulsory attendance\nlaws, restriction of the previously accepted rights of the immature and\nprospective citizen, increasing expenditures, and the enforcing of penalties\nthat were originally deemed unimportant and unnecessary.\nThe introduction of the nation. — With the widening of interests and the\nexpansion of the territory governed, with the enlarging of population by\nimmigration and the resulting increase of illiteracy, with the confusion in the\naccepted notions of patriotism and liberty, with the growing lack of homogeneity and social sympathy, with the increase of dangers of distintegration\nand demoralization, it became evident to all students of the evolutionary\nmethods of civilization that national cooperation, encouragement, and\nsupervision of education were urgent and prominent undertakings that\ncould not be indefinitely postponed, even if they modified greatly the original\nnotion of the function of the state. The newer states were settled from the\n\n"}
{"page": 129, "printed_page": "117", "text": "Sessions]\n\nNATIONAL\n\nAID TO VOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nuj\n\nolder states and from foreign countries, and they developt needs and\nrequirements which were unthought of in Colonial times, but which became noUbly\nurgent when national recognition and acceptance as participants in government followed. It was appropriate that Congress should enter upon a\npolicy that would insure to the new states the privileges that the original\nstates had ascertained to be essential. From simple beginnings, a spirit\nof cooperation was developt and natural participation became the next\nstep in nation legislation. That this national spirit was gradually coming\ninto existence became evident when the United States Congress adopted the\nOrdinance of the Northwest Territory in 1787, asserting that moraUty,\nreligion, and education were fundamental essentials to good and prosperous\ngovernment. The next steps came with land grants for the endowment\nof the common schools by providing a pubUc school fund, with land grants\nfor the endowment and development of state universities and state colleges\nof agriculture and mechanic arts, with the estabhshment of the United\nStates Bureau of Education, with the authorization of educational enterprises and undertakings thru the activities of the Departments of the\nInterior and of Agriculture, with numerous efforts of many kmds that were\nof an indirect nature rather than of a direct plan, and with the expanding of\nthe extension service and the experiment stations until these activities\ncontributed in a large way to the uplift and to the improvement of the common people in industry, in successful achievement, and in possible happiness and prosperity. All this has been done by the national government\nbecause of the apparent necessity for having results absolutely certain in\nthese newer states for the good of the whole country, because it had become\napparent that citizenship and public prosperity and improvement were\nUnited States questions rather than state questions, and because it had been\npositively accepted that such problems as universal education are too comprehensive and too far-reaching in their consequences not to call for the\ncooperation and the coordination of all the forces found to exist in both\nthe states and the nation.\nThe development of industry.— The progress of the masses in becoming\nabsolute factors in modern civilization is a certainty. The value of every\nacre of land, the value of houses and improvements, the value of business\nand enterprise, the value of wealth and capital, the value of prosperity\nand success depends entirely upon the quahty of the people who possess\nand use them. The future values of every great undertaking such as transportation, commerce, manufacturing and business establishments of all\nclasses and kinds, depend for their significance and then- permanence upon\nthe conditions of society that exist in the generations that.foUow. On this\nfreedom\nfundamental proposition, democratic institutions stand or fall, the\nfuture\nthe\nof\noutlook\nthe\nand\nn,\nof humanity depends for its interpretatio\nyeare\nfifty\nlast\nthe\nof\nprogress\nindustrial\nThe\ndecided.\nand\nis determined\ntramed\na\nfor\nhas been remarkable in its material quaUties, and the demand\n\n"}
{"page": 130, "printed_page": "118", "text": "Ii8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nmanhood and womanhood prudently to occupy and conserve these gigantic\nresources has been great. The necessity for bending every pound of energy\nand every factor of intelligence to attain this mastery of competency,\ninitiative, and individuality among the nations and civilizations of the world\nmakes certain that all differences of opinion should be supprest, all fears\nof modifications of fundamental government should be controlled, and the\nemergency that is upon our citizenship should be fully met with courage,\nconfidence, and greatness. If this is not done, the most remarkable opportunity of the centuries will be omitted and the greatest national promise of\nall time will be unrealized. The tests of world capability and sufficiency\nmust be past in the next fifty years. The nations of earth are competitors\nin no mean or selfish sense. The decision of national greatness will depend\nupon intellectual quahties and moral stamina. Leadership can come in this\ncentury to the people of the United States if they educate and train their\nchildren for the qualifications that are eternal and effective in the spirit\nof grandeur of service. American supremacy, efficiency, and greatness\ndepend, therefore, upon the education, the training, and the developing\nof the masses in intelligence, morality, and religion, so that national competency isat a maximum and national integrity and efficiency are at a\nstandard not yet realized as essential.\nThe vocational bill. — For some years, there have been pending before the\nUnited States Congress certain educational propositions that are unparalleled for their length of vision and their magnificence of assurance. They\nare not subordinated in their finality by river and harbor bills, by army and\nnavy undertakings and necessities, by the great importance of the conservation of national resources, by the problems of revenues and political policies,\nby the questions of suffrage and citizenship. Despite their actual rank and\nprecedence, despite their immediate need and positive results, despite the\nbelief of all that education in industry is the greatest present-day problem\nbefore the American people, these benevolent measures are postponed from\nyear to year because they are for the benefit of humanity rather than for the\nbenefit of personal or real property, and because they are altruistic in their\npurpose rather than selfish, and because out of them no mature individual\nis to receive benefit or success in his present-day business or his present-day\nprofession. These measures, if adopted, will not have the effect of electing\nany man president, they will not help in sending ambitious men to Congress,\nthey will not make millions of wealth for any industry in the near future,\nthey will not inaugurate policies of state nor make platforms for political\nparties. They are philosophical rather than financial, they are humanitarian rather than utilitarian, they are efforts for the future rather than\nefforts for the present.\nThe time for action. — When it is remembered what kind of enterprises\nthe United States has under way and the freedom that is shown in supporting\nand aiding temporary undertakings, it does not seem out of place to insist\n\n"}
{"page": 131, "printed_page": "119", "text": "Sessions!\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nthat the educational service of the whole country-a\nwork of permanent\nvalue and importance-should be given the financial\nassist\nance that these\nrecent measures require. Action is a good word\nto apply to American\nendeavors of the twentieth century, particularly when such\nendeavors have\nthe permanent effect that vocational education of the masses\npromises to\naccomphsh. The period for argument, for persuasion, and for\nreconsideration and delay has past. No further postponements can be accept\nbased upon reasonable purposes. Preparedness is the word of the ed as\nhour\nin politics, national defense, and financial outcome, but no prepar\nedness\nfor the nation equals the proper training of its manhood and womanhood\nfor effective, productive life. The salvation of society from the standpoint\nof independence of personality, the development of thrift in the expenditures\nof life, the securing of competency in individuality thru the attainment\nof intellectual and moral sanity, the standardization of civiUzation m the\nelements of training that insure human welfare and prosperity, are the kmds\nof action that will bring efficiency and reUability and character to American\ncitizenship.\nINDUSTRIAL\nWILLIAM\n\nI\n\nC. REDFIELD,\n\nSECRETARY\n\nEDUCATION\nOF COMMERCE,\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD.C.\n\nIn speaking upon the theme assigned me, I trust it will be clear from\nthe first that neither in thought nor word is there to be impUed or\nspoken anything that fails to do honor to the spirit, the purpose, and the\nwork of academic education. The teacher's profession in all its forms is\nthe great productive and the great underpaid vocation. It pays the largest\nreturns for the least investment. Out of the service that education has\nrendered springs normally the call for further education. Out of that\nwhich has been well and loyally done springs the cry to do well and loyally\nthat which is as yet left undone. The deeds of fine and high commission\nmake necessary deeds to undo a great and sad omission. One should be\ndone and the other should not be left undone.\nHere are not two opposing ideals but one common purpose. Here are\ntwo shoots springing from a common root. Here are two branches of the\none tree. Here is not enmity but appreciation. Here is no opposition but\nrather support. The trained mind is well, and, because it is well, it is\nalso well that that trained mind should guide a trained hand. The trained\nhand, thru a mind trained to grasp the things with which the hand must\ndeal and to understand them, shall be, thru that mind, a more effective\nhand. So there shall show in work the joint product oi the training of\nthe mind and of the hand until the whole man or woman shall be exprest m\nterms of that fine and fruitful service which is the giving of one's best\nto making the world better by productiveness and which approaches\nworship. If it be the spirit of academic education to preserve for the future\n\n"}
{"page": 132, "printed_page": "120", "text": "I20\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nages the riches of all the ages past, it is the high ideal of vocational education\nto absorb the fruit of the ages and to fertilize the field of labor so that each\nsuccessive age shall produce more and more that which shall bless the ages\nyet to come.\nOne of the great phrases of the great Book is that which says: \"Take\nheed how ye hear.\" The cry of the children did not end with Mrs. Browning's beautiful poem. It has but changed its key. It is not true, as then\nit was, that the physical form of childhood is crusht in the mine. More\nand more that hateful thing — child labor — ^has become intolerable. Childhood and labor are opposing things that should have nought in common,\nand it is almost sacrilege to place even in thought the burden of labor on\nthe back of a child. There are two reasons why this is cruel. One is that\nthe child is unable because he is only a child and the other is that the child\nis unable because he is unprepared. It is our belief that no true eflSciency\nlies that way, but rather that the youthful years in which mind and hand\nrespond more readily than they ever thereafter will should be the time in\nwhich the child should be taught, among other needed things, how he may\nbest fit himself for the day of labor when it shall come, so that he may\ncarry that burden more easily, more productively, with more of peace and\nless of pain, and shall become a man to whom productive work shall be a\njoy. The cry of the children today is, \"Teach us to work and to know\nwhy we work as we do and how to work well and effectively.\" Vocational\neducation then has no narrow horizons. The whole broad field of knowledge\nis its own. It does not seek merely to train the boy or girl for the mill.\nIt is not long since a good Divine in whose church this subject was under\ndiscussion thought best in introducing me to warn the people against fads\nin education. He seemed to think that the advocates of industrial and\nvocational training were the antagonists of the common school, that they\nhad some bizarre ideas of an iconoclastic sort and meant to supplant culture\nin all its forms with a militant system of training in toil. I remember\nhaving to revise my speech on the moment to set the good man right and\nto make it clear to him that we did not intend a broadly levehng process,\nby means of which a sort of intellectual conscription was to take place\nregardless of aptitude, environment, or opportunity. I take it that a boy\nin a soap works, a brewery, or a benzol plant would not be harmed by\nknowing the chemistry of his business. The apprentice in a machine-shop\nwill be none the worse but rather the better for a knowledge of metals and\nthe principles of mechanics. If he builds or repairs automobile engines,\nsomething about hydrocarbons will do him no harm. The truth is that\nindustry today reaches out into all the sciences so fast and far that the\nfield for thought is large and free and fascinating and the inspiration of\nintelligent effort is an incentive to larger living.\nVocational education, therefore, is the opponent of things narrow and\ncramping. It looks with impatience on the boy in the machine-shop who\n\n"}
{"page": 133, "printed_page": "121", "text": "Sessions]\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nknows how to run a drill press, but to whom the planer,\nthe shaper and\nother machines are sealed books. It would take a boy and\nmake him a\nmechanic knowing the why and the wherefore of mechanics,\nthe reasons\nwhy each tool does what it does, as weU as understanding the way in\nwhich\nit does it. It would open to a boy and girl the recesses of knowledge out\nof which modern industry has sprung and on which it depends. It would\nmake them reasoning workers and not automata. Its purpose is to make\nmen and women flexible in their working powers and to take the rigidity\nout of toil. It is a human force, sympathetic and virile, leading the mind\nto express thru the hand the character and sphit of the worker.\nIt is sad to think how narrow the margin of safety is for many of our\nworkers; how straight the groove in which as things now are they needs\nmust run. A slight change of the industrial currents leaves many Uke\ndriftwood by the stream, since they have not been taught to swim in the\nindustrial flood but merely to float, as it were, with its current.\nVocational education has a high social function in that it does enlarge\nthe factor of safety in human life. It makes it just so much the harder\nfor the wolf to reach the door. It puts the presence of poverty so many\npaces farther off. I have often thought of the joy that will come when\nvocational education shall have wrought its perfect work in the form of\ncertitude to many a humble home. No one familiar with factory life and\ngifted with the least imagination but knows the daily recurring tragedy\nin our industrial centers when the job is over, and the man out of work\nhunts for employment whfle wife and children wait and worry. We do\nnot offer vocational education as a panacea, but certainly the man who\ncan and who knows why he can, has an infinitely finer chance in life for\nthe steady job than he who has never had the opportunity to know why\nhe toils as he does and who has learned the way of his toiling without\nteaching and without sympathetic leading.\nFirst and foremost, then, among the things to be gained by vocational\neducation I should put its human value, the bringing of a greater symmetry\nto life. It is the motto '' safety first \" wrought into the fabric of the artisan's\nhome. Second among its values I should put the bringing of power to\nindustry. Too much our factories have been run as schools operated in\ntheir productive processes by masses of the untaught. Too much has the\ntime of foreman and superintendent been given to work of instruction\ninstead of to leading production. Peace and prosperity will indeed be\nwithin our palaces of industry if it shall come to pass that within each\ngreat mill all workers know their work. Consider the value to a great\ndepartment store of a whole force of clerks trained in salesmanship. Consider the value to a great mechanical industry of a working force in which\ndoes with reason and inteUigence the work to which his hand is\nunit\neach\nset. Behold under such conditions how waste goes out at the door and\nwith her the rule-of-tiiumb and aU things born of ignorance. Consider the\n\n"}
{"page": 134, "printed_page": "122", "text": "122\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npeace and power of the manufacturer in whose works blunders of ignorance\nare not committed. It would be almost a local millennium to have a great\nmill in which every worker was well trained in his or her work. This fine result ofindustrial training has not only human and industrial values but international ones as well. Our country is in the world's arena and it cannot\nretire from it. Your prosperity and mine and the wages of our workers\nmore and more depend upon what we call our competing power, and every\nboy and girl in every mill who has had no chance to learn, and who therefore\ndoes not know the why and wherefore of his or her work is a missing tooth\nin the gears by which our industries revolve. It makes one proud and\nconfident to think of America facing the world in the peaceful conquests\nof industry supported by trained and intelligent workers in all our mills\nand factories. It makes one rather sad to think of America trying to meet\nthe world in competition unless and until her workers shall have had a\nchance at that education which has heretofore been denied them. Of\ninfinite value are our boys and girls, but we have not made the best of\ntheir values heretofore. Most of us needs must work, but few of us have\never been taught to work, and work therefore has been harder, less productive, and less remunerative than it would have been had we done more\nwisely. We have seen a great light in these recent years and have learned\nthat the means whereby we live are well worth studying and /teaching, so\nthat we may live better and with less care.\nSo it shall come to pass, to use again the words of the ancient Book,\nthat \"the crooked shall be made straight and the rough places plain,\" and\ntoil shall be easier for the toiler and more productive for him too, and more\nremunerative to the captain who leads toilers, and there shall be more\nsafety all around, and greater power and much more peace when that which\nwe call vocational education has done its part.\n\nPREPARING\n\nTEACHERS\n\nJAMES W. CRABTREE,\n\nFOR LEADERSHIP\nEDUCATION\n\nPRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL\n\nIN ALL SPECIAL\n\nSCHOOL, RIVER FALLS, WIS.\n\nTeaching has assumed new importance during the past decade. It is\ndeveloping more and more into an art and a science instead of remaining\na sentiment merely. It begins to aspire to be rankt with other worthy\nprofessions. Teachers are judged more than ever before by their product,\nthat is, by what the pupil is on and after leaving school. The outlook for\nteaching is growing better year by year. \"But we must not,\" says Dr.\nSchaeffer, \"go too far in felicitating ourselves on improvement; for, just\nas we cannot expect the common soldier to exempUfy all the virtues of the\ndecalog at a salary of $13 a month, so we cannot expect teachers to exemplify all the pedagogic virtues on the salaries which they even yet receive.'*\n\n"}
{"page": 135, "printed_page": "123", "text": "S^^^^°°^J\n\nLEADERSHIP\n\nINJPECIALEDUCATIQN\n\n^^\n\nStill, salaries are improving and stron\nengaging in teaching as their life-work. ger men and stronger women arc\nTeaching to teach is a much higher art than\nsimply teaching. Since\nthe highest phase of aU teaching is the teaching of teache\nrs to teach only\nmen and women most able in teaching pupHs should be permi\ntted to'teach\nteachers. The fact that people are incHned to teach\nas they were taught\nrather than as they are taught to teach emphasizes the need\nof the highest\ntype of teacher in all teacher-training schools. This natura\nlly\nmuch better financial support than teacher-training school presupposes\ns have at the\npresent time. The encouraging feature on this point is that people\nrealize\nnow as never before the value of professional training, and theref\nore have\na higher appreciation than ever before of the work of teacher-trainin\ng\ninstitutions\n.\nThis age is demanding trained specialists to do the work of the world.\nThe demand, so strong among the people, for specialists in education is only\na part of the larger insistent demand. Both normal schools and departments\nof education in universities have been slow in recognizing this demand and\nstill slower in complying with it. The normal school, starved by state legislatures, ignored by the national congress, and trampled upon by colleges\nand universities during the first fifty years of its existence, has during the\npast decade shown some very definite signs of fife and possibly some growth\nin leadership in training speciaHsts in education.\nThe department or the school of education has not apparently been so\nsuccessful in freeing itself from handicaps. It has not been starved by the\nlegislature, but it has been almost strangled to death by the college and\nuniversity senate. It was of unwelcome birth into the family of university departments, and, while not disowned by the mother institution, its\nrights have been plainly disregarded by the other members of the family.\nIt is still bound and gagged more or less by college practices, traditions, and\nprejudices. It is not even now an average personality in the university,\nneither is it an important factor in special education, unless the few exceptions, one or two institutions in the West and one or two in the East, standing almost alone, be accepted as the general rule.\nJust as these institutions, the state normal school, and the school of\neducation or teachers' college in universities, must prepare teachers for\nleadership in general education, so are they the only institutions adapted\nto the work of preparing teachers for leadership in special education. Professional training is as necessary for the one who is to teach domestic science,\nmanual training, or agriculture, as for the one who is to teach arithmetic,\ngrammar, or history.\nAcademic departments of domestic science and agriculture in colleges\nare to be avoided in searching for teachers unless these departments have\na vital connection with the school of education or teachers' coUege. Many\ncollege professors continue to urge that those who have specialized in their\n\n"}
{"page": 136, "printed_page": "124", "text": "124\n\nl^A TiONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTtON\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTlON\n\n[General\n\ndepartments without professional training make the most successful teachers. Fortunately, however, superintendents and high-school principals\nhold to the contrary view and have succeeded in influencing most of our\nstate legislatures to pass laws requiring a certain amount of professional\ntraining for every grade of certificate.\nYet it must be admitted that the demand for specialists and the failure\non the part of the normal school and teachers' college to satisfy the demand\nhas at times almost shaken the confidence of educators in the ability of\nthese institutions to prepare teachers in special lines of work. But at last\nthe problem has been taken up. Normal schools have seen the necessity\nof doing away with the blanket diploma and certificate good for teaching\nin any grade in which the holder desires, issuing instead a special diploma\nor certificate good only in the special line of work in which preparation has\nbeen made.\nWisconsin has taken an advanst step in her plan of giving a special\ndepartment to each normal school. For instance, Oshkosh has a special\ndepartment of manual training; Stevens Point has domestic science; River\nFalls, agriculture, etc. Each school receives additional funds for its special\ndepartment. It lays stress on the work of preparing teachers in its special\nline.\nThis piece of constructive work in Wisconsin has not only given satisfactory results, but it has opened the eyes of the normal schools to the\nneed of further constructive work along this line. As soon as the work of\nthese special departments had developt somewhat, and as soon as people\nbegan to appreciate the importance of the step taken, a demand at once\narose for laying similar stress on certain other work. It was lookt upon\nas next to a crime to place domestic science and agriculture off by themselves, connecting the work of these subjects with home and community\nlife, and to insist on having the work of reading and arithmetic almost\nentirely separate from the living problems of childhood. So another step\nhas been taken which recognizes as one special department all of those preparing to teach in the primary grades; as another special department all\nthose preparing to teach in the grammar grades; and as a third special\ndepartment all those preparing to teach in the high school. The classes\nhave been segregated and the work for each class has been put into more\nvital touch with actual things. The admirable work done in Massachuset s isalso deserving of careful study. Several normal schools in other\nstates have tackled this same problem, each in its own way with the general\nresult that, especially during the past five years, normal schools have taken\non new life and have assumed a place of importance in preparing teachers\nfor leadership in special education as well as in general education.\nThe constructive element in the step taken lies in the matter of arranging for preparing specialists and for giving a preparation which includes,\nnot only method and professional training in general, but a thoro academic\n\n"}
{"page": 137, "printed_page": "125", "text": "Sessions]\n\nLEADERSHIP\n\nIN\n' — SPECIAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTIO\nN\n,\n\n12 J\n\nknowledge of the special subject and the special professional\nnecessary for doing that particular Hne of work. Salaries are too low training\nin both\nnormal schools and schools of education to secure and hold the\ntype of\nteachers needed to do the teacher-training work in special subjects. The\nstate appropriates funds for encouraging the work in special subjects in the\ncommon schools. Why should not the national government grant some\naid for the work of preparing teachers for these special lines of work ?\nThe question of training for leadership in special education is not only\none of community and state importance, but it is a question of the greatest\nnational concern. In support of this position, I quote from one of America's\nsoundest and most able statesmen, Edward Everett Hale:\nEducation is a better safeguard of liberty than a standing army. If we retrench\nthe wages of the schoolmaster, we must raise those of the recruiting sergeant.\n\nI also quote from the address of the great apostle of preparedness,\nTheodore Roosevelt, delivered at our Asbury Park meeting in 1905:\nYou teachers make the whole world your debtors, and of you it can be said, as it\ncan be said of no other profession save the profession of the ministers of the gospel — ^if\nyou teachers did not do your work well, this republic would not last the span of a\ngeneration.\n\nIn further support of this position, I quote from a statesman and a\nsoldier, our martyred president, William McKinley:\nAn open schoolhouse, free to all, evidences the highest type of advanst civilization.\nIt is the gateway to progress, prosperity, and honor, and the best security for the liberties\nand independence of the people. It is the strongest rock of the foundation, the most\nenduring stone of the temple of liberty, our surest stay in every storm, our present safety,\nour future hope, aye, the very citadel of our influence and power. It is better than\ngarrisons and guns, than forts and fleets. An educated people governed by true moral\nprinciple can never take a backward step nor be dispossest of their citizenship and\nliberties.\n\nThe principle of preparedness in my judgment is a sound principle.\nIt is sound as applied to the question of protecting the welfare and sacred\nhonor of our country. It is sound as applied to the question of enforcing\npeace in the interests of humanity. But is it not even more sound as\napplied to the training, education, and equipment of the youth of our\ncountry for efficient service, not only in the emergencies of war, but more\nespecially in all the wholesome and peaceful pursuits of life in our libertyloving republic ?\nIt means something to the home for its children to receive an education which prepares for earning a Uving and which trains for rendering\na service to society. Only a generation or two ago, many good men beheved\n. Gradthe home should meet all expenses of the education of its children\nexpenses\nthe\nover\ntaken\nhave\nstate\nand\ncounty,\nually, however, the town,\nto the\nvalue\nmuch\nso\nof\nn\neducatio\nthe\nof operating the schools, because\nAt first,\nhome is considered fundamental to the community and the state.\nto the high\nthis principle was applied to the common schools only, then\n\n"}
{"page": 138, "printed_page": "126", "text": "126\n\n——\n\n■\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n3\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nschools, but finally to the universities, and even to postgraduate departments of universities. Is not this education of the youth of our country\njust as fundamental to the existence and welfare of our nation as to the\nexistence and welfare of the individual state ?\nIs it a wise policy for the state to bear part of the expenses of teaching\nin the public schools such subjects as domestic science, manual training,\nand agriculture ? If so, then why should not the federal government bear\nat least a part of the expenses for training for leadership in special education ?\nThe federal government has recognized the agricultural college as a\nnational asset. It has appropriated generously for its support. It has not,\nhowever, appropriated one dollar for the school which trains the best agents\nfor carrying to boys and girls and to their homes the valuable results\nobtained from the operation of agricultural colleges. A most serious weakness in our American system of education has been the utter disregard and\nneglect of our teacher- training schools by our national government.\nThe National Bureau of Education is not in a position to aid materially\nthe teacher-training schools of the country. It has itself been neglected.\nIt is handicapt almost as badly as teacher-training schools are handicapt.\nIt is not in the estimation of our government of sufficient importance to\nhave rank. It is a sub-department only. It has no funds of its own to use\nin studying or surveying normal schools. In making its suggestions for\nimprovement of methods, poHcies, and conditions in normal schools, the\nBureau must necessarily depend not on its own data and findings, but\nlargely on the data and findings of surveys made by agencies not under the\npay of, and not responsible to, either the state or the federal government.\nIt is a serious matter that our federal government does not attach\ngreater importance to the work of its own Bureau of Education. It is a\nserious matter that it disregards the interest of our teacher-training schools.\nDoes our government mean to turn our public and normal-school policies\nover to the guardianship of outside agencies and interests? Or does it\nsimply fail to appreciate the situation?\nIf these surveys are not worth paying for, why have them ? If they\nare worth while, why not make them at public expense? The funds for\nthese gratuitous surveys come from sources which arouse apprehension,\nand why should it not arouse apprehension ?\nThe teacher-training school is linkt up with the interests of the common\npeople. Its students come mainly from the homes of working people and\nfrom other homes of limited means. Its product goes out to serve the\nschools of the common people. It is the school of the people. It is democratic. It cannot consistently be surveyed by those who stand for aristocracy in education rather than for democracy in education. This\ndemocracy in education is the vital feature of our public-school system.\nIt is the sacred principle on which our form of government rests. No outside agency ought to be permitted to lay hands on our public-school poHcies.\n\n"}
{"page": 139, "printed_page": "127", "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nFOREIGN\n\nSERVICE\n\n127\n\nAre not these free surveys a positive menace to\nthe cherisht democracy^\nof the pubhc schools ?\nI question whether it is not possible even now that\ntraditional\ntocracy, personal prejudice, professional and commercial\ninterests have a\nlarger share in shaping public sentiment and in direct\nans-in\ning pubHc-school\npohcies than we are aware of.\nThere is another way in which our federal government might\naid\ngiving a national aspect to the matter of training leaders in special\nedu\ncation, and that is by estabHshing a national university. The greates\nt\neducational need in America at the present time is a national univers\nity\nwith its teacher-training department. Both Washington and\non\nforesaw the need of a national institution to unify the educationalJeffers\nefforts\nin the various states. Ex-President Taft very often in his addresses points\nout the absolute necessity of our having this central university. This\nAssociation has time after time declared itself in favor of it. The elements\nwhich desire to direct pubUc-school pohcies are opposed to a national university. Because of their organization and influence, no steps have as yet\nbeen taken to establish this great university.\nI ask whether the time has not come for backing up the resolution of\nthis Association by personal effort on the part of every friend of democracy\nin education, and whether we should not bring to bear on our senators and\ncongressmen in every state the pressure of our profession and the pressure\nof the home people for this central institution as an offset to the pressure\nappHed by organized designing interests.\nWe cannot go very much farther in securing unity of effort among\nteacher-training schools of the country without the aid of Congress. Here\nare some of the important things for Congress to do: to consider teachertraining schools as a national asset; to provide for pensioning teachers\nunder public control if not at public expense; to provide for making all\nsurveys of the pubUc schools, normal schools, and universities out of state\nand federal funds; to estabhsh a national university with a teacher-training\ndepartment as one of its leading departments; and to elevate the position\nof our national commissioners of education to that of Cabinet rank.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR FOREIGN\n\nSERVICE\n\nGLEN LEVIN SWIGGETT, ASSISTANT SECRETARY-GENERAL, SECOND PANAMERICAN SCIENTIFIC CONGRESS, MEMBER, COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, NATIONAL FOREIGN TRADE COUNCIL, BUREAU OF EDUCATION,\nWASHINGTON, D.C.\n\nThe subject which I have the honor to present before this great Association, organized for the practical achievement of progressive ethical and\nsocial ideals, is of paramount importance to the people of the United\nStates and should have the commanding attention of the educators of this\n\n"}
{"page": 140, "printed_page": "128", "text": "128\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\ncountry. No phase of the nation-wide movement for preparedness is\nworthy of greater consideration. To conserve the nation's destiny and the\nideals of democracy, to prepare our young men for a career of pubUc service\nin foreign fields in the spirit of these ideals, to develop and maintain material prosperity at home and abroad thru scientific methods, economic\nprinciples, and business practices in accord with Christian practices — this is\nthe problem to be considered in educational preparation for foreign service,\nconsular and commercial. It is a task of no easy achievement under ideal\nconditions. Can it be accomplisht with our present educational system\nand practices ?\nWe are a nation of over one hundred million souls. Two millions of this\nnumber between the ages of fifteen and twenty-two attend high school and\ncollege. Statistics gathered by me in the spring of 19 15 show that only\n2 per cent, 40,000, study Spanish, a commercial language of the highest\neconomic importance to the United States. Statistics for 1910 show that\nthe study of Spanish was negligible while for that of Latin the figure was\nnearly 50 per cent, for German 25 per cent, and for French 10 per cent.\nSince that date a change of great moment ha^ taken place in the foreign\naffairs of this country. The European war has forst us into international\nrelations that are not of our own seeking. The nation is losing its attitude\nof provincialism. It can never again resume its position of quasi-isolation,\nbut must cooperate henceforth as a world-power in determining international destinies. Whether the position it takes shall carry with it moral\nas well as economic leadership will depend upon the character and scope\nof the instruction given in the preparation for service in the foreign fields.\nOur present interest in foreign relations is not due, however, solely to\nthis war, altho, as a former president of the National Foreign Trade Council\nhas rightly claimed, the war has created an interest on the part of the\npeople of this country that many years of effort could not have produced.\nThis Council has been itself a very important factor in stimulating foreign\ntrade and in facilitating the movement of the same. The United States\nChamber of Commerce, occupying a position of no less vital importance, has\nlikewise discust informally, at its annual meetings, the question of training\nfor foreign service. The Pan-American Union, an international organization of the twenty-one republics of the Western Hemisphere, with a governing board composed of the diplomatic representatives in Washington and\nthe Secretary of State, has been a potent factor in stimulating in the United\nStates an interest in Latin American affairs, and in creating and strengthening trade and treaty alliances with our sister republics of Central and South\nAmerica. The official participation of this Union, thru its representative,\nthe director general, in the series of Pan-American Congresses, has helpt in\nno small degree to create a sentiment that is giving a new meaning thruout\nPan-America to the Monroe Doctrine, stripping it of its foreboding aspect,\nand at the same time commanding anew the respect of the older nations of\n\n"}
{"page": 141, "printed_page": "129", "text": "Sessions)\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nFOREIGN\n\nSERVICE\n\nthe world. Our executive departments, the Departments\nof State and Com\nmerce m particular, have greatly strengthened their foreign\ntrade service\nduring the present and preceding administrations. The Bureau\nof Foreign\nand Domestic Commerce has assisted materially in creatin\ng our favorable\ntrade balance, thru the appointment of commercial attaches and\ndistrict\nagencies.\nThe Commissioner of Education of the United States has naturaU\nshown a very keen interest in this subject. A Conference on Educationaly\nPreparation for Foreign Service, called by him in cooperation with others,\nwas held Friday, December 31, 1915, in the Pan-American Union, Washington. His Bureau will print shortly separate reports on this Conference and\non the labors of the Subsection on Commercial Education of the recent\nSecond Pan-American Scientific Congress. The program of this Subsection\nwas prepared largely with the paramount importance of this question in\nview, not only for economic reasons of higher efficiency in the organization of\nbusiness and the marketmg of products at home and abroad, but for less\napparently selfish reasons of acquiring by study the international viewpoint\nand of assisting m estabHshing international amity. Some sixty papers were\npresented before this Subsection. Not only was an opportunity given for\ncareful consideration of the general phases of commercial education in\nelementary, secondary, and higher schools, but the teaching of the special\nsubjects in the curriculum was discust by well-known speciaHsts in these\nbranches. Further, in view of the fact that certain extra-mural educational\nagencies play a prominent part in the United States in the teaching of\nbusiness-training courses, the program sought to contribute a valuable\nbody of opinion in the papers that treat of the work accomplisht by such\nagencies as the Y.M.C.A., business and correspondence schools, corporation\nschools, university extension, commercial museums, etc.\nThe history of commercial education in the United States reveals the\nfact that private support has played a far larger role here than in the older\nnations. The educational experiment carried on in the field of commercial\neducation between 1825 and the founding of the Wharton School in 188 1 is a\nfine tribute to American enterprise and a sad reflection on the lack of vision\nof our school men. In 1863, there were more than sixty business schools in a\nsingle privately owned and operated chain or system. The Bureau of\nEducation reports an enrohnent of 115,748 students in 1893 m the private\nbusiness schools. The enrolment had increast to 134,782 m 1909. There\nwas Uttle interest in the schools and colleges for commercial education,\nhowever, prior to 1880; and it was twelve years later before one of the\npioneers in this early movement advocated the establishment of a separate\ncommercial high school. It is significant to recaU in this connection that\nthe German Handelsschulen, a very successful type of commercial school,\nwere not really weU estabUsht until 1890; and that the type of school in\nEngland that has best related its courses of instruction to trade needs\n\n"}
{"page": 142, "printed_page": "130", "text": "130\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nwas not establisht until. the present century. In the United States, academic initiative and the interest of the schools in commercial education\nseem to have subsided after 1892, in part because of conditions in the business world after the panic of 1893, and in part because of the difficulty of\nadjusting an adequate course to the regular and prescribed course of study.\nWith the establishment, by 1900, of the commercial high school in a few of\nour larger cities, and the introduction, a few years later, of the continuation\ncourse by the city college, the academic interest began to increase, and a\nmarkt decrease in attendance in the private business schools will be notist.\nTheir student enrolment, however, is still significant in the total enrolment\nof about 350,000 students now registered in the commercial-instruction\ncourses of this country.\nThe secondary schools are showing the best reaction, altho the establishment ofcourses on business administration and commerce in several of\nour leading universities has assisted greatly in the increasing recognition\nof the importance of commercial study. The Report of the Commissioner\nof Education for 19 14 gives the following ratio of commercial students\nto the total secondary enrolment; North Atlantic division, 22 per cent;\nSouth Atlantic division, 8 per cent; North Central division, 10 per cent;\nSouth Central division, 4 per cent; and Western division, 14 per cent. In\nNew York City, 29 per cent of the students are pursuing commercial studies.\nThis markt relative increase in commercial education in the secondary\nschools will give encouragement to all who condition a nation's prosperity\non the extent and character of its commercial-education course. When\none considers, however, the rich resources of the South and the trade\nopportunities of many of its larger industrial cities, the student enrolment\nin commercial studies is still insignificant in the South Atlantic and South\nCentral states; and if one considers further that these statistics refer almost\nentirely to preparation for business at home, the negligible role the schools\nof the United States play in preparing for a career of foreign service is\neasily apparent. Let us take, for example, the teaching of Spanish in our\nschools and colleges. Due to a quickened interest in our Latin American\nrelations, one would expect a very large enrolment in this very highly\nimportant commercial language, whatever the method and content of\ninstruction. Recent statistics gathered by me for the Bureau of Education,\nbased on about 12,000 replies received in response to a questionnaire sent\nto 14,847 schools, show that only 731 of these schools offer courses in Spanish\nwhile a yet smaller number, 553, are actually teaching the subject. Of this\nnumber, 226 are to be found in two states, California and Texas; 68 are\nin Massachusetts and New York. The remaining 44 states report, therefore, only 259 schools, an average of less than 6 schools to each state. The\nnumber of students enrolled in the Spanish classes of these schools is 29,726.\nThe South Central states have an enrolment of only 745 students, 257 of\nwhich are in the state of Florida alone. The North Central division, with\n\n"}
{"page": 143, "printed_page": "131", "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nFOREIGN\n\nSERVICE\n\n131\n\nits enrolment of 10 per cent in commercial education, reveals a relatively\nlower interest in Spanish than the South Central states. The North Central\nstates, including an enrolment of 113 2 in the state of Missouri, register\nonly 2826 students in Spanish, while the South Central division registers\na total of 5787. This is due to an enrohnent of 4619 students in the state\nof Texas. The Western states have the largest enrohnent of any division\n13,083 students. California alone enrols 10,163 of this number. In the\nNorth Atlantic states, where the total enrolment is 7295, Massachusetts\nleads with a total of 3675. The enrohnent in Spanish for the 229 colleges\nreporting classes in Spanish is only 10,65 1 . The total enrohnent for schools\nand colleges is 40,387, a number almost negligible for the nearly two million\nstudents registered in the schools and colleges of the United States. These\nfigures are compiled from an inquiry made during the school year of 1914-15.\nThe nation-wide propaganda carried on during that year and the intervening months in the interest of our Latin American relations has led\nto such an increast study of Spanish in our schools that the pubUcation of the Bulletin on Spanish has been postponed in order to gather\nand print as supplementary the statistics for the past scholastic year.\nThis Bulletin will include as well statistics on other subjects relating to\nLatin America.\nFailure to teach the commercial languages in a satisfactory manner is\nnot the only defect in our commercial-education courses. Most of them\nare plainly inadequate for foreign-service training, as our schools and colleges, with the possible exception of a very small number along or adjacent\nto the Atlantic, and Pacific seaboard, train for business with the view of\nconduct at home, altho a small number of inland schools have mtroduced\nnew subjects concerned with foreign relations, or taught those aheady\nestablisht with a newer meaning thru the personal efforts of some member of the faculty who has been tramed to the international way of\nthinking.\nPreparation for foreign service implies a distinctive kind of work, both\nfor student and instructor. It is ahnost impossible to train for it under\npresent conditions, largely because of the lack of properly prepared teachers\nbe not\nfor the different types and grades of schools. These teachers must\nreading,\nonly men of vision, of travel, experience, and with wide range of\nmust be\nmen of the catholic culture of Rabelais and Montaigne, but they\nmust have a\nspecialists in their own subjects; and at the same time they\ns Such a\nfair degree of common-sense and sympathy for business practice\nand graduate busmessteacher is absolutely necessary in the collegiate\nin teachmg elementary\nplace\nof\nout\nentirely\nbe\nnot\ntraining courses and will\nwhich are 01\ny studies, particularly geography and history, ^\nor secondar\nimportance for our purpose.\nsupreme\nmg for foreign s na«\nCommercial history is the basic study in train\nof its resources and mtra-terntorml\nAs the history of a people, it will treat\n\n"}
{"page": 144, "printed_page": "132", "text": "132\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\naffairs, will give its political, industrial, and economic development, and\nwill correlate, and show the interplay of, the great social forces of the nation\nin which the simplest politico-economic facts are highly significant. Such a\nhistory is in no sense a mere account of the material growth of a people,\nbut will recognize the nation's ideals and aspirations in the finer things of\nthe spirit as an important and contributing source of this growth. Commerce and trade, from the simple barter of primitive tribes to the intricate\nexchange of today, is from this standpoint the most important factor in\nnational life. It has been the mainspring of action, individual or national,\nand has quickened moral consciousness and increast culture thru new\nprocesses and glimpses into a world outside and beyond itself. It has\ntaught the lesson of cooperation and has been the agent in the many-sided\ndevelopment of agriculture, industry, and manufacturing; and, finally, in\nraising these achievements to the international plane, it is preparing the\nway for the practical application of the Golden Rule among nations, and\nfor an enduring peace based on confraternity and solidarity of interest\nrather than diplomatic alliances that endure only so long as the selfish\ninterests of the contracting parties are conserved. When the commercial\nnations consider commerce in this Ught, the latter will be de facto the\ngreat factor in civilization, and its history will be the synthesis of all activity\nand achievements. Selfish struggle and strife are not naturally incident to\na commercial transaction, despite the contradictory evidence furnisht by\nsuch facts as may come to our knowledge from day to day nor by the narratives of history detacht from their natural setting in the evolution of\ncommerce. Great commercial movements have always been inaugurated by\nindividuals and nations fired with democratic ideals, altho the history of\ndemocratic experiments would seem to indicate that a democracy is incapable of territorial expansion with its corollary of colonial or international\ntrade. History shows, however, that the trade success of the empires of\nRome, England, Spain, and Germany were due to causes as fundamentally\ndemocratic as those which were directly responsible for the trade of Semite\nand Greek, the municipal democracies of Italy, and the guild towns of Germany. The Tory is incapable of sustained trade success.\nThis is not, I frankly admit, the generally accepted view. Commerce\nis still regarded by most men as something that follows of itself and requires\nlittle preparation beyond that of familiarizing oneself with the traditional\ntechnique of business thru engaging in the actual pursuit of the latter.\nLocal business and the trade of a nation at home or abroad, whatever may\nbe its nature and extent, have seemingly been content to develop in this\nmanner. Individuals, companies, and nations have apparently achieved\nmaterial success only to disappear with the exhaustion of resources or thru\nsome inexplicably satisfied demand for their goods. The scientific conservation, production, and distribution of a nation's resources requires,\nhowever, trained experts. A still higher degree of eflSiciency must be possest\n\n"}
{"page": 145, "printed_page": "133", "text": "Sessions]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nFOREIGN\n\nSERVICE\n\nby those who are engaged in foreign merchandising or who\nrepresent the\nnation in international trade and alliances. Can we\nprepare this type of\nman in the usual classroom of today? I think not. Our schools\ncompelled, thru the obligation imposed by local support andare largely\ncontrol\nto concern themselves with local problems. The contrary is conditi\noned\nby their location in the larger industrial cities with foreign-trade or shippin\ninterests and possibilities. If unusual foreign-trade opportunities wereg\nnot now at hand, and if this country had to wait for the tardy mtroduction\nand slow development of the necessary courses of mstruction, could there\nbe evolved in the schools as now establisht a fairly satisfactory traimng\ncourse ? I do not think so because the interest subserved in preparation\nfor foreign service is not that of a city or state, but that of the largest unit\nby which we politically delimit ourselves, the nation. This training, therefore, isplainly the nation's business; for it is the nation's busmess to undertake and support whatever can be done better by it than by any constituent\nmember thereof, the profit from which will accrue to all, and to refram\nfrom undertaking whatever can be done just as well by state or individual,\nthe profit from which will not redound to the profit of all.\nExpedient ventures like the foreign-trade course in corporation schools,\nin banking, industrial, and manufacturing institutions, are only temporary\nmakeshifts, however excellent the service they perform. Such a course\nlacks the promise of permanency and is incapable of proper correlation with\nour public-school system, to which it is foreign, as it is to the genius of this\nnation and its ideals of democracy. The continuation course offers a more\nsatisfactory compromise. With a relatively larger urban population, with\nhighly diversified manufacturing interests, the continuation school might\noffer in the United States the same effective training as similar schools in\ncongested areas like those of Germany, Switzerland, and Belgium.\nConditions in the United States demand, however, a different solution.\nThe proper course to pursue, it seems to me, Ues in the immediate cooperation ofgovernment, business, and the schools in the estabUshment of\nforeign-trade training courses thru the introduction of new subjects or a\nmodified presentation of pertinent subjects aheady estabUsht, and the\narticulating and correlating of these subjects in a distinctive study group\nfor foreign-service training. The tune is ripe for this. Our federal departments and the larger financial, manufacturing, and foreign-trade corporations are ready to assist. They need, not only immediately a large number\nof well-trained graduates for the different kmds of service, but are in a\nposition to furnish men who can render paramount service in the way of\npractical lectures, supplementing theory, on their respective specialties.\nThe reorganized foreign-trade service of the Departments of State and Commerce, the appointment of federal commissions— banking, trade, tariff,\nadequate\nindustrial, vocational, etc.— create a demand for experts without\nsense\nincreasmg\nan\nmen\nbusiness\nof\npart\nthe\non\nsupply. There is, further,\n\n"}
{"page": 146, "printed_page": "134", "text": "134\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nof realization that a nation's business policy must be determined by careful\nstudy and exercised thru the most scientific methods.\nIf it wishes, therefore, the nation can begin tomorrow to train men\nefficiently for this service. It will be easy to establish for this purpose\na chain of schools that may receive federal support with the same degree of\nfairness as money appropriated and allotted to different sections of the\ncountry for other purposes. Their estabUshment in cities with foreigntrade interests will naturally quicken and stimulate this interest in the\nadjacent territory. The larger cities which come to mind have already\nin their midst ranking educational institutions articulated with the schools\nof their respective sections. Their resident faculties not only can teach the\nfundamentals for this specific kind of training, but will be able to exert an\ninfluence upon the necessary preparatory courses in the lower schools.\nThe larger part of the instruction, however, should be given thru sequential\nlectures by a visiting staff of foreign-service experts from the federal government and the larger business corporations. The cooperation and supervised teaching of these experts will be of incalculable value to this nation.\nViewing from a common plane matters of gravest concern to our national\nprosperity, foreign trade, and diplomatic relations, and actuated by common ideals of foreign service, government and business should be able, thru\nrepresentatives assigned for this teaching work, to create a foreign policy\nmutually beneficial and free from all misunderstanding, because it will be\nthe collective work of our best foreign-relation experts. Instruction\ncarried on in this manner will furnish the supply of properly trained teachers\nfor this type of training. The lower schools, important as they are in our\neducational system, need superior teachers as much if not more than the\ncolleges, in view of the cooperation which the teachers in colleges and universities will receive from extra-mural experts. Teachers prepared thru\nsubjects presented in part by these experts will not only be able to relate the\nsubjects, taught by them, in turn, to local business needs, but will be of\nreal assistance in the commercial and industrial development of their communities.\nThe graduate schools of business administration in particular that will\nbe developt in time in all of these favored institutions should be able to\nsupply this demand for satisfactory teachers, and provide government and\nbusiness as well, with the experts necessary for the highly specialized service\nof today. Their abiUty to do so will depend upon the prejudice that exists\non the part of the schools themselves toward the introduction of new\ncourses and the seemingly novel manner of presentation, and upon the\ndifficulty of readjustment within the college curriculum. If prejudice\nand difficulties should prove to be insurmountable, the universities and\ncolleges should then join forces with government and business and demand\nthe establishment of a national university of commerce, the capstone of a\nsynthetic and scientific business-training course for the nation, where every\n\n"}
{"page": 147, "printed_page": "135", "text": "Sessions!\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nFOREIGN\n\nSERVICE\n\ncourse studied can be presented, with foreign servic\ne in mind, by an efficient\nfaculty cooperating in the manner above descri\nbed.\nIt is needless to comment upon the superior traini\nng of men prepared in\nsuch an environment, whether it be m the city of\nWashington or in any\none of the three coast cities. New York, San Francisco,\nand New Orleans\nForeign-service training, thru its special nature, requir\nes a distmctive\nSspnt de corps on the part of the students engaged in it, a unique\nrelation\nbetween teachers and students, an atmosphere sui generis. In\nview of this\nfact and of the highly specialized character of the training in relation to\nthe\nforeign field, it is highly desirable, altho not absolutely necessary,\nthat\nfederal universities be estabUsht in these three cities as well as in Washm\ngton, in order that the foreign fields, the Orient, Europe, the Near East\nand Africa, and Latin America may receive special and intensive study.\nIf but one university can be estabUsht, this should be by all means at the\ncapital of the nation, where scientific study and investigation of the highest\norder is now being carried on in the various bureaus interested in the interior\ndevelopment of the United States. The same faciUties and a similar interest\nin extra-territorial matters can likewise be created here in bureaus aheady\nestablisht or to be estabUsht in the future. Not only can the proper board\nof administration perform its functions with greater personal interest,\nbut the quasi-resident faculty members of the State, Treasury, and Commerce departments, on furlough or assigned to the service of teaching in\nthe national university of commerce, wiU be able to perform their labors\nmost advantageously in an institution so situated. And lastly, the students\nthemselves can be best trained in this environment and coUegiate atmosphere, particularly for government service abroad, where the need is now\nso great, and where it wiU be greater in the years to come, if present signs\nare prophetic of future policies in international relations.\nWe must, in conclusion, prepare ourselves as a nation for this participation ininternational affairs, and, in fact, our leaders are doing so. Men\nof lofty vision and high patriotic motives, students of social conditions and\nprogressive movements, are manifesting profound interest in the creation\nof an international brotherhood of nations thru common purposes, labors,\nand ideals, and are active in organizations, newly created or long estabUsht,\nthat are interested in peaceful settlement of international disputes and the\ncreation of good-wiU among nations. The practical realization of their\nlabors demands a high type of government servant in the consular and\ndiplomatic service. It is further a question whether diplomatic relations\ncan be carried on in the future thru an organized service to which stiU cling\nmany of the traditions of national isolation and separatenfess, the sovereign\nrespect for might, outworn by reason of modern inventions and appUances\nand rapid means of intercontinental communication. Special commissions\nand personal envoys wiU play a larger part in the future in the international\nrelations of a country. The commercial attache wiU have increasing\n\n"}
{"page": 148, "printed_page": "136", "text": "136\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nascendency over the military and naval attache. The establishment of\nforeign branches of the federated chambers of commerce and of national\nbanks and industrial corporations under federal patronage, together with\nthe nation's welfare work abroad — social, religious, and educational — will\ncreate a work for which the diplomatic service of today is unprepared and\nunfit and which, perhaps, it may never be capable of undertaking. To perform this new service acceptably, the nation needs men prepared to understand it,to develop it in accordance with this understanding, and to hasten\nthe day when all of the nations of the world, large or small, assured forever\nof their territorial integrity, will see that national prosperity is conditioned\nby industrial and commercial development thru the free movement of\ntrade in the spirit of equitable, natural, and unhampered \"give and take,\"\nbringing inevitably in its wake the universal aspiration toward a common\nculture and a common destiny.\nSALARIES\n\nAND\n\nJOSEPH SWAIN, PRESIDENT,\nCHAIRMAN,\n\nPENSIONS\nSWARTHMORE\n\nOF TEACHERS\nCOLLEGE,\n\nCOMMITTEE ON TEACHERS*\nTENURE, AND PENSIONS\n\nSWARTHMORE,\n\nPA.:\n\nSALARIES,\n\nSince the appointment of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries, Tenure,\nand Pensions, in October of 191 1, there has been publisht by the Committee,\nor by the United States Bureau of Education in co-operation with it, about\none thousand pages of hterature chiefly on teachers' salaries. The study\nof these pages will make clear to any impartial and enhghtened observer\nthat the salaries of teachers in the United States are not large enough\nproperly to provide for the numerous financial demands that their work\nmakes upon them.\nThe studies thus far made naturally led your Committee to the study of\npensions. The work of the Committee this year has been in two directions.\nIn cooperation with the Bureau of Education, a bulletin has been prepared\nwhich, on the recommendation of United States Commissioner Claxton,\nwill be pubUsht by the Bureau. The purpose of this bulletin is to show the\nextent of the teachers' pension movement in a brief and summary way,\nand to collect, in convenient form, pension legislation for pubHc-school\nteachers in the United States up to date.\nv\nThis bulletin, now in press, is a natural introduction to the Report on\nTeachers' Pensions, which, at the request of the Committee, is now being\nprepared for it by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, without cost to the National Education Association. Dr. Pritchett\nand his associates, all teachers, have given their chief time and energy for\nthe last ten years to the study of pensions in all parts of the world, including\nthe question of pensions for teachers in our public schools. They have\nplaced at the disposal of your Committee all the material they have gath-\n\n"}
{"page": 149, "printed_page": "137", "text": "Sessions]\n\nSALARIES AND PENSIONS OP TEACHERS\n\nered during this period. Clyde Furst, secretary of the\nFoundation has a\nprelmimary report which he will now present.\nPENSIONS FOR PUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nTEACHERS\n\nCLYDE FURST, SECRETARY, CARNEGIE FOUNDATION\nFOR THE ADVANCEMENT\nTEACHING, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nOF\n\nThe fundamental principles of a pension system may be stated briefly.\nOnly those, however, who have studied the great mass of pension Hterature\nare likely to give full acceptance to them at once. It is not easy to understand, for example, that a non-contributory pension is the most costly\nto the beneficiary— that free pensions, paid by a government or other\nagency, are, in the long run, so expensive that the individual cannot afford\nto trust his future to them.\nAmong those, however, who have given thoro study to pensions, from\nthe standpoint of the needs of those whom the systems are intended to serve,\nand who have followed the history of the breakdown of one system after\nanother, there is practical agreement that the following fundamental\nprinciples are applicable to all pension systems which involve large groups.\n1. A pension is but one feature of the reUef system needed by any given\ngroup. Only a minority of those who become teachers, or government\nemployes, or machinists, will live to enjoy a pension, however provided.\nA relief system must be planned with special reference to the group it is\nintended to serve. Among railroad employes the risk of accident is greater\nthan among teachers. Sickness is a risk common to teachers and raihoad\nemployes, but teachers are better able to deal with it as individuals. In\ngeneral, a relief system will undertake only those capital risks of life which\ncan best be met by cooperative effort. In the case of teachers, death,\ndependence in old age, and disability are such risks.\n2. A pension system can be operated successfully only in a group fairly\nhomogeneous: that is to say, when the members of the group live under\nlike conditions, are subject to similar risks, and have rates of pay which\nare comparable.\n3. A reUef system, to accomplish its purpose, must include practically\nall members of the group. Otherwise those who most need its benefits\nare least likely to enjoy them.\n4. Two plans have been followed in the estabUshment of pension\nsystems for large groups: (a) the reserve plan, under which the necessary\nreserve for each beneficiary is set aside year by year. This, with the accumulated interest, will provide the pension when it may become due; (6) the\ncash disbursement plan, under which plan pensions are simply paid out of\ncurrent funds, such as those provided by government appropriations or\nby an endowment.\nThe same pension benefits may be paid under both plans, but the cost\nunder the reserve plan is measured by the percentage of the pay-roll\n\n"}
{"page": 150, "printed_page": "138", "text": "138\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nnecessary to accumulate future pensions, while the cost under the cash\ndisbursement plan is measured by the percentage of the annual pay-roll\nrequired for the full pension benefits. The cost under the reserve plan is\na constant factor which, in the case of a college teacher would entail a\npayment of from 4 to 5 per cent of his pay by the teacher and by the college.\nThe cost under the cash-disbursement plan is a changing and constantly\nincreasing factor which may eventually amount to 20 per cent of the active\npay-roll or more. The reserve plan adapts itself to a contributory pension,\nthe cash-disbursement plan to a free pension paid without the participation\nof the beneficiary.\n5. Systems offering a free pension upon the cash-disbursement plan\nhave repeatedly broken down thru their great cost, unless upheld by the\nresources of a government. Even in governmental pensions, the cost has\nmounted to such proportions as to endanger the permanency of the system.\nUnder a free pension system, every tendency is toward increase. No\nactuarial computation can take account of the charitable, political, and\nsocial influences which tend to increase the load. Experience shows also\nthat the beneficiaries of a free pension system in time become dissatisfied,\nand claim that such pensions are merely deferred pay and that they benefit\nthe few at the expense of the many.\n6. The employe entering his vocation, and looking forward over a\nspan of thirty or forty years to the protection of a pension, is most of all\nconcerned in its security. If he is to plan his life upon the use of a pension\nat an agreed age, he desires above all absolute certainty that the pension\nwill be ready at the date named. There is no way in which this can be\nassured except by setting aside year by year the reserve necessary to provide\nit. Nothing short of a contract providing this reserve will give him such\nsecurity, and this he can get only by a participation in the accumulation\nof the reserve.\n7. A pension system on the reserve plan, sustained by joint contributions of employer and employe, is not only the fairest and most equitable\nform of pension system, but it is the only one in which the cost can be\nascertained in advance and in which the question of pension is separated\nfrom the question of pay. It is the only form of pension which can be\npermanently secure. The man of thirty, whether he be teacher, government clerk, or industrial worker, can be sure of the pension promist\nthirty-five years in advance, only when it rests upon this economic basis.\nThe justification of pensions for teachers in particular is economic,\nsocial, and educational. Economically, the work of an organization is not\neffective unless there is a satisfactory method of retiring aged or infirm\nworkers. Only a satisfactory pension system can prevent either the dismissal of aged or infirm teachers without resources, or the sacrifice of the\nwelfare of the pupils in order to continue the employment of teachers who\nare no longer capable of good work. Socially, men and women of character,\n\n"}
{"page": 151, "printed_page": "139", "text": "Sessions]\n\nSALARIES\n\nAND\n\nPENSIONS\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nintelligence, and devotion are wiUing to perfo\nrm difficult social services\nthat are poorly paid; but it is too much to expect\nthem also to face old\nage and disabihty without the prospect of some protection\n. EducationaUv\nthere is great need to secure and retain able teachers in\nthe schools At\npresent only about 5 per cent of the men and 15 per cent of\nthe women who\nenter teaching make it a permanent career.\nFor all of these reasons, the development of pensio\nn systems for\nteachers has been rapid and widespread in the United States\n. Ten were\nfounded between 1890 and 1900; twenty-five between 1900 and\n1910; and\nthirty-one between 1910 and 1915. More than half of our states now have\nsome form of pensions for teachers.\nThe cost of a pension system for teachers may be borne by the teacher\nalone, by the public alone, or by the teacher and the public together. If\nthe cost is borne by the teacher alone, he can scarcely afford, out of a small\nsalary, to set aside enough money to purchase adequate protection, and\nthe public fails to fulfil a plain obligation. If the cost is borne by the\npublic alone, the money is really taken from the teachers' salaries without\ntheir agreement, cooperation is weakened, and the teachers suffer in\nindependence and lose an incentive to personal thrift. When the cost is\nborne by the teachers and the public together, the teacher receives appropriate reward and protection, and both the teacher and the public meet\nan economic, social, and educational obligation. The principle of cooperation between the teacher and the public is recognized by most of the\npension systems that are now in operation.\nThe apphcation of the principle of cooperation, however, is not so\nsatisfactory. Only a dozen systems relate the amount of the pubHc contribution to that of the teacher. In these cases it ranges from one-half\nto three times that of the teacher, being usually an equal amount. Frequently, public money is expected from sources which bear no relation to\nthe amount of money needed for pensions. Excise, inheritance, license,\nor transfer receipts, deductions, fines, or forfeitures from teachers' salaries\nfor absence or illness, or tuitions of non-resident students do not furnish a\nreliable basis for pensions. Equally unsatisfactory is the expectation of\npaying pensions, when they fall due, from current school or other funds,\nwithout any assurance that these funds will be adequate, or from special\nor general appropriations, without any certainty that such appropriations\nwill be made. Indeed, it is not uncommon to limit in advance the sums\nthat may be taken from such sources, thus reducing the proportion of the\npension that can be paid, or leaving the whole question of payment largely\nto accident. Because of these facts, no teacher can be- certain that any\npension system now in existence will or can pay any pension that has been\npromist.\nution\nThe only way in which security can be obtained is for the contrib\nset\nand\ny\nannuaU\nof the public as well as that of the teacher to be paid in\n\n"}
{"page": 152, "printed_page": "140", "text": "I40\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\naside to accumulate against the time when it will be needed. This also is\nthe only economical method. Any system which agrees to pay a pension\nfrom current funds after the teacher retires, plans to spend two or three\ntimes as much money for that pension as would be required if sums were\nset aside each year to accumulate during the teacher's period of service.\nPension systems for teachers in the United States, moreover, are so\norganized at present that it is impossible for anybody to estimate the cost\nof any one of them. The probable length of life of a teacher in service or\nafter retirement may be estimated, with a fair degree of safety, from the\ntables of mortahty that have been developt by the life-insurance companies,\naltho it begins to appear that teachers live longer than other people. Estimates of the likelihood of disability, however, and the probable length of\nlife after retirement because of disability are still without an adequate basis.\nIt will be a long while before reliable estimates can be made of the probabihty of dismissal, or of resignation, or of the age at which one will choose\nto retire. It is quite certain that no one can predict what any teacher's\nsalary will be thirty, or forty, or fifty years hence; and yet practically all\npensions are based upon the salary at the time of retirement. The fact\nthat no one of our existing pension systems is satisfactory is explained by\ntheir history. These systems are for the most part very new, and they have\nin the main imitated government systems, the great resources of which\nhave caused the question of cost to be neglected. But the difficulties of\nthe English civil-service pensions in 1909 and the failure and the reorganization ofthose of New South Wales in 191 2 proved that even a government\ncannot afford a careless pension system. These difficulties and those of\nPorto Rico, New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia, and of New York City,\nIndianapolis, Cincinnati, and Philadelphia have greatly stimulated the study\nof pensions, with the result that we may hope to enter upon a sounder era.\nThere is, of course, a definite relation between pension benefits and\npension costs. At present both teacher and public desire benefits that are\nimpossibly expensive in return for contributions that are too small to\nprovide even modest benefits. Some systems, for example, promise retirement after twenty years of service or at the age of fifty; in others, teachers\ncontribute only one-half of one per cent of their salaries; in yet others the\npublic contributes only one-half as much as the teachers.\nSuch mistakes may easily be corrected by a very simple pension system,\nbased upon the tables of mortality that are used by the life-insurance\ncompanies, and upon a safe rate of interest, with the provision that the\nteacher shall receive the benefit of all of his accumulations. We can tell\nin this way what certain desired benefits will cost, or what benefits can be\nhad for whatever definite siun of money is available. It is very simple\nto estimate what any annual contribution, beginning at any age, and\naccumulating at a given percentage, will amount to after any number of\nyears. If all of the money is deposited in a central fund, each contributor\n\n"}
{"page": 153, "printed_page": "141", "text": "Sessions!\n\nSALARIES\n\nAND\n\nPENSIONS\n\nOP TEACHERS\n\ncan be guaranteed a definite annuity for life, since the\nlives of all are\naged in the standard mortality tables. Thus an annual\navercontributirn\nTf\n$ioo a year, beginning at the age of twenty-five, and accumu\nlated at U\nper cent mterest, wiU provide a man with an annuity for\nlife according\nto the McClintock table of mortaUty, of $894 a year beginn\ning at the age\nof sixty, or of $1550 a year beginning at skty-five, or of $2959\na year\nbeginning at seventy. The annuities from such a contribution for women\nwho live longer than men, would be about three-fourths of the sums that\nhave been mentioned.\nIf it is desired, for the sake of family-protection, there may also be\na return of the accumulations of the teacher who dies before retirement,\nand a return of the balance of the accumulations of the teacher who retires\nbut dies before he has drawn all of his accumulations. This also can be\ncalculated from standard mortality and interest tables.\nIf further protection is desired against disabihty, this can be similarly\nprovided, by the use of the best tables that we have, with the proviso that\nthe rates for those who enter into the system in the future may be modified\naccording to future experience.\nShould it be desired, finally, to return part or all of the accumulations\nof those who withdraw from the system for any reason, this also can be\nprovided for, on the basis of the very limited withdrawal tables that are\navailable, with the proviso that the rates for new entrants be adjusted\nperiodically on the basis of accumulated experience.\nThe cost of each of these additional benefits has never been calculated\nseparately, but it has been roughly estimated that the cost of an annuity\nalone is about doubled by adding the benefits of a proportionate annuity\nfor life beginning with permanent disability at whatever age, and a guarantee ofthe return of all of the teacher's accumulations in case of withdrawal\nfrom service, in case of death before retirement, or in case of death after\nretirement before all of his accmnulations have been used.\nA pension system of the kind that has been mentioned would be just\nand fair to all concerned, giving the teacher secure and adequate protection\nat a reasonable cost to himself and to the public. It would not be necessary\nto change the present form of administration, which is generally thru a\nspecial board of five or seven persons, upon which the teachers and the\npublic are about equally represented. It will be important, however, to\nhave the actual work done by competent, full-time experts, under the\nsupervision of the state banking and insurance departments.\nAccording to such a plan, all systems will provide for retirement on\nthe basis of age, altho only two-fifths of them do so at present. The age\nof retirement, which is now usually fixt, can be left to the teacher and the\nadministration. If the need is great, retirement may be earHer, in spite\nof the fact that the smaUer accumulations would then make the pension\nIn general, retirement wiU, in aU probability, be later than at\nsmaller.\n\n"}
{"page": 154, "printed_page": "142", "text": "142\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npresent, because of the larger pension provided by the longer accumulation,\nand the educational desirability of keeping the able teacher in service as\nlong as possible.\nDisability can be provided for by using whatever money has been\naccumulated at the time retirement becomes unavoidable. Retirement on\nthe basis of service alone is a luxury which neither the teacher nor the\npublic appears to be willing or able to pay for. It is, moreover, educationally\nunfortunate in encouraging the withdrawal from service of experienst\nteachers at the time when they are doing their best work.\nThose who are dependent upon the teacher may be better protected\nthan at present, since the form of contribution will set up a contractual\nrelation which may provide definite returns in case of withdrawal or death.\nReturn of contribution in case of resignation is now generally provided for,\nbut return in case of dismissal is provided for only by one-third of our\nsystems, and return in case of death is provided for only by one-fifth.\nThe amount of the accumulation that is returned now varies from one-half\nto the whole, and is usually without interest. Contractual arrangements\nfor the return of contributions, also, will facilitate the transfer of the\nteacher from one system to another, which is desirable. Indeed, pension\nsystems thruout the country would become practically uniform so that the\nexperience of each would help all.\nMembership in the systems will need to be, as it usually is at present,\nrequired of all new teachers, at least for the minimum protection. For\nteachers already in service, membership may be optional, altho this constitutes one of the most difficult of all pension problems — that of properly\nproviding for the retirement of teachers who have not contributed thruout\ntheir active service. Probably the best plan is to require the participation\nof all teachers toward a minimum protection, basing each teacher's contribution on the rate for his age at entering the service, and dividing the\nadditional amount needed between the teachers and the public, so that\nthe oldest teachers shall be helpt most.\nIt remains only to say that the Carnegie Foundation is in the midst\nof the process of changing its own pension system to the form that has\nbeen outlined here, and that it will be glad to send its studies of present\nsystems and its new plan to any one who is interested.\nTEACHERS'\nJOSEPHINE\n\nCOTTAGES\n\nCORLISS PRESTON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT\nINSTRUCTION, OLYMPIA, WASH.\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nThe steps to be taken in obtaining a teacher's cottage are usually\nsimple. The initiative may be taken by the school directors, by any public\nbody, or even by a group of individuals. The funds are, of course, provided\nby the legal means in use in the particular state in question, by a vote\n\n"}
{"page": 155, "printed_page": "143", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTEACHERS'\n\nCOTTAGES\n\nOf the district and in each case a careful campa\nign should be made to\neducate the public to the need and value of a teacher's\ncottage\nOften a new school building is required, and the\nold schoolhouse can\nbe moved to one side and remodeled for the use of the\nteacher In several\ninstances m Washington, the new building has been made\nwith an additional\nstory, occupied by the teacher. In all cases, however, the teache\nr's quarters should be comfortably arranged, and provided with ample\nsanitary\nheating, and cooking equipment. The best type of cottage is, of course\n'\nbuilt especiaUy to meet a teacher's requirements and m accord\nwith\nlocal conditions. Standard plans may often be secured from theance\nstate or\ncounty superintendent of schools. If not, they should be prepar\ned by a\ncompetent architect or master builder, and the teacher, if one be engage\nd,\nconsulted.\nIn more than 112 districts of Washington where a teacher's cottage\nis provided, it has been found that much better-trained and more efficient\nteachers can be secured at the usual salary, and that these teachers will\nusually remain in the community long enough to discover its needs, help it\nto realize its possibilities, and in every way become valuable factors in the\nlife of the neighborhood. We believe the teacher's cottage the best way\nto obtain better teachers; better teachers the best way to create community centers; community centers the best way to revive rural life with\nfar-reaching economic effects in making possible rural organization.\nFarming and banking, as business professions, have past thru various\nstages of cooperative organization. In the early days of the banking\nbusiness, adverse laws, which now seem so ludicrous as to be almost xmbelievable, held the, lending of money at interest to be un-Christian and\nillegal, making necessary the close organization of bankers so that they\ncould quickly transfer then: visible assets and escape confiscation. But\nwhen the commercial necessity of renting money, as well as other property,\nwas recognized and the ban removed, bankers became more independent of\neach other. It is only quite recently that they have come to see that a\nmisfortune to one destroys confidence in all and the prosperity of all, and\nthat their welfare lies in the organization of clearing-houses and reserve\nbanks for their mutual benefit.\nThe pioneer farmer, too, in his struggle with nature, was forst to lend a\nhand to his neighbors, and in turn to ask and receive their aid. The barnraising and husking bee were the features of pioneer society. But, m their\neffort to get ahead, farmers came to live more and more for themselves.\nWhen they realized, only a few years ago, that the greatest success crowned\nonly cooperative efforts, they found that lack of acquaintance and the\nresultant distrust formed a most serious obstacle to organization. Business, we know, is based on mutual confidence, but they distrusted the\ndealer, they distrusted the banks, and, most of all, they distrusted\nproduce\nother.\neach\n\n"}
{"page": 156, "printed_page": "144", "text": "144\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe resuscitation of rural social life, therefore, not only means making the\nfarm more attractive to the ambitious country boy and girl, but it has a\ndirectly beneficial result on the economic welfare of the community. It\nmakes the farmers acquainted with their neighbors. It also permits the\nbankers and merchants to meet them at their gatherings; and with acquaintance comes understanding, confidence, and business.\nThe most convenient and efficient rural-community center is the\ndistrict or consoHdated district schoolhouse. Here the men and women\nof all political parties and rehgious creeds have a common interest to bring\nthem together, and a common meeting-house where they can attend without\ntreason to their party or heresy to their church. Why, indeed, should the\nschool building, representing no inconsiderable investment of community\ncapital, lie idle all the late afternoon and evening? Why should it not\nserve the needs of the neighborhood as a gathering place for lectures, discus ions, or wholesome, rollicking good times?\nFor these reasons, it has been my effort, as teacher, county superintendent, and, more recently, as state superintendent of public instruction, to\nmake the rural school the social and intellectual institution it should be.\nVery early in this work, I encountered the difficulty of getting teachers willing\nand able to take part in such work .... men and women with su^cient\ntraining, energy, and understanding of human nature.\nThe salary in most cases was equal if not superior to that obtainable in\nthe early stages of other professional careers; the work was pleasant and\nhonorable. Therefore I made a careful investigation to ascertain why so few\nof our well-qualified teachers made applications for rural positions. I\npersuaded some of my best teachers to accept such positions, but they\ndrifted back into the metropolitan schools. I askt them why, and the\nproblem stood out with glaring certainty. It was the vexatious boarding\nproblem.\n•Occasionally we would hear of a controversy like this: The women of\nthe neighborhood would get together in little groups and Mrs. A. would\nsay: \" I boarded the teacher last year. It's Mrs. B.'s turn.\" But Mrs. B\nwould speak up: ''No, indeed, I boarded the teacher we had year before\nlast. Let Mrs. C. do it.\" Poor timid Mrs. C. would say: \"Well, if none\nof the rest of you will, I suppose I'll have to; but we have ten children\nand only two bedrooms, and I hardly see how I can accommodate her.\"\nIn some places the teachers had fair places to board; but in many\nplaces the district paid no attention to the comfortable accommodation of\nthe teacher. The farmer whose home would have been pleasant did not\nneed the money paid for board; the places where the board money was\nwelcome were usually the least attractive in the district. Sometimes the\nmeals were poor; at other times the family was crowded in a small house;\nand, most objectionable of all, the teacher usually had no heated room in\nwhich to spend her evenings by herself in the study, thought, and rest\n\n"}
{"page": 157, "printed_page": "145", "text": "S'^^^^^\"^^\n\nTHE JUNIOR\n\nHIGH SCHOOL\n\nMS\n\nnecessary to do her best work. I took the\nstand,\nmamtam, that every teacher must have good, which I stiU emphaticaUy\nwholesome food ta ordeTto\nsupply her body with physical and mental energy, and\nmust have con\"\ngenial quarters m which to prepare and recup\nwork. Otherwise she cannot hope to devel erate for the next day's\nop or maintain her highe\n^ st\nefficien\ncy.\nAs county superintendent, I considered the problem\nof boarding the\nteacher as a county problem. Since becoming state superi\nntendent of\npubhc mstruction for the state of Washmgton, I have found\nthat the same\nevil conditions not only exist thruout the state, but present a\nnational problem as well. I have found the best solution to be the teacher's cottag\ne\n—a home near or adjoining the school building, which the teache\nr can\nmanag\nin her\nown way\nand' melsewh\nwhich\ndesirede and\nso hard\nto obtain\nere.she can have the privacy so much\n\nTHE JUNIOR\nCHARLES\n\nHIGH SCHOOL\n\nHUGHES\nJOHNSTON, PROFESSOR OF SECONDARY\nUNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA, ILL.\n\nEDUCAnON,\n\nThe junior-high-school movement is sweeping the country. It marks\na general educational reawakening, renaissance, reconstruction. This\nAssociation has made it first a field of investigation, then a propaganda and\nslogan, now a constructive program for development. The Department\nof Superintendence has embodied it in its resolutions. The United States\nBureau stands committed to it. Many state departments are making it\nstate wide. Large cities are adopting it wholesale. Small cities in impressive numbers and with impressive administrative originaUty are making\ntheir own ingenious adjustments to the idea. Surveyors of all kinds can\nthink of no recommendable school policy that does not specifically incorporate junior-high-school features. Local city poUtics finds it useful,\npopular. All sorts of propagandists like it. Cooperating agencies affiliating with public schools (library associations, for example) see in it something promising. University departments of education and normal schools\nand all other agencies for preparing teachers are finding new aspects of professional preparation for this type of teaching, new educational ideals\ntoward which to point the intending teacher. Textbook houses, with\nexpected enterprise, are announcing a new junior-high-school series of\ntextbooks, heralding, they claim, an education with new and invigorating\ningredients. Teachers employment agencies have begun to use the new\nterm and to recommend for positions those with the newly required qualifications. Standing \"expert\" commissions of inquiry (your own national\nCommission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education and the North\nCentral Association Commission on Unit Courses and Curriculums) are\n\n"}
{"page": 158, "printed_page": "146", "text": "I4<^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\npreparing large areas, in fact the whole country, for the intricate kinds of\ninner readjustments the adoption of this fundamental change in school\npolicy calls for. There are now educational courses in our colleges and\nnormal schools deaUng with junior-high-school education, and given by\n\"experts.\" There is a Uterature, a terminology, a Hngo, a cult, an educational philosophy, an educational party.\nWhat is meant by the \"junior high school\" ? One writer thinks the\njunior high school is a school made up of the upper grades (seventh and\neighth) and the lowest grade (ninth) of the present high school, and \"organized after the plan of a high school as regards curriculum, nature, and\nmethod of recitation, instruction, and supervision.\" This, the author says,\nis the \"real junior high school — the school of tomorrow.\" Another says it\nis a school of these same grades or even of the seventh and eighth grades\n\"which offers regular high-school subjects\" and also \"prevocational education\" whose purpose of existence is \"congregation and segregation\"; congregation from many surrounding elementary schools and segregation from\nthem into a new atmosphere where indeed, for educational purposes,\ndifferent groups of these pupils can be given different trainings in certain\nsubjects. Neither of these definitions is at all adequate to the variety of\njunior high schools in existence, to the distinguishing purpose of junior\nhigh schools, or to what should characterize the ideal junior high school.\nBeginning the junior high school in the narrow but correct sense as a\nspecial institution, we should say that it is that portion or department of\nthe pubHc-school system above the sixth elementary grade, including the\nseventh and eighth, and usually the ninth also, which is organized under a\ndistinctive internal management with a special principal and teaching\nstaff, or under a six-year secondary-school department divided into a\njunior and a senior high school of three years each with one general management. Such a school in these first three years would provide for departmental teaching, partially differentiated curriculums, and for prevocational\ninstruction, for a system of educational advice and guidance, and for supervised study. No definition which merely says it is an institution which\nshifts the seventh and eighth grade boys from elementary school to high\nschool properly represents the ideal of this school.\nThis is after all, however, but a narrow and technical definition of the\njunior high school. The adequate definition must be in terms of the profound meaning of the movement — if it is profound. The junior high school\nin this deeper sense suggests the breaking up of our elementary- and secondary-pubUc-school system into smaller, more intelligible, and less unwieldy\nadministrative and curriculum units. It is but a rediscovery of what\nEuropean nations, in their more intensive cultivation of the restricted\nand selected field of secondary education, have found to be an administratively and pedagogically necessary arrangement. Thinking from the\npoint of view of American democracy, we have first thought all into the\n\n"}
{"page": 159, "printed_page": "147", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nJUNIOR\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nj.y\n\nsecondary system as a matter of citizen's right. We have not yet thought\nsufficiently of how to group and adjust our administrative machinery and\ninstructional program to them now that we have them enroled. European school builders and curriculum makers, thinking not of how to populate secondary schools but of how to select their pupils, have had their\ngenius challenged, not with a condition of democracy, but with the problem of how best to organize logically and hence economically the various\nsubject-matters offered thruout the twelve years of the complete selective\nsecondary-school period. They are ahead of us, therefore, in economic\nmethods of breaking up into curriculum units the twelve-year stretch of\neducation which we in America wish to make as nearly universal as possible.\nThe French \"cycle\" scheme for curriculum organization represents an\nestablisht principle of curriculum construction which the junior-high-school\npromoters have been quick to adopt in theory. To practice this fundamental principle effectively will take time. A reconception of subjectmatter of public education in terms of one six-year elementary functioning\nunit, one intermediate three-year transition period, partaking in content,\nmethod, administration, and school atmosphere of both the elementary\nand the secondary, and one three-year period of genuinely secondary work\nis fundamental indeed. Nothing less than this is the real meaning of the\njunior high school. It is no wonder that the courageous ones who have\naccepted the educational challenge of this opportunity are floundering.\nDespite these bewildering and often vague aspects of the movement as\na whole, we are already able to draw an attractive picture of the modem\njunior high school which is to be. It is the American common school\nbreaking into the secondary field. To appreciate the democratic significance of this, we have but to imagine the Folkschule graduate invited to\ngo ahead in the Gymnasium.\nIts pupil population will include not only those now in seventh, eighth,\nand ninth grades, but all of these ages now \"overage\" in the elementary\nsix grades and all over fourteen who for any reason are out of school. It is a\npupil democracy. Russia has the most advanst stage today, and she\nhas the most elective and exclusive literary cUques. She also has the\nfewest theaters and audiences, and the fewest elementary and secondary\nour\npupils— all drawn from the upper classes. The great general public in\ntune.^ragpays the piper and calls the pubhc is\ncountry, in education as in drama,\ntime till it can be refined into Beethoven. So the great general\nas well\nnow dominating the schools. It is taking over secondary education\nchanges,\nal\nfundament\ncome\nmust\ncourse,\nof\nas elementary. With it,\nthis very same\nbroadside readjustments. Our clientele has at last become\n^ general\ncrude\nhonest,\ns,\ngreat, new, eager, childlike, tasteless, standardles\nis poor\nit\nleast\nat\ner\nschoohnast\nthe\npublic.\" As for blaming anybody-for\ntne\nfor\nmuch\nSo\n.\ndemocracy\nas\nforce\nfun to blame such a great primal\npupil population of our junior high schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 160, "printed_page": "148", "text": "148\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIts material plant has not been reduced to one t)^e. However, these\nbuildings are being planned for strictly junior-high-school purposes. Especially are they being so built as to emphasize flexibility in the administering\nof instruction, shop faciUties for prevocational education of all varieties,\nphysical education, general business fundamentals of both skill and information, concrete acquaintance with the world of fine and home arts, auditorium\nand directed study facihties, etc. Their proportionate space given to shops,\nkitchens, cafeteria, printing equipments, laboratories, gymnasiums, swimming pools, assembly rooms, real junior-high-school Ubraries and museums\nis much greater than one finds in the ordinary school buildings. There\nwill soon be a junior-high-school architecture. These buildings must be\nalso community center plants of a unique sort, not paralleling the seniorhigh-school functions in these respects. In addition to these features of\nthe material plant, we may expect to find increasingly art rooms and spacious\ngrounds and other appointments in keeping with this critical three-year\nunit in the reorganized public-school system.\nThe school atmosphere will be neither elementary nor secondary as we\nnow know it. It will be a junior-high-school atmosphere or it will be a\nfailure. It either has its unique character and tone or it is but a sham\nsolution of a very vext problem of public-school reform.\nWe shall have better teachers and better supervision and more men\nteachers and a more pointed, focust curriculum. More men will become\njunior-high-school principals, and there wiU be a more nearly divided\nteaching staff on the lines of sex. Starting a junior high school creates\na situation calling for a selection of high-grade teachers to whom to intrust\nan institutional experiment in a system of education. Better salaries\nwill figure, broader training will be at a premium, years of experience will\ncount, and those with deepest understanding of youth will be selected.\nComparative educational results and records of all sorts will result.\nThe six grades of elementary units in buildings by themselves will now\nbe cleared of all but the children, their single curriculum purpose will be\nclarified, and their obstacles in the way of overage pupils will be out of the\nway. This policy of \"lifting\" the overage from the six-grade elementary\nschool will have a wholesome effect upon all entrance requirements standards\nfor admission to the next higher stage. Likewise, those who have spent\nthree years in the junior high school with its now increast exploration\nfacilities and flexible curriculum offerings will and should naturally expect\nto be past on without red tape to something in the senior-high-school\ndepartment which is more specifically designed to fit them for some more\ndefinite sort of life-work. Then possibly even the colleges may get from\nall this a suggestion of an educational guiding principle for making their\nown admission requirements.\nAs to subjects and single courses, new and old, I have already referred\nto progressive textbook-makers who are even now on the job. Every single\n\n"}
{"page": 161, "printed_page": "149", "text": "Sessions)\n\nTBE JUNIOR\n\nHIGH SCHOOL\n\n*49\n\nsubject now found in the three grades concerned wiU undergo-mdee\nd\nis aheady undergoing— transformation. New principles of organizi\nng\nso-called general courses in all the main Imes of junior-high-school work—\nEngUsh, mathematics, general science, general social science, foreign\nlanguages, practical arts, commercial work— all presage an educational era\nfor the making of better pedagogically constructed units of instruction\nwhich are surely going to point us to new meanings of educaUonal\nmethod.\nAs to curriculum organization of our courses, we are at least now to\nhave design where there was none. Someone has said that what he misses\nin seventh- and eighth-grade work is design. The junior-high-school organization creates a situation in which instruction without curriculum purpose\nwill be painful when in evidence. In short we are forst to hunt for bases\nfor our schemes of training. Here we may have curriculum differentiation\nor we may not. We may differentiate on vocational grounds, or on those\npurely of individual differences, or on none at all. The thing is that we\nhave got to face the problem of whether we can \"point\" our instruction of\nthese grades in any definable direction. Indeed, curriculum differentiation\nis the crucial issue, whatever we do about it. We have already in our\ncrudely conceived prevocational education begun to adjust our instruction\nin this prudent way to some sort of inevitable industrial test to come in the\nlife of the junior-high-school pupil, saving him all the while from narrow\nspecialization. Already, also, we have become increasingly convinst\nfrom our crude scales and tests, of the consistent evidences of the inherent\nand universal natural differentiation among these children. No \"common\nelements\" can produce like effects. Here it takes uncommon elements to\nproduce similar effects. Future probable careers suggest some flexibihty\nin our courses, and this relatively constant proportion of poor, medium, and\nsuperior students reinforces the suggestion.\nA mere tinkering with seventh- and eighth-grade subjects in' the old\nenvironment and with an unchanged teaching staff and supervision cannot\ndo what we already know must be done. These internal matters of educational reorganization offer opportunities which must not be squandered.\nThe psychological value of this junior high school is that it provides just\nthis favorable new situation for seriously conceived plans closely related\nto a clear educational philosophy of administration. If the junior school is\nanything, it is the three-year section of our public-school system, which,\n\"project,\"\nwith its newly developt types of \"generaUzed\" subject-matter,\nand other like methods of teaching, democratic and free policy of schoolof\nmanagement, and intimate and intensive study of the mdividuaUties\ntheir\nexercismg\nby\npupils, seeks to direct pupils in finding themselves\npossible\nvarious traits, examining their various aptitudes, and makmg\nmay be\nwhich\ntraining\nintelligent choice of any special sort of definite\nIt\nmstituUons.\neducational\nfoUowed in the senior high school or in higher\n\n"}
{"page": 162, "printed_page": "150", "text": "ISO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nis our clumsy, crude, and still more or less vague, but yet unmistakable,\nattempt to shunt our educational machinery during this particular threeyear period into the fields of diagnosing and consciously exercising, by\nmeans of more various and more liberally conceived kinds of trainings, the\nindividualities of pupils.\nInto this picture of the modern junior high school, in addition to these\nlarger features of the material plant, the principal and the special teacher,\nthe new entrance requirements, the new and renovated old subjects, the\ncurriculum, differentiations, simplified organization, discipline adjusted to\nearly adolescence, and equipment, must go such features as directed school\nstudy, systems of organized educational and strictly vocational guidance,\nlengthened school day and school year, carefully supervised student activities, and card catalogs of individual differences recorded in such a way as to\naffect the daily administration of the school. Ask ourselves how many of\nthese features of a school are possible in European systems and we begin to\nappreciate the Americanism of the junior-high-school idea. We understand neither Americanism nor the junior high school thoroly, yet we can\nbelieve in them. They are both struggUng for expression.\nWhy does the junior high school stand for us today as our chief educational problem ? In the first place because it, like fire, tho indispensable\nin the right place and in the right hands, is still dangerous; because it is\nmisunderstood; because its proponents exaggerate its immediate values;\nbecause, like all fundamental reforms, it really cannot be understood by\nanyone at the present stage of its evolution. It is our prime educational\nproblem because, of course, the junior high school is the adopted caption\nfor an institution which, whatever we think of it, is spreading ever)rwhere.\nThe junior high school is, in its name and independent physical existence and\nform of organization, but the outward manifestation of a sound new philosophy ofeducation. It is the name we have come to associate with new\nideas of promotion, new methods of preventing elimination, new devices\nfor moving selected groups thru subject-matter at different rates, higher\ncompulsory school age, new and thoro analyses (social, economic, psychological) ofpupil populations, enricht courses, varied and partially differentiated curriculum offerings, scientifically directed study practice, new\nschemes for all sorts of educational guidance (\"educational\" in a narrow\nsense, and also moral, temperamental, and vocational), new psychological\ncharacterizations of types in approaching the paramount school problem of\nindividual differences, new school year, new school day, new kind of class\nexercise, new kinds of laboratory and library equipment and utilization,\nand new kinds of intimate community service. It has somehow set on fire\nour educational imagination.\nIt is a part of our educational philosophy already. Even its vigorous\nopponents have done the cause valuable service and made real, tho so far\nnegative, contributions. From now on, however, it would seem that all\n\n"}
{"page": 163, "printed_page": "151", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE JUNIOR\n\nCOLLEGE\n\neducators should pull with the current, and constructive\nly help clarify the\nreal junior-high-school idea.\nTHE JUNIOR\nJAMES\n\nM. WOOD,\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nSTEPHENS\n\nCOLLEGE\nJUNIOR\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nCOLUMBIA, MO.\n\nThe junior coUege (so caUed) finds its raison d'Hre in an attempt to\nperfect an organization of the American secondary-school system. While\nthe past quarter of a century has seen the American high school spread\nfrom East to West and from North to South, until every community supports with pride a course of from one to six years, the rapidity of this\ndevelopment has overwhehned educational administrators who are charged\nwith the task of organizing and directing the movement— with adjusting\nit to the elementary schools below and to the colleges and universities above.\nVarious attempts to delimitate the scope and purpose of secondary\neducation have led quite generally to the conclusion that it should cover\nthe period of adolescent training and that the content of the curriculum\nand the methods of instruction should be adapted to the needs of adolescents. This conclusion gave rise to the demand for a downward extension\nof the curriculum to include the seventh and eighth grades of the elementary\nschools in what has come to be known as the six-and-six plan and more\nrecently as the junior-senior high school. It also gave birth to the movement in a few of our wealthier and more progressive communities for an\nupward extension of the curriculum to include the freshman and sophomore\nyears of the college course. Thus came into existence the institution that\nis known as the junior college. As a matter of fact, the term is a misnomer\nand it were better frankly to recognize the institution as a senior high\nschool, if this did not involve the rather humiliating acknowledgment on\nthe part of our colleges and universities of the secondary nature of their\nfreshman and sophomore courses.\nIn organization, in content of courses, and in methods of instruction,\nthe process of education falls into three distinct fields— the elementary\nschool, the secondary school, and the university. Classical and professional\ninterests have attempted to separate the secondary school from the university by requiring an interval of four years' collegiate training before a\nhigh-school graduate might enter the professional schools of the university.\nThe prescription, carefully compounded, was pronounst ideal by the\ndoctors but complaints from the victims grew so numerous and their protests became so emphatic that a committee from, this Association was askt\nto diagnose the case and to report its findings. This committee, composed\nof Presidents Butler, EUot, and Harper, and Dean West, agreed that a\nreadjustment which would involve a shortening of the coUege or preprofessional courses, was imperative. True to his American inheritance,\n\n"}
{"page": 164, "printed_page": "152", "text": "152\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nhowever, each proposed his own remedy for the disease, but their combined\nreports constitute one of the most valuable contributions made to the\nliterature of educational administration by this Association in 1903.\nIt was in this report that President Harper called attention to the\nsecondary nature of the lower division courses in colleges and universities.\nIn his address before the National Education Association, he declared\nthat the work of the high schools could not be separated from the freshman\nand sophomore years of the college or university either in method or in\nscope. \"Many high schools,\" he said, \"are actually moving forward to\ninclude in their curriculum the work of the freshman and sophomore years.\nIn these schools the entire college course, as it was known fifty years ago,\nbesides the additional work of science, which at that time was unknown,\nis included.\" He foresaw the significant bearing which the development\nof this \"new college, the product of his own generation,\" would have\nupon the question of entrance requirements to professional schools. His\nconclusions were based upon his experience in the University of Chicago,\nwhere the curriculum for ten years had been divided into junior courses\nand senior courses.\nThe work of the professional school should begin, and that of the vocational school should end, at the close of the adolescent period. Foundations\nshould have been completed by that time. While this is being accomplisht,\nit is important that the student be under the directing influence of both\nschool and home. This feeling in no small degree lay back of the demand\nfor higher general and vocational training on the part of many communities\nfinancially able to support a junior college but unable to bear the strain of\nmunicipal college or university. The initiative in the movement was taken\nby JoUet, 111., in 1902, following a conference in which sat President Harper,\nof the University of Chicago, and Superintendents J. Stanley Brown, of\nJoliet, Soldan, of St. Louis, and Greenwood, of Kansas City. It was in\naccord with a suggestion developt at this conference that Superintendent\nBrown expanded the curriculum of his high school to include freshman and\nsophomore college courses, a step which has more than justified itself.\nThe graduates of the Joliet Junior College have always rankt high as upper\nclassmen in colleges and universities. The movement launcht at Joliet\nhas spread until public junior colleges are found not only in lUinois, but\nalso in Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, California, and other states of the\nUnion. At least one state, California, with its more than fifteen hundred\njunior-college students, has legally made the institution an integral part of\nits educational machinery.\nThe junior-college movement has received a powerful impetus in the\nMiddle West thru a rapidly growing conviction among schoolmen that\nthe best educational results may be secured thru a segregation of the sexes\nduring the adolescent period. An idea older than educational institutions\nthemselves, its value has been appreciated with a kind of shock by that\n\n"}
{"page": 165, "printed_page": "153", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nJUNIOR\n\n'\n\n~\n\nCOLLEGE\n. .\n\nj«J\n\nportion of the American continent where coeducation\nhad become svnonv\nmous with democracy and individuahsm. While\nthis conviction Ls not\nas yet matenally affected the organization of the pubUc\nhigh school or\njunior college, where the student is under the restraining\ninfluence of the\nhome, It has raised a strong protest against sending immat\nure boys and\ngirls into the overcrowded, unsupervised classes of large coeduc\naUonal\ninstitutions, and it has given a new lease of hf e to a group of\nprivat\ne\ninstitutions that were on the verge of closing their doors.\nWhen it came to be felt that the educational machinery for the\ntrainmg\nof students during the later adolescent period was in need of readjus\ntment,\nMissouri found herself in a peculiarly fortunate situation. From the\ndays\nof the private academy she had inherited a group of institutions, a number\nof which, keeping pace with the times in a restricted field, had been able\nto meet the requirements laid down for membership in the Missouri CoUege\nUnion as standard four-year colleges. While a few of these were coeducational inname, all were devoted primarily to the problem of the adolescent\nboy. There were, however, various private seminaries (colleges so called)\nand finishing schools for girls, about to be displaced by the rapid development of the public-school system, that were seeking a logical place in the\neducational machinery of the state. It was about these institutions that\nthe junior-college movement in Missouri developt. The strongest of\nthem recognized frankly that they could not aspire to the rank of senior\ncolleges. Since the growing popularity of the public high school would\nshortly render their continuation as preparatory schools unnecessary, they\nbegan to ask why their resources might not be utilized in providing collegiate\nand vocational training for girls during the period of later adolescence.\nThe cordial reception tendered them in their new field by the educational fraternity was due to various causes, some of which have been discust\nabove. The primary cause, however, was the growing concern of parents\nand educators over conditions surrounding girls, yet in their teens, in large\ncoeducational institutions. During childhood and early adolescence, the\ninfluence of the home, so vital in the life of a girl, had been paramount, but\nat the middle of what should have been the period of transition from directed\nto independent educational effort, the student found herself compelled to\nsever the home ties or to forego the privilege of further educational advancement. If she were to enter a public institution, she would find the classes\nso large as to make it impossible for her to receive that personal attention\nwhich was her due and which she so much needed in making easy adjustment\nto the new condition that confronted her. The struggle for recognition or\neven for survival soon registered itself in her life, and she became a university woman at an age when she should still have been a college girl— a\ndistinction that is real and one that is due primarily to environment. This\nthought was in the mind of the president of an American university who\nrecently said: ''I shall regret the day when my daughter must enter our\n\n"}
{"page": 166, "printed_page": "154", "text": "154\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niGeneral\n\nuniversity classes. The struggle for adjustment is so intense that she will\nbecome a woman overnight. I would keep her a girl as long as possible.\"\nHere Ues the basic argument for giving the private junior college for\nmen or for women a definite place in an educational system. Thru it the\nperiod of training for adolescent boys or girls may be extended two years\nbeyond that provided by the present organization of the secondary schools.\nIts semi-homelike atmosphere makes possible those intimate associations between individuals and among groups that are so necessary in promoting the\nrational development of girlhood into womanhood; of boyhood into manhood.\nThis conviction led President Harper, the father of the junior college,\nto segregate the sexes in the junior courses of the University of Chicago.\nIts force is now appeaUng quite strongly to educational leaders thruout\nthat inner shrine of coeducation, the Middle West. The conviction rests\nnot upon the feeling of the superiority of one sex over the other nor\nupon a belief in monastic seclusion for the sexes. Rather it is based\nupon the fact that at this age each sex can best find its highest expression\nthru intimate contact with members of its own sex — a practical impossibility inlarge coeducational institutions.\nThe history of the junior-college movement in Missouri is not without\ninterest to those educators who perceive in the institution a real educational\nasset. That the movement met with such instant and universal favor\namong schoolmen has been due primarily to the sympathetic attitude of\nthe University of Missouri, whose management was quick to realize that\nthe institutions might be made to fill a very important place in the educational work of tlie state.\nA request for inspection and accrediting as junior colleges was sent to\nthe University of Missouri by the interested institutions in 191 1. A committee from the faculty, the chairman of which was the president himself,\nwas forthwith appointed. This committee was instructed to visit such\ninstitutions as might apply for recognition as junior colleges, to inspect\nthem thoroly, to counsel with their faculties and administrative officials,\nand to formulate the rules and regulations that should govern a category\nof institutions to be known as junior colleges.\nUpon the publication of the report of this committee, the various\ninstitutions inspected began a reorganization to meet the requirements\nlaid down. Since then nine institutions have been officially accredited as\njunior colleges: In March, 19 13: Hardin College (Mexico) ; Howard-Payne\nCollege (Fayette); Lindenwood College (St. Charles); Stephens College\n(Columbia). In June, 19 14: Christian College (Columbia); Cottey College\n(Nevada). In January, 191 5: WiUiam Woods College (Fulton). In\nMarch, 191 5: Kansas City Junior College; Pritchett College (Glasgow).\nTo promote the interests of the movement, these institutions have\norganized the Missouri Junior College. Union, which holds semiannual\nmeetings for the consideration of questions of common interest.\n\n"}
{"page": 167, "printed_page": "155", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTBE\n\nJUNIOR\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nj\n\nThe entire junior-college movement is too much in its infanc\ny to warrant\nany very definite conclusions. Some tendencies, however,\nmay be noted\nand the specific results that have accrued to one institution since\nstandardization may be recorded.\nit has not yet been definitely determined whether, in the last analysis\n,\nthe junior college is to offer only a two-year coUege course, or a two-yea\nr\nhigh-school and a two-year college course, or a four-year high-school and a\ntwo-year college course. Each has its advocates, tho most junior colleges\nin Missouri at present offer four years of high-school and two years of\ncollege work. Theoretically, there are many who argue that the junior\ncollege should concentrate its resources upon the two years of college work\nalone. In practice this has not yet been feasible.\nThe Missouri Junior College Union has recommended that the course\nshould be a four-year one, covering the last two years of high school and\nthe first two years of college. This plan is very generally supported by\nmembers of the Junior College Accrediting Committee from the University\nof Missouri. Before this basis for organization can achieve any degree of\npermanence, however, the proper correlation of courses between the juniorsenior high school and the freshman-sophomore college must be more\ndefinitely determined. The course of study must be a unit beginning at a\ndefinite point and extending without artificial break to another definite\npoint. This can never be until the same freedom of election in courses is\npermitted junior-college students as is now enjoyed by students in the\nsecondary schools. If the junior-college course is to cover a four-year\ncurriculum, there is no more reason for requiring it to organize duplicate\nGerman courses (for instance, one for its first- and second-year, and another\nfor its third- and fourth-year students) than there is for requiring a high\nschool or a senior college to do the same thing. A senior in high school may\nenter a freshman-sophomore class for a course in science or history and receive credit toward graduation. A senior in college or university may recite\nSpanish with a class of freshmen and receive full credit toward his degree.\nIs the break between the second and the third year of the junior-college\ncourse so vital that its students may not have the same privilege ? If so,\nthe four-year junior college will not prove feasible and the attempt to\norganize it upon that basis should be discarded, substituting therefor the\ntwo-year college with or without a four-year preparatory department.\nThere may be a main entrance and a side door, but there will not be two\nmain entrances to the junior college.\nThe distinction, however, is purely arbitrary, having neither a physiological, apsychological, nor even a logical basis, and the ultimate solution\ns.\nto the question will doubtless rest with the junior coUeges themselve\ntwofrom\nShould they be caUed upon to care for large numbers of graduates\nto organize\nand three-year high schools, they would doubtless be permitted\nentranc\nfor\ndemand\nthe\nShould\nhe\\r courses upon some unitary basis.\n\n"}
{"page": 168, "printed_page": "156", "text": "156\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nt&eneral\n\nbe strong from the elementary schools and from one- and four-year high\nschools, the junior colleges would do two years of college work, with or\nwithout the preparatory department.\nEducational curricula are always in the making. They no sooner reach\nthe ipse dixit stage than they fall apart under the weight of new interpretations. At present the private junior college is called upon to provide its\nstudents with such intellectual training as will most enrich their own lives\nand will later make them trusted advisers of youth. It must foster a moral\nand religious atmosphere such as will inspire in them the highest ideals.\nIt must offer a type of physical training that will produce the most perfect\ncoordination of the bodily organs. It must place such an emphasis upon\nsubjects of practical and economic value as will best insure the comfort and\nhappiness not only of the student herself, but also of those who may become\ndependent upon her. Such courses, given a rational interpretation from\nthe standpoint of woman's dominant interest, indicate the general poUcy\nof the private junior college in Missouri.\nSome interest has been manifested in the results that have followed the\nstandardization of private institutions as junior colleges. With an added\nwarning against drawing hasty conclusions from a single example, the\nfollowing may be offered as again indicating a tendency. It is an excerpt\nfrom the curator's annual report of a Missouri junior college.\nIn March, 1913, the college was accredited by the University of Missouri. The\nsignificance of this action lay in the fact that graduates of the institution could thereby\nbe given a guarantee that the work taken in the literary department of the college would\nbe accepted at face value by the standard universities of the nation. The results have\nbeen important.\n1. The dormitory enrolment, after standardization, increast 100 per cent the first\nyear, 15 per cent the second year, and 25 per cent the third year. The total increase in\nthese three years has been 180 per cent.\n2. The number of graduates from the literary department in 1915 was 227 per cent\nmore than in 1913.\n3. The increase in percentage of high-school graduates in the literary department\nduring the same period has been from 57 per cent to 87 per cent, making possible the\nelimination of the first two years of high-school work.\n4. The increase in the scholarship and training of the students when they enter the\ncollege has been markt, as is shown by the further fact that twenty-three of the students\nin attendance during the past year are honor graduates of the high schools from which\nthey were enroled.\n5. This character and quality is further emphasized by the fact that, of last year's\ngraduating class, 23 per cent are in higher institutions of learning, while in the class of\n191 2-13, none attended higher institutions; 69 per cent of this year's class is teaching,\nthus making a total of 92 per cent who are teaching or attending higher institutions.\nIn the same period of time, this institution has turned an annual deficit of $15,000 into\nan annual surplus of $4,060.\n\nThe junior college still wears its swaddHng clothes, but this discussion\nhas pointed out certain virile quahties that indicate longevity. The upward\nextension of the secondary courses in those communities that can bear the\n\n"}
{"page": 169, "printed_page": "157", "text": "SesMonsl\n\nA TEACEER\n\nI^*\n\nadded financial burden will grow more popular as the work of the junior\ncollege becomes more clearly defined. In the North and West, the wealthier\ncommunities will continue to expand the curricula of their high schools\nto include the lower division college courses. In the South, the contraction\nof the college curriculum, together with a complete reorganization of its\ncourses, will prolong the existence of scores of private institutions in the\nface of our rapidly developing public-school system. The movement is\nalready gaining headway in Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Texas, Missouri, and other southern states where private educational institutions have\nplayed such an important part. To guide these institutions thru a process\nof reorganization, to safeguard their properties, and preserve an influence\nstill vital to our national welfare is a task worthy of a master hand.\n\nTEACHER— INSCRIBED TO THE BEAUTIFUL MEMORY\nONE WHO GAVE HER LIFE TO HER WORK\nWritten Especially for the Occasion and Read\nBY THE Author\nROBERT\n\nPERMANENT\n\nUNDERWOOD\n\nJOHNSON\n\nSECRETARY, AMERICAN ACADEMY\nLETTERS, NEW YORK, NY.\n\nOF ARTS AND\n\nGo, praise the Hero, ye who may:\nI sing the Teacher— one for whom\nThe morrow was but more today—\nWhose fainting labor showed the way\nTo pluck one's gladness from his doom.\nThe leisure others gave to joy\nShe gave to toil; to fill the day\nWith wine of wisdom her employ.\nShe, once as merry as a boy,\nHad long forgotten how to play.\n\nI see her, when the scurrying band\nHave left her, weary and alone.\nHer pale cheek pillowed on her hand,\nWatching the wistful evening land\nWithout repining, tear, or moan.\nMayhap her spirit, never sad, ^\nsturs!}\n(Ah, what a chaUenge memory\nade\nforb\nfate\nDemanded why grim\nlad\nHer motherhood, who gave each\nhers.\nThe love she might have given\n\nOF\n\n"}
{"page": 170, "printed_page": "158", "text": "IS8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nShe dwelt within a life-long dream\nOf seeing lands of far romance —\nOf loitering by Arno's stream,\nOf catching Athens' sunset gleam,\nThat can alone its fame enhance.\nStill, an uncloistered nun she went,\nWith naught more fretful than a sigh,\nAnd in her happy task she spent\nHer sweetness, like some rose's scent\nIn sacred treasury laid by.\nHer pure devotion did not gauge\nHer service by her daily need;\nAnd not her scanty, grudging wage.\nNor spectre of forsaken Age,\nCould take the beauty from her creed.\nShe faced her calling as it stood —\nIncessant, onerous, obscure;\nContent if she but sometime could\nBe silent partner with the Good\nWhose victory was to her so sure.\nShe knew that all who reach the height\nThe path of S3nnpathy have trod;\nAnd pondered, many a wakeful night,\nHow she could aid with gentle might\nThe unseen miracles of God.\nWhat tho she might not wait the fruit ?\nWhat tho she went before the flower ?\nShe gave the timbre to the lute,\nAnd in the voice that else were mute\nDivined the rare, supernal power.\nOf all she lent her strength, a few\nShall wear her name as amulet.\nHow many more who struggle thru.\nRemembering not to whom 'tis due\nShall still keep memory of the debt!\nOh, could we know of life the whole\nHid record, what an envied place\nWere yours upon the honor scroll,\nYe faithful sentries of the soul,\nYe childless mothers of the race!\n\n[General\n\n"}
{"page": 171, "printed_page": "159", "text": "S^^^'°°^^\n\nLEONARD\n\nWOOD,\n\nUNIVERSAL\n\nMILITARY\n\nUNIVERSAL\n\nMILITARY\n\nMAJOR\n\nGENERAL,\n\nUNITED\n\nTRAINING\n\n,-\n\nTRAINING\n\nSTATES\n\nARMY,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nNY\n\nI assume that you are aU heartily in favor of arbitr\nation and that you\naU earnestly desire a condition of world's peace.\nIn this you are in entire\naccord with the general sentiment of those who are intere\nsted in the organi\nzation of our national resources and in what is generally\ncaUed preparedness\nThere is no class of individuals in our population who are\nmore earnest for\npeace, who believe more thoroly in arbitration, than officer\ns of the army\nand navy, for they, far better than you, understand what war means\n. You\ndo not hear any loose discussion of war among officers of the army\nand\nnavy. They know how serious a proposition it is.\nI want to bring one thing home to you at the beginning of what I have\nto say, and that is that the officers of the army and navy are simply your paid\nprofessional servants. They are like your engineers, your doctors, your\nlawyers, or any other class of professional men whose services you employ\nbecause they are expert in their line of work. Officers of the army and\nnavy form one of the most conservative elements of our population. The\nfact is, their business is to prepare in a way for the conduct of war and to\nhandle, under the general direction and supervision of the president and\nthe proper constituted authorities, the armies and fleets of the nation.\nThey do not bring about war. You can find no instance in our history\nwhere officers of our army or navy have brought about international strife.\nThey are not the people who bring about war. Their business is to get\nthe country out of wars that you people bring about (when I say \"you\npeople\" I mean the civil element) thru commerce, the struggle for trade,\nthe struggle for concessions, for favorable areas, for all those things which\nbring us sharply into conffict with other nations. These matters are outside\nthe scope of the activities of the army and navy. Incident to very superficial information concerning the functions of an army and navy, and\ndefective instruction as to our history, there is altogether too general an\nidea among our people, especially the uninformed class, to the effect that\narmies and navies bring on war. In our country, at least, nothing is more\nremote from the truth. The work of the army and, to a lesser extent\nbecause it has had less opportunity, the navy has been highly constructive,\nand has been many times more a force for the building-up of civilization, reestablishing order, and preserving human Hves than it has been an instrumentality for tearing down and destroying the same.\nWhile we recognize the value of arbitration and the desirabihty of a\ncondition of world's peace, we cannot, unless we are bUnd to actual conditions and refuse to recognize the situation as it is and admit the evidence of\nour own eyes, fail to see that world's peace is still afar off, and that arbitration, much as we may desire it, is not of general apphcation. If you look\nat the great peace palace at The Hague, you will find that it is empty, that\n\n"}
{"page": 172, "printed_page": "160", "text": "l6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nnone of the causes leading to this world-war have been heard within its\nwalls, that the people of the land in which it stands are in arms to the\nextent of half a million of men for the protection and preservation of the\nintegrity of their own soil. They know that they cannot, under the pressure\nof the present great struggle for national life which is involving the great\ncountries of Europe, trust to promises or to any agreements, that all these\nbecome secondary when the very life of a people is jeopardized. This\nmay be very unfortunate, but the thing for us to remember is that it is a\ncondition which exists; that we are confronted, not with theories, but with\nfacts; and that while we are going to continue our efforts for the amplification of arbitration and our struggle to establish a condition of world's peace,\nwe must not fail to see things as they are and make adequate preparation\nto protect those things which we consider vital not only to ourselves but to\nmankind.\nPreparation can only come thru thoro organization and thru doing\nwhat is necessary in time of peace. The charlatan who tells you that the\npeople will spring to arms, that a million men can be raised between sunrise\nand sunset, is, wittingly or unwittingly, a very real enemy of our country.\nHe is one of the most dangerous advisers of the people, for he knows not\nwhereof he speaks. He does not realize the fact that there are no arms for a\nmillion of people to spring to, that there are no officers to lead them, that,\neven if there were arms available and a million people gathered them up,\nthey would not know how to use them and they would hardly know the\ndifference between the implements of peace and the implements of war,\nthat they would be simply an armed but undisciplined mob, filled perhaps\nwith a patriotic impulse but helpless in the face of a small, well-organized\nwell-trained force. The proposition is so silly and so full of ignorance\nthat it seems hardly worthy of consideration, and yet there has been so\nmuch of this kind of oratory, this type of verbal massage, this talk of our\ngreat strength, our tremendous resources, that the whole world looks upon\nus with awe, etc.; that the uninformed have been led astray and have\nbeen lulled into a sleep which will be the sleep of death unless they are\nawakened by a clear statement of the truth. Great numbers are not a\nsource of strength unless instructed and organized, indeed numbers mean\nlittle unless there is leadership and preparation. No woK was ever\nfrightened by the size of a flock of sheep.\nWealth itself means little unless accompanied by a fearless national\ncharacter. Money is not the sinews of .war, as is so often stated. The\nsinews of war are the bodies and souls of men trained and disciplined,\nanimated by a spirit of sacrifice, and supported by convictions — by an honest\nbelief that there is something worth more than life itself. But even this\nspirit will be unavaiUng against a strong and vigorous nation, itself animated by what it considers the highest of motives, and, in addition, organized, equip t, and well led. Again, this may all be very unfortunate, but\n\n"}
{"page": 173, "printed_page": "161", "text": "sessions)\n\n.\n\nVNIVEkSAL\n\nMILITARY\n\nTRAINING\n\ni6i\n\nagain, it is very true. National existence and national progress\nare a\npart of the great world-old struggle for existence, a struggle in which\nthe\nmost fit survive— not always the most moral, unfortunately, but\nthe\nmost\nfit. Under that heading come a multitude of things. Good bodies based\nupon good sanitation, good laws, and clear inteUigence founded upon a good\nschool system and careful education, thoro preparation based upon wellthought-out organization, training, and leadership.\nthese things\ncome into play in the great struggle to be the most fit andAllto be\none of the\nsurvivors.\nOrganization means not only men, but it means the resources of the\nnation, its mechanical industries, its transportation facilities, its communications, itschemical resources, all those factors which serve to supply,\nmove, keep informed, and transport the fighting force which, after all, is\nonly the edge of the knife. The organized resources and strength of the\nnation represent the great mass of steel in the blade, which serves to renew\nthe edge as it is worn away, to give the strength and rigidity, and to enable\nthe force behind it, which is the will of the people, to force it home and\naccomplish its purpose, which is the overthrow of what we believe to be\nwrong or the upholding of what we believe to be right.\nWe hear a great deal of our moral superiority. But put yourself outside\nyour immediate surroundings and look at the situation. Where is our\ntremendous moral superiority found, looking at it from the standpoint\nof the intelligent and well-educated foreigner? Is it found in the reckless\nwaste of our national resources ? We have gallopt thru the reserve resources\nof a continent in our rapid development and our keen struggle for wealth\nand are just reaching the point where sober reflection is requiring a careful\nconservation if we are to continue to prosper. Is it found in our reckless\ndisregard for human life among ourselves while we prate about the disregard\nfor it in other countries ? Our industrial casualty list shows half a million\npeople a year with eighty thousand deaths, a total of deaths exceeding\nthose in battle and from wounds in any combined two years of the civil war.\nIs it found in our criminal rate, which is from six to ten times as heavy as\nthe leading Christian countries of Europe ? Is it found in a systematic,\nwell-thought-out scheme for protecting and caring for old age and for the\nbroken-down worker ?\nThese are some of the questions which the intelligent foreigner asks\nwhen he hears the tiresome claim of America's superior morahty, and the\noft-repeated declaration that America is to thriU the world. .\nLet us look the matter squarely in the face. We have a great deal to\ndo before we can assume the attitude of the critic or that of a superior\npeople from a moral standpoint. We must nationalize our people. They\nare drifting too much into individuahsm. We are not doing those things\nwhich make our people think in terms of the nation, and these are the things\nwe must do if the nation is to live. Democracy always has rested and\n\n"}
{"page": 174, "printed_page": "162", "text": "i62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nalways will rest upon that fundamental principle. Equality of opportunity and privilege goes hand in hand with equality of obligation within\nthe limit of our physical and mental capacity. The volunteer spirit is fine\nbut the volunteer principle is absolutely unsound. All men must assume,\nwithin the limits of their ability, their share of the nation's burden in war\nas well as in peace. National service must be shared and shared alike up\nto the limit of the citizen's ability or capacity. This principle must govern\nin national defense. The volunteer system always failed us in time of war.\nWe have had to go to the draft, the bounty, and that most pernicious of all\npractices, that most demoralizing procedure, the purchase of substitutes, a\nprocedure under which the rich are able to buy the bodies of the poor for\nthe purpose of paying the blood tax, the service war tax. This we must\nget away from and come to a condition of universal obligatory military\ntraining, for there never will be, until we reach the miUennium, a condition\nof universal voluntary service any more than there will be a condition of\nuniversal voluntary observance of law or payment of taxes. A certain\nnumber will always fail to perform their duty. You know that even if the\nincome tax was to be devoted to the best of purposes, only a small proportion of our people would pay it if it were left to volition. We must remember that men are not all living on a high moral plane. Here again we are\nconfronted by a situation and must not be governed by a theory.\nThere are certain things we have to do. Universal military service must\nbe accepted by our people if we are to live thru any great struggle. We\nhave never waged war single-handed with a first-class country prepared\nfor war. Our military history has been superficially and incorrectly taught.\nWe have won, single-handed, no great victories over England or any firstclass power. We have never known, except in the Civil War, the stress of a\nreal war, and I hope we never shall, but unless our fate is to be different\nfrom that of all other nations we shall certainly have to go thru this experience. The only way we can meet a struggle of this kind successfully is to\nhave a system of universal military training and service, a system which\nbrings all classes of people shoulder to shoulder in the service of the nations.\nThis kind of training altogether, wearing the same uniform, living under the\nsame conditions, animated by a common impulse, and that impulse a lofty\none, the preparation of ourselves to defend what we beheve to be vital to\nourselves and humanity, will serve more than anything else we have ever\nattempted, to build up a spirit of national solidarity, to make our country\nwhat it must be if it is to endure, namely, a real melting-pot, one under which\nthe fire is hot enough to fuse the elements into one common mass of Americanism. Universal service for all who are fit in war as well as in peace will\ndo more than anything else to bring this about. Moreover, this service\naltogether tends to make one class acquainted with another, one racial\ngroup appreciative of what is good in another, and, in the end, tends to\nobliterate the cheap distinctions between upper and lower social classes,\n\n"}
{"page": 175, "printed_page": "163", "text": "Ses8ion5l\\\n\nUNIVERSAL\n\nMILITARY\n\nTRAINING\n\nig.\n\nJew and Gentile, Protestant and CathoKc, rich and poor, and to place\nall\nsquarely upon the foundation of good citizenship.\nYou teachers have a great responsibility. Speaking general\nly, our\nhistory has never been frankly and properly taught. Our children have\nleft school fiUed with false ideas. They do not know that the response of\nour people in the Revolution was not what it should have been, that in 1781\nwe had only about one-third the number of men we had in 1776, that on no\nday during the war could Washington muster 20,000 effective troops,\naltho we put over 396,000 into the struggle, that the aid of France came at\na time when the issue was at stake, when it was vital for us. How many of\nour children leave school with an appreciation of the fact that in the war of\n181 2 our ally was the greatest military power of that time, namely, the\nemperor Napoleon, for England then as now was engaged in a Ufe-anddeath struggle against the greatest miUtary power of the age. She paid\nus, figuratively speaking, only passing attention, the greatest number of\nregular troops here at any one time being 16,800 odd. How few boys have\nthis imprest upon them. How few are told the real facts of any of our wars.\nHow few understand the ghastly and hideous losses of the Civil War, due\nto lack of proper leadership, etc. Of course, that was a war where the\nnation was divided against itself and cannot be taken as a criterion, but\nany fixt, well-ordered military policy, which would have resulted in the\nmaintenance of a reasonable regular force, would possibly have averted\nthe war and certainly greatly reduced its period.\nOur preparedness must be based first upon a moral organization of the\npeople, an organization which will bring home to them an appreciation of\nthe fact that with equality of opportunity goes equaHty of obligation, that\nthe army of a democracy must be the people trained to arms to a reasonable\nextent, such as is found in Switzerland or AustraHa. In our case, with oversea possessions, we need a regular army adequate for the peace needs of the\nnation, such an army as has been recommended by the General Staff,\nperhaps 250,000 men, of whom 60,000 will be in the Phihppines, where we\nhave taken up and partially completed one of the most splendid pieces of\ninternational uplift work ever attempted by any people; in the Hawaiian\nIslands, which are the key to the Pacific, for whoever holds them will\ndominate the trade routes of that ocean to a very great extent (these islands\nare also one of the main defenses of the Pacific Coast); in Panama, where\nwe have built one of the greatest implements of commerce, the Panama\nCanal, connecting the two oceans. This canal is also of the greatest miUtary value, making our fleet available on either ocean, and it must be\nstrongly and securely held against all comers. In Porto Rico and Alaska\nwe also must maintain small garrisons. When the garrisons are completed, they will probably number about 60,000 men, so that the remaining\nforce will be scattered in the coast defenses of the United States and in our\nvarious military centers, serving as a training force in time of peace, always\n\n"}
{"page": 176, "printed_page": "164", "text": "l64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nready to meet a sudden emergency, to furnish an expeditionary force such\nas we sent to Cuba in 1898, and, more recently, to Vera Cruz. This small\nnucleus of highly trained troops will serve as a teacher in time of peace and as\na nucleus for a less thoroly trained citizen army in time of war. We must\nhave a j&rst-class navy always ready and a National Guard that is national\nand not state, for the state system has been an absolute failure and always\nwill be. The federal government must control the guard in time of peace,\nand train it and equip it in order that it may be promptly available and\nefficient in time of war.\nThis whole question of national defense comes down to a very simple\nproblem. Have you anything worth defending — country, religion, convictions, institutions, family, anything which you think is worth risking\nyour own life for or to die for if need be ? Of course, if you have none of\nthese things, the question of national defense or national life can be of little\ninterest to you, but I assume that all of you have something which is worth\nmore than life itself, certainly something which is worth risking life for.\nThe next question is, do you intend to attempt to defend those things\nwhich you think worth defending? Have you the means to do it? Do\nyou realize that without training and without equipment you cannot defend\nwith any hope of success those things which you think worth defending if\nattackt by a people just as brave, just as patriotic, just as intelligent as you,\nwhich, in addition, has organized its resources, and prepared its armies ? An\nintelligent, even moderately intelligent, person cannot fail to see the hopelessness ofa struggle between the unorganized and the organized nation.\nToday all the great nations of the world, except China and ourselves, are\norganized for offense or defense. It may be unfortunate, but it is true,\nand it is with the truth that we are concerned.\nThere are many things man cannot buy and one of them is time. It\ntakes time to organize and prepare. Time will only be found in periods of\npeace. Modern war gives no time for preparation. Its approach is that\nof the avalanche and not of the glacier. God has given us eyes to see, ears\nto hear, and an intelligence and a memory to gather and hold something\nof the lessons of the past. If we fail to make use of these means of protection which have been given us and simply say because certain things are\ndisagreeable that they are to be disregarded, if we make no adequate\npreparation and neglect the evidence of our senses, we can expect help\nneither from God nor man. The fault is our own.\nThe western battle line of Europe illustrates preparedness and unpreparedness. On one hand we have Httle Switzerland, every physically fit\nman trained to be a soldier if need be, and yet with almost no men living\nunder arms; a real democracy, the army the people and the people the army,\nso situated, it is true, as not to require a standing army or navy, but nevertheless so thoroly prepared that she can put 230,000 men in the field in two\ndays and follow with as many more in a week. On the other end of the\n\n"}
{"page": 177, "printed_page": "165", "text": "SessioDsI\n\nUNIVERSAL\n\nMILITARY\n\nTRAINING\n\nj(,.\n\nline, we have what was once a country, Belgium! Belgium\n, with eight\nmillion people, commercial, busy, industrious, but neglecting ahnost\nwholly\nnational preparedness. If Belgium had adopted the Swiss system,\nshe could\nhave put a million men on the short Hne which marks her eastern frontier\n.\nCould she have done this, no one can foresee what the result would have\nbeen, but she was unprepared and was overrun.\nNow let us go on with our efforts to ampHfy the application of arbitration, and to establish a stable condition of world's peace, but do not let us\nforget the lessons of all times, and fail to take those precautions, to make\nthat preparation which the history of all people teaches us to be necessary\nfor preservation. We must remember all of us that this training is not a\ntraining for war alone; it really is a training for life, a training for citizenship\nin time of peace. It results in an all-round better citizen, because of the\nhabits of regularity, promptness, and thoroness which are acquhed from\nthe training. The youth learns to respect the constituted authorities, the\nrights of others, the law, and the flag of his country, and to think in terms\nof the nation rather than in terms of the individual. Its result will be\nto nationalize our people, to bring them together to an extent to which\nthey have never been brought together before. For the everyday business\nand professional struggle, the training will be most helpful, because of the\nbetter physique, because of the discipline and self-control which will come\nfrom the training. It will result in greatly increast individual and\nnational efficiency. It will make for national solidarity, and will be the\nstrongest possible insurance against war. If war is forst upon us, it will tend\nto make it short, and to reduce the loss of life and treasure to a minimum.\nWe cannot, unfortunately, depend upon righteousness and an upright\nnational Hfe for protection. The best men who have ever Uved have suffered\nmartyrdom; blameless people have been ruthlessly swept aside. All this is\nunfortunate, but it is nevertheless true. We must organize the strength of\nright against the forces of wrong. We must remember that a strong man,\narmed, can be both righteous and seK-restrained; that to have power does\nnot necessarily mean to abuse it. We must remember, also, that it is the\nstrong, well-prepared nation which, in the last analysis, decides whether\nresort is to be had to arbitration or to war. We must remember, finally, that\nit is better to be prepared for war and not have it, than to have war and not be\nprepared for it.\nCHINESE\nV. K. WELLINGTON\n\nEDUCATION\n\nKOO, AMBASSADOR FROM CHINA TO THE UNITED STATES,\nWASHINGTON, D.C.\n\nWithin the limited time at my disposal, it is evidently impracticable\nfor me to cover many phases of the subject assigned to me. I shall, therefore, content myseK with touching only upon some of the most salient\nfeatures of Chinese education, both as it was and as it is.\n\n"}
{"page": 178, "printed_page": "166", "text": "l66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nHistorically, Chinese education is distinguisht by its early birth. A\nwell-known American author once stated that \"before Abraham left Ur\nof the Chaldees in the West of Asia, an emperor of China had establisht a\nsystem of education.\" It appears from the scholarly researches of M. Biot,\nas well as from the records of Chinese history, that as early as the twentyfourth century, B.C., China already possest a national system of education.\nIn the Book of Rites, known in Chinese as Li Chi, edited by Confucius\nhimself, it was recorded that in ancient times \"each family had a schoolroom, each township a high school, and each county a college, while the\nEmperor was the patron of letters and music.\" In the Chow Dynasty,\n1122-249 B.C., education in China was so well developt that it was considered bysome as the Periclean Age in Chinese history. The education of\nthe day produced such notables as Confucius and Mencius, and a host of\nlesser lights, and they in turn modified and carried Chinese education to a\ngreater degree of perfection. The program of studies at that time consisted\nof the so-called \"Six Liberal Arts,\" to wit: (i) the five ceremonies; (2) the\nsix kinds of music; (3) the five kinds of archery; (4) the five kinds of\nchariot-driving; (5) the six kinds of writing; and (6) the nine kinds of\nmathematics. Here we find moral, intellectual, and esthetic elements\nmingled with a considerable amount of military and physical training,\ngiving evidence of a manifest endeavor to secure a harmonious and symmetrical development of body and mind.\nThe next important development in the Chinese educational history was\nin the Tang Dynasty when the famous \"competitive examination system\"\nwas introduced by the Emperor Tai Tsung in the year 631 a.d. Government officials were hence to be recruited from examination halls, and\nliterary degrees were to be conferred upon successful candidates as marks\nof honor and distinction. This was a turning-point in China's educational development. From that time on, the tendency of governmental\npolicy was toward encouraging education instead of directly building\nit up.\nWith the fall of the Tang Dynasty, events went from bad to worse,\nuntil the whole country was overrun by the Monguls in the thirteenth\ncentury. Under this alien dynasty, education suffered from neglect, as\nthe Monguls not only had nothing to offer in its place, but were not even\nable to preserve and keep up what they had found. The Ming emperors,\nin the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, made an earnest effort to build\nup a comprehensive system of education comprising various grades of\nliterary, medical, legal, and astrological colleges, until the middle of the\nseventeenth century when another ahen dynasty seized the dragon throne.\nDuring the entire Manchu regime, except the last few years of it, education\nwas almost entirely left to the people. The only stimulus given to education\nwas the system of civil service examinations which served as the steppingstone to honor and distinction.\n\n"}
{"page": 179, "printed_page": "167", "text": "Sessions]\n\nCHINESE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nig-\n\nHaving thus briefly traced the historical development of old Chinese\neducation, let us now examine its merits and defects. By way of criticism\nit may be said that old Chinese education, from the present-day point of\nview, was one-sided, limited in scope, and destructive to individual initiative. The ideal of the harmonious development of body and mind was in\npractice not adhered to; the training of the inteUect was emphasized to\nthe neglect of the body. Even in the matter of intellectual training, the\ndevelopment was hampered by two things. In the first place, the curriculum consisted of loading the student's memory with classics, history,\nphilosophy, and a little mathematics, to the exclusion of the more practical\nand more useful scientific subjects. In the second place, the aun in the\nstudy of classics was not so much to derive inspiration from the noble\nthoughts and sentiments of the ancient sages, as to apply the principles\nof conduct recorded therein, regardless of changed tunes and condition.\nIn short, the object of Confucian education was merely to secure the peace\nand prosperity of the state thru the rigorous training of each individual\naccording to the old pattern.\nThe old principle of education, while adequate when China was in a\nstate of isolation, was found to be insufficient to cope with the new situation\narising from her intercourse with foreign nations. From experience, China\nhas realized the necessity of introducing modern education. Chang ChihTung, the famous viceroy of the late Ching Dynasty, in his famous monograph, China's Only Hope, sounded the trumpet call for everybody to rally\naround the standard of modern education. His recommendations were\nultimately adopted by the government. The ministry of education was\nsoon establisht, and a system of education was promulgated, which was\ncomprised of an imperial university in Peking, with various grades of professional and technical schools, normal schools, high schools, and elementary\nschools in the provinces. Students were sent abroad by hundreds to study\nand master the wonderful arts of the West. To solve partially the difficult\nproblem of securing enough funds to carry out the new educational program,\ntemples were converted into schoolhouses, and the revenue from landed\nproperties of the monasteries was appropriated to pay the expenses of\npublic education. The movement met with popular favor, as indicated\nby the interest which the people took at the very outset in establishing\nschools and colleges of the modern type.\nThe revolution of 191 1 temporarily set back the educational movement.\nMany schools were closed; some of them were turned into soldiers' barracks.\nA number of students enlisted in the \"Peoples Army\" to fight for the cause\nof liberty, while some giri students went to the front as .Red Cross nurses.\nDuring the period of reorganization immediately after the revolution,\nthe general financial stringency of the country caused by the disturbance\nof business conditions and the heavy drain upon the national treasury to\npay off the disbanded troops, left very little money for educational pur-\n\n"}
{"page": 180, "printed_page": "168", "text": "i68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nposes. This state of affairs was unfortunate, but it was part of the price\nwhich China had to pay for her liberty and freedom from alien domination.\nThe effect of this drawback is not yet all over, and so the progress of education has not been as rapid as we have wisht. But the government is doing\nits utmost and will continue to do its utmost for the cause of education.\nWith the establishment of the republican form of government, a distinct\nchange has taken place in the educational policy of the country. It was\nformerly criticized that the government paid too much attention to higher\neducation and too little to primary education. Realizing the force of this\ncriticism and prompted by a desire to have an intelligent public as well as\ncapable leaders, the government is now giving primary education its due\nconsideration. As a temporary expedient to meet the need of money for\nprimary schools, it is pursuing a policy of retrenchment with regard to\ninstitutions for technical and higher learning by reducing their number, in\norder that the money thus saved can be used to better advantage by\nestablishing more primary schools for young boys and girls, and more\nnormal schools for the training of teachers.\nBut nothing is more worthy of note than the change in the aims of\neducation. In the last years of the Manchu regime, the aims of primary\neducation were to inculcate in the students the ideas of loyalty to the\nemperor and honor for Confucius. In short, the whole idea of education\nwas to produce peaceful, obedient, and law-abiding subjects. Not much\nattention was paid to the development of the individual as such, since for\ncenturies education was conceived more as an instrument of government\nthan as the means for personal culture. Under the changed conditions of\nthe Republic, the relationship between the individual and the state has\nchanged so materially that a corresponding change in the aim of education\nhas naturally come about. Loyalty to the head of state, in the sense of\nthe word \"loyalty\" as formerly understood, is now both unnecessary and\nincompatible with the ideal of democracy, and hence has to be abandoned\nas a primary aim of education. Another significant fact as showing the\nnew spirit of education was the abandonment of the worship of Confucius\nin public schools. This measure was adopted by the ministry of education\nat the recommendation of the First Central Educational Conference, which\nvoted for its discontinuance after a very heated debate. Education in\nChina now aims at cultivating the morahty, intelligence, and physical\nstrength of the people, the harmonious development of man's threefold\nnature. The new principles of education are embodied in a recent presidential mandate, stating:\nThe ancient fundamental principles will be retained, and upon them will be built a\nnew system into which the results of modem scientific research will be introduced. In\norder to make our people a race of great virtue, wisdom, and courage, we will build their\ncharacter on a basis of loyalty, filial piety, unselfish devotion, and uprightness, and then\nteach them modem arts and sciences. A martial spirit should be cultivated in them in\n\n"}
{"page": 181, "printed_page": "169", "text": "Sessions]\n\nCSlNESE\n\nEDUCATION\n\norder to prepare them for mUitary service; and emphasis must also be laid to make them\nall practical men and discourage degenerate frivolity. Their honesty should be kindled\nand they are to be taught to exalt patriotism before every other virtue. The discipline\nof the school shall be as strict as that which a general exercises in commanding his troops,\nbut the relation between the master and pupil shall be as cordial as that between a father\nand a son.\n\nThus the idea of education now is to make every citizen self-reHant and\npractical as well as law-abiding and progressive, thereby trying to solve\nthru education the all-important economic problem of China, as well as\nthe pressing poUtical problem.\nWhile emphasizing personal efficiency and individual development,\nthere is also, on the other hand, a very distinct tendency in modem Chinese\neducation to promote national consoKdation and unity by welding the\npeople of all parts of the country into a homogeneous whole. The means\nemployed for the attainment of this end are many, such as the standardization of textbooks to be used thruout the country; the adoption of a national\nanthem; the teaching of the common dialect, mandarin; the cultivation\nof respect for the flag and the observance of the national Independence Day.\nIt is evident that the problem of Chinese education is great and that\nits difficulties are many. The movement is still in its experimental stages,\nchanging its course as necessity and wisdom dictate. But what changes\nhave aheady taken place seem, in the main, to have been all for the better,\nand Chinese education is now probably on the right path to the goal which\nit aima to reach.\nNo doubt in prosecuting this onward journey China will encounter\nmany more obstacles in her way, but I feel confident that no obstacles,\nhowever great, can discourage her from pressing forward this movement.\nThe government and people of China realize that education is the only\nsafe and permanent foundation to build their country upon, and therefore\ntheir determination in this regard is firm and unshakable. To make the\ntask as easy as possible, they are eagerly trying to learn the lessons which\nthe experience of other nations has taught, as well as those which theu: own\nexperience teaches. And they know that for this purpose there is no better\ncountry than the United States, where pubHc and higher education has\nbeen brought to a remarkable degree of efficiency. Living under the same\nform of government as the American people, many of the ideals which the\nChinese now cherish are the same as those cherisht here. Conditions in\nthe two countries being similar in many respects, they consider your experience all the more valuable to them, and, sensible of your profound friendship\nand sympathetic interest in the weMare of China, they look to you for moral\nsupport in their educational reforms. It is only uttering a platitude to say\nthat in education lies the ultimate, complete success of the Chinese RepubHc;\nChinese\nbut there is a pregnant truth in the statement that the success of the\n°^\nca^^e\nRepubHc wiU at once mean a new and unportant victory for the\na\nadd\nwill\ndemocracy, so nobly conceived and tenderly cherisht here, and\n\n"}
{"page": 182, "printed_page": "170", "text": "lyo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfresh, significant tie to the bonds of mutual friendship which now unite\nChina and the United States, the two greatest repubhcs of the world.\nSOME\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nASPECTS\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\nWILLIAM G. McADOO, SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY, WASHINGTON, D.C.\n\nIt gives me pecuKar pleasure to accept the invitation with which you\nhave so generously honored me, because it offers me the opportunity of\nbringing to your attention some important questions relating to public\neducation, which have been forcibly imprest upon me as a result of my\nrecent visit to South America.\nAt the great international conference recently held in Buenos Aires,\nin which all the republics of the Western Hemisphere, except Mexico,\nwere represented, there was a common impulse to realize the inspiring ideal\nof that beneficent Pan-Americanism which for almost a century has been\nthe dream of the foremost statesmen of the American continents. Men of\nintellectual force and commanding character exchanged ideas and discust\nthe means of achieving the great purpose in view. It was recognized that\npublic education directed along right Hnes would be a potential influence\nin creating that better understanding thru which \"Americans of both\ncontinents may be drawn together in bonds of honorable partnership and\nmutual advantage,\" and realize the more securely and effectively those\ncommon ideals of individual hberty, national independence, and selfgovernment which are the most vital features of our Western civilization.\nWhat is Pan- Americanism ?\nPresident Wilson, in his message to Congress, December, 19x5, admirably defined it when he said:\nThe states of America are not hostile rivals but cooperating friends, and their\ngrowing sense of community of interest, alike in matters political and in matters economic, islikely to give them a new significance as factors in international a£Fairs and in the\npolitical history of the world. It presents them as in a very deep and true sense a unit\nin world afifairs, spiritual partners, standing together because thinking together, quick\nwith conmion sympathies and common ideals. Separated, they are subject to aU the cross\ncurrents of the confused politics of a world of hostile rivalries; united in spirit and purpose\nthey cannot be disappointed of their peaceful destiny. This is Pan-Americanism. It\nhas none of the spirit of empire in it. It is the embodiment, the effectual embodiment,\nof the spirit of law, and independence, and liberty, and mutual service.\n\nWhat may be called the spiritual ideal of Pan-Americanism has been\nvery highly developt and in a large measure actually realized during the\npast two years, particularly since the European war has forst upon the\npeoples of the three Americas a larger contact with each other thru the circumstances ofpolitical and economic necessity. This larger intercourse\nis a most happy augury for the future, because it means that the spiritual\nideal of Pan-Americanism will be fortified immeasurably by the ties of\n\n"}
{"page": 183, "printed_page": "171", "text": "Sessions!\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nASPECTS\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\n171\n\nmutual interest and reciprocally beneficial trade relations which, as all\nhistory has shown, are the surest guarantees of enduring friendship between\nnations. But we cannot realize these great things unless we understand\neach other and unless we trust each other.\nThere is no doubt that until quite recently Latin America has been\nsuspicious of the United States. Our power has been feared and our\npurposes have been distrusted. Rivals of the United States for LatinAmerican trade have skiKuUy fed this suspicion, which was greatly augmented by the unfortunate incident with Colombia growing out of the\nPanama-Canal affair. That produced a very unhappy impression and has\nbeen very prejudicial to our standing in Latin America. It would in fact\nbe extremely hurtful if it were not for the behef now generally entertained\nin South and Central America that the pending treaty between the United\nStates and Colombia will be ratified ultimately and that Colombia will be\njustly compensated for the injury she has sustained. For my part, I\nearnestly hope for this result. This great nation must always be the\nexemplar and champion of justice and fair dealing. We must be scrupulously fair, even to the extent of generosity, in our relations with weaker\nnations. We must accord them in fuUest measure what we would unhesitatingly exact of any power for ourselves.\nThe policies of the President during the last two years as outlined in\nhis public speeches and his messages to Congress have largely counteracted\nthese unfortunate influences and have produced a profound and favorable\nimpression in South and Central America. Our acceptance of the tender\nof friendly offices by some of the South American states in deUcate matters\nof diplomacy establisht a new precedent and showed our appreciation of\ntheir friendship and of their importance in the family of nations. But the\nthing which has done most to destroy suspicion and to create confidence\nwas the President's recent suggestion to all the governments of Central\nand South America of the wiUingness of the United States to enter into\ntreaties with them for mutual guarantees of territorial integrity and political\nindependence. This is in effect an enlargement of the Monroe Doctrine\nbecause it offers to our southern neighbors assurances against aggression\non the part of the United States in addition to the protection they akeady\nhave under the Monroe Doctrine against the extension of European systems of government to any part of the American continent. It is a noble\nthe\nexpression of the unselfish purpose of the United States to maintain\nthe\nWith\nHemisphere.\nWestern\nprinciples of true democracy thruout the\nstate\nterritorial integrity and political independence of every Amencan\nUmted\nthe\nby\naggression\nsecured against European interference, against\nopportunity\nStates, and against aggression as between themselves, a glorious\ngrowth ot\nthe\nand\nwiU be presented for the development of their resources\nand\npeace\nestabUsht\nof\ninfluences\nfructifying\ntheir civilization under the\nfriendship.\n\n"}
{"page": 184, "printed_page": "172", "text": "172\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nAfter these really splendid achievements, what else remains to be done ?\nThe promotion of a better understanding between the peoples themselves\nof the several American states is the next great step. Transportation,\ncommunication, and trade relations are invaluable and indispensable\nagencies, but education is a paramount factor. The Treasury Department,\nwith its varied and important activities, is in itself a kind of university\nextension system, and, as Secretary of the Treasury I am obliged to be something of a schoolmaster myself. So I have a sympathetic comprehension\nof the problems with which you have to deal, and of the profound importance of the work you are doing in shaping and training the material on\nwhich the usefulness and permanency of democratic institutions must\nrest, not only in the United States but thruout the Americas. The publicschool system is the very foundation of an intelligent and enlightened\ndemocracy.\nThere is probably no school system in the world which is subjected to\nsuch constant and searching analysis and criticism as that of the United\nStates. This is due not so much to the defects of the system as to the\nfact that under our plan of school administration it is the public opinion\nof the community which finally determines the organization, the purposes,\nand the trend of the educational system. While this has been the source\nof some weakness, it has had the great advantage of keeping the standards\nof public instruction in relatively close touch with national needs. In\norder that our educational system may perform its high mission, it is\nnecessary that it should reflect every change in our national life, meeting\nevery new need as soon as it arises.\nWe are at the present moment going thru one of those evolutionary\nchanges which fundamentally affect our international relations and involve\na heaAry obligation on the common-school system of our country.\nWhat I learned in South Amexica imprest me deeply with the grave\ndisadvantages accruing to our national life and to our international relations because of our widespread ignorance not only of the history but of the\nsignificance of the profound changes that have been taking place in the\ncountries of South and Central America during the last fifty years, and of\nthe importance of the civilization that is developing in that section of the\nAmerican continent. I do not mean to criticize, but simply to record a\nfact, when I say that the pubUc schools of the United States have not contributed their full share toward inculcating in the youth of the country\na proper understanding of the political, economic, and social development\nof our sister republics. It is this lack of understanding that has prevented\nthe growth of a sufficiently enlightened public opinion in the United States\nwith reference to Latin-American affairs. It is this absence of sympathetic\ncomprehension that makes it so easy to mislead public opinion in the United\nStates, and so often to cause unwitting injury to our Latin-Americ^-n\nrelations.\n\n"}
{"page": 185, "printed_page": "173", "text": "SessioDsi\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nASPECTS OF PUBLIC EDUCATION\n\n173\n\nAmerican history is taught as if it begins and ends with the history of\nthe United States; American geography is interpreted as if it were the\ngeography of the United States. In the study of commerce and industry,\nthe provincial view is too frequently taken that Latin America is merely\na source of supply of raw material for the United States. It is no wonder\nthat the average boy and girl are inchned to look upon the vast territories\nto the south of us as a wilderness, the seat of a backward civihzation, and\npeopled by a backward race.\nI am sure that it is not necessary for me to burden you with arguments\nemphasizing the desirability of acquainting the youth of the country with\nthe economic, political, and social conditions of the continent on which they\nlive; but I do wish to point out the great national service that can be performed inmaking our young men and women better acquainted with the\nhistory, the literature, and the important cultural elements that enter\ninto the great civihzation that is developing in Latin America. Our present\nlack of understanding is a source of national weakness because it is a real\nobstacle to the development of that spirit of international cooperation\nwithout which we cannot hope to develop that genuine Pan-Americanism\nfor which we are all laboring and toward which we are making real progress.\nThe history of the Spanish-American struggle for independence is a\nmost inspiring record. The obstacles that the North-American colonies\nhad to overcome were not so formidable as those which confronted the\nrevolted Spanish colonies. The decades immediately succeeding the first\nmovement for independence present, in the face of almost overwhelming\ndiscouragements, a record of devotion, self-sacrifice, and unswerving faith\nin the ultimate triumph of free institutions which compel the deepest respect\nand admiration. The story of this struggle, if properly presented and interpreted, would mean much to the youth of our country. It would make\nthem appreciate the similarity of ideals which dominated the founders of\nthe pohtical system of the United States and the leaders of Latin-American\nindependence, and would serve to develop a sympathetic understanding of\nthe pohtical life and institutions of these countries. We are apt to think\nof Central and South America as a whole, without any appreciation of the\nfact that each country has past thru a different process, and that the history\nof the nineteenth century is a history of adaptation of pohtical institutions\nto the economic, racial, and social environment pecuhar to each, resulting\nin great diversity in form of government and in diversity no less striking in\nthe operation of pohtical institutions.\nDuring the last century the American continent has been the great\nlaboratory of pohtical evolution, furnishing a body of material to the\nteacher of history and civics which we have hardly begun to utilize.\nThe development of that true spirit of continental sohdarity witii die\npeoples of Central and South America for which we are striving would be\nset forward unmeasurably if we should give more attention to tiieh language\n\n"}
{"page": 186, "printed_page": "174", "text": "174\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand literature. The teaching of Spanish should be made compulsory in our\npublic schools — in fact a resolution was unanimously adopted by the International High Commission at Buenos Aires recommending to each government that in all schools supported by pubHc funds or aided in any way by\npubKc funds, the study of English, Spanish, and Portuguese should be\nobligatory. It is astonishing that so few people in our country, relatively\nspeaking, understand that in the most populous republic in South America\n— Brazil — the language is Portuguese and not Spanish. We do not pay\nenough attention to the study of Spanish in our schools, while, on the other\nhand, English is taught to a very large extent in the schools of South America.\nAt the present time we rarely think of citing Latin-American publicists\nand scientists. Practically no reference is ever made to Latin-American\nliterature. We pay little attention to the currents of thought of Central\nor South America, unmindful of the fact that important contributions\nhave been made and are constantly being made by these countries in every\ndepartment of literary and scientific efifort. I would not for a moment\ndisparage the study of French or German, nor belittle the treasures which\na knowledge of these languages unfolds, but I do wish to submit to you the\ndesirability of acquainting our youth with the intellectual effort and the\nintellectual achievement of the American continent.\nI also wish to make a plea for closer cooperation between the republics\nof the American continent in matters affecting the ordinary transactions\nof daily life. From a great number of possible contributions to this end,\nthe question of uniformity in standards of weights and measures is of the\nutmost importance. I doubt whether any one of us fully appreciates the\nextent to which diversity of standards, as in other matters, represents a\nbarrier to closer international cooperation. The metric system has been\nuniversally accepted thruout Latin America. Acceptance of this system\nin the United States, if it ever comes, will depend in large measure on the\ngrowth of a body of opinion favorable to the system developt in the public\nschools of the country. But whether we adopt it or not, we should study\nit more effectively in our public schools, because our relations with Latin\nAmerica will constantly increase, and we must equip our youths to meet\ntheir responsibilities in these new fields with credit to themselves and honor\nto their country.\nI have welcomed the opportunity to lay these matters before you\nbecause their importance was constantly imprest upon me in connection\nwith the work of the International High Commission. That great body\nwas created by the twenty-one American repubhcs for the express purpose\nof removing the obstacles to closer financial and commercial cooperation\nand larger intercourse between the repubhcs of America. Every thoughtful person must recognize the fact that the pubUc schools can contribute\neffectively toward the accompUshment of this desirable end. It is largely\na matter of education.\n\n"}
{"page": 187, "printed_page": "175", "text": "Sessionsl\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nWORKING\n\nMAN\n\n175\n\nUpon you, men and women of the National Education Associa\ntion\nrests the ultmiate responsibility of making effective the poUcy\nof\nPanAmericanism formulated by our President in a series of address\nes which\nhave resounded thruout the entire Western Hemisphere; upon\nyou rests\nthe task of developing in the youth of the country a broader underst\nanding\nof the forces that have shaped American history, a keener appreciation\nof\nthe significance of the development of free institutions on the American\ncontinent, and a deeper sympathy with the aspirations of sister nations\nwho, like ourselves, are endeavoring to translate into realities the ideals\nof American democracy.\n\nTHE AMERICAN\nSAMUEL\n\nGOMPERS,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE WORKING\n\nPRESIDENT, AMERICAN FEDERATION\nWASHINGTON, D.C.\n\nMAN\n\nOF LABOR\n\nIn coming before this great assembly of teachers from all over the\nUnited States, I do so in part as the representative of the masses of the\npeople— the representative of those who by their physical labor put the natural resources of the country into a shape that will make them serviceable\nto all; who gather together the materials and build our homes, our factories,\nour stores, and our public buildings; of those who operate our railroads, our\ntelegraphs, our telephones, our steamboats and vessels; of those who work\nin the factories, in the stores and shops; of those who make and operate our\nmarvelous intricate machinery — in short, of those who do the actual work\nthat makes our present civilization possible. These are the people who know\nthe meaning of labor; who accomplish concrete results; whose problems\ngrow out of the urgency of physical necessity; who live in a world of facts, and\nwhose environment is the smoke and grime and whir of industry and commerce. They are forst by necessity to maintain a practical attitude toward\nlife, and their philosophy is genuine and simple.\nThe toilers are people who are vitally concerned in the nation*s public\nschools, of which in every true sense you are a constituent part. Public\nschools and the working people cannot be separated. In fact, without the\nworking people public schools would not exist. It follows then that the\nneeds and the ideals of the working people should have determining force\nin directing educational policies.\nProbably very few of you here reaUze that to the organized labor\nmovement is due the inauguration of the public-school system in this\ncountry. In the early days what schools there were were private pay-schools.\nThe children of many poor people were denied all opportunities for education\nbecause of their poverty. The unfairness of this inequaUty appealed to the\ncitizens of the country when they had sufficiently controlled the natural\n\n"}
{"page": 188, "printed_page": "176", "text": "176\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(General\n\nforces of this new country to give thought to other things. Then arrangements were made whereby the tuition of the poorer children was paid, but\nthis arrangement carried with it the humiUation that is always associated\nwith charity. It was not in keeping with the spirit of true Americanism\nthat children, in no way responsible, should be denied life-opportunities\nbecause of their parents' poverty. The injustice was felt most keenly by\nthose upon whom it was inflicted. The workers never shift their problems\nupon others, they try to find a way to bring about justice. Whatever justice\nand betterment the workers have secured has been thru their associated\neffort exprest in the labor movement.\nIn order to secure for their children free education, parents had to avow\ntheir inability to pay tuition and thus place upon themselves and children\nthe stigma of pauperism. It was Massachusetts that first remedied this\ninjustice. At the instance of the early organized labor movement, demands\nwere made for the legal enactment necessary for the removal of that stigma,\nand then was born to the world the first free public-school system.\nIt was in Massachusetts, the state which has been so intimately associated with many efforts for liberty, that the labor movement first made its\ndemands that the state should maintain schools, open without charge to the\nchildren of all those who lived within its domain. Thus in a real way the\nchildren of that state were assured equal opportunities regardless of station\nin life.\nWhat was accomplisht in Massachusetts was extended to the other\nstates; but the agency that called attention to the need and the way of\nsolving the problem was the organized labor movement. It is the same\nagency that is now calling attention to defects in present-day educational\nmethods and institutions and is doing so much to show how those problems\ncan be solved.\nThe purposes of the labor movement are very closely akin to the\npurposes for which educational institutions have been establisht. It is\ntrue that some have lookt upon the labor movement as an instrumentality\nconcerned only with strikes, industrial disturbances, and those things which\ninterrupt the normal course of the machinery of common life; and which\ntherefore cause inconveniences. It is a great pleasure, therefore, to have\nthis opportunity of meeting face to face so many of the teachers of this\ncountry and to tell to you something of the real nature of the labor\nmovement.\nThe labor movement was born out of suffering and injustice. It is a\ngreat hope and a yearning for more complete life, for opportunities to\nrealize ideals, and the means to take advantage of those opportunities.\nThe labor movement deals with the raw stuff of human life. It has no\npower except the power of human character, determination, and purpose.\nIn other words, it is a great human living force that is part of the lives and\nhopes of men, that has practical value and function in the affairs of every-\n\n"}
{"page": 189, "printed_page": "177", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nWORKING\n\nMAN\n\n177\n\nday life and work, and is an instrumentaHty operating in and thru human\nbeings, helping them to lift themselves up to a larger and a better life, and\nrevealing new possibiUties and new purposes.\nThis interpretation of the labor movement reveals how it is related in\nnature to the schools of our country. The undevelopt children of our nation\nare the material with which our schools deal. If the school succeeds in its\nwork, the teachers direct and assist in the unfolding of the mental, physical,\nand spiritual powers of the children intrusted to their care. Their whole\nwork is to enable the children to find themselves, to discover their abilities\nand to develop and use them, to understand the world in which they live,\nto know the people among whom they live, to use the opportunities and the\nforces in their environment for the common good, to be prepared to appreciate the meaning of life and work, and to live a life in which the domg of\nall duties and the performance of all work shall be with understanding,\ninspiration, and purpose.\nThe school is concerned with early life and development. If it succeeds,\nit lays a foundation for the labor movement which is the most potential\nforce operating in the lives of men and women for justice, common uplift,\nand betterment. The labor movement, therefore, has an immediate interest\nin the ideals, methods, and results of our nation's schools. We welcome all\nmovements for closer relations between the teachers and the labor movement. We are fully appreciative of the power intrusted to teachers. To\nyou has been intrusted the opportunity to shape and mold the minds, the\nideals, the characters of the future citizens of our country. It is a responsibility that must appeal to the best and noblest in your nature and call\nforth the highest effort.\nThe labor movement is a practical movement. From its ideals it gets\nthe inspiration and the vigor necessary to deal with the problems of human\nneed and human justice that develop in the daily tasks of those who for\nwages do the world's work. The labor movement knows that ideals alone\nare powerless — ideals must be made real practical forces. The workers\nmust understand their problems, call things by their right names, protect\nthemselves against that deterrent which is the most insidious of all selfdeception.\nYou need not be told that society is divided into two groups, unequal\nin numbers. One group, thru adventitious power gained in some manner,\nexercises power of control over the lives of those in the other group. The\ndegree and extent of this domination depend upon the intelligent resistence\nand insistence of the other group and their ability to marshaU and direct\ntheir own inherent personal power. The strategic power exercised by the\nmore numerous group is unequal to that of the dominant group; but their\npersonal power to produce is of vastly more importance fundamentally\nand potentially, and may be so utilized as to become, in fact, greater than\nthe power of those who exploit.\n\n"}
{"page": 190, "printed_page": "178", "text": "178\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nThe problem of the labor movement is to protect those who work\nagainst those who desire to exploit, and to give them constantly better\nopportunities for life and work. This discloses how vital is the interest\nof the labor movement in the maintenance of public educational institutions\nand in securing in these institutions training and education of a nature\nthat will develop in boys and girls those qualities that make for energy,\ninitiative, and intelligent independence, coupled with economic interdependence and solidarity.\nAs indicated in the beginning, the labor movement was instrumental\nin establishing free public schools. The wage-earners are more vitally\ninterested in securing the right kind of instruction in pubHc schools than\nany other group of citizens. The public schools are the only educational\ninstitutions available for their children and for them.\nIt is not necessary to tell this audience that the old ideals and methods\nof education have been proved inadequate; the old academic education\nfor mind-culture alone was founded upon false principles; that education\nfailed because it did not avail itself of methods and means to cultivate the\nsenses and the muscles of the individual. The individual consists not only\nof psychic activity, but there must be coordination of both the physical\nand the mental. All information is built up from impressions brought into\nthe mind by way of the senses. An education, therefore, that deals entirely\nwith abstract materials fails to appeal to the whole individual and fails\nto take advantage of all agencies for education. Mere abstract information\nand cultural learning do not always constitute practical preparation for the\nproblems of life and work.\nThe majority of the children of our nation go immediately from the\npublic schools into the factories, and the shops, and the mines; into the\nindustrial and transportation agencies of our country. Under the old\neducational methods which made no effort to correlate theory with practical\nproblems, the boys and girls went from school totally unprepared to deal\nwith those things which were of immediate necessity to them. Their first\nproblem was to obtain .an opportunity that would secure them the wherewith-all tobuy food, clothing, and pay for shelter. No protecting father\nnor benevolent institution stood between them and the grim necessities of\nthe life-struggle. The school that failed to prepare them for what awaited\nthem in life was guilty of a crime against humanity.\nYou know what the organized labor movement has done in this country\nto inject real-life problems among the problems that must be solved by the\npublic schools. You know what the movement has done to call attention\nto the necessity for industrial education and vocational training. You\nknow how the organized labor movement has stood like adamant against\nall efforts to pervert industrial education and vocational training along\nlines and tendencies that would make education of this nature only another\nopportunity to exploit the workers.\n\n"}
{"page": 191, "printed_page": "179", "text": "I\n\nSessions!\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nWORKING\n\nMAN\n\nlyq\n\nThe labor movement has insistently and persistently demand\ned that\neducation shall mean opportunity for freedom, opportunity\nfor larger and\nbetter lives for all. Opportunity for freedom and opportunity\nfor larger\nand better lives can only result when man has control over his environment,\nwhen he has control over his own personal faculties and his power to produc\ne]\nand is able to use and adjust these to the best advantage.\nIn order to be consistent with democratic ideals, public schools must\nmeet the needs of all. They must fit not only for the administrative,\ndirective positions in life and for the professions, but they also must meet\nthe needs of those who by their creative labor powers and the coordination\nof their minds and muscles give existence to the ideals and purposes that\nare in the minds of those who control industry and commerce.\nIndustrial education and vocational trainmg promote utiUtarian purposes, making possible industrial and commercial developments; they give\ninspiration and make possible intelligent cooperation among all of those\nwho are associated in the practical work of production. But this is not\nenough to bring betterment into the lives of all citizens. It is necessary\nthat those who contribute to the progress of industry and commerce should\nshare in the improvements they create. No amount of education in itself\nwill automatically bring this to pass. Here again the organized labor movement carries to greater perfection and toward wider ideals the work begun\nin the schools, that is, to make the common life of the people wider and\ndeeper and quickened by idealism.\nThe wage-earners first of all know that the value of their life-work\nmust be recognized by establishing a normal workday and by the payment\nof just wages. This ideal can be approacht or realized only thru organized\neconomic power. Because wage-earners with unblinded, unafraid eyes\nhave faced problems as they really are and have found a practical solution\nfor these problems, they have afforded better protection and better opportunities for many wage-earners than are enjoyed by some of the so-called\nprofessions, which have refused to face their real difficulties, to call things\nby their right names, and to attack their problems in a spirit of sincerity\nand enlightened determination.\nThe organized labor movement realizes that education is not an arbitrary thing that automatically ends with a certam year of life, but that it\nmust continue thruout life if the individual is really to live and make progress. An appreciation of this fact has resulted in the demand on the part\nof organized labor for wider use of the schools in order that fuller and better\nopportunities for learning, culture, and sociabiUty may be brought into the\nconmion life. They realize that education is an attitude toward life— an\nability to see and understand problems and to utilize information and\nforces for the best solution of those problems. New mformation and wider\nmake possible the maintenance of this attitude as long as Ufe\nknowledge\nshall\nlast.\n\n"}
{"page": 192, "printed_page": "180", "text": "l8b\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nIt is not necessary to go into the other side of this demand for the wider\nuse of the schools, but only to indicate that it has a business side also.\nThe schools represent a public investment. It is common sense and national\neconomy to secure the greatest amount of service from school buildings.\nThose whose money goes into a building have a right to determine the use\nthat is to be made of it. The building does not belong to any board of\ndirectors or school system. The people reserve the right to exercise the\nprerogative of ownership.\nA man's or a woman's desires are not necessarily limited by his or her\nvocation in life. Those who work for wages have all of the aspirations and\nall of the desires and all of the needs that anyone has who has inherited\nmillions or has secured a position of domination in the financial world.\nAmong those in the labor movement, those who work for wages, are some\nof the rarest characters that can be found in any place in the world, men\nto whom the word *' humanity\" has a genuine meaning and who have\nrespect for the value and sacredness of human life. These great, grand\nsouls realize that there is no greater crime against humanity and against\nconscience than exploitation of human lives or human labor power. The\nlabor movement is that agency by which they realize their ideals and the\nvision that they see of human possibilities. The organized labor movement\nhas come into the lives of the burden-bearers, the despairing, and the\nopprest. It has brought them hope and has been the means of lifting\nthem up to better things, making it possible for them to realize their greater\nselves. The labor movement is a constructive force; it never aims at the\ndestruction or lowering of present conditions or ideals. It is not a selfish\nagency existing for a few, but it is a flexible, adjustable movement that is\nas wide and as broad as human need wherever that may be found.\nSome among you teachers have turned to the labor movement for help\nand protection in your work as teachers. There are some who would make\nyou think that, by casting your lot with the labor movement and solving\nyour economic problems thru economic agencies, you are losing dignity\nand that you will lose your standing as a profession. Quite the opposite is\ntrue. By recognizing that you have economic problems and by trying to\nsecure remuneration that is in keeping with the character and importance\nof the work that you perform, you will be placing yourselves in a position\nwhereby you can maintain your dignity, for it is idle to deny that means,\nwages, salaries, enable the individual to secure independence and opportunities for freedom. Higher salaries will enable you to secure untold\nopportunities. The organized labor movement does not seek to make any\nprofession less exalted than its character justifies, but it endeavors to lift\nevery vocation into the spirit, the purpose, and the understanding of a\ntrue profession. It seeks to make plain that anyone who performs a necessary service to humanity is entitled to respect and consideration and\nadequate reward.\n\n"}
{"page": 193, "printed_page": "181", "text": "Sessions]\n\nTHE\n\nAMERICAN\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nWORKING\n\nMAN\n\ni8i\n\nThe noblest mission of the schools is to teach the worth\nof a man or a\nwoman, to teach the value of the individual and his life.\nThis teaching\nmust be supplemented with practical knowledge that enables each\nto realize\nhis fuUest possibilities. Education must be founded upon truths\nthat break\ndown insidious and unjustified distinctions between the kinds\nof work by\nwhich individuals express themselves.\nThe labor power of wage-earners exprest in their work is applied mentality, applied personality. The labor of a human bemg cannot be a commodity or an article of commerce; it cannot be the property of anyone. It\nis inseparable from the mind and the body of the human being. An education that glorifies the creative abiUty of the individual— his labor— is\ninjecting a revolutionary idea into all our philosophy of life. Such a plan\nof education will bring into the spirit of our nation a force that will make\nfor larger freedom, for greater progress and effectiveness. It will be in\ndirect opposition to that education which promotes dociUty, submissiveness,\nconformity. It will give each individual the power to stamp his Ufe-work\nwith all of the artistic imagery of which his nature is capable.\nEducation must respond to the call of life. It must perform its work\nwith the understanding necessary to progress in every relation of life,\nnecessary to democracy and to freedom. As there is no separation between\nthe world of thought and the world of action outside of the schools, there\nmust be no artificial separation within the schools.\nIn addition to the schools being a preparation for life, they are Ufe itself\nto the children who must attend them. Th^ children must learn from the\nworld itself their life and work. Books are an agency, helpful in the degree\nthat they assist to attain the larger purpose. They are not the ends of\neducation.\nBecause of the great power which has been intrusted to educational\ninstitutions, there are necessarily many efforts made to dominate these institutions. These efforts are subversive to the best interests of the children,\nof the teachers, and of all society; and are at variance with those purposes\nfor which public schools were establisht.\nYour organization has officially gone on record as opposed to all such\nefforts to dominate the public schools of this country, whether exercised\nby so-called philanthropic organizations, foundations, or any other agency.\nThe organized labor movement is with you in that purpose. Our experiences with the exploiting forces in the industrial and commercial field make\nus keen to detect them when exercised in other relations of Ufe. We have\nopposed from the beginnmg efforts of these \"foundations\" to secure legislation granting them the right to incorporate under federal laws and thus\ndominate our whole educational system. We have called attention to\nefforts of these foundations to lay corrupting hands upon the fountain\nheads of information, knowledge, and education. We have disclosed where\nthey have laid violent hands upon government ixistitutions and have\n\n"}
{"page": 194, "printed_page": "182", "text": "l82\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nattempted to form an insidious alliance nominally with government agencies\nbut in reality to exploit the work done.\nThe labor movement realizes that the workers dare not intrust to\nirresponsible hands, their relations of work, nor their lives. It has indicated\nthe danger and has helpt to avert conditions that could only result in\nthe destruction of our free institutions.\nThe organized labor movement has this message for the teachers who\nare the agents by which all educational ideals must be realized:\nIf you wish to be free, if you wish to be independent to perform the great work intrusted to you nobly and for the best interests of the citizenship of this country, join\nwith us for your and our common protection and betterment. The organized labor\nmovement has nothing to offer you but opportunities for freedom. In turn, aflfiliation\nwith the labor movement of this country will bring to you no burdens or responsibilities\nexcept those which you voluntarily place upon yourselves, and the responsibilities and\nduties that are inseparable from democracy and free service to humanity.\n\nThe organized labor movement makes this demand upon educational\nideals: Give to the masses of the people, those who perform mechanical\nwork, which of its very nature is monotonous and may become also stultifying, an imaginative understanding and such a wide comprehension of\nthe wholeness of life that no vocation need be to them a rut. Enable each\nto see up and beyond with a vivifying mental grasp that shall interpret\nlabor in values of human service, and to do the day's work with the joy of\ncreative labor.\nMay I be permitted a personal reference ? My school years ended at\nthe age of ten when I became a factory boy. Never have I lost that sense\nof the deep injustice of society that denied me opportunities for child life\nand study. Whatever I have learned since has been under adverse conditions and because of my insatiable desire to know. It is my earnest desire\nthat others may be protected against similar injustice.\nLet me give you this warning: Men and women now have a better\nunderstanding of their rights. They resent denial of opportunities. They\ndemand for those who shall later be miners, clerks, machinists, bakers,\ntailors, factory workers, printers, sailors, cigarmakers, builders, raihoad\nmen — those employed in all the trades — an education that shall enable\nthem to be independent men and women, to live full, rich lives, expressing\nthe best that is in them.\nAs teachers you can do much for the realization of this ideal. I urge\nupon you your great responsibility and ask your cooperation for the\ncommon cause of freedom, justice, and humanity.\n\n"}
{"page": 195, "printed_page": "183", "text": "i\n\nSessions]\n\nJOHN\n\nNATIONALIZING\n\nDEWEY,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nig\n\nNATIONALIZING\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nCOLUMBIA\nUNIVERSITY\n'\nN.Y.\n\nOF\n\nPHILOSOPHY,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nThe words \"nation'^ and \"national\" have two quite\ndifferent meanings. We cannot profitably discuss the nationaUzing of education\nunless\nwe are clear as to the difference between the two. For one meani\nng indicates somethmg desirable, something to be cultivated by education,\nwhile\nthe other stands for something to be avoided as an evil plague. The\nidea\nwhich has given the movement toward nationality which has been such\na feature of the last century its social vitaHty, is the consciousness of a community ofhistory and purpose larger than that of the family, the parish\nthe sect, and the province. The upbuilding of national states has substi-,\ntuted aunity of feeling and aim, a freedom of intercourse, over wide areas,\nfor earlier local isolations, suspicions, jealousies, and hatreds. It has\nforst men out of narrow sectionaUsms into membership in a larger social\nunit, and created loyalty to a state which subordinates petty and selfish\ninterests.\nOne cannot say this, however, without bemg at once reminded that\nnationalism has had another side. With the possible exception of our own\ncountry, the national states of the modern world have been built up thru\nconflict. The development of a sense of unity within a charmed area has\nbeen accompanied by dislike, by hostility, to all without. Skilful politicians and other self-seekers have always known how to play cleverly upon\npatriotism and upon ignorance of other peoples, to identify nationalism with latent hatred of other nations. Without exaggeration, the present\nworld-war may be said to be the outcome of this aspect of nationaUsm,\nand to present it in its naked unlovehness.\nIn the past our geographical isolation has largely protected us from\nthe harsh, selfish, and exclusive aspect of nationalism. The absence of\npressure from without, the absence of active and urgent rivalry and hostility of powerful neighbors, has perhaps played a part in the failure to\ndevelop an adequate unity of sentiment and idea for the country as a whole.\nIndividualism of a go-as-you-please type has had too full swing. We have\nan inherited jealousy of any strong national governing agencies, and we have\nbeen inclined to let things drift rather than to think out a central, controlling\npolicy. But the effect of the war has been to make us aware that the days\nof geographical isolation are at an end, and also to make us conscious that\nwe are lacking in an integrated social sense and policy for our country as\na whole, irrespective of classes and sections.\nWe are now faced by the difficulty of developing the good aspect of\nnationalism without its evil side — of developing a nationahsm which is the\nfriend and not the foe of internationahsm. Since this is a matter of ideas,\nof emotions, of intellectual and moral disposition and outlook, it depends\n\n"}
{"page": 196, "printed_page": "184", "text": "l84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nfor its accomplishment upon educational agencies, not upon outward\nmachinery. Among these educational agencies, the public school takes\nfirst rank. When sometime in the remote future the tale is summed up\nand the public, as distinct from the private and merely personal, achievement of the common school is recorded, the question which will have to be\nanswered is, What has the American pubUc school done toward subordinating alocal, provincial, sectarian, and partisan spirit of mind to aims\nand interests which are common to all the men and women of the country —\nto what extent has it taught men to think and feel in ideas broad enough\nto be inclusive of the purposes and happiness of all sections and classes?\nFor unless the agencies which form the mind and morals of the community\ncan prevent the operation of those forces which are always making for a\ndivision of interests, class and sectional ideas and feeUngs will become\ndominant, and our democracy will fall to pieces.\nUnfortunately at the present time one result of the excitement which\nthe war has produced is that many influential and well-meaning persons\nattempt to foster the growth of an inclusive nationalism by appeal to our\nfears, our suspicions, our jealousies, and our latent hatreds. They would\nmake the measure of our national preparedness our readiness to meet other\nnations in destructive war rather than our fitness to cooperate with them\nin the constructive tasks of peace. They are so disturbed by what has\nbeen revealed of internal division, of lack of complete national integration,\nthat they have lost faith in the slow policies of education. They would\nkindle a sense of our dependence upon one another by making us afraid of\npeoples outside of our border; they would bring about unity within by\nlaying stress upon our separateness from others. The situation makes it\nall the more necessary that those concerned with education should withstand popular clamor for a nationalism based upon hysterical excitedness\nor mechanical drill, or a combination of the two. We must ask what a real\nnationalism, a real Americanism, is like. For unless we know our own\ncharacter and purpose, we are not likely to be intelligent in our selection of\nthe means to further them.\nI want to mention only two elements in the nationalism which our\neducation should cultivate. The first is that the American nation is itself\ncomplex and compound. Strictly speaking, it is inter-racial and international inits make-up. It is composed of a multitude of peoples speaking\ndifferent tongues, inheriting diverse traditions, cherishing varying ideals of\nlife. This fact is basic to our nationalism as distinct from that of other\npeoples. Our national motto, ''One from Many,\" cuts deep and extends\nfar. It denotes a fact which doubtless adds to the difficulty of getting\na genuine unity. But it also immensely enriches the possibilities of the\nresult to be attained. No matter how loudly any one proclaims his\nAmericanism, if he assumes that any one racial strain, any one component\nculture, no matter how early settled it was in our territory, or how effective\n\n"}
{"page": 197, "printed_page": "185", "text": "Sessions]\n\nNATIONALIZING\n\nEDUCATION\n\nig^\n\nit has proved in its own land,is to furnish a pattern to which\nall other strams\nand cultures are to conform, he is a traitor to an Americ\nan nationalism\nOur unity cannot be a homogeneous thing like that of\nthe separate\nstates of Europe from which our population is drawn; it must\nbe a unity\ncreated by drawing out and composing into a harmonious whole\nthe\nbest, the most characteristic, which each contributmg race and\npeople has\nto offer.\nI find that many who talk the loudest about the need of a supreme and\nunified Americanism of spirit really mean some special code or traditio\nn\nto which they happen to be attacht. They have some pet tradition which\nthey would impose upon all. In thus measuring the scope of Americanism\nby some single element which enters into it they are themselves false to the\nspirit of America. Neither Englandism nor New-Englandism, neither\nPuritan nor Cavalier, any more than Teuton or Slav, can do anything but\nfurnish one note in a vast symphony.\nThe way to deal with hyphenism, in other words, is to welcome it, but\nto welcome it in the sense of extracting from each people its special good,\nso that it shall surrender into a common fund of wisdom and experience\nwhat it especially has to contribute. All of these surrenders and contributions taken together create the national spirit of America. The dangerous\nthing is for each factor to isolate itself, to try to live off its past, and then\nto attempt to impose itself upon other elements, or, at least, to keep itself\nintact and thus refuse to accept what other cultures have to offer, so as\nthereby to be transmuted into authentic Americanism.\nIn what is rightly objected to as hyphenism, the hyphen has become\nsomething which separates one people from other peoples, and thereby prevents American nationalism. Such terms as Irish- American or HebrewAmerican or German- American are false terms because they seem to assume\nsomething which is already in existence called America, to which the other\nfactor may be externally hitcht on. The fact is, the genuine American,\nthe typical American, is himself a hyphenated character. This does not\nmean that he is part American and that some foreign ingredient is then\nadded. It means that, as I have said, he is international and interracial\nin his make-up. He is not American plus Pole or German. But the\nAmerican is himself Pole-German-English-French-Spanish-Italian-GreekIrish-Scandinavian-Bohemian-Jew- and so on. The point is to see to it\nthat the hyphen connects instead of separates. And this means at least\nthat our public schools shall teach each factor to respect every other, and\nshall take pains to enlighten all as to the great past contributions of every\nstrain in our composite make-up. I wish our teaching of American history in the schools would take more account of the great waves of migration\nby which our land for over three centuries has been continuously built up, and\nmade every pupil conscious of the rich breadth of our national make-up.\nWhen every pupil recognizes all the factors which have gone into our being.\n\n"}
{"page": 198, "printed_page": "186", "text": "l86\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nhe will continue to prize and reverence that coming from his own past, but\nhe will think of it as honored in being simply one factor in forming a whole,\nnobler and finer than itself.\nIn short, unless our education is nationalized in a way which recognizes\nthat the peculiarity of our nationalism is its internationahsm, we shall\nbreed enmity and division in our frantic efforts to secure unity. The teachers of the country know this fact much better than do many of its politicians.\nWhile too often politicians have been fostering a vicious hyphenatedism and\nsectionaUsm as a bid for votes, teachers have been engaged in transmuting\nbeliefs and feelings once divided and opposed, into a new thing under the\nsun — a national spirit inclusive not exclusive, friendly not jealous. This\nthey have done by the influence of personal contact, cooperative intercourse, and sharing in common tasks and hopes. The teacher who has\nbeen an active agent in furthering the common struggle of native-born,\nAfrican, Jew, Italian, and perhaps a score of other peoples, to attain emancipation and enlightenment will never become a party to a conception of\nAiperica as a nation which conceives of its history and its hopes as less broad\nthan those of humanity — let politicians clamor for their own ends as they\nwill.\nThe other point in the constitution of a genuine American nationalism\nto which I invite attention is that we have been occupied during the greater\npart of our history in subduing nature, not one another or other peoples.\nI once heard two foreign visitors coming from different countries discuss\nwhat had been imprest upon them as the chief trait of the American people.\nOne said vigor, youthful and buoyant energy. The other said it was kindness, the disposition to live and let live, the absence of envy at the success\nof others. I like to think that while both of these ascribed traits have the\nsame cause back of them, the latter statement goes deeper. Not that we\nhave more virtue, native or acquired, than others, but that we have had\nmore room, more opportunity. Consequently, the same conditions which\nhave put a premium upon active and hopeful energy have permitted the\nkindlier instincts of man to express themselves. The spaciousness of a continent not previously monopoHzed by man has stimulated vigor and has\nalso diverted activity from the strugg;le against fellow-man into the struggle\nagainst nature. When men make their gains by fighting in common a\nwilderness, they have not the motive for mutual distrust which comes when\nthey get ahead only by fighting one another. I recently heard a story\nwhich seems to me to have something typical about it. Some manufacturers were discussing the problem of labor. They were loud in their\ncomplaints. They were bitter against the exactions of unions, and full of\ntales of an inefficiency which seemed to them calculated. Then one of\nthem said: ''Oh, well! Poor devils! They haven't much of a chance and\nhave to do what they can to hold their own. If we were in their place,\nwe should be just the same.^'\n\nAnd the others nodded assent and the\n\n"}
{"page": 199, "printed_page": "187", "text": "Sessions]\n\nNATIONALIZING\n\nEDUCATION\n\nconversation lapst. I call this characteristic, for if there was not an\nardent sympathy, there was at least a spirit of toleration and passive\nrecognition.\nBut with respect to this point as well as with respect to our composite\nmake-up, the situation is changing. We no longer have a large unoccupied\ncontinent. Pioneer days are past, and natural resources are possest.\nThere is danger that the same causes which have set the hand of man against\nhis neighbor in other countries will have the same effect here. Instead of\nsharing in a common fight against nature, we are akeady starting to fight\nagainst one another, class against class, haves against have-nots. The\nchange puts a definite responsibiUty upon the schools to sustain our true\nnational spirit. The virtues of mutual esteem, of human forbearance, and\nwell-wishing, which in our earlier days were the unconscious products of\ncircumstances, must now be the conscious fruit of an education which forms\nthe deepest springs of character.\nTeachers above all others have occasion to be distrest when the earlier\nidealism of welcome to the opprest is treated as a weak sentimentaUsm,\nwhen sympathy for the unfortunate and those who have not had a fair\nchance is regarded as a weak indulgence fatal to efficiency. Our traditional\ndisposition in these respects must now become a central motive in public\neducation, not as a matter of condescension or patronizing, but as essential\nto the maintenance of a truly American spirit. All this puts a responsibility upon the schools which can be met only by widening the scope of\neducational facilities. The schools have now to make up to the disinherited\nmasses by conscious instruction, by the development of personal power,\nskill, ability, and initiative, for the loss of external opportunities consequent\nupon the passing of our pioneer days. Otherwise power is likely to pass\nmore and more into the hands of the wealthy, and we shall end with this\nsame alliance between intellectual and artistic culture and economic power\ndue to riches, which has been the curse of every civilization in the past, and\nwhich our fathers in their democratic idealism thought this nation was\nto put an end to.\nSince the idea of the nation is equal opportunity for all, to nationalize\neducation means to use the schools as a means for making this idea effective.\nThere was a time when this could be done more or less well simply by providing schoolhouses, desks, blackboards, and perhaps books. But that\nday has past. Opportunities can be equalized only as the schools make it\ntheir active serious business to enable all alike to become masters of their\nown industrial fate. That growing movement which is called industrial\nor vocational education now hangs in the scales. If it is so constructed\nin practice as to produce merely more competent hands for subordinate\nclerical and shop positions, if its purpose is shaped to driU boys and girls\ninto certain forms of automatic skill which will make them useful in carrying out the plans of others, it means that, instead of nationalizing education\n\n"}
{"page": 200, "printed_page": "188", "text": "l88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nin the spirit of our nation, we have given up the battle, and decided to\nrefeudaHze education.\nI have said nothing about the point which my title most naturally\nsuggests — changes in administrative methods which will put the resources\nof the whole nation at the disposition of the more backward and less fortunate portions, meaning by resources not only money but expert advice and\nguidance of every sort. I have no doubt that we shall move in the future\naway from a merely regional control of the public schools in the direction\nof a more central regulation. I say nothing about this phase of the matter\nat this time, not only because it brings up technical questions, but because\nthis side of the matter is but the body, the mechanism of a nationalized\neducation. To nationalize American education is to use education to\npromote our national idea, which is the idea of democracy. This is the\nsoul, the spirit, of a nationalized education, and, unless the administrative\nchanges are executed so as to embody this soul, they will mean simply the\ndevelopment of red tape, a mechanical uniformity and a deadening supervision from above.\nJust because the circumstances of the war have brought the idea of the\nnation and the national to the foreground of everyone's thoughts, the\nmost important thing is to bear in mind that there are nations and nations,\nthis kind of nationalism and that. Unless I am mistaken, there are some\nnow using the cry of an American nationalism, of an intensified national\npatriotism, to further ideas which characterize the European nations,\nespecially those most active in the war, but which are treasonable to the\nideal of our nation. Therefore, I have taken this part of your time to\nremind you of the fact that our nation and democracy are equivalent terms;\nthat our democracy means amity and good will to all humanity (including\nthose beyond our border), and equal opportunity for all. within. Since as\na nation we are composed of representatives of all nations who have come\nhere to live in peace with one another and to escape the enmities and jealousies which characterize old-world nations, to nationalize our education\nmeans to make it an instrument in the active and constant suppression of\nthe war spirit and in the positive cultivation of sentiments of respect and\nfriendship for all men and women, wherever they live. Since our democracy means the substitution of equal opportunity for all for the old-world\nideal of unequal opportunity for different classes, and the limitation of the\nindividual by the class to which he belongs, to nationalize our education is\nto make the public school an energetic and willing instrument in developing\ninitiative, courage, power, and personal ability in each individual. If we\ncan get our education nationalized in spirit in these directions, the nationalizing of the administrative machinery will in the end take care of itseK.\nSo I appeal to teachers in the face of every hysterical wave of emotion,\nand of every subtle appeal of sinister class interest, to remember that they,\nabove aU others, are the consecrated servants of the democratic ideas in\n\n"}
{"page": 201, "printed_page": "189", "text": "Sessions]\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAT\n\nTHE\n\nCAPITAL\n\ni8g\n\nwhich alone this country is truly a distmctive nation-ideas\nof friendly and\nhelpful intercourse between all and the equipment of\nevery individual to\nserve the community by his own best powers in his own best way\nTHE POSSIBILITIES OF A NATIONAL\nAT THE CAPITAL\nSIMEON D. FESS, MEMBER\n\nOF CONGRESS\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nFROM OHIO, WASHINGTON,\n\nD.C.\n\nI came here to discuss the national university proposition which, for the\nfirst time in the history of the country was unanimously reported from the\ncommittee, both Sixty-third and Skty-fourth Congresses. It is now on\nthe calendar awaiting action.\nThere is no country in the world with the possibilities of scholarship in\nthe fields of research equal to ours. Washington already is a center of\nresearch workers. Each department is a laboratory for investigation.\nHere, with the marvelous facilities of laboratory and Ubrary equipment\ngreater than those of all the colleges and universities in the country outside\nof the Capital, could be gathered the greatest group of head masters in\nresearch, with the largest collection of special students in the world. Washington must not only be made the center for the special research for American\nscholars, but for the scholars of other countries. The national university\nis designed to make available this rare equipment for the special research\nworker. It looks to an organization to which application can be made for\nsuch work with as little red tape as college entrance elsewhere requires.\nThe recent passage of the bill for an archives building here in Washington\nto house all the valuable governmental documents should be but one item\nin the plan for research. No better time could be chosen for the establishment of the world's greatest university than now, when war with its disorganizing elements calls for rehabilitation thru the enlistment of the\nscholars of our day. The country ought to make possible the realization\nof this dream of General Washington and the list of public men and associations indorsing such a consummation. It is but adding the finishing touch\nto our magnificent educational system.\nPopular education lies at the foundation of our democratic system of\ngovernment. To supply it must rest largely with the states. Markt\nadvancement has been made in this field. Illiteracy is being rapidly\nbanisht. Vocational training is receiving attention.\nHigher education is also well cared for in colleges, universities, and\ntechnical schools. Almost every state has its system -of state normal\nschools for the training of teachers. Most of them have the state university,\nprimarily for agricultural and mechanical training, but in later years the\nmodern state university, answering to wider demands which does graduate\nwork. There are nearly 500 colleges, private and denominational, within\n\n"}
{"page": 202, "printed_page": "190", "text": "I90\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nthe boundaries of the United States. Among these there are a few heavily\nendowed institutions which do graduate work, in addition to the regular\ncollege work.\nNotwithstanding the galaxy of American higher educational institutions,\nits colleges, universities, and technical schools, many of which stand very\nhigh ' educationally, the country does not have a university in the true\nsense. In every institution, however good, the chief work, the mass of\nstudents, the large proportion of teaching force, the major use of laboratories\netc., are devoted to undergraduate work, to college rather than university\nwork. We have no single institution devoted to the sort and degree of\nwork chiefly done by the Berlin University. Johns Hopkins comes the\nnearest to it. Such an institution as is here proposed would complete our\nsystem of education by utilizing the vast resources here in the capital for the\nspecial research of the expert investigator. The recent discoveries of Dr.\nRittman in the Bureau of Mines are directly to the point. This is but a\nsuggestion of what may be done.\nThe proposal here is to materialize the ambition of the founder of the\nnation.\nWashington made a national university a specific item of recommendation at different times in his messages to Congress. He communicated his\nviews in writing to such men as Randolph, Hamilton, and Jefferson, members of his Cabinet. He made specific recommendations to state officials of\nVirginia, including Governor Brooke, in 1795; he solemnly urged it in his\nFarewell Address in 1796, and in the same year he communicated his wish\nto the commissioners of the District of Columbia, even going so far as to\nindicate his willingness to set aside a fund for its establishment and to specify\nthe probable site of the plant.\nBefore his death he had the indorsement of most pubUc men, inside and\noutside of the two Houses of Congress. In 1799 his will contained a bequest\nof 50 shares ($500 each) of Potomac stock for the beginning.\nHis scheme was most heartily indorst in official capacity by John\nAdams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, J. Q. Adams,\nand Andrew Jackson. Jefferson, one of the country's earhest patrons of\neducation, even went to the extent of proposing to General Washington the\ntransplanting of a European college, faculty and all, as an early step in the\nenterprise.\nThe appearance near the forties of sectional differences and the expression of the fear of too much centralization caused the friends of the enterprise to rest. In the forties and fifties much talk and some efforts were\nactive in building such an institution at Albany, N.Y. The Civil War\nfurther shut out interest in the Washington project.\nInterest was finally revived in 1869 by John W. Hoyt, who had made a\ntour of careful inspection of the European institutions of higher learning.\nThe merits of Commissioner Hoyt's efforts lie in his effective work in\n\n"}
{"page": 203, "printed_page": "191", "text": "Sessions]\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAT\n\nTHE\n\nCAPITAL\n\n191\n\ncreating a favorable impression among educators in the country. The\nresults of his propaganda were notist in the interest of the National\nTeachers Association. It was largely thru this body, ably seconded by\nnumerous great scholars in college and university circles, that there was\nwon the support of such men as Senator Charles Sumner, T. O. White,\nJ. W. Paterson^ M. H. Carpenter, J. J. Ingalls, W. B. AUison, L. Q. C.\nLamar, A. H. Garland, and many others. Thru the influence of these men\na bill was introduced in both Houses of Congress in 1872. By this tune\nthe propaganda was winning the support of most of the college heads of\nthe country. One very important exception was President Charles W.\nEliot. In 1873 President Grant made the university proposition an item\nof favorable recommendation in his annual message. The National Education Association continued by resolution and addresses to keep the matter\nbefore the public. President Hayes indorst the project in 1878. L. Q. C.\nLamar, Secretary of the Interior under Cleveland, called the attention of\nthe country to the neglect in his report to the President. In 1890 the\nSenate created a special standing committee, to be known as the National\nUniversity Committee, which is still in existence, altho quite dormant.\nThe National Association of State University Presidents, representing all\nthe state universities of the nation, is also another significant association\nbacking the movement.\nLooking over the activities working for this consummation, one is\nbewildered over the fact that in the face of it all there is nothing accomplisht by the government.\nNote the factors:\n1. Urged by Washington.\n2. Seconded by at least ten of his successors.\n3. Supported by at least half a dozen justices of the Supreme Court, including chief\niustices Jay, Rutledge, Marshall, and Chase.\n4. Formally reconmiended by at least twenty Cabinet ministers, among them the\nmost brilliant lights of our nation.\n5. Formal support by the heads of both army and navy.\nc advocacy of the heads of at least four hundred colleges and universities.6. Enthusiasti\n7. Ahnost unanimous indorsement of both the scholars and learned assoaations of the\ncountry.\n8. Advocacy by the leading clergymen of the country.\n9. Advocacy by the public-school men and women in the country.\n10. Support of various women's organizations of the land.\n11. Warm support at different tunes of the Senate as a body.\n\nof advocates would seem enough to enact any law that had\nThis array\nof merit in it.\nan element\nThis support is based upon the following facts:\nto multiply\nWhat we need in Washmgton is an institution not so much\nto produce\nbut\ns,\nlearner\nteach\nscholars as to develop scholarship; not to\n\n"}
{"page": 204, "printed_page": "192", "text": "192\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nresearch workers; not so much to disseminate knowledge akeady known,\nbut to cultivate the power to find what is yet unknown.\nSuch an institution will not interfere with nor supersede the hundreds\nof institutions already existing, but it will supplement them, as it will\nindeed depend upon them for its supply of students seeking the rank of\nspecial experts. Instead of weakening the existent university or college,\nit will, like the multiplied collective strand, gain its strength from a combination ofall without weakening any one.\nIt will be in a unique sense our university and will develop the sense\nof pride and democratic support not now felt by any institution. It will\nthus be sought by our ambitious men as they pass from college or university\nto the more specialized field of expert investigation. Graduate, as well as\nprofessor, who may be desired for some special work now and then, will\nlook toward it. It will thus divert the flow of American students from\nBerlin, Paris, Oxford, Jena, and Vienna to Washington.\nThere cannot be serious doubt of the effect of such a national university\nupon scholarship in our own country. Washington long ago had come\nto be one of the greatest scientific centers of the earth. Here are assembled\nthe most remarkable collections in the way of scientific material known\nto the scientific world. Here the various departments of scientific investigation, headed by the world's best experts, aided by a group of trained workers,\nwith separate laboratories and experimental facilities, run up into the\nhundreds. Here, also, are domiciled thirty-four associations devoted to the\ninvestigations of truth in various spheres. At least that number are incorporated by act of Congress. These make Washington attractive to the\nscholars of all countries. Many of the societies that are not domiciled here\nhold their annual meetings at the Capital.\nIf anyone should doubt the wisdom of the establishment of such an\ninstitution upon the ground that we do not need it, or upon the ground\nof expense, or of corrupt control, or upon any other ground, a complete\nanswer is the Smithsonian Institution. This institution, establisht in\n1846, with a $500,000 bequest, has proved itself to be one of the most\nsuccessful in the advancement of knowledge. Today it is well housed in\nbuildings worth at least as much as the original gift, and it has accumulated\ncollections of books and manuscripts by the simple method of government\nexchange, with slight cost to anyone of an amount beyond the original\ngift. Besides this, here under such men as Henry, Baird, Powell, Newcomb,\nGoode, Langley, and others, have grown up these rare agencies of advancement in useful knowledge. Here telegraphy was perfected and then turned\nover to the government. Research on the lines of climate, meteorology,\netc., was conducted by these leaders of science and was finally allowed to\ngrow under governmental agencies into the present Weather Bureau.\nUnder the direction of Professor Baird, investigations of life in the sea, with\nspecial relation to fish purely in a scientific interest, grew into the Govern-\n\n"}
{"page": 205, "printed_page": "193", "text": "Sessions]\n\nA NATIONAL\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nAT\n\nTHE\n\nCAPITAL\n\n193\n\nment Fish Commission, now so important as an agency under experts\nattempting to supply needed food from the wastes of ocean waters. Other\nimportant governmental agencies had their beginnings here. The Congressional Library, America's greatest collection of books, housed in the\nworld's\nmost\ninstitution. beautiful building, was started in the same way by the same\nIn view of such results flowing from this smgle establishment, we ask,.\nWhat is the possibility of a national university under a similar management\nwith means multiplied and a field unlimited? Even today there exists\nin the Capital the university, only awaiting organization, housing, and\nresearch students. Probably in no one place in the world is there such a\nrare and numerous aggregation of material for laboratory use as in Washington. No university could gather such laboratory facilities.\nThe bill provides that there shall be estabUsht in the District of\nColumbia an institution of higher learning, to be known as the National\nUniversity of the United States.\nIts purpose is to promote the advancement of science, pure and appUed,\nand of the liberal and fine arts by original investigation and research and\nsuch other means as may appear suitable. Furthermore, to train men\nand women for posts of responsibihty in the public and private service of\nstate and nation and especially for our diplomatic service. Also, to cooperate with the scientific departments of the federal government and with\nthe various colleges and universities, public and private, thruout the\ncountry. This last purpose is one of the most important.\nLocated in the various parts of the city are museums, bureaus, observatories, exchanges, laboratories, etc., any one of which is not to be found in\nequal richness of material in any place in the country. The Agricultural\nDepartment alone is a good example. Here in one department of investigation are found: (a) The Weather Bureau, with ahnost a score of experts at\nwork; (b) the Bureau of Animal Industry, with over a dozen experts;\n(c) the Bureau of Plant Industry, with nearly 40 experts; (d) the Forest\nService, with about 30 experts; (e) the Bureau of Chemistry, with at least\n35 experts; (J) the Bureau of Soils, with 7 experts; {g) the Bureau of\nEntomology, with more than a dozen experts; (h) the Bureau of Biological\nSurvey, with a half-dozen experts; besides experts from 6 to 15 in number\nin charge of separate Bureaus of Accounts and Disbursements, Publications,\nStatistics, Library, Experiment Stations, and Public Roads. This last is the\nyoungest of all research foundations here in the Capital which fitly represent\nthe scientific operations of the government. There is scarcely a single\nfield of expert investigation that is not weU directed here, by the world's\ngreatest experts, and with the highest results. The annual reports of these\nvarious bureaus that number in the hundreds would make a Hbrary. The\nmonetary value represented will reach into, the milUons of dollars. To\noperate them requires about five miUions a year. The experts employed\n\n"}
{"page": 206, "printed_page": "194", "text": "194\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[General\n\nand those elsewhere affiliated with the work here will number into the\nhundreds.\nThe new discoveries announst from time to time are world-wide in\nimport, and some of them revolutionize scientific knowledge. Air-navigation was solved by governmental investigation. The Panama Canal was\nmade possible by governmental engineering skill. Yellow fever was\nannihilated by a government expert. Probably more useful applications\nof scientific knowledge have been perfected in Washington than in any other\nplace in the world.\nThe easy possibility of utilizing these unequaled resources for stimulating wide-awake students is the chief and immediate ground for the proposed institution.\nIt is to be a graduate institution.\nThe ultimate authority in the government of the institution is vested in\na board of trustess appointed by the president of the United States; but\nthis board must consult and consider the counsel and advice of a national\nadvisory council, consisting of one representative from each state in the\nUnion, this representative to be the president of the state university in\nthose states in which there is a state university, and in those states where\nno such institution exists a person to be appointed by the governor of the\nstate. This form of organization secures several great advantages. It\nsecures the efficiency, economy, promptness, and vigor of administration\ncharacteristic of a small board vested with full authority to act. It also\nmakes it distinctively national in its purpose and scope.\nThe mstitution is authorized to accept gifts and donations of money or\nproperty from any private citizen or public body, provided these gifts be\npresented with no conditions attacht, for the general purposes of the university. This university will have an organic affiliation with educational institutions ofother countries by which we will have the exchange of professorships.\nIt would be difficult to estimate the influence of such an institution upon a\nbetter understanding and relationship with all countries. It would be a\nfar greater insurance against world- warfare than battleships. Now, when\nEurope is in the throes of war and all education is at a standstill, is the time\nto establish this institution.\nIt goes without saying that such an institution must be free from all\ncharacteristics that dominate modern college life. Modern athletics,\ncollege spirit, and the consequent police-disciplinary features, all proper\nin their places, will have no place here. Even degrees are not to be sought.\nIn this beautiful Capital of the nation, with the galaxy of great buildings,\nhousing such treasures of art and science, with its many associations,\nrepresenting great learning, the significant item of world meaning, the\ncrown of it all is lacking — a national university.\nWe ask Congress to make good the gift of its first President, at compound interest, which would amount to at least $10,000,000 today.\n\n"}
{"page": 207, "printed_page": "195", "text": "THE NATIONAL\n\nCOUNCIL OF EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nDETROIT\n\nMINUTES\n\nMEETING\n\nOFFICERS\n\nPresident — Robert J. Aley, president. University of Maine\nOrono, Me.\nVice-President — Augustus S. Downing, first assistant commissioner of education, Albany, N.Y.\nChicago, 111.\nSecretary— WiLhiAU B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal School\n\nFIRST SESSION— Monday\n\nEvening, February 21, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Aley in the ballroom of the Hotel\nStatlerat 8:ooP.M.\nThe following papers were given under the general topic, \"Thrift\":\n\"Thrift— An Educational Necessity\"— S. W. Straus, Chicago, 111.\n\"Thrift in Its Relation to Country Life\" — Robert H. Wilson, state superintendent\nof public instruction, Oklahoma City, Okla.\n\"Thrift in Relation to Industries\" — Clarence H. Dempsey, superintendent of schools,\nHaverhill, Mass.\n\"Thrift in Relation to Health and Hygiene\" — ^John D. Shoop, superintendent of\nschools, Chicago, 111.\n\"Thrift and Its Relation to Banking\" — ^J. A. Bexell, dean, school of commerce,\nOregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Ore.\n\"Thrift in Its Relation to Conservation\" — ^Milo H. Stuart, principal, Manual\nTraining High School, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\"Thrift in Relation to Men's Organizations Such as Chambers of Commerce, Boards\nof Trade, Labor Unions, etc.\" — H. R. Daniel, secretary, American Society for Thrift,\nChicago, 111.\n\"Thrift in Relation to the Home.\" — Kate Devereux Blake, principal. Public School\nNo. 6, Manhattan, N.Y.\n., ,\n\"General Summary\"— Arthur H. Chamberlam, secretary, Califorma Council of\nEducation, San Francisco, Cal.\n,\nt ir\n\"A Memorial to Zachariah Xenophon Snyder\" was presented by Charles H. Keyes,\npresident, Skidmore School of Arts, Saratoga Springs, N.Y.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, February 22, 1916\n\n,\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in the Ballroom of the Hotel Statler,\nPresident Aley in the chair.\n\"The Function of the Graduating School of Education\" was presented by G. W. A.\nLuckey, dean. Graduate School of Education, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.\nDiscussion followed, participated in by the following: Walter R. Siders, superintend\nSchool,\nNormal\nState\npresident.\nCrabtree,\nW.\nJames\nIdaho;\nPocatello,\nschools,\nof\nent\nCincmnati,\nRiver Falls, Wis. ; William P. Burris, dean. College for Teachers, University of\nInd.\ns,\nIndianapoU\nschools,\nof\ndent\nsuperinten\nCoUicott,\nG.\nJ.\nand\nOhio;\nCincinnati,\nof\npresented by members of the Committee on Standards and Tests\nReports\ny, as were\nfollows:\nEiB&cienc\n\nof educational\n\"Score Card for City School Buildings \"-George D. Strayer professor\n^ ,, •\ny, New York, N.Y\n9s\nadministration, Teachers College, Columbia 1Universit\nBaldwm,\nGrowth and P^^yf «log^^^l Age\"-Bixd To^^^\n\"A Measuring Scale for Physical\nhead, department of psychology and education, Swarthmore CoUege, Swai^dim\nments to School Admimstration -Don L.\nd Measure\nStandarMontclai\nApplicat\nr, N.J.\nendentionof ofschools,\nsuperint\nBliss,\"The\n\n"}
{"page": 208, "printed_page": "196", "text": "196\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n\"Reading\" — Charles H. Judd, director, School of Education, University of Chicago,\nChicago, 111.\nAs these papers appear in Part I of the Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for\nthe Study of Education, they are not reprinted here. The Yearbook can be secured from\nGuy M. Whipple of the University of Illinois, Urbana, 111., at a cost of seventy-five cents.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, February 22, 19 16\n\nPresident Aley called the meeting to order at 2 : 00 p.m. in the Arcadia Auditorium.\nA half-hour demonstration by the department of physical education, Detroit Public\nSchools, was given under the direction of Ethel Perrin, supervisor of physical training.\nThe first part of the demonstration dealt with boys' standard tests of physical ability;\nthe second part was devoted to mimetic exercises; and the third part illustrated the work\nof girls' advanst gymnasium classes.\n\"National Welfare and Rural Schools\" was presented by Thomas D. Wood, M.D.,\nprofessor of physical education, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.; and Wickliffe\nRose, executive secretary. Southern Education Board, Washington, D.C.\nDiscussion: C. G. Schulz, state superintendent of education, St. Paul, Minn.;\nJames E. Otis, vice-president, Central Trust Co., Chicago, 111.; John W. Cook, president\nState Normal School, DeKalb, 111.; P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C; R. W. Corwin, medical lecturer, American Medical Association, Pueblo, Colo.\n\"The New Ideal in Education — Better Parents of Better Children\" was presented\nby Helen C. Putnam, M.D., Providence, R.I.\nThe topic was discust by Adelaide Steele Baylor, assistant superintendent of public\ninstruction, Indianapolis, Ind.\nWilliam B. Owen, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHRIFT— AN EDUCATIONAL\nS. W.\n\nNECESSITY\n\nSTRAUS, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nIn appearing before this audience of men and women who are devoting\ntheir lives to the education of our children, I feel that it would be presumption on my part to attempt to give counsel on matters pertaining to\nthe technical work of the schoolrooni. My only desire, on this occasion,\nis to tell you how thoroly I feel the necessity that some action be taken that\nwill lead to the teachings of thrift to our boys and girls.\nA great many years ago Abraham Lincoln said: \"Teach economy.\nThat is one of the first and highest virtues; it begins with saving money.\"\nLincoln, with his genius, lived decades ahead of his time, and, in the work\nwe are undertaking now, we are just about catching up with the teachings\nexpounded by this great American more than half a century ago. I want\nto use this quotation from Abraham Lincoln as the text of my sermon, for\nI think it embraces the entire philosophy of thrift: \"Teach economy.\nThat is one of the first and highest virtues; it begins with saving money.\"\nTwo years ago, I dare say, not one of us assembled here tonight had the\nslightest idea that the late summer of 19 14 would mark the beginning of\n\n"}
{"page": 209, "printed_page": "197", "text": "Council]\n\nTHRIFT— AN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNECESSITY\n\n197\n\nthe world's greatest war. How secure, how smug many of us fancied ourselves. How often we spoke of the horrors of war as things of the past,\nas relics of barbarism that civilization had outUved. It is not my desire\ntonight to shout calamity, but duty compels me to say that the epochal\nevents of the last eighteen months have brought us face to face tonight\nwith conditions that never before existed in America. I am happy to say\nthat I do not believe we shall be drawn into the present cataclysm. I am\nstrong in my beUef that the blessings of peace and prosperity shall continue\nto be ours, but it would be folly for us blindly to assume that we are indefinitely to continue driftmg along under such auspicious circumstances.\nWe hear much today of national preparedness. There is a great clamor\nabout it. We are told that we must be prepared to defend ourselves against\nattack from powerful foreign adversaries. But in all this agitation regarding national preparedness, I have failed to find one single word in print,\nor hear one word spoken in public, concerning what, to my mind, is the\nmost vital question in America today — individual preparedness. Not\nindividual preparedness for war, but individual preparedness for anything\nthat may come; individual preparedness to live useful, steadfast lives for\nthe benefit of humanity and posterity; individual preparedness to withstand the temptations that always come with prolonged prosperity; individual preparedness to meet calamity and adversity in whatever form they\nmay appear. It takes fortitude, stability, manliness, and courage to be\na good man in the face of temptations, obstacles, and adverse surroundings.\nIt requires just as much moral stamina to conquer the temptations of\nopulence as it does to combat the onslaughts of calamitous circumstances.\nEvery man who has made a success of life is a soldier of many victories.\nYou all know the fight you must make sometimes to be right and to do\nright under all circumstances — to live cleanly, honorably, above reproach.\nThere are enemies within and without, and ofttimes the battles one fights\nwith oneself are more bitter and more important fights than those one\nmay wage with any external enemy. The battle, after all, is to the strong,\nnot to the weak.\nAnd what has all this to do with the teachings of thrift? you ask.\nSimply this: Thrift is the very foundation of individual efl&ciency, and individual efficiency is the foundation of all success. Thrift is submission to\ndiscipline, seK-imposed. Thrift is denying oneself present pleasures for\nfuture gain. Thrift is the exercise of the will, the development of moral\nstamina, the steadfast refusal to yield to temptation.\nWe are a prosperous nation, but individually we are not a prosperous\npeople. We are poor. We have grown rapidly. We have uncovered and\ndevelopt vast resources. Our people have earned plenteously, but have\nspent lavishly. We have wasted. Our people have neglected to lay by for\nthe rainy day. Let the wheels of industry stop turning in this nation for\nthirty days, and the vast majority of our citizens would be paupers. Do\n\n"}
{"page": 210, "printed_page": "198", "text": "IqS\n\nnational\n\neducation\n\nassociation\n\n[National\n\nyou know that one person out of every ten who dies today in our large\ncities is buried in the Potter's Field ?\nStatistics show that in the United States there are only io8 who save\nmoney out of every i,ooo population. Compare this with 288 in Italy, 302\nin England, 317 in Germany, 346 in France, 386 in Sweden, 397 in Belgium,\nand 544 in Switzerland. All these figures are for the times prior to the\nwar, of course. Two out of every three persons who die in the United\nStates leave no estate whatever. In view of these facts, what appalling\neconomic conditions would ensue in America were the people of this country\nsuddenly confronted by a condition such as exists across the sea! I tell\nyou, my friends, we have not yet learned to differentiate between prosperity and progress. We have spent as we have earned, bountifully, and\nour savings have been meager. Our orators have been fond of teUing us\nthat this is the most prosperous nation in the world, but they have neglected to tell us what would happen if prosperity ceast. We have been\ndeceiving ourselves.\nThere was a time when America was a thrifty nation. Those were the\ndays of Benjamin Franklin and our Colonial forefathers. Life in this new\ncountry made thrift necessary, and it was only thru frugal habits that\nthey were successful and laid the foundation of this great nation. But in\nthe days that followed, easier times came. The earning power of the\naverage man gradually increast. Slowly we got away from the rugged\nhabits of the Puritans, and today we are recognized thruout the world as\nthe most thriftless nation among the great powers. What we must do is\nto get back to the days of Benjamin Franklin. Want and waste, extravagance, debauchery, riotous living, artificial, social, and business practices\nmust cease — in a word, the nation must be remade, not only by talking\nthrift, but by teaching thrift.\nLooking down the long vista of years ahead of us in America, we are\nbound to have many prosperous periods. We are so rich, so strong, so\nyoung. We have so many advantages over the older nations. Our commercial resistance is so tremendous that periods of depression must be of\ncomparatively short duration. But even with the prospect of a golden\nera of peace lying before us, with the assumption that the wheels of industry\nwill continue to turn, that we shall be continuously blest with bountiful\ncrops, that our population will increase, that our cities will build, and will\ngrow even more wonderful, and the barren places be taken up for occupation— even with the assumption of all these things, are we sure tonight\nthat our children, and our children's children will be prepared for the\ntemptations that will come with these unfoldings of time? Weakness is\nbegot of the pamperings of opulence. We need but to read our histories.\nBabylonia, Greece, and Rome fell because their people were pampered,\nbecausejdebauchery ran riot, and the substance was wasted! Thrift and\nright living^ were forgotten.\n\n"}
{"page": 211, "printed_page": "199", "text": "Councill\n\nTHRIFT— AN EDUCATIONAL\n\nNECESSITY\n\nigg\n\nAfter the present war in Europe is over, this nation will be the subject\nof attack, commercially, by every country now at arms. The empires of\nEurope will lie bleeding in ruin. Prosperous America will be the shining\ntarget of attack. We must be prepared for this contest. It may mean\na prolonged period of financial depression, or, on the other hand, we may\nbe approaching the greatest era of prosperity America has every known.\nWhether fortune has in store for us prosperity or adversity, the necessity\nfor individual preparedness is alike necessary.\nAnd now, what are the deductions ? I think you will agree with me\nthat, whether we have prosperity or adversity, it is necessary that we have\nindividual preparedness, thru thrift. And what shall we do to bring about\nindividual preparedness ? How shall we make this nation thrifty ? Surely\nnot alone by preaching to those who are old, surely not alone by teaching\nthose who are middle-aged. There is only one right way, and that is to\nbegin at the foundation. The nation of tomorrow will be made up of the\nchildren who are in your schoolrooms today. If this nation, tomorrow,\nis to be thrifty, if these children are to be men and women equipt with\nindividual preparedness, we must begin teaching them today. We must\nteach them in the home, we must teach them in the Sunday school, above\nall things else, we must teach them in the schoolroom. These children,\nwhose faces gaze into yours from day to day, will be the blood and fiber,\nthe bone and sinew, of the United States of America in the next decade or\ntwo, and their children will be the nation of the next era. So we can be\nassured that if we teach these school children the ways of thrift today,\nwhen they leave the schoolroom and start out into active life, they will be\nindividually prepared to withstand the temptations of life thru the practices\nof thrift. We can be assured that they will at least not be failures. Those\nwho are thrifty never fail entirely; they may not reach the heights, but\nthey never will reach the depths.\nWhen we preach thrift thru the press and thru the pulpit, we know that\ngood is being done. When the governors of our several states issue proclamations calling upon their citizens to practice ways of thrift, we know that\ngood is being done. And I want to say here, in passing, that those of us\nwho are engaged in this work owe a mighty debt of gratitude to the gover• nors of the states, to the clergy who are preaching thrift from the pulpits^\nand to the editors who are teaching thrift thru the columns of the press.\nAnd while I am speaking of these things, let me give you a few more\nstatistics so that you will have a better understanding of conditions as\nthey really exist. New York County is the most populous county in\nAmerica. The records of the surrogate's office of that county for the five\nyears which began January i, 1901, and ended December 31, 1905, revealed\nthe fact that an average of 27,011 adults died each year of that period.\nOf these, 23,051, or 85 .3 per cent, left no estate at all, 1171, or 4.3 per cent,\nleft estates valued at $300 to $1000; and 1428, or 5.3 per cent, left\n\n"}
{"page": 212, "printed_page": "200", "text": "200\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nestates of more than $1000 but less than $5000. There are in the United\nStates 1,250,000 dependent wage-earners, who have failed to save anything\nfor their own support, now costing this country $220,000,000 a year. There\nare 3,000,127 widows in America over sixty-five years of age, and over 32\nper cent of them lack the necessities of life, and 90 per cent lack the comforts.\nWhat a sad commentary! This country is supporting about 1,000,000\ndelinquents in institutions, yet the wealth of the United States, $150,000,000,000, is nearly double England's $85,000,000,000, Germany's $80,000,000,000, and three times that of France. Incredible as it may seem, in this\nland of such vast wealth, there are between ten and fifteen million people\nwho are in absolute poverty.\nIf we do not prepare the children of today for the vicissitudes and\ntemptations of the future, what can we expect of the nation in the years\nthat are to come ? Teaching thrift to children will, I grant, have varying\nresults. You students of children's characters are well aware that some\nare by nature thrifty, others are thriftless. You have notist how one child\nwill write over an entire sheet of paper, while another will use but half\na sheet and save the unused part. You have notist how some children are\nwasteful of such little things as pencils, while others are careful of their\nlittle belongings. These are indices of character, as you know, but they\nwould seem to prove a basis on which some start could be made in thrift\neducation. But the benefits of thrift do not come so much from the mere\nact of saving as from the reflex action on the child's character.\nIn my life I have made this observation: If a man earns $500 a year\nand cannot save anything, he will not be able to save when he earns $1000,\nor $5000, or $10,000. On the other hand, if a man does save on $500\na year, his savings will be just as great in proportion when he earns $1000,\n$5000, or $10,000. And to my mind that is the great point in thrift. It\nis not entirely the amount of money that one saves, but it is the effect that\nthe act of saving has on one's character. And what will be the aggregate\nmoral result on the nation of the future, if each individual child in our\nschools be taught thrift, with the strengthening of character that will come\nwith it ?\nLet us remember one thing. By education in thrift we can not only\ninfluence the nation of today, but we can revolutionize the nation of tomorrow. That is the point.\nLet me say, in conclusion, that I believe it is indeed fortunate for the\ncause of thrift that the National Education Association has taken up this\nquestion for investigation. I believe that as a direct result of the work of\nthis organization a great change will come to the America of the future;\nthat in the days that are to be, we shall be a nation, not only rich in dollars,\nbut rich in character, a nation known not for the extravagance of its people,\nbut honored as of old because its sons and daughters are strong in character\nand good deeds; a nation capable of meetmg any crisis that may arise,\n\n"}
{"page": 213, "printed_page": "201", "text": "201\n\nCouncil]\n\nTHRIFT\n\nIN ITS RELATION\n\nTO COUNTRY\n\nLIFE\n\nbecause it is a nation made up of stalwart men and steadfast women who,\nlike those other Americans of Colonial days, are sturdy and strong in all\nthings. For out of that strength came the birth of the Republic whose\ntriumphs we cherish, and whose future it is our duty to make secure, thru\neducational, individual preparedness.\n\nTHRIFT\nROBERT\n\nIN ITS RELATION\n\nH. WILSON,\n\nTO COUNTRY\n\nSTATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC\nOKLAHOMA CITY, OKLA.\n\nLIFE\nINSTRUCTION\n\nThe subject of thrift is as old as the human race. Its influence can be\ntraced thru the history of every nation that has occupied our globe. Literature furnishes abundant examples of forehanded characters. 'The Holy\nBible is replete with accounts of thrift and its importance. Philosophers\nand statesmen of all ages have emphasized the necessity of thrift as a part\nof the daily practice of mankind.\nAltho our national life has been enricht by the eminent Franklin, the\nleading apostle of thrift during the age which he adorned, until recently no\nconcerted effort, national in its scope, has been made to promote a movement which has for its chief purpose the inculcation of those principles of\nindustry and thrift which were advocated by our early philosopher and\nstatesman. We are now beginning this tardy movement. A crisis in the\naffairs of the world has awakened us to the necessity of so arranging the\ncourses of study offered in our public schools that the teaching of thrift\nmay be given proper emphasis.\nRural America is vitally interested in this movement. The percentage\nof thriftlessness is as high in rural as in urban communities. Considerably\nmore than 60 per cent of the population of my state is rural; therefore,\neducation with us has to deal largely with problems of country life. For\nthe country schools we have a course of study which is more or less congested, owing to the addition of new subjects during recent years— subjects\nthat have not been thoroly assimilated or correlated with the other subjects known as fundamentals in the course. For rural schools working under\ncrowded conditions with respect to subjects taught, it has not been thought\nbest to introduce thrift as a separate subject into an already congested\ncurriculum. To add another subject to our course of study would in itself\nbe a violation of the prmciples of thrift which we are advocating. It is,\ntherefore, our plan to correlate the teaching of thrift with instruction given\nin other subjects, and so to interweave and interlace its teachings with the\ncourse of study outlined for the other branches that the principles of thrift\nwill become part of the warp and woof of the education or the life-practice\nof every child who comes in contact with our pubUc schools. To work out\na plan that will impress the benefits of thrift convincingly and persuasively,\n\n"}
{"page": 214, "printed_page": "202", "text": "202\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nin correlation with the prescribed subjects, is the task which we have set\nfor ourselves in Oklahoma.\nDuring the early spring of 191 5, a tentative outline in thrift was\narranged, and printed in our course of study. In venturing into the\nunexplored field opened by the introduction of this subject, it was thought\nbest to make our plans suggestive, to feel the way, to accumulate experience,\nand to set other minds to work on the problem. From the collective efforts\nand experiences, it is hoped that there will result a fully organized and\nthoroly correlated course of study. The outline offered next year will be\nbroader and more comprehensive than that offered this year, and will have\nthe added virtue of being based upon the experiences of teachers who have\ndevoted thought, energy, and time to the subject under varied school and\ncommunity conditions. It is our purpose to organize the work in an\nattractive manner, so that it will appeal to the country children. We also\nrealize the necessity of bringing the teacher, the parents, the local school\nofficers, and others to appreciate the importance of this thrift teaching.\nThe education of these vital factors in the campaign must be accompUsht\nin the normal schools at the regular and summer sessions by means of\nbulletins, circulars, lectures, educational rallies, fairs, reading-circle courses,\nand so forth. We are preparing a Ust of books deaUng on thrift to be\nplaced in the rural-school libraries for the use of adults as well as pupils.\nAs before stated, the plan which we are trying out this year is only\nsuggestive. The object of it is to drill the principles of thrift into the pupil\nso thoroly that he will waste no time, no by-products that may be used, and\nno money. We are proceeding upon the belief that there is as much mental\ndiscipline in planning and executing plans for earning money as there is in\nmanual training, and that the reaction on character-development is of\ngreater importance, especially where the plans for earning money and\nsaving call for self-denial on the part of the pupils. Suggestions are given\nfor the organization of thrift clubs. Attention is called to the fact that\nthrift does not consist in the hoarding of pennies, but that it consists in the\nproper use of money as well; that \"the wasting of time is the greatest\nprodigaKty'*; that \"sloth makes all things difficult\"; that \"what maintains one vice would bring up two children\"; that \"the use of money is\nall the advantage there is in having money\"; and that the practice of\nthrift will increase one's self-respect by leading to financial independence and by developing a strong character with wonderful powers of\nresistance.\nSome of the correlations proposed for rural teachers are as follows:\nagricultural club work in which it is proposed that the farm club boy invest\nin an animal to feed; canning-club work; good-road-club work in which\nthe waste due to bad roads is emphasized; poultry clubs; farm seed- testing;\nreading biographies of successful men and books deahng with the subject\nof thrift; savings accounts, together with suggestions for investments.\n\n"}
{"page": 215, "printed_page": "203", "text": "Councill\n\nTHRIFT\n\nIN ITS RELATION\n\nTO COUNTRY\n\nLIFE\n\n203\n\nThe country boy has many opportunities to use his time and money\nwith profit to himself and to his community. The national government,\nthru its agricultural clubs, its pig clubs, and its poultry clubs, is furnishing\nemployment for some of his spare time and energy. The thrift-club work\nshould begin where these clubs leave off. It is our plan in Oklahoma to\nteach the club boy how to use the prize money he gets, and how to utilize\nhis farm products with most profit to himself. We beUeve in developing\nthe individuals who, in the aggregate, will form the country citizens of the\nfuture.\nIt has been our experience that communities, as well as individuals,\nare sometimes thriftless. Evidence of this is seen too often. When we pass\nthru a district in which the individuals are thriftless in the aggregate, we\nfind that the community itself is thriftless. Not only are the homes poor\nand ill kept, and farms depleted and run down, but we know, without seeing,\nthat the schoolhouse of such a district needs repairs, and that the public\nroads are neglected. In such districts idleness is in evidence on every hand,\nfarms are not cultivated, farm machinery is exposed to the weather and is\nrusting away, the live stock is of poor quaUty and poorly housed, and a\ngeneral appearance of dilapidation is seen on every hand. A short time\nago, I was looking from a window of a railway train, and observed the\ncattle in a feed lot of the ranch which we were passing. These cattle were\nfeeding from haystacks. The weather was bad. The cows were not thriving.\nI thought of how much better this farmer would have fared if he had only\ninvested the value of the hay, which the cattle were trampling in the mud\nand wasting, in sheds for the cattle, and how much better the cattle would\nhave fared. The next farm was provided with a dwelling for the farmer,\nbut no barns, sheds, fences, orchards, or other improvements. His expensive farm machinery was exposed to the elements. This man was a onecrop farmer. The principles of thrift put into practice thru the agency of\nthe pubUc schools will ultimately do away with the one-crop farmer, will\nteach the proper care of stock as a money-making proposition, will lead to\nthe conservation of farm machinery, as well as the proper use of improved\ntime-saving and labor-saving machinery, and will guarantee prosperity and\nhappiness to the rural population as nothing else will do.\nWhile inculcating the principles of thrift, we hope to remove the evidence\nsness. Our teachers have been requested, therefore, to organize\nthriftles\nof\nthis study, attenthe pupils for the purpose of studying road-buUding. In to\nthe loss of time\nroads,\nbad\nto\ndue\ner\nhorse-pow\nof\nloss\ntion iscalled to the\nand nerve\nenergy\nhuman\nof\nwaste\nthe\nto\nand\nroads,\ndue to the bad state of\nroads\nrough\nover\nalong\nbump\nto\nforce caused by travelers being compelled\nthe\ndrive\nto\nrequired\nbe\nduring a period of time twice as long as would\npupils\nthe\nhave\nto\nurged\nare\nsame distance over good roads. Teachers\nas a model\nin the school build a section of good road near the school to serve\nbuilt m\nbeen\nhave\nmodels\nsuch\nof\nroad in the district. A large number\n\n"}
{"page": 216, "printed_page": "204", "text": "204\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nOklahoma under this plan, more than forty miles in as many school districts\nhaving been built by the school children of one county alone, and the\ncommunities in which such roads have been extended have a more thrifty\nappearance than before.\nThe opportunities presented to the country boy to use money to\nadvantage are so varied that no effort is made to encourage him to form\nthe savings-bank habit, except as a means of employing his surplus or idle\ncapital, or as a means of getting a start. We are encouraging the boy in\nthe small town and in the city to raise vegetables on vacant lots, and are\nsuggesting that commercial clubs establish canneries to take care of the\nsurplus, and to insure these boys and girls a profit on their labor. City and\ncountry children alike are encouraged to join poultry clubs. Many premiums, consisting of pure-bred fowls, will be given by eight of our state\nschools to the exhibitors. By this means a better class of poultry is appearing in our state, and more revenue will be derived in future from the industry. To the city boy, who has limited opportunities of investing his savings,\nthe use of the savings bank is recommended, or better, the building and\nloan associations, in cases where the child has an income sufficient to invest\nin such stock.\nThe thriftless farmer does not exercise the care in the selection of seed\nthat he should, and, as a result, he gets a poor stand of his crops. To\novercome this, we have made efforts for the last three years to have the\nfarm seeds tested by the children in the school. In making these tests,\npractical problems in arithmetic have been proposed, prepared, and submitted to the children, designed to call attention to the waste resulting\nfrom the use of poor seed.\nThe immediate result of this correlation of the teaching of thrift with\nthe agricultural work in rural communities will be seen, it is hoped, in the\nbetter class of live stock and the better quality of seed found on our farms.\nInstances of improvement made in this way are not wanting. Diversification of crops, conservation of soil wealth by proper rotation, employment\nof time-saving and labor-saving machinery, where such is profitable, proper\ncare of farm machinery, crops, and animals, better homes, better schools,\nbetter roads, and a better class of citizens in better conmiunities, is the\nultimate goal of the course in thrift which we are planning for the rural\nschools.\nBy investigating the census of 1 910, we find that in a number of states\na majority of the farms are tilled by tenants. The fact that such a large\nnumber of farmers do not own their farms is due to many causes ranging\nfrom thriftlessness to misfortune. Ignorance is responsible for a great deal\nof the tenantry, ignorance of the elementary principles of agriculture, as\nwell as ignorance of the elementary principles of thrift. It is our plan to\ncorrelate the teachings of thrift with the work in arithmetic, reading,\ndomestic science, composition, geography, history, physiology, and agri-\n\n"}
{"page": 217, "printed_page": "205", "text": "CouncU]\n\nTHRIFT\n\nIN RELATION\n\nTO INDUSTRIES\n\nculture, in order that the sons and daughters of men and women who are\ntenants today will get the inspiration to become home- owners, with intelligence enough so to direct their energies that they will acquire and own\ntheir homes, and with sufficient training in these principles to make of\nthem citizens, independent and self-sustaining, pubUc-spirited and progressive. The conditions of country life will be improved when farmers\nown and take pride in their homes and farms. In communities populated\nby home-owners, country-life conditions are not bad.\n\nTHRIFT\nCLARENCE\n\nH. DEMPSEY,\n\nIN RELATION\n\nTO INDUSTRIES\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nO?\n\nSCHOOLS, HAVERHILL,\n\nMASS.\n\nNew England is proverbially the home of the thrifty Yankee. The\nwilderness and rocky soil provided stern lessons in the need of industry,\ncareful calculation, and frugal spending. Where there is one story of\nmisapplied or distorted thrift, there are scores of others teUing of struggle\nthru hardship to comfort in old age, of the college education of sons and\ndaughters thru sacrifice and economy, of practical training in sound business principles in the hard school of experience, and of sons of New England\nwho have gone from such training to successful careers in every department\nof our civic, social, and industrial Ufe. In every such story that has the\nring of true worth in it, we recognize every time three indispensable elements— strength of character, industry, and thrift. It is essential, in consideration ofour special subject, that we do not lose sight of the need for\npromoting the fundamental virtues of humanity, without which indi\\ddual\nand national prosperity is barren, if not even calamitous.\nIll fares the land, to hastening ills a prey,\nWhere wealth accumulates, and men decay;\nPrmces and lords may flourish, or may fade;\nA breath can make them, as a breath has made;\nBut a bold peasantry, their country's pride.\nWhen once destroyed, can never be supplied.\n\nThe danger which Goldsmith portrayed was experienst in full measure\nwhen the wealth and luxury of the ruling class, together with\nFrance,\nby\nthe abject poverty of the common people, precipitated the French Revolution. This alarming lesson of the danger of improvident masses was taken\nto heart by Germany, England, and by France itself. Thrift was encouraged and fostered. Savings banks were establisht early in the nineteenth\nthe\ncentury, and rapidly became a strong social asset. In vivid contrast to\nn\nrecuperatio\nmarvelous\nthe\nwas\nRevolution\nthe\nabject misery characterizing\nGerman\nthe\nof\nblows\ncrushing\nthe\nfollowing\nseventies,\nof France in the early\nand conwar. This time the thrift of the common people saved the nation\nfounded its victorious enemies. Again Germany learned its lesson, and\n\n"}
{"page": 218, "printed_page": "206", "text": "2o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nfor forty years has been promoting industrial thrift to a degree hitherto\nunknown.\nCan America profit by the experiences of Europe? The truth and\nimportance of this interrelation of social welfare and thrift are self-evident.\nAny casual student of American society must realize that one of our most\nvital problems is the actual realization of such standards and practices in\nour character, both as individuals and as a nation, that we shall stand, not\nonly the test of hardship, but the severer trial of prosperity, and find our\nthrift an unalloyed blessing.\nJust as personal virtue has its counterpart and fulfilment in national,\nrighteousness, so individual thrift is related to the well-being of society at\nlarge. The principles underlying industrial prosperity are indeed almost\nidentical with those that apply to personal thrift, such as integrity, assured\nincome, economical management, wise investment, etc. And this phase of\nour subject, thrift as related to the industries, can hardly be overemphasized.\nWe are sure to be engaged, after the war, in industrial warfare of the keenest kind.\nWe must be equipt for it. In this age of the world, science and efficiency give the victory.\nIf we would hold our own, or better still, progress in the future struggle for international\ntrade, or even for our own home market, we must excel our competitors in the use of all\nknowledge that chemistry, metallurgy, physics, statistics, expert accountancy, scientific\nmanagement, organized salesmanship, and every other useful study can impart. It is\nfor the government of the nation and the states, thru research, employment of experts,\nand dissemination of valuable information; for the schools and colleges, thru special\ncourses of instruction; and for individuals, thru enterprise, industry, and genius, to see\nto it that we are not behind any nation in preparedness, that we even increase our domestic\nand foreign supremacy in the industrial and commercial world.^\n\nOur national well-being and happiness depend not alone upon good\ngovernment, excellent physical and moral standards, the dissemination of\nculture and comforts, but in as full a measure upon firmly estabHsht and\nthriving industries. Hitherto we have prospered largely on account of the\nimmense richness of the land and the exploitation of our vast resources.\nSo phenomenal has been our material growth that we have become *'The\nAmerican Danger\" to Europe. But, with the rapid change from a new and\nundevelopt land to a highly organized industrial nation, the problems of\nmanagement and thrift are becoming more and more acute. We must\neliminate extravagance and waste.\nAmerican progress has been due not alone to natural wealth, but also to\nenterprise, audacity, push, restlessness, eagerness for novelty, inventiveness,\nemulation, and cupidity. In all of these we have led the world. But there are\nother factors contributing to the well-being of our national life which have\neither been developt only by individual enterprise or locally, or been ignored\naltogether. Such factors are well-ordered regulation of industries by legislation, guidance and care of industrial population at every step, restriction\nof child labor, vocational training of youth, elimination of pernicious class,\n'Adapted from the Youth's Companion.\n\n"}
{"page": 219, "printed_page": "207", "text": "Council]\n\nTHRIFT\n\nIN RELATION\n\nTO INDUSTRIES\n\n207\n\npork-barrel, and other harmful legislation, conservation of resources, and\nthe like.\nM. Prager, of Munich, in a scholarly essay (1902) analyzes the threatening American danger very keenly. His summary is:\nNeither the immense trade balance, nor the powerful industrial combinations [trusts],\nnor the increasing weight of capital of the Americans means a real danger for Germany!\nNo land suffers, so long as it does not remain stationary nor retreat, compared with the\nindustrial and cultural advance of another. German thrift {Tiichtigkeit), which the\nempire can thank for its present position in the world, will support it m the future.\n\nWhen a thing becomes distinctly important in Germany, such as the\nmaking of beet sugar, chemistry of manufactures, development of dye\nstuffs, training of diplomats, or agriculture, it is \"academized,\" so to speak,\nand given official standing and governmental patronage. Industry and commerce have followed science in acquiring academic rank alongside the older\nlearned studies. In this way there has sprung up in the last forty years a\nkind of highly specialized school, calculated to give both theoretical and\npractical instruction to young men preparing for a trade or an industry\nsuch as engineering, dyeing, trade-drawing, soap-boiling, milling, building,\ntextile work, etc. These schools and the more advanct technical institutions are highly specialized, well equipt with up-to-date machinery and\ndevices, taught by experts, and function directly in the nation's industries.\nI shall doubtless be reminded that we, too, have a long Hst of similar\nschools and courses, a fact that I shall gladly admit. But it is nevertheless\ntrue that much of our manual training is impractical, our courses often but\nremotely suggestive of, and rarely superior to, practical methods in actual\noperation, the general training not comprehensive enough, schools not\nevenly distributed, and not standardized, but rather the expression of\nindividualistic conceptions. Were the United States Bureau of Education\nto classify our industrial and technical schools, as they rated medical colleges afew years ago, according to equipment, teaching force, laboratories,\nrequirements, and the like, what, think you, would be their findings as to\nyour schools and mine, your section or state and mine? We have, in\ntruth, made but beginnings, spasmodic and experimental, a dab here and\nthere at vocational, part-time, technical, or industrial schools, eminently\nworth while, yet standing out as exceptional and noteworthy achievements\nrather than characteristic and universal institutions.\nIn order to approach our problem and its solution intelligently, let us\nconsider for a moment the factors that determine the success, growth, and\n\nimportant industry.\nof any form.\npermanenc\nhendedein tabular\n\nThey wiU be most easily compre-\n\nI. Desirable Location and Arrangement of Plant\nA. Location determined by\n1. Available raw material\n2. Place and nature of market\n3. Cheap and sufl&cient power\n\n"}
{"page": 220, "printed_page": "208", "text": "2o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\n4. Supply of labor\n5. Transportation and credit\n6. Environment — sanitary, economic, social, and political\nB. Arrangement of plant determined by nature, extent, and complexity of industry\nII. Improvement or Methods\n1. In accounting and reckoning costs\n2. In supplying and handling raw material\n3. In operating\na) Organization and conservation of working force\nb) Economy of time, labor, machinery, power, and material\nc) Elimination of waste and saving of by-products\nd) Provision for expansion\n4. In improving and perfecting finisht products\n5. In sales and collections\na) Advertising\nb) Selection and training of salesmen\nc) Delivery of goods, promptly, economically, and in attractive condition\nd) Collection of money\ne) Meeting competition\nIII. Improvement of Worker\n1. As to health — air, water, food, housing, exercise, etc.\n2. As to intelligence and initiative — these tend to deteriorate when laborer becomes\nautomatic himian machine in highly specialized work\n3. As to morals — temperance, industry, reliability, loyalty, etc.\n4. As to economic standing — personal thrift\n5. By judicious labor legislation — covering hours of labor, insurance, child labor, etc.\n6. By improved citizenship\nIV. Serving the Market\n1. The market as it is or will be\n2. Cultivation and control of market — ^not exploitation\n3. Creation of market\nV. Investment of Capital and Profits\n1. In expansion of business\n2. In upkeep and improvement\n3. In insurance against loss and contingencies\nVI. Civic and Social Problems\n1. Labor and capital — interrelations\n2. Improvement of social and economic environment\n3. Improvement of political life\n\nEven were time available, it would be entirely without our province to\ndiscuss all these factors, important as they are. But one fact stands out\nprominently, from whatever angle one approaches any industrial problem,\nthat is, the need for trained men and skilled, efficient labor. Given these,\nall the rest becomes routine matter of business in the hands of experts.\nOur constructive program, then, from an educational point of view,\nappears to be clearly markt out, if we are to secure that industrial thrift\nneeded to insure our permanent supremacy in the markets of the world.\nI conceive it to be as follows:\nI. Training of a thrifty, efficient, laboring class. — ^This should include an\nelementary-school program of general intellectual, physical, and ethical\nnature, together with practice and study of manual arts, social and civic\nduties, and habits of economy and thrift. It should also include a secondary\nand continuation-school program, where practical experience in special\n\n"}
{"page": 221, "printed_page": "209", "text": "Council)\n\nTHRIFT\n\nIN RELATION\n\nTO INDUSTRIES\n\n200\n\nindustries is combined with investigation— theoretical, scientific, and\nfinanHere, too,\nshould be furnisht such academic and general 'training as\nmakes cial.\npotentia\nl leaders.\n2. Training of experts in technical institutes, university departments, and\nuniversity extension work.— Here should be found carefuUy elaborated\ncourses dealing with various industries, with the science of management,\naccountancy, salesmanship, etc., with laboratory work in methods of production, tesring materials, and processes involved, with statistical research,\nwith problems of economics and sociology. Such institutions should vie\nwith the most progressive plants in the discovery and application of the\nmost effective devices and policies. They should contribute directly to\nindustrial eflSciency, not simply learn from it.\n3. The study, assistance, and protection of industry thru governmental\nbureaus, thru agents, and thru legislation. — In the manufacture and marketing of textiles, steel and iron goods, shoes, building materials, etc., we\nshould have benevolent governmental services corresponding to those\naheady rendered the farmer. Legislation promoting the welfare of the\nworking class thru regulation of labor conditions, hygienic surroundings,\nchild labor, and the like, is far from perfect in many sections of the country.\nThe proper control of traflic, price manipulation, and public-service corporations, as well as a scientific tariff, promotion of American shipping,\nbusiness-like, instead of political, appropriations, conservation of resources\n— these and many other vital problems call for remedial laws that would\npromote industrial thrift and insure our continued world supremacy.\n4. Development within the industries themselves thru corporation schools,\napprentice systems, and cooperation with public schools, universities, and\ngovernmental agencies. — Fortunately the significant beginnings aheady made\npoint out the road of progress. Our work is iii reality one of expansion and\nextension of work already under way. The gap between the school and the\njob is being bridged. We are learning from the trades to modify our\nmediaeval system of education so as to combine practical ability with\nscholastic culture. The industries are recognizing that more schooling,\ninstead of less, is the real need of laborers, in that education and training\nreduce misfits and incompetence, keep open the paths of advancement for\neverybody, and promote loyalty. We shall come to the point where the\nmost progressive industries will maintain specialized schools as a regular\ndepartment.\nThese, with continuation and vocational schools, as one writer puts it,\nwill prepare us to meet the competition of coimtries like Sweden and Germany, where\nuntrained labor is practically unknown. To be effective under such competition, we\nmust get the utmost value out of the work of every person. In machmery and organization we are the peers of any people. It is in men that we have lagged behind. Wasted\nby-products have been recovered and made useful. Wasted human talent is the next\nbig field of study for American men. They have recognized the opportunity, and are\neverywhere giving thought, not only to the deterioration of machines, but to the\n\n"}
{"page": 222, "printed_page": "210", "text": "2IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\ndeterioration of mentality, not only to the upbuilding of organizations, but to the\nupbuilding of the human beings that make up the organizations. The age of machinery\nis giving way to a new age of man.\n\nIf we can accomplish this end, it will be the golden age of America,\nmaterially aind spiritually. To attain it, our program, to my mind, is:\n(i) the promotion of personal integrity, thrift, and well-being; (2) the\ndevelopment of the broad field of vocational and industrial education for\nthe masses; (3) the extension of scientific study, research, and training;\n(4) the incorporation in the industries themselves, or in connection with\nthem, of adequate special educational opportunities; and (5) the promotion of sound and beneficent legislation and governmental assistance.\n\nTHRIFT\n\nAND\n\nITS RELATION\n\nTO BANKING\n\nJ. A. BEXELL, DEAN, SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, OREGON\nCORVALLIS, ORE.\n\nAGRICULTURAL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nA noted economist said recently that the three greatest economic problems are: (i) conservation of natural, physical, and mental resources;\n(2) free competition, or unrestricted opportunity for all who are willing and\nable to work; (3) the adjustment of labor and leisure to the rapid improvement in machinery and in the forces of production and distribution.\nThe last two are only corollaries of the first, since conservatism cannot\nbe fully realized without free competition and a proper adjustment of\nlabor and leisure.\nIt was my good fortune to hear Colonel Roosevelt's address at the\ngreat conservation congress in St. Paul a few years ago. After scoring, in\nhis characteristic fashion, the profligate waste of our material resources\nand our utter disregard for the welfare of future generations, he made the\nstatement that all material waste dwindles into insignificance compared with\nthe waste of human energy and the general lack of thrift among the great\nmass of the American people.\nIt is astonishing that this doctrine of conservation, of saving, and\nof the proper use of wealth and opportunity should be discust at this\nlate date as something new and novel. We are so accustomed to abundance\nthat we forget that the wealth of the individual and of the nation is the\nresult of seK-denial and prudent saving by a very small percentage of the\nworld's population.\nPerhaps this fact, that the economic progress of the world is accomplisht by comparatively fe.w, accounts for the onus that is often attacht\nto the words *' thrift,\" *' economy,\" \"saving,\" and their synonyms. David\nStarr Jordan gives the correct definition of thrift in the following words:\n\"Thrift is a determination to live with a margin for future advancement,\nto save a little more than one spends, or to spend a little less than one\n\n"}
{"page": 223, "printed_page": "211", "text": "211\n\nCouncil]\n\nTHRIFT\n\nAND\n\nITS RELATION\n\nTO BANKING\n\nearns, getting meanwhile the value in strength, in satisfaction, or in other\nworthy returns for the money one feels free to spend. The spirit of thrift\nis opposed to waste on the one hand, and to recklessness on the other. It\ndoes not involve stinginess, which is an abuse of thrift, nor does it require\nthat each item of savings should be a financial investment. The money\nthat is spent in the education of oneself or of one's family, in travel\nin music, in art, or in helpfulness to others, if it brings real returns in personal\ndevelopment or in better understanding of the world we live in, is in accordance with the spirit of thrift.\"\nAll wealth, all economic progress, has its origin in the abihty and the\ndisposition of people to save. Ability to save depends, of course, very\nlargely on opportunity both natural and social. No one will dispute the\nfact that we have large natural advantages over almost every other nation\non earth. According to government statistics, the United States produces\n76 per cent of all the corn grown in the world, 70 per cent of the cotton,\n72 per cent of the oil, 59 per cent of the copper, 43 per cent of the pig iron,\n37 per cent of the coal, and so on, showing that we produce one- third of all\nthe surplus wealth of the world, and yet we occupy only one-seventeenth\nof the world's land surface. Our social advantages are equally great. Our\nopportunity ft)r education is second to no other country. And yet court\nstatistics show that only 3 men in every 100 leave property worth $10,000;\n15 leave from $2000 to $10,000; while 82 leave no income-producing estate.\nThis means that the surplus wealth is accumulated by less than 18 per\ncent of the population. That much of this accumulation and concentration\nof wealth is accompHsht by unfair means, everybody knows. Billions of\ndollars are wasted annually, owing to unwise legislation, mismanagement\nof public utilities, and extravagance in the pubUc service. Other billions\nare simply transferred from victims' pockets without value received. But\nallowing for all this, the fact still remains that only a small fraction of the\npopulation adds to the world's surplus wealth. This means that the\ndisposition to save is lacking, rather than the ability. Mr. Straus has\nwell said that \"thrift, or this disposition to save, is not a mere forst rule.\nIt is a virtue, it is a principle. Thrift is not an affair of the pocket, but\nan affair of character. Thrift is not niggardhness, but wisdom. Thrift\nis not so much a matter of money as an attitude of mind.\" Bergson might\nhave added an important chapter to his Creative Evolution on the \"Instinct\nof Thrift.\" As the instinct of self-preservation is one of the oldest, so the\ninstinct of economic and social betterment seems to be one of the youngest,\ninstincts.\nIt is in vain, therefore, to look for permanent and general improvement\nof thrift in the present generation. You cannot change the spots of a\nleopard. The marvels of plant-improvement are accomplisht by Burbank\non the flower and on the young fruit, not on the full-grown plant. All\nmissionary work consists of molding public opinion. How best permanently\n\n"}
{"page": 224, "printed_page": "212", "text": "212\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nto mold this greatest of all forces for social betterment, what agencies and\nmeans to employ, are the great problems pressing for solution.\nNothing could be jnore appropriate than for the custodians of the\npeople's money to take the initiative in this great national thrift campaign.\nIt has been said that money is the Hfeblood of trade and industry, and that\ncredit is the nervous system. The financial heart, as well as the nerve\ncenter, of every community is, therefore, the bank. No one knows better\nthan the banks the influence of thrift on the community; no one is more\nintimately acquainted with the financial condition of each individual and of\nthe business units of a community; no one is more intimately associated\nwith every pubHc improvement; no one can exercise a more powerful\ninfluence for the weal or woe of a community than the banker. But just\nas the heart and the nervous system are the most sensitive parts of the\nbody, so the bank is the most sensitive part of our economic organization.\nIt is natural that perhaps no commercial agency is subject to more suspicion\nthan this financial institution. No one realizes this more fully than the\nbankers themselves. In its commendable intention fittingly to commemorate the centennial of the establishment of the first savings bank by the\ninauguration of a nation-wide thrift campaign, the American Bankers\nAssociation sounds the following warning:\nIn pushing this campaign, banks and bankers must necessarily take an attitude\nthat will put them above suspicion of self-interest. There is danger that the very people\nwhom it is desired to reach in this thrift campaign may get the impression that the banks\nfavor saving on the part of the people in order to secure their deposits. Such an impression would be sufficient to kill interest in the plan.\n\nHence the wisdom of the bankers merely acting as powerful stimuli\non such organizations as the Young Men's Christian Association, the\nYoung Women's Christian Association, various church organizations, and\nthe labor organizations. In no other way could the bankers more effectively\nserve the cause of thrift. But a word of warning should be added to the one\nalready quoted. The banker is perhaps subject to greater temptations\nthan any other class of business men. Because of his public trust, his\nyielding is also fraught with many serious consequences. As there is nothing\nmore important for the preacher than to live his religion, so there is nothing\nmore imperative, if the thrift campaign shall be successful, than for the\nbanker and for the thrift missionary to set a worthy object-lesson. It is\nparticularly important that every form of speculation, graft, and scheme to\nseparate ignorant people from their money, without full and proper value,\nbe denounst and punisht, and that every form of usurious practices in\ninterest and in service be condemned. The banker should be the first man\nto see the value to the farmer and laborer of a practical system of rural and\nindustrial credit. He should cooperate toward securing the lowest possible\nrate of interest and the best market for securities for the improvement of\nland suitable for irrigation, draining, or clearing.\nHe should realize that\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 225, "printed_page": "213", "text": "Co^^^^^\n\nTHRIFT AND ' —ITS\nRELA\n\"\nTION TO BAN\n——\nKING\n,\n\n2 10\n\nthere is nothing to be lost but everything to be gained in coopera\ntion with\nthe postal savings bank, the school bank, and every other legitim\nate\nagency\nintended to promote thrift and better business methods.\nThe improvement and standardization of business methods for\nthe\npurpose of securing better markets, less expensive machinery of distribution, and a more equitable division of the fruits of labor are the most burning\nquestions of the day. This seems to be most noticeable among the farmers;\nbut in the great majority of attempts, cooperation among the farmers\nhas failed. Why ? Largely because they are playing a game of which they\nknow nothing and in which their opponents have had centuries of training.\nCooperation among farmers will never be successful until they have the cooperation ofthe bankers, who may be considered the neutrals in the war\nfor business equity and better business methods. That the farmer is\nentitled to this support is evident from the growth of rural bank deposits.\nIn a recent survey of 1728 farmers in Oregon, we found no less than 95 out\nof every 100 kept a bank account. One of the most effective methods of\nimproving the business side of farming would be for the banks to require\na standardized report of the financial condition of the farm as a requisite\nfor a loan. This would lead to proper farm accounting and to a better\nknowledge of costs and business methods.\nUnquestionably one of the most powerful agencies for the encouragement of thrift is the savings bank. Tho the institution is only a hundred\nyears old, there are today, as reported by the comptroller of the currency,\nconsiderably over 2000 savings banks; over 11,500,000 depositors, and only\na trifle less than $5,000,000,000 in deposits. In 1850 there were only\n108 savings banks, 500,000 depositors, and $43,500,000 in deposits.\nEverybody is more or less familiar with the United States postal savings\nsystem. On June 30, 1915, the post-offices held something over $65,500,000,\nof which over $60,000,000 was held by banks. This is a splendid showing\nfor only five years of service. The simpHcity of the system, its absolute\nsafety, and its practicability should appeal to every citizen. Thrift\npromoters could do a splendid service by explaining the methods and\nbenefits of this great public institution.\nOne of the most interesting and instructive chapters in savings-bank\nhistory is the introduction of school-savings banks into the United States.\nLike almost everything great and of enduring value, it made its appearance\nunheralded and in the humblest possible manner. It was preceded by no\nlegislation and no public discussion. In 1885 an unassuming Frenchman,\nJ. H. Thiry, who had learned and Hved thrift in his native country, first\ntried the experiment in Long Island City, New York. The tiny seed grew,\nand the plant has become a mighty tree, spreading its branches over twentythree different states and eighteen hundred pubKc schools. Its fruit\nconsists of over four million dollars of children's savings and lessons of incalculable value in the promotion of thrift and better Uving. As a result,\n\n"}
{"page": 226, "printed_page": "214", "text": "214\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nseveral states have past laws making thrift-study compulsory, and similar\nlaws are pending in many states. Most large university and college centers\nnow have branch savings banks or are regularly soHcited by representatives\nof the local banks.\nMuch of the credit for promoting the school savings bank is due to\nMrs. S. L. Oberholtzer, of Philadelphia, who is national superintendent of\nschool savings banks, under the auspices of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union and the Young Woman's Christian Association.\nAfter many years of successful work, she makes this summary of results:\nBy instructing the children in economy and encouraging them to husband wisely\ntheir small resources, we prevent them in many instances from forming useless and debilitating habits. An objection may be urged that children grow miserly. Facts disprove\nthis. In the schools of Long Island City the children had over $34,000 on deposit. The\nmorning after the disastrous flood at Johnstown some of the pupils on entering their\nclassrooms manifested a desire to contribute to help the children at Johnstown. The\nresult was a voluntary donation of nearly $500. This was not a miserly act.\n\nThe value' of early training in business methods, a sort of by-product\nof the school savings bank, is often overlookt. There is an interesting\naccount of Mr. Rockefeller's estimate of the value of an early training in\naccount-keeping. Speaking of his early struggles and of the foundations of\nhis success, at a social gathering of young men, Mr. Rockefeller said:\nI have brought with me to show you young men a little book — a book which may\ninterest you. It is the first ledger I kept. I was trained in business aflfairs, and I was\ntaught how to keep a ledger. The practice of keeping a little personal ledger by young\nmen just starting in business and earning money is of the greatest value. This little\nbook shows largely what I received and what I paid out during my first years of business. Ipaid my own bills, and always had a little something to give away, and the\nhappiness of saving some. It is true I could not secure the most fashionable cut of\nclothing. I did not make any obligations I could not meet. I lived within my means,\nand my advice to you young men is to do just the same. Now let me leave this little\nword of counsel for you. Keep a little ledger, as I did. Write down in it what you\nreceive, and do not be ashamed to write down what you pay away. See that you pay\nit away in such a manner that your father or mother may look over your book and see\njust what you did with your money. It will help you to make money, which is a duty of\neveryone.\n\nSuperintendent Wilson hit the nail squarely on the head when he\nemphasized the word \"detail\" in thrift teaching; all details must be\ncarefully and intelligently lookt after. There has never been such a demand\nfor men who can work out the details of a big proposition. I know of no\nsubject which more effectively impresses the importance of detail on the\nminds of young people than the analysis of business by properly kept\nrecords and accounts. One of the instincts which comparatively few\npossess, which is so readily lost, and the lack of which is productive of\nenormous waste, is what may be regarded the conscience of accuracy: to\ndo a thing right because it is right. No one will deny the tremendous\neffect that training in accurate business methods has on a business career.\n\n"}
{"page": 227, "printed_page": "215", "text": "Councill\n\nTHRIFT\n\nIN ITS RELATION\n\nTO CONSERVATION\n\n215\n\nBut it is of equal importance in the building of character. An early training in the correct handling of money, in the methods of banking and accountkeeping is the best possible foundation for a life of business rectitude.\nFinally, a word regarding the work of the National Education Association Thrift Committee. As I see it, the special function of this committee isto devise methods of introducing thrift teaching into the public\nschools and thru other educational agencies. We must devise and furnish\nboth the tools and the direction for their use, if the campaign shall be\nsuccessful. In efficient factory-management, three things are of paramount\nimportance: (i) specific direction, (2) specific performance, (3) reward.\nThey are equally important in educational work. Valuable time and\nmoney may be wasted, to say nothing of great injury to the cause, by\nimperfect organization and inattention to detail in the work of our committee.\nThis is not the time for entering into the details of the work before us,\nbut I desire to repeat three suggestions which I have already made to the\nindividual members: (i) the promotion of an annual thrift conference under\nthe auspices of the extension departments of the several agricultural colleges\nof states and territories; (2) the standardization of a simple and inexpensive\nsystem of records and administration of school savings banks in cooperation\nwith local banks, and perhaps also a standardized system of accounts for the\nindividual, the home, and the farm; and (3) a system of rewards by which,\nnot only conspicuous merit, but every honest effort in thrift contests may\nreceive proper recognition.\nIn closing, let me use the words of the American Bankers Bulletin\nin its announcement of the thrift campaign. \"A crown of success awaits\nthis nation-wide campaign of thrift education and there is no doubt that\nit will result in awakening the people of the United States to a new sense of\ntheir responsibility. The realization of the object of this campaign means\na greater and more splendid country; industries more efficiently managed;\nbetter farming; better housekeeping; better business; better banks;\nbetter everything.\"\n\nTHRIFT\n\nIN ITS RELATION\n\nM. H. STUART, PRINCIPAL, TECHNICAL\n\nTO CONSERVATION\n\nHIGH SCHOOL, INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\n\nIt is a significant fact that the word \"conservation\" is coming to have a\nfamiliar sound to us Americans. We use it to designate two broad fines—\nthe preservation of our natural resources, and the husbanding of the national\nasset of human fife. There is no need of arguing in favor of either one of\ncause.\nthese lines of conservation. We all recognize the urgency of the\nIt shows\nThis very fact is not especially flattering to our national vanity.\nto\nseriously\nwilling\nbe\nnot\nwould\nWe\nfittle.\nthat we are beginning to age a\ntheir\nof\ngUmpse\na\ncatch\nnot\ndid\nwe\nif\nconsider husbanding our resources\n\n"}
{"page": 228, "printed_page": "216", "text": "2l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nlimits. No man is ever really interested in safeguarding his health until\nhe has felt some hint of disease or exhaustion. Of course, this ought not to\nbe. Boys and girls with fresh and buoyant vitaHty ought to be intensely\ninterested in preserving that state. But they are not. They never figure\non the possibility of losing it. They use their energy with reckless extravagance. Young nations ought to be ideal, and take measures eagerly to preserve forests which appear to them boundless; to use metals with economy\nwhen mines seem inexhaustible; to preserve water supplies which are\napparently limitless; to protect wild birds and animals while vast areas\nare overrun with them; to safeguard human life while the spirit of adventure\nis uppermost. But so far as we can learn, no nation ever has done these\nthings. Our neighbors in Europe have been censuring us for wanton\nextravagance. They forget the days of their own youth, which are far,\nfar behind them. Judging from the ruthlessness with which they are at\npresent wasting human life, they have even yet not quite learned the lesson\nof economy in the use of the most priceless of national resources.\nWe may as well admit it. We have extravagantly reveled in the\nboundlessness of our own natural resources until the knowledge has been\nborne in upon us that they are not boundless. We can congratulate ourselves infinding this out while they are still magnificently extensive. We\nhave adventured; we have been in a delirium of attacking and conquering\nnew things, until we have found out that any undertaking, after all, is not\nas great as the mind which projects it, and that human life is worth more\nthan things. At least, we shall take for granted that we have found this\nout. The province of this paper, then, is the discussion of some of the\nmeans by which we can make our school boys and girls actively believe in\nthe conservation of our natural resources, and even more in the safeguarding\nand care of human life. In the light of what we have just been saying\nabout the natural heedlessness of youth, the problem of instiUing a careful\nregard for material and human resources is difficult enough.\nNotice, we mean instilling a principle, a very different thing from\nteaching a bit of knowledge. It is no trick at all so to teach a boy that he\ncan glibly recite the evil effects of cigarette-smoking, for instance, biit so to\ntrain him that he will not smoke cigarettes is another matter. It is an\neasy thing to teach a whole class to say that forests ought to be preserved,\nand why, but to make each boy feel such a regard for a century-old tree that\nhe will not slay it and sell its body for a tempting price is different altogether.\nTo commend on general principles the safeguarding of human life is one\nthing; so to train boys and girls that they will never, when older, touch\nblood money is quite another. Mere knowledge will never control the\nvital action of any individual, young or old. I wish this could be written\nin italics on the .heart of every teacher in America. To my mind, that\nwould put us in a way to correct one of the grossest educational mistakes\nin our whole school system.\nWe have gone knowledge-mad.\nWe have\n\n"}
{"page": 229, "printed_page": "217", "text": "Councm\n\nTHRIFT\n\nIN ITS RELATION\n\nTO CONSERVATION\n\n217\n\ntaken for granted that boys and girls will do the best they know. The only\nthing necessary is to give them knowledge. Think of making that assumption regarding a young human being! So witness the result of books,\nbooks, words, words, with little attention to feehng or conduct. We\nactually give a boy 100 per cent in hygiene, who can pass a perfect wordexamination in the subject, even tho his teeth are decayed, his hands dirty,\nand his shoulders stoopt. Our national resources will never be conserved\nby boys and girls whose love for them is located only in their tongues.\nWe have approacht our subject negatively. We have tried to say just\ntwo things: that boys and girls are not naturally careful of resources,\nmaterial or human, and that, on the other hand, they inchne to regard\ntheir assets as boundless and use them extravagantly; secondly, that a\nword knowledge of the need of careful regard for these things, while easily\ngiven, is not vital enough to form the basis of action. Now to consider\nthe positive aspects of the case. There are at least two great ways of controlHng human conduct. They are both founded on the principle that\nhabit and feeling go hand in hand always. George Ehot never put a\ngreater truth in the mouth of one of her characters than when she made\nAdam Bede say: \"It ain't notions as sets people to doin' things. It's\nfeehn's.\"\nOne of these ways of controlling conduct is by arousing the feehngs so\nstrongly that they become deep and lasting, so that the boy or girl is eager\nconsciously to start on a course of action at the very first opportunity.\nFor instance, note the effect that seeing slaves sold on the block had on the\nboy Lincoln. So much the better, if opportunity for action follows fast on\nthe heels of the desire to act. That means the beginning of a habit. Men\nare reformed just that way. That is real training. It is a conscious formation of habits founded on feeling. The more knowledge that backs this\nfeehng up, the better. There's place enough for knowledge to come in to\nstrengthen and sanction habits in the forming.\nThe other way of controlling conduct is first in point of time and possibly of unportance. It is an unreasoning thing and therefore largely\noverlookt in our scheme of education. It is simply by requiring a thing to be\ndone until a habit is formed, letting the reasoning and the feeling come\nlater. A peculiar thing it is, that if we do a thing over and over again, it\nseems right to us to do it. I know of no other hne in which this is more\nstrongly exemplified than in economy or lack of it. Let a person save and\nsave, and the habit continues after bank stock has multipUed. Hetty\nGreen is not an anomaly. Let one spend and spend, and the same improvidence reaches to the last penny.\nThe real training of children, then, for conservation of our resources\nmeans the formation of habits, before they realize why, and the fostering\nof feehngs which impel to further action now and later. Knowledge comes\nin to broaden and strengthen the convictions. But it cannot be said too\n\n"}
{"page": 230, "printed_page": "218", "text": "2i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nloudly that our education in this, as in other things, needs to change centers\nfrom the acquisition of knowledge to the formation of habits.\nNow, it remains to apply these principles to the teaching of conservation,\nfirst, of human life. We want boys and girls to know that life is the most\npriceless of assets. We need, then, trained medical inspectors, who will\ndo detailed, individual work, will give directions for corrective physical\ntraining, and physical examinations from time to time to see the effects of\nthe work, and will advise for further developing exercise. Boys and girls\nare not going to take seriously our word advice regarding the importance of\nthe care of the body as long as our regular examinations and careful corrective training are applied to the mind only. One city the writer happens to\nknow has its percentage in hygiene given partly by the teacher, partly\nby the mother, and in each case it is based on observed habits, among\nthem being cleanliness of teeth, cleanliness of face and hands, number of\nbaths, care of clothing, care and ventilation of bedroom. You see the idea\nback of the plan. It is really making the pupil \"one of the twenty to\nfollow his own teaching.\" It is capable of indefinite extension. Booker T.\nWashington was not jesting when he placed the toothbrush at the head\nof the list of reformative agents for the negro. It is not so far otherwise\nwith whites. The habitual \"feel\" of a clean mouth is worth more than a\nlibrary of books to overcome the cigarette habit. There is no better way\nto fight a habit-forming drug than with habit-forming hygiene.\nAthletics and games for everybody naturally come as part of such a\nplan. Larger gymnasiums and a revolutionary enlargement of playgrounds would be a necessity. But the writer holds that there is no other\nway to make boys and girls realize that life is more important than money.\nDo you think we can arouse youngsters to feel that railway crossings should\nbe guarded, no matter how much it costs; that men should be protected\nfrom machinery at any expense; that it is a crime for women to be employed\nin rooms without sunlight and ventilation? Do you think we can make\nthem feel these things so long as we admit that they themselves ought to\nhave medical tests, regular physical training, plenty of exercise out of doors,\nbut refuse on account of the expense involved ? The boys and girls of the\ncoming generation are not so easily hoodwinkt. If we say words to them\nabout the overwhelming importance of human life, they say words back to\nus. If we act on every principle involved, and expect action of them, we\nare not disappointed, nor need we be afraid that the habits thus formed will\nbe easily broken.\nAnother effective way of teaching the worth of life is by the making of\nuseful things. This humanizes all our life. A girl who has workt and\nworkt hard to make a garment has a sympathetic insight into the Hfe of a\ngarment-maker which can be gained in no other way. Let every manual\nart be broadened and made human by the teaching of the condition of those\nwho follow that trade and of some economic conceptions of their problems.\n\n"}
{"page": 231, "printed_page": "219", "text": "r\n\n>\n\nCouncill\n\nTHEIFT\n\nIN ITS RELATION\n\nTO CONSERVATION\n\n210\n\nThis can be done rapidly by lecture and investigation, when the\ninterest\nand sympathy have been quickened by wrestling with the same problem\ns.\nWhen it comes to teaching conservation of natural resources, let\nour\nteaching first of all be constructive. No youngster is going to grow enthusiastic about preserving anything just as it is. He wants to do something to\nit. I verily believe the reason Httle boys shoot birds is not because their\nwicked souls long to destroy. It's because they want to hit something\nthat is moving, and that is far enough off to present a problem worth while.\nTeach these same boys to build bird boxes, take photographs of wood birds\nup in high trees, where it's hard climbing, have contests for luring birds into\nyards — all this has been found to be real fun for boys.\nTo give activity a patriotic turn, the history and economics courses\npresent opportunities which the teachers are just beginning to realize.\nThe work needs to be deepened, and made fuller of concrete problems of\npublic responsibiHty in the high-school worid. Also both the history and\ngeography courses need to be more concrete and graphic in detailed descriptions ofthose of our resources which are imperiled. Let the same constructive principle be applied to the teaching of botany. Boys and girls who\nhave raised a garden worth while will not wantonly destroy plants. A boy\nwho is brimful of plans for reforestation is not going to be won over to a\ndestruction of forests.\nEven when the thing made has no connection with that which is to be\ncared for, the principle of training by constructive habit still holds. A\nboy or girl who has made anything well is thereafter more careful of everything made. Let a boy design and make a table in first-class style, and all\nfurniture becomes to him a product of some mind and hand; all tools are\nthings to be cared for, all stray pieces of wood present possibiHties. Let\nthe metal trades be taught in a school, and the mines of our country become\nworth safeguarding. Conservation becomes a Kving, dynamic thing\nwith a reason for being. More than that, the teaching of manual expression\nof one's thought and feeling has the effect of forming the habit of doing the\nthings we contemplate. It's worth while td put something into execution,\nmerely to make executives of us. It is a wondrous sentence description of a\nuseful character of old: \"Dorcas was full of good works which she did.\"\nIf our training comes to be fuller of activity, it will be natural to this set\nof boys and girls not to rail idly at those who waste our resources and waste\nlives, but to form and to execute remedial plans.\nBut even the formation of tangible habits is not the whole of the training which we need in that phase of thrift under consideration. There is an\nappeal to the feelings, which can and ought to be a greater, a much greater,\npart of our American education. We need it sadly to counterbalance that\ncommercialism which seeks to trafl&c in beauty of forest and river fall, in\nlives of plants and animals, and even in the lives of men, women, and\nchildren. After all, no boy nor girl can rightiy respect river, or mine, or\n\n"}
{"page": 232, "printed_page": "220", "text": "2^0\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nforest, man or woman, until he sees the autograph of a Divine Hand written\non each. A reverent rehgion is the essence of all that our boys and girls\nneed. We Americans fight shy of any hint of religion in connection with\npublic-school teaching. But there are subjects the teaching of which\noccasions no question — subjects whose appeal fosters reverence and love\nof beauty. I refer to the fine arts of poetry, music, and art. K ever a\nnation needed these subjects reverently taught, we do. The final stand\nfor conservation of birds, forests, rivers, mines, and also of human lives is\nalways made by those who feel the lilt of bird song, who see the rivers as\nmessengers from mountains to sea, who understand the throbbing of human\nhearts. There is hardly a boy or girl anywhere who cannot be reacht thru\none of these three channels to the soul, and, being reacht there, he feels.\nNo argument is as strong as a feeUng. If a boy or girl once thrills to the\ngrandeur of Niagara, no mere water-power inducement can prevail against\nthat appreciation. Our public parks are secured for us by the John Muirs\nwho have from boyhood loved the trees almost as people. We have\nclast the fine arts as ornamental, and we wonder why our boys and girls\nare not more refined. It is time that we recognize these as moral necessities,\ncertainly as essentials to the unselfish reverence for our natural and life\nresources.\nA nation without seers, poets, and artists, without those who hear —\nmusicians — could not expect to have its great sources, not only of wealth,\nbut also of beauty and music conserved. Conservation means both\nsaving and using. It is these subjects which teach the use which cannot\nbe money-reckoned.\nSo, all told, this paper is a plea for the respect for natural resources\nand the reverence of man, taught thru the formation of habits of selfrespecting hygiene; thru humanizing life by that insight which comes of\nmaking things; thru constructive training in care of birds and plants, in the\nuse of wood, metals, textiles, and other materials; in general, thru an\nhabitual expression of thought in action; thru deepened historic and\ngeographic courses; and thru a genuine emotional training in those arts\nwhich place values far above a money basis.\nBeauty has use for you and me,\nThe dainty violet blooms within our thought\nAnd we are better for its ministry.\n\nTHRIFT\nKATE DEVEREUX\n\nIN RELATION\n\nTO THE HOME\n\nBLAKE, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 6, MANHATTAN,\n\nN.Y.\n\nPerhaps my remarks will not be altogether in line with what has been\nsaid before. You see I have had to practice thrift in the home all my life,\nand that is why I am not so enthusiastic over it as some of the gentlemen who\n\n"}
{"page": 233, "printed_page": "221", "text": "221\n\nCouncil]\n\nTHRIFT\n\ninsist upon having it there.\nto women.\n\nIN RELATION\n\nTO THE\n\nHOME\n\nYou know men have always preacht economy\n\nWhen we talk about thrift in the home, there comes to your mind,\nI\nthink, a picture of the woman who does all her own cleaning, washing, ironing, turns last year's frock— and you know you can always tell a turned\nfrock as far as you can see it— cuts down father's old suit to make some\narchaic adaptation that causes little Johnny many tears— an overworkt\nwoman in a gingham dress, that is the good old-fashioned picture of the\nthrifty woman. There is no doubt that that woman will have savings of\na pecuniary character, but there are savings that are more valuable than\nthose of mere money. The mother with a broad viewpoint is not obUged\nto do all those things and is far finer; therefore, I am asking not so much\nfor emphasis on thrift in the home, as for emphasis on the scientific management of the home. The home will not be what it should be until there is\nscientific management, until, when father gets a new mowing-machine, mother\nwill have a new washing-machine, when he gets a reaper, she will have afireless\ncooker, a vacuum cleaner, all the things of scientific value that should be\nin the home as a matter of course. It will be money well spent, because\nmother prepares the rising generation for life, and when her time is conserved so that she may go intellectually hand in hand with her children\nand give them the viewpoint that she should be able to give, we shall have\na better generation.\nThe woman who looks outside her home has learned that her place is\nin the civic community just as much as it is in the little cricle. Mothers\nare beginning to realize that the capitol of the state controls their power\nto make both ends meet in their own homes, and decides whether they shall\nhave fresh eggs or bad ones, whether they shall have all kinds of imitations\ncoming into their homes from the grocery store, or whether they shall have\nthe things that they should have to nourish their children properly. We\nmust work for the civic viewpoint in the home, because that viewpoint is\nthe only one that is going to make the home better.\nOf course, I am talking to a great extent from the standpoint of the\nwoman of the city. I know my own city, and I know how imperative it is\nfor the mothers of New York City to look beyond their own doorsteps and\nbe able to have a hand in the control of what happens outside the home,\nbecause it controls in turn the home itself.\nI have just returned from the Ford Peace Expedition. I know what\nthe war is doing in Europe, and I believe that our mothers must be tramed\nto know what is going on in the world everywhere and to have a hand\nin it.\nIn closing let me say again: We need not so much the power to save,\nas we need the broad viewpoint. It is not the thrift in the home, but\nthe scientific management of the home that I want you to teach the\nchildren.\n\n"}
{"page": 234, "printed_page": "222", "text": "222\n\nNATIONAL\n\nA MEMORIAL\nCHARLES\n\nEDUCATION\n\nTO ZACHARIAH\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nXENOPHON\n\nSNYDER\n\nH. KEYES, PRESIDENT, SKIDMORE SCHOOL\nSARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\n\nOF ARTS,\n\n[National\n\nAt high noon on the eleventh of last November, death struck from our\nrolls the name of one of the most distinguisht, most influential, and bestbeloved of our members. At the command of our president, I submit, on\nbehalf of the National Council of Education, the following minute of his\nlife and work.\nZachariah Xenophon Snyder was born on a farm in Westmoreland\nCounty, Pennsylvania, on August 31, 1850. For nineteen years he lived\nto learn all that the farm, the country school, and a good home might teach\nhim. He then entered Mount Pleasant Classical Institute and prepared\nhimself for admission to Waynesburg College, from which institution he\nwas graduated in 1876, receiving the degree of Bachelor of Science and winning the highest class honors.\nHe was almost immediately appointed principal of the graded schools of\nWiconisco, in Dauphin County, of his native state. For six years he served\nthis community with distinction, and at the same time pursued advanst\nstudy with such success that he was called to the chair of mathematics in\nhis Alma Mater. Two years later he yielded to an insistent call to become\nsuperintendent of schools at Greensburg, Pa.\nWhen three years later a call from New England took Thomas F.\nBaUiet from the superintendency of the schools of the city of Reading,\nthe board of education chose as his successor the gifted young man at\nGreensburg, who had the year before won the degree of Doctor of\nPhilosophy at Waynesburg College. It has never been an easy task\nto succeed Dr. Balliet; but Dr. Snyder rose to the demands of the\nsituation with such distinction that two years later he was called to take\ncharge of the great state normal school at Indiana, Pa. His inspiring\nleadership in this institution prompted the governor of Pennsylvania,\nwithin three years, to invite him to accept the oflSice of state superintendent of schools.\nBut at this juncture the state of Colorado, seeking a man to develop a\ngreat state institution for the training of teachers, called Dr. Snyder to the\npresidency of their newly founded school at Greeley. Here the last twentyfour years of his service was rendered. Here he built up the Colorado State\nTeachers College, which today ranks as one of the foremost colleges of\neducation in America. He won funds for its material development, and\nfriends for its intellectual and spiritual ambitions. He called men and\nwomen of rare gifts and rare devotion to his faculty, and inspired them to\ngreat and continuous service. He gathered armies of aspiring young men\nand women to be their disciples, and inspired them all with his own high\nideals of substantial scholarship and professional worth. The Colorado\n\n"}
{"page": 235, "printed_page": "223", "text": "Council!\n\nA MEMORIAL\n\nTO ZACHARIAH\n\nXENOPHON\n\nSNYDER\n\n223\n\nState Teachers College is a great visible monument to the genius and devotion of Zachariah Xenophon Snyder.\nBut he has left a greater, more imperishable, and more precious legacy\nto the wife who for forty years was his sympathetic and inspiring helpmeet,\nto his children, and to his host of friends thruout the country. The certain\nknowledge that his transforming and inspiring service of education is\nundying, and that it will assert itself effectively in the lives of his disciples\nand their successors, must be a solace to the bereaved wife. It must be an\ninspiration for his children to noblest endeavor. It cannot fail to be to all\nof us who knew him as friend and brother a persistent call to greater effort\nand greater consecration.\nIt is now just twenty-one years since it became the blessed privilege of\nyour memorialist to know with close intimacy our departed friend. In that\ntime close association with him in the deliberations and the business of the\nNational Council of Education and in the National Education Association,\ncloser contacts with him in the work of his great institution, and delightful\nweeks in his charming and cultivated home disclosed to me the secret of his\ngreatness.\nA constant student of men and affairs, as well as of academic and professional problems, an independent thinker with the courage of his convictions, an aggressive administrator whom no opposition could discourage,\nhe was blest with an unshakable faith that there is an element of worth\nand longing to be helpful to all right causes in every man and woman, and\nparticularly in every teacher.\nIn more than twenty years of the closest friendship, involving the most\nintimate discussion of many movements and of more individuals, I heard\nthe words of unqualified condemnation fall from his lips on but two occasions, and these were called forth by situations, to condone which would\nhave been possible only in the prayer of Calvary: \"Forgive them for they\nknow not what they do.\" This tolerance of opposition, this sympathy for\neven the uncooperative and the unsympathetic, at times led him to unreasonable self-sacrifice, but never to sacrifice of his ideals. When these were\nthreatened, the courage of the warrior for the right asserted itself, and\nabuse of confidence was handled without gloves, but also without malice.\n\nDr. Snyder was always a student with a growing philosophy of education. He never permitted even the important details of administration,\nhowever pressing and numerous, to engross him in a way that shut out the\nhigher light and the larger outlook. He once said to me: \"Determine\nthe principle for the solution of such problems, convince your helpers of\nthe soundness of these principles, and you may rely on their effective\ndisposition of many of our worries.'*\nHe was a close student of the work of his contemporaries, getting from\nthem stimulus in divergence and inspiration in support. He was a particumen—\nlarly close student of every important utterance of three of these\n\n"}
{"page": 236, "printed_page": "224", "text": "224\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nWilliam Torrey Harris, Nicholas Murray Butler, and Stanley Hall. He\nsaid to me once: \"It gives one power to accomplish the otherwise impossible when he finds his thought and purpose justified in the agreements of\nthese three men; but oh, brother, how their disagreements let in the light!\nI often wonder for which we ought to be the more grateful.\"\nNo adequate estimate of the worth and work of a great man can be\nmade which does not look at his deeds and accomplishments in the light of\nhis faith and his philosophy. Zachariah Xenophon Snyder achieved great\nthings because his was a great faith and a great philosophy. In this brief\nminute I can only set forth its high points, or, better still, let our brother\nhimself declare them. At our meeting in St. Louis in 1904 he set forth his\neducational creed. In that address he declared his belief in the following\ntheses:\n1. The application of the doctrine of evolution is fundamental in the interpretation\nof an individual and in his education. All science, all art, all philosophy, all religion, is\nthe evolution of mind and spirit. Hence all education is an application of the principle\nof evolution.\n2. Every individual is an involution of possibilities. In him are race, national, and\nparental elements. The child is a concentration of the ages. The possibility to grow, to\nthink, to feel, to purpose, to do, and to enjoy is within him.\n3. The education of an individual is the evolution of the possibilities within him.\nEducation for service is first for self, second for others, and third for God. It is devotion\nto vocation, to himianity, to destiny.\n4. The possibilities in individuals are variable — ^no two being the same. This gives\nus our basis for individual treatment, and for the elective system that preserves the individual inthe socialization of the school.\n5. The biological principle that function precedes structure is equally a law of education.\n6. Truly to socialize an individual is to transfigure his individual initiative into\nmutual aid for humanity. Education should individualize and at the same time socialize.\nTo live in any stage of development is to share the sympathies, joys, sorrows, resistances,\nand labors of those with whom we live.\n7. The child is bom with the instinct and impulse to know, to think, and to participate with his fellows. The object of his training is individual; the aim, social; and the\nend, civic — ^not individual training that makes him selfish, but training that makes him\npowerful, just, and courageous; not social training that destroys the identity of the individual, but training that transfigures his ideas, sentiments, and doings into humanity;\nnot a social training that makes the individual feel utterly dependent, but a social training\nthat makes him feel independent in his ability and disposition to help his fellows, that\neads him to seek opportimities to share benefits, whether they be physical, mental, or\nspiritual; not a civic training that enables him to use his state for his own personal ends,\nbut a training that actuates him to regard the interests of the people above his own — a\ntraining that makes him battle for righteousness in public matters and for business and\npurity in politics.\n8. The external sources of education are nature, miad, and spirit. There is a feeling\nin every soul that may be directed toward nature in such a way as to make him feel its\nbeauty, its inspiration, and its uplift. Mind touches and quickens the possibilities within\nthe forms of history and literature, the capitalized soul of the ages; history as a record\nof the will of humanity, and literature as an expression of the sayings, sentiments, aspirations, and inspirations of the race. These are indispensable in the expansion of a human\n\n"}
{"page": 237, "printed_page": "225", "text": "Councill\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF GRADUATE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nsoul as it follows the track of civilization from the first rude beginnings to the present\ntime.\nThe spirit of the Divinity as it operates in a human soul is a conception worthy of\nattention. In this materialistic and commercial period in which our civilization is living\nthe utmost importance should be attacht to the quickening of the spirit or the higher\nnature. It is not meant to decrease our interest in the industrial and scientific aspect of\nthe people, but to feed the spirit. Religion is the life of God in the human soul. The\nspirit of nature, the spirit of literature, the spirit of the Bible, the spirit of God, should\nall touch the soul of the child. The pedagogical graces— truth, beauty, and goodshould be emphasized more as fundamentals in the real life of the child and our civilization. Faith, hope, and love should be lived more, should be taught more, should receive\ntime for their inception into the lives of the children and people. To study the Bible\nas mere literature is not enough. This conception would seem to degrade it to the level\nof all other literature. The four great world-bibles— Homer, Dante, Goethe, and Shakespeare— and the literature that has grown out of them and that clusters about them are\npowerful stimulants in the growth of a human being; but the Bible, which appeals to all\nclasses, high and low, wise and ignorant, young and old, is the source of spiritual food,\nand should be recognized above all for aspiration, consolation, inspiration, and ideals of\nlife. It alone portrays the lives of the prophets, martyrs, apostles, and the Christ. Teach\nit as life — the life of God in the human soul. Such is the creed set forth to all teachers\nwho are leading souls toward destinies in this life and the life to come. The proper\nconception of the religion of the Bible among a people has been and is an index of its\ncivilization.\n\nSurely none but a great man could have held such a creed. Surely\nnone but a great man could have workt it out in his own life-activities.\nHe was ours in a peculiar way, and for that, gratitude and pride are mingled\nwith the memory of our loss. Great thinker and teacher, great friend and\ncoworker, hail and farewell!\nTHE FUNCTION\n\nOF THE GRADUATE\n\nC. W.\n\nDEAN,\nGRADUATE\nOF NEBRASKA,\n\nA.\n\nLUCKEY,\n\nSCHOOL OF EDUCATION\n\nSCHOOL OF EDUCATION,\nLINCOLN, NEB.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nIn the time alloted to this address it will be possible to touch in the\nbriefest way only a few of the essential points.\nIt is now less than eighty years since the first normal schools for the\ntraining of the elementary teachers were estabhsht in the United States.\nThey gave more attention to the \"what\" than to the \"how.\" It is only\nabout thirty years since the first departments of education were estabhsht\nin colleges and universities. These had for their chief function the training of secondary teachers, and have Hkewise given more attention in their\ninstruction to the what than to the how.\nWithin the past two years there have been estabhsht in the United\nStates several strictly graduate schools of education,- with the exprest\nadministrapurpose of preparing experts in all lines of teaching and school\nof\ntion, alaudable, but quite ambitious, undertaking. It is the function\nconsider.\nto\nare\nwe\nthat\nn\neducatio\nthese graduate schools of\n\n"}
{"page": 238, "printed_page": "226", "text": "226\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nA study of the mind of the child reveals three important instincts\nfundamental to intelligence. With the beginning of speech the child makes\nknown his inner life by a series of questions. These questions are quite\nuniform, whatever the race or stage of development. They are not the\nresult of education, but are instinctive, the essence of science and philosophy.\nBeginning with the third year, the child starts the questioning by, \"What is\nit\"; six months later, by, *'Why is it\"; about the close of the fourth year,\nby, \"How is it.\" These questions are not always put in this simple form,\nbut the meaning is the same, however exprest.\nThe \"what\" shows the child's belief in the existence of facts which he\nis curious to know; the \"why\" indicates his belief in the causal relation\nof things, the purpose and reasonableness of life; the \"how\" indicates\nhis desire to know how things are made, that he in turn may construct and\ndescribe. These spontaneous questions of the child illustrate the three\nmost important stages of intelligence; What are the facts? Why are\nthese facts as they are? How were they establisht or brought about?\nIt is the dominant interest of science to discover the facts; of philosophy\nto explain and interpret them; of education (teaching) to distribute and\nvitalize them.\nFrom a study of the individual, it is easy to see that teaching is one of the\nnatural, inherent, fundamental processes of human development. The\nhunger and search for truth and the effort to understand and explain it are\nnot more insistent than the desire to express and teach that truth to others.\nBut since teaching is the final step in the process, it is the more complex\nand must contain all the others. Like the scientist, the teacher must\nknow and appreciate the essential facts of life; like the philosopher, he\nmust understand and be able to explain them; but more, he must live them\nand stimulate others to live them. True teaching consists in vitaHzing\ntruth and purity.\nSince the desire to teach is so strong in us all, it is not surprising that\nmany have been pusht into the field before their preparation was sufficient\nfor the task. They are, almost without exception, hungry to learn, and\ndesirous of rendering the best service; but their foundation is so faulty and\nthe subject so complex, that they are scarcely ever safe from the toils of\nthe wily demagog or commercial exploiter. Partly, no doubt, on account of\nits complexity and partly on account of its later development (being a\nsocial instinct), teaching has been the last of the learned professions to\nreceive attention.\nThe preparation of the teacher is usually considered under two heads:\nthe academic and the professional. The academic covers the what and the\nwhy, the professional the how. Unless the former is deep and true, the\nlatter cannot be made successful. No one can teach what he does not\nknow, neither can he make others see what he does not himself see. But\nperceiving the truth is not in itself sufficient test of abihty to make others see\n\n"}
{"page": 239, "printed_page": "227", "text": "CouncU]\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF GRADUATE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n227\n\nit. The tendency has been, and still is, to place too little stress on the how.\nThe statement is frequently made, and doubtless believed by some: \"If an\nindividual knows a subject he can teach it.\" Often the teachers of the\nprofessional subjects are lacking in scholarship, scientific training, and\ngenuine Christian character. Even with their good intention, it is but an\neffort of the bUnd to lead the blind. It is the shortsighted, self-assuming,\nunscientific, exploiting spirit of so many of our profest leaders that has\nbrought disrepute to the teaching profession.\nI have endeavored to call attention to the fact that teaching is instinctive, based on a real need of evolution and human intelligence. Being the\nlast and most important step in human progress, it is only possible, in its\nbest form, to those who thru tribulation have reacht the highest stage\nof human development. The teaching profession is without doubt the\nhighest calHng open to man. Its value to civilization is beyond measure.\nOne-tenth of the money spent on battleships and war, if devoted to teaching\nand constructive service, would give us a new earth, if not a new heaven.\nThe teaching profession ought to lead all others in influence and power. It\nshould be the aspiration of every member of the profession to become a\nJordan, an Eliot, or a Hall. This can never be done if we allow men in\nother professions to do our thinking, are satisfied with half-baked thoughts,\nor bloom out at the top before there is any depth of root. The teaching\nprofession is too sacred a calling and too fraught with danger to human\nbeings to enter upon its services lightly.\nIn another paper I have called attention to the essentials in the training of a teacher. Here I can mention only a few of the professional needs\nwhich it is the function of graduate schools to stimulate. First is the need\nof thoroness and going to the bottom of things; a clear understanding of\nthe problem and the end in view; the best means of guiding others to\nhigher levels with the least waste of effort and time. The teacher must be\na biologist and know life; he must be a physiologist and know the way that\nlife functions; he must be a psychologist and understand the workings of\nthe psychic life; he must be a sociologist and have some knowledge of the\ngroup conscience and true human relations; he must be a philosopher and\nset up right standards of living; he must be religious and live consistent\nwith his ideals and teaching. It may seem that I have set up a standard\nimpossible of attainment. But such is not the case. In every individual\nall these quahties now exist in embryo. If they have not been developt\nin every individual, it is because of faulty teaching. Graduate schools\nof education must remedy this, at least in coming generations. How\noften we have wisht to live our school days over again that we might\ncorrect some of the faulty teaching. Thru smiles and flattery our teachers prevented us from seeing their ignorance until it was too late to\nremedy the evil wrought. With proper guides in our earlier and later\nof\ndevelopment, we would today be living examples of the high ideal\n\n"}
{"page": 240, "printed_page": "228", "text": "228\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nthe teacher, as given above, and the difference in true happiness would\nbe very great.\nAll thru our study the effort should be to come into possession of a true\nphilosophy of life. We should study to know the child, to know it in all\nstages, to know it in its evolution, to know it as affected by its environment.\nThis again is possible to those who go at it right. Since by division only the\nprotozoa multiply, it is easy to see that the present ameba must be as old\nin its parts as the parent ameba of a thousand years ago. Likewise in\nthe evolution of man there are complexes and elements born with the child\nof today that are as old as the race itself. These complexes and traces of\nexperience of a former generation accumulate with the ages, are workt over\nand recombined with other elements, furnishing the faith, the instincts, the\ncuriosity, the desires of the subconscious life, upon which only is it possible\nto build a dynamic conscious life. How shortsighted we are in our methods\nwhen we do not take into consideration the force and push of this submerged\nfour-fifths of man in our effort to guide and shape the conscious one-fifth or\nless. The purpose of education should be to develop a self-sustaining,\nself-directing, self-sacrificing, or altruistic, individual, keenly alive to the\nbest interest of humanity. To accomplish this ideal, the individual must\nbe free to work out his own inner life, and must be held responsible for the\nresults. Broadly speaking, there are two ideals of civic life, imperialism and\ndemocracy. In the former there are two classes of society, the ruling and\nthe ruled. It is the effort of one class to impose its will and thinking on the\nother. In a true democracy all are equally free, and are held together by\nthe law which they in turn have helpt to construct. In education the\ntendency is nearly always toward imperialism. When the teacher tends\nto impose her will and thought on the child, she becomes, not an inspirer\nand guide, but a taskmaster.\nThe individual develops thru natural stages in which the dominant\ninterests almost completely change. There are two important cycles in\ndevelopment: the first, extending from birth to twelve or fourteen, during\nwhich the individual is self-centered, and all activities have their relation\nin the self; the second, extending from twelve to twenty-four, during which\nthe individual becomes altro-centered, and every experience is workt over\nwith reference to the new viewpoint. Each of these cycles has three\nimportant levels which, if understood, can be used to great advantage in our\nteaching. The first, extending from birth to four or five, is a period of sense\ndevelopment and the functioning of early instincts, a period of gathering;\nthe second, extending from five to seven or eight, is a period of motor\ndevelopment, of dramatization — acting and doing; the third, extending\nfrom seven to twelve or fourteen, is a period of intellectual development,\nof the associative or higher brain centers and the accessory muscles, an\nexcellent time for necessary habituation and drill work. At first the dominant interests seem to be aroused thru dermal changes, then thru the\n\n"}
{"page": 241, "printed_page": "229", "text": "CouncU]\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF GRADUATE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n229\n\ndevelopment of the fundamenta\nof the accessories or finer musclels. muscles, and finally thru the development\nWith the growth changes that take place in adolescence,\nthe three stages\nof development are again repeated in the same order\n. First come the\nchanging sense-feelings and emotions due to the growth\nof the sex organs\nand related tissues, causing the restlessness, stress,\nand strain of the adoles\ncent. Thru this growth, the entire leverage of the body change\ns and makes\nnecessary to the youth the need of refinding himself in motor habits\nand\nmuscular control. And, finally, the medullation of the tangential\nnervefibers, the growth of the highest brain centers and the accessory muscle\ns,\nenable the youth to select his Hfe's caUing, to speciaHze, and to Uve\nthe\nlife of a man.\nI have not time to enter into the discussion of ideals, but will merely\nmention three that have grown up in the process of education. Accordmg\nto the first, the purpose of education is to fashion the individual m the image\nof the past, usually the best past. It is the humanistic ideal, and tends to\nmake the civilization conservative and static. According to the second, the\npurpose of education is to fit the individual to the conditions of the present,\nto the immediate needs of the social, poUtical, and industrial hfe. It is\nknown as the utihtarian or vocational ideal, and lays stress on education\nfor citizenship. According to the third, the purpose of education is to\ndevelop a man, the best man possible under the conditions; to assist nature\nthru nurture; to enable the individual to find himself, and to evolve naturally and rapidly to the highest levels and even to rise above them. According to the latter conception of education, the initiative must come from\nwithin. Teaching becomes the effort to make others see and live what\nyou see and live.\nDevelopment results from the interaction of the organism and its\neiivironment, by means of which both are modified. In this process of\ninteraction there are four factors that should be noted: the surrounding\nphysical environment; the surrounding social environment; the growing\norganism; and the self -active, organizing, directing, controlling force\nknown as aspiration, longing, aim. Man is a great dynamo or generator\nof vital energy. This energy is constantly increasing thru nutrition and\ngrowth. It is the purpose of education to enable the individual to organize,\ncontrol, and utilize this energy. The process brings more of happiness\nand real worth when it takes place under methods of construction. This\naccumulating energy of the growing individual must have an outlet, and\nwill seek it in work or play, in channels of righteousness or in paths of evil\nEducation should teach one to make the best use of his inheritance, to\novercome difficulties, to live truly, and to act nobly.\nIt is the function of the graduate school of education to give dignity\nand productive scholarship to the teaching profession; to add to the sum\nof human learning; to encourage scientific research in education; to create\n\n"}
{"page": 242, "printed_page": "230", "text": "230\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\na more intelligent and more efficient body of teachers; to direct educational\ninvestigations and school surveys, both state and national; to furnish\ninspiration and guidance to normal schools and undergraduate schools of\neducation; to encourage able school men to make use of its laboratories in\ncarrying on investigations that may be of value to the profession; to\nbecome a source of supply of the best- trained teachers; and to prove the\nfallacy of the thought that scientific research and productive scholarship\nare incompatible with the best teaching ability. These are a few of the\nthings for which the graduate school of education should stand. But\nabove all, these schools should create in their midst the true teaching spirit.\nThey should stimulate men and women to become interested in research\nand productive activity; to discover, vitalize, and distribute truth; to\nlive in harmony with that truth and to inspire others to do so. These\nschools should create for the teaching profession the confidence and scholarship that are enjoyed by the other learned professions.\nDISCUSSION\nW. P. BuRRis, dean, College for Teachers, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati,\nOhio. — A rough analysis of the situation as we find it in this country shows that three\ngroups or classes of institutions have developt as a result of an interest in teaching and\neducation.\nTo the first group belong the teachers training schools and the normal schools.\nTheir function is mainly to prepare for teaching positions in schools below high-school\ngrade. Graduation from a four-years' high-school course is a condition of admission to\na standard institution of this group, and the standard course leading to a teacher's diploma\nis two years in length. Much variation is foimd in the curricula offered, but we may say,\nin general, that the institutions in this group place more emphasis upon training, or practice teaching, than do those in the other two groups. A varying amount of academic\nwork is found, including reviews of subjects to be taught, and there are courses in the\ntheory of teaching and in the subjects from which this theory is derived. Psychology of\none kind or another occupies a conspicuous place, with some attention to the history of\neducation as a close second. School management and school hygiene also receive attention, but it cannot be said that there is any thoro study of education in institutions of\nthis group. There cannot be, and it is not the intention that there should be. The\nconcern here is teaching rather than education — ability in teaching gained thru supervised practice, with enough study in educational theory to show the difference between\ngood and bad practice.\nTo the second group belong the normal colleges, schools and colleges of education,\nteachers colleges, and regular colleges, so far as they maintain departments or divisions\nof education for the training of teachers. Their fimction is mainly the preparation of\nteachers for the secondary field. In some cases provision is also made for the training of\nteachers of regular elementary subjects, as well as of teachers of special subjects taught\nin the elementary grades. Courses are also provided for administrators, supervisors,\nprincipals, normal-school instructors, and critic teachers, but the characteristic work of\ninstitutions in this group is in relation to the secondary field. Graduation from a firstgrade high school is required for admission to institutions of this group, and the courses\nin education fall mainly in the last two years of a four-year course leading to a degree.\nLess emphasis is placed upon practice teaching than in institutions of the first group and\n\n"}
{"page": 243, "printed_page": "231", "text": "Councill\n\nFUNCTION\n\nOF GRADUATE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF EDUCA TION\n\n23 1\n\nmore upon subjects to be taught. More thoro courses\nin psychology, in history and\npnnciples of education, and in other professional subjects are\noflfered, and a more scientific attitude toward education and teaching is maintained.\nIn several institutions of this group, notably those which\nare parts of universities\nhavmg graduate schools, there is a growmg tendency to make educatio\nn a graduate study\nas well as an undergraduate study. In some instances, education as\na department in the\ngraduate school has already begun to overshadow all other departme\nnts of the graduate\nschool in importance. This would more frequently be the case if the\ntendency were not\nheld in check, and if there were more instructors capable of conductmg courses\nm educaUon\nworthy of a place in a graduate school. It need be no surprise that such is the tendency\nfor there can no longer be any question about education being our most importan\nt enterprise, conceived as the chief agency of our social reconstruction. Out of this tendency\n,\nwherever education as a department in a graduate school assumes great importan\nce, the\ngraduate school of education is coming. In a few and favorable places, it is developi\nng\nout of a department of education in the graduate school, just as teachers colleges have\ndevelopt out of departments of education in colleges of arts and sciences.\nTo the third group of institutions, then, developt out of a growmg interest m teaching\nand education, belong the graduate school of education and departments of education in\ngraduate schools so far as they do work of a given character. What is the unique function\nof this group ? How different from the work of the other two groups ?\nIn answer to these questions, I find myself, to some extent, in disagreement with\nDean Luckey's paper, for the reason that certam phases of work which he emphasized\nin the graduate school of education more properly belong, in my judgment, to institutions\nin the other two groups. He dwells upon the preparation of teachers as a function of the\ngraduate school of education — a function provided for without the necessity of a graduate\nschool of education, so far as teachers in elementary and secondary schools are concerned.\nAssuredly the graduate school of education is not the place for the training of elementary\nteachers, and graduate courses in education in a graduate school suffice for the training\nof secondary teachers, where such training extends beyond the undergraduate period.\nOn the other hand, a graduate school of education is the proper place for courses in education and teaching intended for the better preparation of those who expect to fill positions\nin normal schools and teachers colleges. Such a school is also needed for the better\npreparation of administrators, supervisors, principals, and research workers. Such a\nschool should also provide appropriate courses in education for persons who aspire to\npositions in colleges of arts and sciences, or in colleges or schools of engineering, law,\nmedicine, theology, agriculture, or commerce. How much \"muddling\" in the work of\ninstruction, faculty meetings, and administration, foimd in colleges and universities at\nthe present time, could be prevented if graduate schools of education were to become\ncenters in which the efficient conduct of higher and professional education in all of its\nphases would be a serious concern of competent specialists in these fields! Such schools,\nindeed, are not only desirable, but necessary, in furnishing the very capstone of our educational pyramid, but they must be schools of a higher order than any hitherto establisht,\nin order to be worthy of the name of graduate school of education. As such, they must\nbe schools of research, and their problems must be the evaluation, on higher levels, of the\naims, means, and management of every phase of our educational system. In relation to\nthe elementary and secondary phases of our education their fimction is not the training\nof teachers, but of those who are to lead them. In relation to professional and higher\neducation only is their function analogous to that of the first group of institutions in\nrelation to the elementary schools, and to that of the second group of institutions in\nrelation to the secondary schools.\nThe graduate school of education is not merely an mstitution of the first group raised\nto the third power, nor is it an institution of the second group raised to the second power.\nIts function must be unique. The first and second groups of institutions, each witiiin\n\n"}
{"page": 244, "printed_page": "232", "text": "232\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nits own field, are concerned with what is to be done and how it should be done. The first\nis properly and inevitably concerned with education and teaching chiefly as arts. The\nsecond group makes a more scientific study of the questions involved. But in the graduate\nschool of education, for the first time, a study of the philosophy of education can profitably be undertaken. The graduate school of education, therefore, has for its imique\ntask the preparation of leaders who know what is to be done, how it should be done, and\nwhy it is to be done. As such, it should occupy itself with the same questions — ^What ?\nHow ? and Why ?— with reference to academic, technical, and professional education, and,\nas a result of an experience in elementary, secondary, higher, and professional fields of\neducation, I am convinst that this function is as necessary as the normal school in relation to the common schools. Shall the graduate school of education undertake this\nwork, or shall it be left to bureaus of public service, municipal research bureaus, and\nCarnegie Foundations?\n\nNOTICE\nPapers were presented by members of the Committee on Standards\nand Tests of Efficiency, as indicated in the minutes. These papers appear\nin Part I of the Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Sttidy of\nEducation.\nNATIONAL\nI.\n\nTHOMAS\n\nWELFARE\n\nAND\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nD. WOOD, M.D., PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION,\nCOLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nRural-school children are less healthy and are handicapt by more\nphysical defects than children of the city schools, including all the children\nof the slums. This is clearly proven by statistics taken from many states\nand is, in general, true of all parts of the country. The general deathrate in rural New York has for five years been greater than that of New\nYork City. Apparently within the last decade or two the health of rural\nAmerica has declined below that of the cities, or perhaps it is truer to say\nthat within this period the standards of living and health of the cities have\nrisen above those of the rural regions.\nThe present inferiority of country life today, so far as human health\nand welfare are concerned, is apparently due, principally, to the following\ncauses:\n1. Much of the best human stock, particularly within the last halfcentury, has moved from the farms to the cities.\n2. The science and art of human living have advanst much more rapidly\nin the cities than in the country. This appHes to the immediate human\nenvironment in the country as well as to all habits of life affecting health.\nThe farmhouse is, on the average, less sanitary than the city home.\nThe rural school is relatively the least healthful type of building in the\nentire country. The diet of the people in the country is less hygienic, on\nthe whole, than the food of city dwellers. In general, the standards of\n\n"}
{"page": 245, "printed_page": "233", "text": "Council]\n\nNATIONAL\n~\n\nWELFARE\n■\n■\n\nAND\n\nRURAL\n—\n\nSCHOOL\nS\n.\n\n«5o\n\nhuman living in the cities, in relation to health, at\nleast, are superior to\nthose in rural America.\n3. The rapidly increasing extent of absentee ownership of the\nfarms\nworks to the great disadvantage of the standards of human life\nin rural\nregions. Tenant farmers have relatively less intelligence and\nmoney\nthan the absentee owners to provide the requirements of Ufe in less\nthe homes\nand in the schools.\n4. The religious life and faith of the people are today weakening,\nor,\nat least, changing rapidly in the country as well as in the cities. In the\nrural regions, however, the idea and habit of social service are providing,\nmuch less rapidly than in the cities, a partial substitute and program for\nthe religious life of the past. \"Social responsibiHty is the most effective\nsacrament of religion.\"\nIn spite of the fact that at the present time city life is more healthful\nthan country life, it is still true with reference to the future, as to the past,\nthat the best of our human stock for leadership in country or city— *for the\nnation as a whole — must come from the farms. The valuable raw material\nof every type (for human needs) must still come from the soil.\nThe improvement of human health and welfare in rural America must,\nthen, be recognized as of pecuhar importance in relation to our entire\nnational welfare. The problem of bringing about sujficient improvement\nin the healthfulness of rural life to provide a worthy birthplace and nursery\nfor the best human stock is not simply a problem of the rural school, of the\nfarm, or of rural life in general, but it is a great, pressing problem of the\nnation, affecting national safety, national prosperity, and national perpetuity. Itis the problem dealing with conservation of the most essential\nand most endangered of all our national resources. It is a problem which\nmust enlist the services of the national and state, as well as local and volunteer, agencies. There is apparently no problem of fundamental character\nand national scope more vital than this, calling for solution at the present\ntime. No factor is of greater basic significance than this with reference\nto promoting national preparedness either for peace or for possible war.\nThe most vital phase of this problem of rural health relates to the\nhealth and welfare of the children. Country children deserve as much\nhealth and happiness as city children. Country children are entitled to\nas careful cultivation as crops and live stock.\nThe rural school is the universal, the official, the strategic agency thru\nwhich these health influences may be most effectively exerted, directly\nand indirectly, not only for the care of the health of children, but for the\nimprovement of rural health in general.\nThe Health Committee of the National Council of Education, in\ncooperation with the corresponding Health Committee of the American\nMedical Association, after careful consideration of this problem, strongly\nrecommends the following measures for the improvement of the health\n\n"}
{"page": 246, "printed_page": "234", "text": "234\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nof rural-school children and for their influence in the promotion of rural\nhealth in general.\n1. Health examination and supervision of all rural-school children.\n2. Dental examination and dental care for the teeth of all children in\nthe rural schools.\n3. The service of the school or district nurse to provide the practical\nhealth service and follow-up work which, as has been so clearly demonstrated inour cities, can be best accomplisht by the school nurse. The\nwork of the nurse is even more vitally important in rural than in city schools.\n4. Warm school lunches for all children in rural as well as in city\nschools. The indirect educational benefits of the school lunches upon the\nchildren and the homes are even more important than the immediate health\nimprovement of the children themselves.\n5. Correction of physical defects which are interfering with the health,\nthe general development, and the progress of rural children. For this\nremedial and constructive health service, practical rural equivalents of\nmedical clinics, dental clinics, and community health centers of the cities\nare urgently needed in all parts of the United States. The county unit\nof organization and administration for health as well as other rural interests\nhas already proved successful, and promises the best results. Every\ncounty should have one full-time health oflScer, one or more school and\ndistrict nurses, and one or more community health centers, to provide\nrational, self-supporting health and medical service for all the people.\n6. Cooperation of physicians, medical organizations, health boards,\nand all other available organizations in the rural-health program.\n7. Effective health instruction for the rural schools which shall aim\ndecisively at the following results: establishment of health habits and\ninculcation of lasting ideas and standards of wise and efficient hving in\npupils; extension of health conduct and care to the school, to the homes,\nand to the entire community.\n8. Better trained and better paid teachers for rural schools, who shall\nbe adequately prepared to cope with the health problems as well as with\nother phases of the work of rural education.\n9. Sanitary and attractive school buildings, which are essential to the\nhealth of pupils and teachers.\n10. Generous provision of space and facilities for wholesome play and\nrecreation.\n11. Special classes and schools for the physically and mentally deficient,\nin which children may receive the care and instruction requisite for their\nexceptional needs.\nBetter health is to a striking extent a purchasable commodity and\nbenefit. Vast sums of money are expended from pubUc and private funds\nfor the amelioration of human suffering and disability in the attempt to\nsalvage the wreckage resulting from unfavorable earlier conditions which,\n\n"}
{"page": 247, "printed_page": "235", "text": "Council]\n\nNATIONAL\n\nWELFARE\n\nAND\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n235\n\nwith foresight, and at very moderate cost, might in large measure have\nbeen prevented.\nOur schools are spending millions in educating, or trying to educate,\nthe children who are kept back by ill health, when the expenditure of\nthousands in a judicious health program would produce an extraordinary\nsaving in economy and efficiency. A dollar spent in a wise, constructive\neffort to conserve a child's health and general welfare will be more fruitful\nfor the child and for the general good than a thousand times that sura\ndelayed for twenty years. The principle of thrift in education finds its\nfirst and most vital application in the conservation and improvement of\nthe health of the children.\nn.\n\nWICKLIFFE\n\nROSE, DIRECTOR GENERAL, INTERNATIONAL\nBOARD, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nHEALTH\n\nThe most effective agency yet devised for the spread of disease or for\nthe promotion of public health in the rural communities of this country\nis the rural pubUc school, and whether its efficiency is to be made manifest\nin the one direction or the other depends upon the way in which the school\nis conducted. In the rural community, with its sparse population scattered\nover wide areas, the school is the one important point of contact; it is the\ncentral exchange thru which useful information, idle gossip, or communicable diseases may be transmitted with equal facihty. There are about\n250,000 such rural exchanges in the United States at the present time, and\nin these are assembled each day for five days in the week during school\nterm some 12,000,000 rural children coming from and returning to homes\nin which live more than half the people of this country. The question,\ntherefore, as to whether the rural school is operating as a help or as a\nhindrance to the public health is a matter of serious national concern.\nRecent investigations of health conditions have been made in many\nthousands of rural schools in more than twenty-six states in different\nparts of the country, and the facts disclosed by these surveys seem to leave\nno room for doubt that, as at present administered, the rural school is in\nno small degree a menace to the physical welfare of the child which it is\nsupposed to teach and to the health of the community which it is supposed\nto serve. In detail, the facts show that rural schools fail to supply proper\nsanitary conditions in school buildings and grounds; that they fail to make\nadequate provision for the discovery and cure, as far as possible, of those\nphysical defects which impair the child's health and working efficiency\nand tend to retard his physical and mental development; and that they\nfail to make adequate provision for guarding the children and the community against the dangers of communicable disease. These general\nstatements are borne out by an exhibit of facts:\n,\nI. To pass over such minor deficiencies as lack of washing faciUties\none\nall,\nat\nunds\nplaygro\nno\nor\nwet playgrounds, inadequate playgrounds,\n\n"}
{"page": 248, "printed_page": "236", "text": "236\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nsurvey reports that 64 per cent of the schools inspected were kept at a\ntemperature too high for good work; that many of the children were compelled to sit too near the stoves and radiators; that in less than 3 out of\nevery 100 schoolhouses heated by stoves had provision been made for\nsupplying proper moisture to the air; that in 34 per cent of them no window\nboards or other satisfactory ventilating device had been installed; and\nthat in 36 out of every 100 schools inspected no care was taken to flush\nthe room periodically by opening the windows.\n2. On the basis of an investigation in detail of some 600 rural schoolhouses in 18 different states, it is estimated that classrooms in rural schools\nreceive only about half the amount of Ught which they should receive, and\nthat even the light which they do receive is not properly distributed. In\nanother study of rural schoolhouses it was found that in 3 out of every 5\nof them blackboards were so placed as to produce harmful eyestrain, and\nthat in 60 per cent of them the window shades were unsatisfactory in color\nand were so attacht as to hinder rather than to help the proper distribution\nof light in the room.\n3. In a study of 1400 rural schoolhouses it was found that 965, more\nthan 56 per cent of them, had dirty, dusty floors as a chronic condition,\nand that by occasional sweepings, which did not clean, the dust was being\ndistributed to the desks, window sills, and all possible ledges thruout the\nroom. In another similar study it was found that in 81 per cent of the\nschools the floors were washt not more than once a month, and that in\nmore than 56 per cent of them the floors were washt not more than once\nin two or three months. The use of oil to protect the children from the\ndangers of flying dust has not become general in rural schools. Of the 1400\nschools referred to above, it was found that in 12 cases out of every 100\nthe children were subjected directly to the dust of sweeping. In view\nof the appalling tuberculosis rate and trachoma rate in rural communities\nin many parts of this country, these facts need no comment.\n4. Under the head of water supply, these reports show that of 1258\nschools examined in 18 different states, 691, or nearly two- thirds, depended\non springs and wells over which they had no control; and that in one investigation the majority of all springs were found to be without protection\nfrom surface drainage or animal pollution; that in one inspection of 139\nwells, 49, or 35 per cent, were found to be in danger of contamination from\nthe school privies; that in a large proportion of cases the water supplied\nto the schools has never been tested as to its purity; that the tanks or\nbuckets in use are left uncovered, are seldom or never scalded, and that in a\nlarge proportion of schools the common cup or tin dipper is the prevailing\ncustom.\n5. Under the head of sewage disposal, these reports exhibit a condition\nthe concrete details of which are better omitted, but a condition which in\nthe interest of common decency and pubHc health cannot be ignored. It\n\n"}
{"page": 249, "printed_page": "237", "text": "C°\"°cill\n\nNATIONAL\n\nWELFARE\n\nAND RURAL SCHOOLS\n\n237\n\nis the consensus of opinion of health officials that the biggest\nsingle health\nproblem of rural communities is the problem of soil pollution,\nand that\ncomplete control of this one thing would eliminate typhoid,\ndysentery,\nintestinal parasites, and other enteric infections. In the study\nof 140CI\nrural schools in 18 different states referred to above, it was found that\nnearly half of them had only an open pit, that 601 had no pit at all, that less\nthan 20 had protection against flies, and only i in 100 had priviesthat were\nregarded as satisfactory. Eleven states, in a vigorous and systematic fight\nagainst soil pollution, made a sanitary survey of 280,685 farm homes in\n752 counties. Of these, 135,831, or 48 per cent, had no privies of any kind,\nand at only . 58 per cent of the homes were the provisions against soil contamination reported as satisfactory. The conditions found at the homes\nwere repeated at the schools, where the dangers of the condition were\nmultiplied by the fact that the school is the one point of contact or central\nexchange for the whole community.\n6. The reading pubHc is well informed as to the large percentage of\nphysical defects which medical inspection reveals among school children.\nThese reports of conditions among rural-school children show that of one\ngroup of children examined 7J per cent had defective hearing; in another\ngroup 27 per cent had defective vision, 31 per cent had nasal defects, 27.7\nper cent had adenoids, 30 per cent had enlarged tonsils, 47 per cent had\ndefective teeth, and a large proportion were poorly nourisht, or from some\nother cause exhibited lowered vitality. These conditions are not pecuhar\nto the children in rural schools, nor are they pecuKar to the children of this\ncountry, but they do show that the rural school must follow the example\nof the well-administered city school in providing for the detection, and as\nfar as possible for the remedying, of those physical defects which endanger\nthe child's general health, impair his working efficiency, and tend to retard\nhis mental and physical growth.\n7. The final count which these studies of health conditions have scored\nagainst rural schools is that they have not made adequate provision for\nprotecting the children and tlie community against communicable diseases.\nThis count has been sustained with sufficient emphasis by the exhibit of\nunsanitary conditions displayed above. But in the reports under review\nit is recorded that in 138 small rural schools, having a total enrolment of\nonly 1000, the pupils lost 8j years of time in one year on account of scarlet\nfever; that they lost 3 years 4 months and 13 days on account of chicken\npox; that the total time lost during the year amounted to 37 school\nyears; and that 76 per cent of this loss was due to sickness, 60 per cent\nof which was preventable. In an examination of 21 .rural schools, it\nwas found that 10 per cent of the pupils had trachoma; in four schools\nthe infection was 35 per cent, 43 per cent, 44 per cent, and 46 per cent,\nrespectively. A microscopic examination of specimens from 403,719 children in II states showed that 43 per cent of them had hookworm infection,\n\n"}
{"page": 250, "printed_page": "238", "text": "238\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nand that in many schools the infection ran as high as 100 per cent,\nincluding the teacher.\nThese records of high percentages of infection are not offered as typical\nof conditions in all rural schools; they are not intended to imply that the\nschool is the cause, or that it is responsible for the occurrence, of every\ncase of conmiunicable disease that may appear among its pupils. Of the\ncases of trachoma or hookworm infection referred to, many were doubtless\ncontracted at home and were brought into the school. But, granted in\ncase of any given school that all cases of infection were brought into the\nschool from the homes, it remains that they are in the school, and their\nunguarded presence there points the responsibility which* I desire to emphasize. One case of trachoma in a school is a menace to every other child in\nthat school and to every family in the community from which children\nattend the school. And here are rural schools in which 10 per cent, 35 per\ncent, and even 46 per cent of the pupils have trachoma, with no apparent\nrecognition that the disease is communicable, and with no precaution\nagainst its transmission to the other pupils and thru them to the whole\nconomunity. I have seen many rural schools (and six years ago there were\nhundreds of them) in which from 25 per cent to 100 per cent of the children\nwere carriers and distributors of hookworm infection. At many of these\nschools complete soil contamination prevailed, and the majority of the\nchildren were barefoot during the spring and summer season. Without\nthought, word, or act of precaution on the part of anybody these infected\nchildren, by being brought together in larger groups at the schools and\nmade to live together there under insanitary conditions, were augmenting\nthe infection among themselves, were transmitting it to the uninfected,\nand were thus distributing it thru the communities. I have no hesitation\nin affirming that rural public schools have thus contributed directly and\nin no small measure to the distribution of hookworm infection thruout\nhundreds of rural communities, and to the intensifying of the disease and\nits devitalizing results in the case of thousands of children who otherwise\nwould have escapt with a much lighter infection.\nOn the other hand, let me hasten to say that, in the work now under\nway for the relief and control of trachoma and hookworm infection, there is\nno more important working agency than the rural school. And this brings\nme to the second and last point which it is the purpose of this paper to\nemphasize, namely: The rural school under intelligent administration may\nbe made the most effective agency we have yet devised for conserving the\nlife and health and working efficiency of the people in our rural communities.\nIt is not possible, within the limits of a ten-minute paper, to exhibit in\ndetail how this is to be done; but four things at least are fundamental, and\nare within the bounds of reasonable expectation: (i) the school when\nefficiently administered will safeguard the health of its pupils and will\ncease to be a serious menace to the community; (2) it will give definite and\n\n"}
{"page": 251, "printed_page": "239", "text": "CouncU]\n\nNATIONAL\n\nWELFARE\n\nAND\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n230\n\nsystematic instruction in personal hygiene and community sanitati\non(3) it will form a system of well-establisht health habits by having this\ninstruction translated into appropriate action; and (4) it wiU\nso conduct\nits health-teaching and its health work that its instruction will be made\neffective thruout the community which it is intended to serve. And m the\ndoing it will be found that these four things are inseparable.\nEffective instruction in health subjects may well begin with recognition\nof the fact that the school is itself a community, with its diseases to be\nrelieved and prevented, and its physical environment to be made sanitary\nand kept under control. Sanitary inspection of the school and medical\ninspection of its children will supply both motive and material for instruction of the most direct and definite character. Discovered pathologic\nconditions of teeth and gums, for example, will be made the occasion and\nthe basis for the practical teaching of mouth hygiene; the finding of malarial\ninfection, of trachoma, or of a typhoid carrier will be made to educate the\nwhole school in the control of these communicable diseases; the proper\ncare of the school building with its problems of heating, lighting, and\nventilation, the care of its floor and furniture, the protection of its water\nsupply, and the prevention of soil contamination about its grounds will be\nmade to teach fundamental lessons in sanitation.\nThis instruction, growing out of the practical needs of the school, will\nbe supplemented by means of books, leaflets, charts, and systematic oral\nteaching — all made simple, definite, direct, and concrete to the last degree,\nand illustrated in every possible detail by means of drawings, photographs,\nand lantern slides. These lessons will be driven home by the pressure of\nsome practical situation to be met: the 43 per cent hookworm infection\nin the school must be eliminated, and reinfection prevented; teeth and\ngums must be made sound, and kept so; the water-supply must be protected,\nthe dust kept down, and the temperature regulated. The school community\nwill thus educate its members in the fundamentals of health by ascertaining\nwhat its own health requirements are, learning how these requirements\nmay be met, and then doing the things which the situation calls for.\nThis rural schools may do, for they have done it and are doing it now.\nI have referred to the service which the schools are rendering in the work\nnow under way for the rehef and control of hookworm disease. The\ncooperation of state and county school authorities and of the teachers has\nbeen indispensable in carrying out the work. Hundreds of schools have\nhad their pupils examined, have had the infected treated, and have made\nthe proper sanitary provision for the prevention of reinfection. And more\nimportant than the control of the disease has been the educational result\nof the work. The intelligent doing of this one bit of health work in the\nschool has given every child and the entire community an object lesson m\nthe control of disease. Each chi d has been taught in concrete detail what\nthis one disease is, what it means to him and to the community, how it\n\n"}
{"page": 252, "printed_page": "240", "text": "240\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmay be detected, how it may be cured, how the infection is spread, and\nhow it may be prevented. This instruction has been carried out in action;\nand thus has been formed a system of health habits which will determine\nfuture conduct when these children come as men and women to preside\nover the homes and to direct the life of the community. The school\nauthorities have been enlisted, and parents have shared in every step the\nchildren have taken. The community has been assembled at the school\nto see the demonstration that has been carried out, and to hear the story\nof it told in simple, straightforward language and abundantly illustrated\nby means of objects, charts, and lantern slides. The work of relief and\nsanitation carried out in the school is now being repeated in the homes.\nAnd one may see in many of these communities that a tide has set in — a\ntide of public sentiment which is bringing this disease under control, and\nwhich will in the end eradicate it. This sentiment, thus created, will\ncontinue, and will express itself in a demand for better health laws and\nlarger appropriations for health work, and will be the basis for general\nadvancement in personal hygiene and public sanitation.\n\nTHE NEW\n\nIDEAL\n\nIN EDUCATION— BETTER\nBETTER CHILDREN\n\nPARENTS\n\nHELEN\n\nC. PUTNAM,\n\nR.I.\n\nM.D.,\n\nPROVIDENCE,\n\nOF\n\nThe only men and women society needs are those whose living betters\nthe children that are and are to be. The disorders in civilization, the long\ndestruction with powerful explosives, chemicals, and inventions directed by\nmurderous wills, gives some little countenance to the query. What if humanity should be wiped out within the decennial ? If it should be, sciences,\narts, enterprises, personalities, would have no further usefulness. The\ncorollary of this is: The supreme test of living is the next generation —\nour conservation of its quaHties primarily, its numbers in part.\nFor the living many details are already settled. Heredity is beyond\nalteration, conditions of birth and early environment likewise. Later\nenvironment and reactions to it are still open to changes within limits of\nnatural and political laws. Non-conformities to certain laws of well-being\nresult for the next generation in imperfections, degeneracies, premature\ndeaths. The next generation cannot be all it might be when the Uving\nprepare for it a heredity and environment either of which violates certain\nlaws of well-being.\nThe individual's inheritance of life is made of infinite blendings thru\ninfinite ages. No possession transcends it in antiquity, in costliness. It\nis beyond possibility of duphcation, of restoration if destroyed or specifically\ninjured. And yet it is a fair statement that no possession is more abused\nby its holder and by society. The responsibiUty of the living one to the\n\n"}
{"page": 253, "printed_page": "241", "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nIDEAL\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n241\n\nfuture for the right management of this ancestral trust gives him literally\ninfinite power. If he chooses, this trust that has escapt annihilation up to\nthe present may end with himself, eliminating from the race the strain confided tohim. This is of infinite concern, somewhat to the past, somewhat\nto the future. Or the individual may contaminate a clean inheritance by\nchoice of mate, or may handicap the next generation hopelessly thru\nprenatal abuses and evil conditions of birth and infancy.\nAgain, the individual, even if not a parent, inevitably helps make the\nmaterial, social, and spiritual environment of the next generation. He may\nhelp set the fashion for wages below possibiUty of decent living, for huge\nfortunes, for human maelstroms— great cities; for slums, alcohohcs, prostitution; for suicide; for domination of democracy by wealth, by mihtarism,\nby competition instead of cooperation — domination of humanity by\nindividuahsm. Or he may help estabUsh the well-being of the next generation above greeds, lusts, vagaries, ignorance, and degeneracy of individuals.\nThe individual for his little moment has infinite power. Around his\nresponsibilities are concentrated and heapt up all the vulgarities and vices,\nfollies and shams, that twentieth-century civilization tolerates in the individual. Beyond these are national irresponsibiUties. In Europe males\nselected for physical excellence are slaughtering each other. By-products\nof war are destruction of women and children, homes, means of Uvehhood.\nIt is an incalculable price for the race to pay — ^for what ?\nOthers accuse our nation of feeling \"self-righteous\" because not in the\ngreat embroilment. We have too many reasons for dissatisfaction with\nourselves for that. The horrors of peace as disclosed in our census rival\nthe horrors of war. They attract less attention because spread over\nmore years. In our past nothing in authentic history equals our waste of\nnatural resources by individuals seeking wealth under a government promoting its accumulation, with mutual indifference to rights of the unborn\napparently as great as the indifference to rights of the North American\nIndians, for whose wrongs we thereby receive punishment. Reckless\neconomic waste continues. It has meant vast individual fortunes, increasing numbers around the poverty line, exploitation of the masses, government by an oligarchy, not by all the people.\nWhen other civilizations are being questioned, we are doomed if we\ndo not recognize our own weaknesses. They are best measured m terms of\nhuman life. The census does this. In a decade of peace our people die\nby hundreds of thousands from preventable diseases, suffer by miUions\nfrom preventable illnesses, endure, again by miUions, preventable accidents.\nOur mortality rates of the very young are two and three times those in certain other countries. The preventable physical handicaps afflicting threefourths of school children usually begin under parental care, and usually\nare continued and added to during school years, except under efficient\nmedical inspection, which is very rare. Our mentally defective multiply\n\n"}
{"page": 254, "printed_page": "242", "text": "242\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nat rates faster than the average. The next generation is Hkely to have a\nlarger burden of their support, robbing the normal, as we do, to provide\nfor degenerates whose creation we allow, and who are already estimated\nin the miUions. These are logical results of the ideal of \"the rights of the\nindividual\" overshadowing humanity's rights.\nAll this that I have been recalling to mind is obvious. If humanity is to\nsurvive, individualism and nationalism must conform to laws of racial\nwell-being. The only men and women society needs are those whose living\nbetters the children that are and are to be. Acceptance of this standard\nis urgent. That nations are being exterminated in our own life-span\nreminds us that nations usually have had but a few hundred years of\nexistence; that the length of life and power of our own country depends\nabsolutely on what the living do for the next generation, delivering to them\ntheir inheritances of Ufe and of environment not only no worse than received,\nbut improved. Our books are audited by the Bureau of the Census, whose\nreports hitherto give grave cause for serious thought.\nThe evils of peace involve the whole people. Their prevention is\ndeterminedly thwarted by organized and unorganized individualism. Discontent with civilization under existing ideals is shown in grim and extended\ncontests between labor and capital. There is unrest in the churches, in\neducation, both accused of being unfairly influenst by wealth. Coercion of\ntruth by money interests is as dangerous as coercion by violence. This is\nthe risk in the foundations that people are resenting. It is one of the\nobjections to great cities, whose abnormal crowding produces abnormal\nconditions and their abnormal treatments, that great wealth — abnormal\ntoo — ^advertises, influencing the whole country, leveling to expediency for\ncommercial considerations standards and ideals that more wholesome\nenvironment creates and makes possible. This enlightened discontent is,\nHke war itself, confession of failure, confession that peace such as we have\nhad is not the kind of peace humanity wants.\nIt is said that democracy is on trial. Democracy has not existed — it\ncannot be on trial. Government that excludes from representation half the\nadult population because of sex, and possibly more than half the remaining\nadults because in so-called minorities (where progress always begins), is a\nvast oligarchy. It exhibits the imperfections that all forms of tyranny\nhave always exhibited. The unrest of these unrepresented people is helping\nto urge the saving ideal of a better next generation. Neither democracy nor\nrights of individuals are ideals, as commonly claimed. They can be used\nas agents in establishing what appears to be the Creator's proffered possibility— a better human race.\nFor many months pubHc attention had been occupied with plans for an\ninternational trade after the war such as has never been known. Competition isdevised on a scale unprecedented. All signs point to even mightier\npreparations under the surface. The renewed struggle for wealth has all\n\n"}
{"page": 255, "printed_page": "243", "text": "CounciU\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nIDEAL\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n243\n\nthe world for an arena, especially South America, with its miUions of Indians\nand half-castes, some of them in all probabiUty with quahties desirabl\nconserve in the racial inheritance, as had older peoples that have e to\nbeen\nexterminated under individualism and nationalism. The resource\ns of\nSouth American forests, waters, and soils have hardly been sampled. Conditions promise a repetition of our colonial and early national history, whose\ncrimes are not yet outgrown. To help on this commercial world war,\npublic education plans commercial, trade, and industrial classes, encouraged by federal and local assistance, and strongly seconded by business\ninterests. But thrift, commerce, and wealth that injure the hving, and\nthru them the next generation, experience proves are undesirable. Unless\nsome higher ideal directs them, we can expect nothing better than we\nhave had. We may well expect worse— our powers for good and evil\nare greater.\nOn the other hand, demand is definite that we have a new kind of peace\nin which the race — not merely some of its living individuals — shall thrive.\nIt comes from various honest and trustworthy sources, not always exprest\nin the same terms, nor professing the same immediate object, but when\nanalyzed all converging to one ideal— a better next generation. Experts in\nresearch and specialists in experimentation, commissions and surveys,\nstudies and reports, magazines and newspapers, forums and mass meetings,\nare presenting statements of wrongs, accounts of remedies under way, under\nconsideration, asking consideration, or proved ineffective.\nThe more we learn of our mistakes, the farther back in the lives of children many are traced. Their susceptible organization stores influences more\nlastingly and deeply, whether bacilli of tuberculosis or effects of cruelty,\nselfishness, ignorance. During these highly sensitive years, as during prenatal Hfe, the child's development is wholly in the hands of parents, its\nheredity also. Education omits preparation for this most critical business\nof life — making a human before school age. A hundred years ago teachers\nand nurses, like parents today, had only pickt-up knowledge. Half a\ncentury ago, preparation of the first two was under way. Today preparation for the responsibilities of parents is beginning, largely thru insistence of\nwomen backt by statistics from the census.\nWe think economically. We need to think biologically. To an audience of biologists this statement would have certain definite meaning. It\nwould mean such actual educational experiences that there remains in consciousnes or subconsciousness a composite of details convincing the individual that life is a racial trust, that the quaUty of the next generation is the\nsupreme test of human worth. But society is cultivating humans without\npreparation in elementary science of life, and with ambitions for economic\ncompetitions and successes. It is a law of mind that we do not appreciate\nuntil we understand. We shall always abuse life until we understand at\nleast its essential laws. That during every decade in the United States four\n\n"}
{"page": 256, "printed_page": "244", "text": "244\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nmillion children die under five years of age, more than half of whom we could\nsave if we would, should seem more humiliating than European carnage thru\nhaK a decade of passion. The deepest impression our holocaust makes is\nwhen we put it in dollars, of which more is understood than of the depreciation of the race by loss of family strains and of the waste of motherhood and\nfatherhood. Not all children who die are inferior. We have no reason for\nthinking that even the majority are.\nNot only the need and the demand, but the opportunity for teaching\nracial responsibilities is greater than ever before. The recent extension\nof public-school teaching to those not in the regular grades, both children\nand adults, and increasing extra-mural instruction by colleges and universities are partly stimulated by demands of parents for help in their\nduties. This and the admirable work by the Department of Agriculture\nafford the opportunity. To assist each age in its special activities will pay\nin the end if, and only if, the ideal of a better next generation dominates\nthe present economic ideals of those urging vocational and extension\ninstruction. Eight hours of labor daily, forty to sixty weekly, or less,\nleaves more than three times as many hours without the protection of our\ngreatest blessing — work. It is in unoccupied intervals that most of the\ncrimes against the race are committed. Spending wisely is harder than\nearning. Society does not profit when its educational product earns\ntwenty-five dollars a week and, for example, chooses a mate whose father\nwas a moron.\nThe National Council of Education has a great opportunity to serve, and\na great duty to use this opportunity. With vision of the future, understanding past failings and present resources, the Council can help establish\nanother peace whose ideal of a better next generation shall prevail over\nexisting follies. Deliberately to adopt the policy of teaching concrete\nfacts, making real to individuals that each holds an actual trust from an\ninfinite past to an infinite future — it can be imprest even in kindergartens —\nwould be the greatest help to morals that exists. Probably the commonest\ntrouble with young people, and with older also, is that they see no reason for\nbeing, no mission, no real responsibility; believing that what they do is of\nno consequence to anyone but themselves. This can be disproved more\nconvincingly than most false assertions by those who know how to do it\ncorrectly. The Council should aid by all means in its power the making of\nteachers who know how. It should have a committee to study ways and\nmeans of doing this.\nIf we may indulge in fancy, with this ideal the ancient East and the new\nWest are coming together — the East with its ancestor worship, a not\nwholly unworthy inspiration, measured by the graces of its civiUzation;\nthe United States said to have a child-worship, much of it vague sentiment,\nmuch sensational and harmful. When society thru education fulfils its\nduty to give each age according to its needs truths correctly relating\n\n"}
{"page": 257, "printed_page": "245", "text": "Coupcm\n\nTHE NEW\n\nIDEAL\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nancestors and descendants with the Kving, the meeting of East\nand West\npromises an era more nearly complete and therefore more endurin\ngly\nsatisfying.\nDISCUSSION\n\nAdelaide Steele Baylor, State Supervisor of Household Arts, Indianapol\nis, Ind —\nIn the Uttle state of Indiana, with a population of somethmg over two and a half\nr^uUions,\nare 524 charitable and corrective institutions with 20,000 inmates, or one for about\never>!\n140 inhabitants. Recently the governor of that state in a public address advised\nthe\npeople that these institutions were filled to overflowing, and declared in no uncertain\nterms that instead of appropriating more money for new buildings steps should be taken\nto lessen the constantly increasing number of those who were daily becoming a burden\nto the state.\nIn the still smaller state of New Jersey, with a population of about two millions, there\nis spent a little less than $1,000,000 annually for dependent and neglected children alone,\nor about fifty cents per capita of the population. The sum is so enormous that the last\nreport from New Jersey suggests: \"It might be well to ascertain, if possible, some of the\ncauses which make so great a dependency of children in this state. If some of the causes\ncould be ascertained, then measures should be taken to remove the cause.\"\nSuch conditions and such vast expenditures of money for dependents, defectives, and\ndelinquents are widespread, and succeeding generations view the constantly increasing\nburden as one of the unavoidable accompaniments of progress, and mechanically make\nout their expense budgets with a certain amount for charity.\nAnd such statistics do not represent by any means the sum total of subnormals and\ntheir support. They do not touch upon the children in our schools who are under the\ndirection of special experts, and are demanding the time, attention, and money that\ncould well be expended for a more profitable education for the normal child. They do not\ninclude the thousands of dollars expended by individuals in charity not reported to\nmanaging boards. They do not include the families and children not yet discovered and\nclassified that are a menace to the present and succeeding generations.\nThe physical, mental, and moral stability of every citizen is the very essence of race\npreservation, and the weightiest problem for the public-school oflficials and teachers to\nsolve today is that of discovering some method for enhghtening the people, men and\nwomen, and for instructing the children, boys and girls, in the practical application of\nrational principles for the betterment of the present and future generations.\nThe outcry against the vast expenditures in New Jersey is an economic one. We\nneed to make it a humane one as well, one that pleads for a newer and broader sense of\nresponsibility, reaching beyond the individual self, family, community, state, nation and\npresent generation to our successors, to the race itself without reference to time limits.\n\n"}
{"page": 258, "printed_page": "246", "text": "^46\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nMINUTES\nMEETING\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Robert J. Aley, president, University of Maine\nOrono, Me.\nVice-President — Augustus S. Downing, first assistant commissioner of Education, Albany, N.Y.\nSecretary — William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal College\nChicago, 111.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Saturday Afternoon, July i, 1916\nThe meeting was called to order in the Ballroom of the Hotel Astor at 2:30 P.M.\nwith President Aley in the chair. The president appointed J. Y. Joyner secretary.\n\"Educational and Psychological Aspects of Racial Well-Being\" was presented by\nRobert M. Yerkes, assistant professor of comparative psychology, Harvard University,\nand psychologist to the Psychopathic Hospital, Boston, Mass.\nDiscussion: Carrol G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis.; Frank A. Fitzpatrick, Boston,\nMass.; Ella Flagg Young, Chicago, 111.; and Helen C. Putnam, M.D., Providence, R.I.\n\"The Course of Study as a Test of EflSdency of Supervision\" was presented by\nA. Duncan Yocum, professor of educational research and practice. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.\nFollowing this paper J. W. Carr, chairman. Committee on Superintendent Problems,\npresented the following resolutions which were adopted:\n1. That the report as submitted by Dr. Yocum be printed, and that the members\nof the Council in general and those of the Committee on Superintendent Problems in\nparticular, suggest in writing to him the modifications, omissions, and additions to the\nreport which they deem necessary.\n2. That he be requested to rewrite the report, enlarging on the topics treated in\nsuch manner as may be necessary to set forth the subject in proper form, and that the\nsame be considered by the Committee on Superintendent Problems.\n3. That the subject come before this Council at a later date, if the committee deems\nit advisable to ask the Council to take official action in reference to the matter.\n\"Rural Education\" was presented by James Y. Joyner, state superintendent of\npublic instruction, Raleigh, N.C.\nJ. Y. Joyner, Secretary\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Saturday Evening, July i, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order in the Ballroom of the Hotel Astor by President\nAley at 8:00 p.m.' The following program was presented:\n\"The Greater Thrift\"— S. W. Straus, president, American Society of Thrift,\nChicago, 111.\n\"Normal School Preparation for Thrift Teaching\" — ^William B. Owen, principal,\nChicago Normal College, Chicago, 111.\n\"Teaching Thrift thru the 'Common Branches'\" — ^J. D. Shoop, superintendent of\nschools, Chicago, 111.\n\"Thrift and the Teacher\" — Arthur H. Chamberlain, secretary, California Council\nof Education, Chairman Thrift Committee, Los Angeles, Cal.\nWilliam B. Owen, Secretary\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Monday\n\nForenoon, July 3, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 10:00 a.m., Vice-President Augustus S. Downing\nin the chair. J. Stanley Brown of Joliet, 111., was appointed secretary.\nIn the absence of the chairman of the Committee on Health Problems in Education,\nCharles H. Keyes, president, Skidmore School of Arts, Saratoga Springs, N.Y., presented\n\n"}
{"page": 259, "printed_page": "247", "text": "CouncU]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n247\n\nthe report of the committee. This report was discust by Walter B. Cannon, M.D.,\nHarvard University Medical School, Boston, Mass., on behalf of the American Medical\nAssociation.\nIt was moved, supported, and unanimously carried that the Council of Education\nrecommend the appropriation of $1000 for the use of the committee during the coming\nyear.\nA round table on pensions was conducted by Joseph Swain, president, Swarthmore\nCollege, Swarthmore, Pa., chE^irman, Committee on Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and\nPensions. The discussion was participated in by Clyde Furst, New York, N.Y. ; Kate D.\nBlake, New York, N.Y.; O. S. Westcott, Chicago, 111.; C. H. Keyes, Saratoga Springs,\nN.Y.; J. Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C.; and W. M. Davidson, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nJ. Y. Joyner presented the following resolutions which were unanimously adopted:\n1. That the National Council of Education appoint a committee of ten to investigate\nthe status of rural education in the United States, to make full report thereon to this\nbody and to the National Education Association embodying therein recommendations\nfor the improvement thereof, and to cooperate with the United States Bureau of Education and the United States Department of Agriculture and the Federal and State\ngovernments for the study and promotion thereof.\n2. That this Council recommend to the Executive Committee such appropriation\nas may be necessary for the expense of such investigation and report.\nThe Committee on Nominations presented the following report:\nWilliam B. Owen, Chicago, 111., President\nAj>elaide Steele Baylor, Indianapolis, Ind., Secretary\nDavid B. Johnson, Rock Hill, S. C., Executive Committee\nJacob A. Shaw an, Columbus, Ohio, Committee on Membership\nWalter R. Siders, Pocatello, Idaho, Committee on Membership\n\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\nTerm\n\nexpires 1919\nexpires 191 7\nexpires 1919\nexpires 1919\nexpires 1919\n\nMEMBERS\nterms to expire in 1922\n\nL. R. Alderman, Portland, Ore., to succeed D. H. Christiansen, Salt Lake City, Utah.\nPayson Smith, Boston, Mass., to succeed himself.\nJames H. Van Sickle, Springfield, Mass., to succeed hunself.\nGrace Shepherd, Boise, Idaho, to succeed James A. Barr, Berkeley, Cal.\nJ. Y. Joyner, Raleigh, N.C., to succeed himself.\nRobert J. Aley, Orono, Me., to succeed himself.\nCharles E. Chadsey, Detroit, Mich., to succeed himself.\nDavis Snedden, New York, N.Y., to succeed himself.\nJ. Stanley Brown, Joliet, 111., to succeed himself.\nAlbert E. Winship, Boston, Mass., to succeed himself.\nTERMS\n\nTO EXPIRE IN\n\nI917\n\nFletcher B. Dresslar, Nashville, Tenn., to fill vacancy.\nThomas W. Palmer, Montevallo, Ala., to fill vacancy.\n\nwas authorized to cast the unanimous ballot for the above-named\nsecretary\nTheand\nofficers\nmembers.\n\nthe first meeting\nOn motion duly made and carried it was recommended that hereafter\nprecedmg the\nweek\nthe\nof\nSaturday,\non\nof\ninstead\nMonday\non\nheld\nbe\nof the Council\nmeetmgs\nCouncU\nfuture\nthat\ngeneral sessions of the Association. It was also recommended\nbe held in a room seating not to exceed two hundred people.\n\nJ. Stanley Brown, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 260, "printed_page": "248", "text": "248\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND DISCUSSIONS\n\nAND\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nPSYCHOLOGICAL\nWELL-BEING\n\nASPECTS\n\n[National\n\nOF RACIAL\n\nROBERT M. YERKES,\nASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY,\nHARVARD UNIVERSITY, AND PSYCHOLOGIST TO THE BOSTON STATE\nHOSPITAL,\nPSYCHOPATHIC DEPARTMENT, BOSTON, MASS.\n\n1. The proximately desirable, suitable, fit, in human nature, versus the ideal.\n— The reasonably successful, contented, and socially valuable individual\nis easy to find and describe; the ideal individual has never been discovered\nand is difficult to imagine. We know in a practical way what to work\nagainst in human nature; we are less certain what to work for. But our\nefforts toward racial well-being should not be hindered by diversity of\nopinion concerning the ideal man. Tasks of the utmost importance are\nat hand for each of us, and we may not ignore or neglect them without\nviolating our social conscience.\n2. Education at present strives to perfect the individual. It concerns itself\nprimarily with the nurture of man. It should strive also to improve human\nnature. — As educators, we habitually and conventionally regard human\nnature as the proper concern of the Creator and of biologists, and nurture\nalone as our concern. It appears that this is a socially and racially unprofitable division of interest and responsibility, and that education should\npromote racial well-being thru the proper training of the individual. It\nlies within the power of us educators to effect racial improvement. Our\nwork reaches from generation to generation. What the children of today\nare effectively taught will, as appreciation of the educational aspects of\neugenics develops, determine in ever-larger measure the quahty of the next\ngeneration.\n3. How may education most effectively promote racial well-being as contrasted with merely individual development? How may we, thru educational\neffort, guarantee that posterity shall be well born and well reared? — Two\nlines of endeavor seem especially promising of good results: (i) we should\neducate to a sense of responsibility for the race, as well as for society and for\nthe self; (2) we should educate to an appreciation of the values of research.\nAn ever-present consciousness of responsibility for human nature may be\ndevelopt by appropriate and adequate instruction in (i) the sciences which\ndeal with man's physical environment; (2) the sciences of life: botany,\nzoology, physiology, psychology, sociology; (3) the study of actual and\npossible relations of organisms to their world— as, for example, in hygiene;\n(4) the study of the self — as an organism among organisms, as a conscious\nand self-conscious being, as a member of social groups and, as a moral being\nwith ideals, rights, and obligations.\nSuch instruction should tend to give the individual fuller and more\nvaluable knowledge of himseK and his place in nature, while at the same\n\n"}
{"page": 261, "printed_page": "249", "text": "CouncUl\n\nASPECTS\n\nOF RACIAL\n\nWELL-BEING\n\n249\n\ntime bringing him to feel that the future of mankind depends partly upon\nhun. We need above all thus to increase educationally the sense of responsibility, dignity, and social value in every individual. Our modern conception ofheredity modifies, but does not lessen, man's responsibility for man.\nToday we train ourselves for almost everything in our catalog of vocations and avocations except the tasks of parenthood. Dare we still argue\nthat instinct adequately prepares us for this racially important and most\ncomplex group of activities? Racial well-being demands that the nature\nand conditions of life be made objects of systematic and intelligent instruction thruout our educational system. The kmdergarten is not early enough\nfor the beginnings ; they should, if possible, be made in the home; and the college age is not too late for wise instruction in heredity, eugenics, and euthenics. Where is the parent or teacher who has not keenly felt the inadequacy\nof his knowledge, insight, and skill. Our human duties call for mfinite wisdom and devotion. Truly, \"the proper study of mankind is man.\"\nAppreciation of the values of research by the child seems impossible until\none considers the matter in the Hght of genetic psychology. Then it\nappears natural, inevitable, and essential to racial welfare. For the creative\nimpulse or instinct is ever present, awaiting the command of the wise and\nskilled teacher. Alike in play, daily tasks, art, science, and procreation, it\nfinds expresssion, and, indeed, tends to sweep everything before it. It cannot be wholly supprest; it may be effectively guided. Education can ill\nafford to neglect either the creative tendency or the values to the individual\nand the race of creative endeavor and its fruits.\nTo educate to an appreciation of the values of research means so to\ndirect the interests and activities of the individual that the satisfactions\nof originating, initiating, discovering, working out problems, adding to\nhuman knowledge instead of merely using what is offered, will be experienst repeatedly and will stimulate to further effort. Life offers no greater\nsatisfactions than those of free creative activity.\nIs education doing all that should be done toward racial well-being\nthru the stimulation and guidance of the impulse to research? Are we\nas teachers living up to our insight and opportunity in this respect?\nReadily we admit that the control of Ufe depends upon knowledge of\ncharacteristics of the world, of the organism, and of their relations, but all\nthe while we continue to regard research — and particularly scientific\nresearch — as something remote from human interest, impractical, the\nresult of an acquired taste. Is not the search for knowledge, the creative\nimpulse, the most natural of tendencies, which, if lacking, must have been\nsupprest ? Surely, a little wisdom, insight, pams, on the part of teachers,\nwill greatly .increase the satisfaction of individuals, while so adding to our\nknowledge as to prepare the way for racial improvement.\n4. Racial well-being demands also that an adequate scientific basis for the\nart of education be created.— Socidl, psychological, and educational measurements have abundantly demonstrated that Uke tends to produce Hke. The\n\n"}
{"page": 262, "printed_page": "250", "text": "250\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\neducator can no better afford to ignore this fact than can the farmer, gardener, stock-breeder. If we are to attain new levels of racial welfare and\nindividual achievement, we must, in the light of the facts of environmental\ninfluence and heredity, treat man educationally as an organism among\norganisms.\nIn conformity to this necessity, the newer ideal of education calls for\ndiscriminating treatment of individuals in accordance with their nature,\nnurture, and probable value to themselves and to the race. Such discriminating and individualistic treatment can become possible only if adequate\nmethods of studying the individual are developt and extensively used\n(i) for purposes of statistical research and (2) to supply facts for diagnostic\nstatement and educational treatment. Today we educate, or attempt to\neducate, the individual, while ignorant or heedless of his characteristics.\nWhat shall be true tomorrow ?\nSummarily exprest, the promotion of racial well-being thru educational\neffort calls for: (i) the thoro study of the individual; (2) the scientific\nstudy of methods of achieving educational ends; (3) the careful relating of\neducational treatment to individual characteristics; (4) the segregation of\nsubnormal individuals and their commitment to social and medical agencies;\n(5) increasingly discriminating individualistic treatment of the normal or\naverage child; and (6) special study and supervision of the supernormal\nor exceptional individual.\nThe individual should be studied by reliable methods from every\nsignificant point of view, but especially as to: (i) family history or heredity;\n(2) individual history in home, school, etc.; (3) physical and medical\nhistory and status; (4) social relations, economic efficiency, and dominant\ntraits of temperament and character; (5) mental constitution; (6) educational needs; and (7) vocational fitness.\nThe so-called \"testing\" of school children, now the fashion, is a poor\nsubstitute for the kind of individual study that is needed. We must not\nimagine that the child is easily analyzed, measured, described. Only\nexperts, highly trained, experienst in their special tasks, and wise, are fit\nfor the work. Incompetence is rife today in the mental examining of\nschool children; and unless harm is to result where good is expected, we\nshall be obliged to look sharply to our methods and to the quality of our\nexaminers. Reliable individual study should lead to practical, valuable\nclassification with respect to mental and physical characteristics and to\nspecial educational diagnosis.\nThe special attention which is now being given to the subnormal child\nin certain of our school systems might much more profitably be devoted\nto the supernormal. The former is the handicap of the race; the latter, its\nhope. We should not neglect our social responsibilities to those physically\nand mentally unfortunate beings who never should have been born, but\nneither should we attempt for them the impossible. The supernormal\n\n"}
{"page": 263, "printed_page": "251", "text": "Council!\n\nASPECTS\n\nOF RACIAL\n\nWELL-BEING\n\n251\n\nchild is supremely important, for he is ahnost certain to prove\nin markt\ndegree a blessing or a curse to the race. More than his feUows he\nneeds\ncareful guidance, intelligent nurture. It is not generaUy known\nthat\ndelinquents, criminals, vagabonds, geniuses in vice, as weU as our\nsocial\nand racial leaders, are commonly recruited from the supernormal and\nthe\nill-balanst groups.\n5. As a means to social progress along educational and eugenical lines,\nthe intensive study of a single school system is proposed.— The plan may be\nbriefly outlined thus: In a fairly stable community (town, township, or\ncounty), the school population should be studied systematically by a\nstaff of experts, over a period of ten to twenty years. The work should\ninclude:\na) Careful and accurate study of each pupil, physically, mentally,\nsocially, genetically, educationally, and vocationally. Each record should\nbe rendered as complete as possible by the cooperative labors of experts\nin medical, psychological, sociological, and educational measurement and\ndiagnosis. The individual records or descriptions should be supplemented\nfrom year to year.\nb) So far as possible every individual should be followed up after\nleaving school, in order that social, economic, and genetic data may be\nobtained.\nc) Finally, the varied sorts of information should be skilfully arranged\nfor statistical use, thoroly analyzed and studied comparatively, for the\nsolution of varied educational, psychological, and broadly social or racial\nproblems.\nUltimately, the information from such a survey should indicate important relations of characteristics of mind, body, and environment to social\nand economic achievement or value. A multitude of pressing problems\nshould be illuminated if not solved. Much, for example, should be learned\nconcerning the nature of the children who later become social blights or\nblessings — ^paupers, criminals, mental dependents, the insane, inventors,\nartists, reformers, leaders in various walks of life. Much should be learned\nabout the marriage and mating tendencies in their relations to individual\ntraits, about the results of various sorts of matings, about the values for\ndifferent natures of certain modes of educational treatment. This catalog\nmight be indefinitely extended, since most human problems would come\nwithin the scope of such a survey.\nI submit that economy of effort in the interests of educational and\neugenical progress demands the intensive and prolonged study of a human\ncommunity.\n6. Summary.— RsiciaX well-being or eugenical progress must be achieved\nprimarily thru educational effort. It must be recognized that the mterests\nof the individual are inseparable from those of the race; that self-realization\nis conditioned by a measure of subordination of individual desires to racial\n\n"}
{"page": 264, "printed_page": "252", "text": "252\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nand social ends. As educators, we must learn to work for the next generation, because by so doing we shall best serve the interests of the children\nof today. Our responsibility for the conduct of our own lives may not be\nlessened, but we must accept a larger measure of responsibility for posterity\n— even for the unborn — and for social developments. Education must at\nonce become more highly individualized with respect to treatment, more\nhighly socialized with respect to immediate ends, and more highly racialized\nwith respect to its chief purpose, aim, and ideal of achievement. To shape\nhumanity is nobler than to strive toward the perfecting of the individual,\nand yet we must not forget that racial well-being may be achieved only by\nand thru the development of better individuals.\nDISCUSSION\nHelen C. Putnam, -M.D., Providence, R.I. — The committee to study methods of\npromoting the ideal of racial well-being has substantial progress to report for the five\nmonths since its appointment. In April we invited certain institutions training educators\n— ^universities, colleges, and normal schools above a specified minimum of requirements —\nto cooperate in studying the proposition, \"The supreme object of education should be to\nmake the next generation better than living generations.\" We also offered honorariums\nto the amount of $250 in each of four sections of the country, totaling $1000 in 12 states,\nas acknowledgment of special excellence in these studies by graduating classes of 19 17. A\ngratifying proportion has accepted our invitation. About a thousand men and women\ntraining to become educators are definitely engaged in this study. They work in\ncooperation as classes. The results will be collective, from the whole country, as it is\nour intention to extend this invitation next autumn to the class of 19 18 in 12 other\nstates, and so continue each year until we have reached the 48 states and our $4000\nfund is consumed.\nDuring these summer months numerous groups and individuals are doing research\nwork in their own neighborhood, or in their own families. Most of it is simple and elementary, some of it comparatively difficult, and likely to be of permanent usefulness. We\nhave, for example, received requests for methods of study of the family, and Charles B.\nDavenport, of the Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring Harbor, who is one of our advisory committee of specialists, sends in reply his blank form for this purpose, a duplicate\nof which, when filled up, is preserved at the office for studies in heredity. Some inquirers\nsecure the blank form for \"Study of the SeK\" that Robert M. Yerkes, of the psychologic\nlaboratory at Harvard University, has issued, which contains Mr. Davenport's family\nstudy form. In this and in certain other ways some of the work will be standard work.\nThese group studies or experiments will be reported to the classes when they reassemble\nnext September. Such plans for the winter's work as have come to us promise cooperation\nbetween different departments, such as pedagogy, or education; biology, or nature study;\ncivics, or sociology; home economics, or domestic science; and training schools with\nchildren's classes.\nIt is desired to afford all possible assistance to an institution asking suggestions, that\nit may do all it has opportunity to do in developing the study. The rivalry stimulated by\nhonorariums we intend to be constructive — a rivalry in usefuhiess. It is constructive\nrivalry that distinguishes civilization from the barbarism whose supreme manifestation\nhas always been slaughter of one's kind and the winning of others' possessions, either in a\nWaterloo or a Wall Street. But struggle is a law of being, even in the inanimate world,\nwhere form and energy exist as resultants of opposing forces. In organic life struggle is\n\n"}
{"page": 265, "printed_page": "253", "text": "t^°\"°<^\"l\n\nASPECTS\n\nOF RACIAL\n\nWELL-BEING\n\n25^\n\nthe supreme law, and may be destructive as among barbaria\nns, or constructive as we are\nfinding IS the secret of that civiUzation we hope to\nrealize. Peace without struggle i!\ndeath. And peace devoted to fighting with one's fellows\nfor a liveUhood or for wealth to a\nstniggle that exploits the poor and a sex and chHdhood,\nto a struggle of economic uncoordmation, such as peace has ever been, invites degener\nacy-the degeneracy of poverty\ncrime, disease, and defectiveness, physical and mental.\n'\nThe difference between the destructiveness of barbarism\nand constructiveness of a\npossible new kind of peace lies in the aims of the two sorts of struggle\n. To go no farther\nback than our own democracy, we have progressively enlarged our concepti\non of the kind\nof individual entitled to Ufe, liberty, and pursuit of happiness, untU\nthe beginnmg of the\ntwentieth century found us in the midst of struggles for rights of labor agamst\ninstitutions\nfavoring capital; for rights of women to fulfil their duties in human betterme\nnt against\nhampering laws made by men; for rights of children to be well bom and weU cared\nfor\nagainst use of liberty by adults to pursue \"happiness,\" meaning self-gratification in\n,\nunsanitary, immoral, ignorant, idle, and other individuaUstic living. These struggles\nfor rights of labor, of women, of children, are all constructive, are against conditions mamtained by the majority under dominatmg ideals of individualism and its by-product,\ncommercialism. These struggles, still unfinisht, are already large factors in such reductions ofrates of mortality, morbidity, and perhaps crime, as the Bureau of the Census has\nreported; rates that are still, however, higher in some instances than numerous similar\nrates in certain other countries.\nReversion to war among civilizations nearest like our own, and the enormousness\nof our own preventable losses of life, health, and happiness during struggles in peace\ntimes are proofs that racial interests should supersede individuaUsm as the ideal. Educators must prepare for these constructive rivalries m reduction of degeneracy, crime, disease,\ndefectiveness, and mortality rates; must prepare for international contests devoted to\nthis creative efficiency. Instead of recording battles, conquests, and exterminations of\npeoples as proud events, instead of exalting generals, admirals, governors, and multimil ionaires as great individuals, historians should encourage other ambitions by narrating\nmethods which were successful in replacing evils by excellences in communities and among\nnations, and the individuals who were leaders in these battles— the Pasteurs and Mendek,\nthe Roger Williamses and Abraham Lincolns, Henry Bamards, and Matthew Vassars,\nSusan Anthonys, Mary Hunts, Ellen Richardses, and their contemporaries who workt\nwith them — will receive the new hero-worship, inspiring further achievement in universal\nwell-being.\nThis requires all-round abler men and women than does destructiveness. We are\nnot — or are we ?— weaklings to shirk the challenge of the age. The traitors to the United\nStates are they who actively or passively thwart such preparedness. The optimist believes\nthat some nation will \"arrive.\"\nA national ideal, or an international ideal, one which the people deputize their schools\nto develop, can thrive only when enough of all the people believe in it. Its cultivation\nmeans widely extended efforts according to methods adapted to distant parts of our great\nterritory and to our varied population. The first requirement, that a considerable number\nbelieve in concrete effort for the higher ideal, racial well-being, has been coming to pass\nrather rapidly and more or less unconsciously for a half-century. The second need in\nestablishing an ideal is that educators shall use effective methods.\nIt is because of the fact, too often ignored, that one institution, or one group of\nstudents and teachers, or one commonwealth in a great nation does not and cannot know\nall there is to know in a great new venture— it is because of this human limitation and\nconsequent fallibility that we are distributing our study thruout all educators' courses\nin the country, inviting their assistance. My own observation has more than once convinst me that the best work is not infrequently done in some obscure little schoolroom,\nand if we could adopt some of these methods extensively thruout the country, several of\n\n"}
{"page": 266, "printed_page": "254", "text": "254\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nour urgent educational difficulties would be solved. It is, therefore, by the collective\nassistance of this multitude of councilors dedicated to educational affairs that we are\nlikely to arrive at best methods, as well as extended efficiency in future use of them.\n\nTHE COURSE\nA. DUNCAN\n\nOF STUDY AS A TEST OF EFFICIENCY\nSUPERVISION\n\nOF\n\nYOCUM, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND PRACTICE,\nUNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, PA.\n\nThis report has been prepared in the hope that it may lead to some\ngeneral agreement by the Council concerning the fundamental characteristics of an efl&cient course of study. With this end in view, effort has\nbeen made to make the following propositions general enough to apply\nto any type of course, and yet definite enough to specify what is most essential to the efficiency of each.\nThe term \"course of study\" is used as the popular substitute for educational \"content.\" In deference to Dr. Snedden's insistence that clear\ndistinction should be maintained between \"course of study\" and teachers'\nmanuals and school textbooks, I would have substituted the expression\n\"material of instruction,\" were it not for my wish to avoid all technical\nexpressions non-essential to the purpose of the report. Schoolmen in\ngeneral understand \"course of study\" to include all the educational material that is to be brought to bear upon the pupil. Sometimes it merely\nenumerates school textbooks; sometimes it is supplemented by definite\nsuggestions in teachers' manuals. It is usually taken, however, to include\nall that is authoritatively prescribed for the pupils; and it is in that sense\nthat I use the term. Indeed it is only in the sense of authoritative prescription that I can speak of it as the test of supervision. Here again\nDr. Snedden very properly insists on distinction between executive and\nlegislative educational authority:\nA course of study should be very analogous to the plans and specifications which an\narchitect prepares for the guidance of builders. Supervision follows to see that the plans\nand specifications are complied with, and this supervision may itself be tested. The\nplans and specifications, however, are fundamentally the general and specific directions\nunder which people are to work.\n\nThis, of course, I accept, but some authority or other must be responsible\nfor the working plans, and the only expert authority that can be held\nresponsible for the course of study is the superintendent or principal at the\nhead of the school system or school unit. Committees of assistants or\nteachers may detail the course, and boards of education approve it, or\nselect and adopt the textbooks that take its place, or on which it is based.\nBut it is supervisory authority, either in the person of superintendent or\nprincipal, or usurpt by the board, that finally details the course and is\nprimarily responsible for it.\n\n"}
{"page": 267, "printed_page": "255", "text": "Council]\n\nA TEST\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\nOF SUPERVISION\n\n255\n\n1. Distinction must be drawn between a mere paper course of study\nwith its textbooks and its manuals, and its results in actual practice. A\ncourse of study is a test of supervision merely in what it includes and\nomits, in the aims which it specifies, in the detail and definiteness with which\nit seeks to attain them, in its provision for readjustment, in its relative valuation and emphasis of details, and in the organization which results from\ndefiniteness.\n2. The evidence offered by a non-detailed course of study is conclusive\nonly in what it omits. If, for example, it fails to provide for drawing, domestic science, or esthetic training, and no cooperative social agencies exist\nin the community to supplement the work of the school, it is safe to assume\nthat what is not prescribed does not exist as a systematic phase of school\nwork. If it exists at all, the course of study is not responsible for it. On\nthe other hand, the presence of certain forms of work in a general and\nundetailed course of study — the direction that \" teachers at this point shall\ngive lessons in morals and manners,\" or the mere Hsting of lessons in hygiene\n— does not insure sufficient instruction or necessarily result in any instruction\nat all. A course of study which limits itself to apportioning sections of\ntextbooks to successive school terms and years without emphasizing,\nomitting, or adding particular details, is usually so inclusive that selection\nis left to the individual teacher. The ordinary textbook designed to meet\nthe needs of many communities contains more material than is required for\nanyone. Without detailed prescription, essentials and trifles are usually\ngiven equal emphasis in the vain effort to master the text as a whole.\nAbsence of a detailed course may stimulate individual initiative and\nresult in a high degree of efficiency in particular phases of work, with the\nform of efficiency largely differing for each teacher. But even if supplemented byindividual teachers' plan-books and problem-schemes, it is just\nas likely to result in such omission of essentials and overemphasis of minor\ndetails that investigation must look as carefully for fundamental failure\nas for exceptional success.\n3. A detailed course of study not only insures sufficient data for a test\nof efficiency, but is in itseff a favorable condition to efficiency, if it provides\nfor initiative on the part of individual teachers with a view to continual\nreadjustment. If absence of detail lays supervision open to suspicion, a\nmerely logical detailing, whether in the course or in specified textbooks,\nneither menaces individual initiative nor insures efficiency. It may\ninclude sufficient data to determine quite fully what is taught as well as\nwhat is omitted. It may in itself thru its inclusions and omissions become a\nfavorable condition to efficiency, but only so far as it makes possible the\nfar greater pedagogical definiteness, yet to be described, that is gradually\nresulting from the scientific determination of educational values, and so far\nadditions and modias provision for continual revision gives opportunity for\nfications. Since the individual initiative on the part of teachers that\n\n"}
{"page": 268, "printed_page": "256", "text": "256\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\neffects efficiency thru the course of study must express itself in scientific\ncontributions, or suggestions based upon them, rather than in individual\ninspirations and enthusiasms, its safeguard lies rather in opportunity for\nindividual expression and provision for readjustment than in indefiniteness\nand lack of detail. Where the detailed course takes the form of individual\nteachers' plan-books and problem-schemes, self-satisfaction with individual\nachievement lacks the counteracting incentives to progress which result\nfrom collective criticism of a common course.\n4. A just and adequate test must be broad enough to include all prevailing standards, current readjustments, and scientific determinations.\nThe absence of provision for readjustment does not necessarily result\nin inefficiency, but confines the course of study to particular kinds of\nefficiencies. Standards not only change, but existing standards differ.\nA test or a survey that sets up a theoretical ideal, especially the ideal of an\nindividual, and makes it the unit for measuring a course of study or any\nother phase of supervision where a different ideal prevails, is misleading\nand unjust. Even a test or survey that is based upon scientific determinations must show how the course of study measures up to its own particular\nstandard as well as to that of educational science. If this is true, the fact\nthat educational thinkers and experts are not agreed upon all standards, in\nplace of making tests and comparisons indeterminate, makes it necessary\nthat they should be analytic and definite enough to measure what is peculiar\nto each and to compare what is common to all. The distinction between\nexisting standards and scientific determinations will gradually disappear\nwith the development of education as a science. Every type of school,\nespecially the pubUc school, is, after all, quick to adopt what is scientifically\ndemonstrated to be essential to efficiency. Meanwhile, every test will in\nitself become a means to popularizing scientific standards, if always accompanied by comparison and ranking based on the aims and standards of\nthe institution or system tested. Dr. Snedden is right when he says:\nI can readily understand why, when dealing with a selected circle of educators or an\nexperimental school, we should wish to go beyond what is available in the ordinary textbook; but for the rank and file of teachers, I am wondering whether we are not increasing\nrather than diminishing confusion.\n\n5. A just and adequate test must take into account local conditions,\nbut only in judging the limited amount of subject-matter for which they are\ndetermining. The necessity for adaptation to local needs limits itself\nalmost wholly to specific or social phases of education, and there mainly\nto the industrial. Later discussion will show the possibiHty of adaptation\nto local or individual tastes and interests, where different details of subjectmatter within a particular branch of study, or in different branches, can\naccomplish the same essential aim or have in themselves equal probability of usefulness and survival. Limitation thru poverty of local\nresources bears less upon the selection and organization of subject-matter\n\n"}
{"page": 269, "printed_page": "257", "text": "Council!\n\nA TEST\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\nOF SUPERVISION\n\n257\n\nthan upon the quality of instruction and the more material provisio\nns\nfor carrying out the course of study, such as textbooks, Hbrary,\nand\napparatus. No more serious blunder can be made by an investig\nator\nthan to judge the quaUty of any course of study, or even the efficiency of\ninstruction, thru the nature and extent of school equipment.\n6. It must sharply distinguish between (i) essential details, the\n\"irreducible minimum\" to be memorized by all individuals in common;\n(2) optional details which, while presented to all in common, will be partially\nand variously retained by each individual; and (3) impressionistic details\nwhich serve to concrete or emotionalize useful things, but which should not\nbe memorized at all. Since this distinction is ''beyond what is available in\nthe ordinary textbook,\" most teachers will vainly attempt\nexact all\ndetails, if the course of study does not specify those whichto are\nto be\ngiven emphasis. As yet the distinction between essentials, optionals, and\nimpressives has not been scientifically made. Supervisory authority m\ndifferent localities will therefore not fix wholly upon the same essentials\neven where they are requiring the same branches. The fundamental requirement, however, is not that essentials shall be uniform or identical, but that\nthey shall be sharply distinguisht from optional details, and optional details\nfrom impressionistic. This distinction is the essential purpose in a scientific\ndetermination of the relative worth of details within the various branches.\nWhen courses of study specify an essential minimum for each grade\nsmall enough for it to be required of all pupils, the problem of gradation and\nretardation will be largely solved. Meanwhile, such minimums as are\nrequired of backward children, immigrant groups and defectives, represent\nattempts to select essentials.\nIn the case of optional material, efficiency demands something more\nthan its specification as nonessential. The course of study should include\na sufficient amount and variety of equally useful details to appeal to individual interests, selected with a view to their greater likelihood of retention\nin the absence of drill. More than this, the partial and varying retention\nof different details by each individual, in as high proportion as native\nretentiveness permits, should be an end in itself rather than evidence of\nfailure to remember all. It is necessary that all educated individuals shall\nbe well informed, but not that they shall possess the same information,\noutside of minimum essentials. In the case of such details as minor causes\nand effects and the great mass of exact statisdcs— height of mountains and\npopulation of cities, the names of Columbus' ships, or the bones in the\nhuman ear— where usefulness lies, not in the things themselves, but in their\nconcreting or emotionaHzing of larger truths, the course of study should\ndurect that they are not to be memorized at all.\n7. It must make all practicable provision for individual abihties and\ninterests which does not involve sacrifice of the minimum, essendal to individuals incommon: (i) Thru variation— that is, thru making the optional\n\n"}
{"page": 270, "printed_page": "258", "text": "2S8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nmaterial presented to all include a sufficient variety of equally useful details\nto appeal to individual abilities and interests conspicuously involved in\nretention. This largely reduces itself to insistence upon the use of a variety\nof visual, auditory, and motor illustrative material and occupations, and\na variety of school readers and library books which collectively include all\nforms of emotional appeal. (2) Thru subjective specialization — that is,\nthru adequate opportunity for the early and continuing development of permanent individual abilities and interests. This must be sharply contrasted\nwith that phase of Montessorian work which encourages temporary whim or\nimpulse, but limits its exercise to choice among a variety of useful things —\nall of which must be finally mastered in common by every individual. Subjective specialization recognizes only permanent individual abilities and\ninterests, and makes their development and use a different end in itself for\neach individual rather than a varying means to the mastery of identical\nthings. Specialization must not be at the expense of minimum essentials,\nbecause they are fundamental both to society and to the highest development of individual efficiency itself. The irreducible minimum of common\nessentials must be small enough to leave time for subjective specialization\nfor all but exceptionally backward learners. Provision for subjective\nspecialization does not include classes for backward children and schemes\nof grading or individual instruction that are intended to insure the completes tpossible mastery of common essentials by all individuals. It does\ninclude: provision from the earliest school years for teaching exceptionally\ntalented pupils such special subjects as music, art, the languages, etc.;\nrecognition of work done outside the school, including not only music\nand art, but all forms of industrial occupation and preparation for the\nenjoyment of individual leisure; and, where complexity of administration\ndoes not make it impracticable, promotion by subjects, vocational guidance,\nelective subjects, and various types of higher schools, etc.\n8. It must avoid definiteness in exhaustive detail which is without\nregard to relative educational values, but must present each relatively\nuseful detail in the definite association on which its educational usefulness\ndepends. Existing standards often require definiteness, but more frequently adefiniteness that fails to suggest educational usefulness.\nMere definiteness is not in itseK educationally useful. Facts are\nnot educationally useful as facts, but in what they suggest or effect. The\neducational usefulness supposed to lie in the exhaustive or \"thoro'* study of\npecuharly definite subjects is more economically and effectively gained\nthru frequent occasion in different subjects, for judging whether or not\nexhaustive detail is useful for a particular purpose, and thru enough\nexperience with occasional and not too exhaustive topics to insure the will\nand abihty to do exhaustive study when it is useful. The course of study\nthat insists upon a particular branch of mathematics or a particular elementary science to the last detail is not necessarily efficient; but the course\n\n"}
{"page": 271, "printed_page": "259", "text": "Council]\n\nA TEST\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\nOF SUPERVISION\n\n350\n\nthat offers no requirements, or no adequate requirements, with a view\nto\njudgments, incentives, and abilities involved in thoroness or exhaustive\ndetail, is to that extent inefficient. On the other hand, the presence\nof educationally useful details in a course of study merely insures possibiUty of usefulness, unless the definite association of each possibly useful\ndetail with the one or more ideas upon which its highest usefulness depends\nmakes its usefulness certain or probable.\nThere are two sorts of definite associations which serve this purpose, and\nwith one or another of which each relatively useful detail in the course of study\nshould be associated, at least in its presentation: (i) Those definite associations which specify, not only the things which make the detail certainly\nand specifically useful, but the things which in themselves constitute its\ngreatest specific usefulness. The relating of ventilation to health makes\nit specifically useful, but it has no certainty or even probabiHty of usefulness\nuntil it is related to the habit of raising windows in bedrooms, and of insuring fresh air in various specific ways in any crowded room. As so-called\nsocial education, as well as academic, is ineffective in the absence of specification, itis not going beyond existing standards to criticize non-specific\ncourses. (2) Those definite associations which help make usefulness general\nby suggesting further useful associations, which otherwise may or may not\nresult.\nThe chief forms of generally useful definiteness are the association of a\ngeneral idea with its type — ^popularized by Dr. McMurry — and what I\nhave personally insisted upon — the memorizing of the most useful general\nideas in firm association with the three or four words or phrases which most\ndefinitely suggest their most frequently recurring and varying associations.\nThe helpfulness of the type is limited to mere identification. The suggesters or interconnection-makers compel the learner to look for particular\nsorts of new ideas and experience. For example, many mountains are\nsufficiently typical to result in the identification of all new mountains as\nthey are encountered by experience. If a variety of mountains is presented\nthru illustration, it is to bring out their common characteristics, for that\nconstitutes the type. But the firm memorizing of a mountain in its association with scenery, forests, minerals, boundaries, and watersheds definitely\nsuggests new experiences yvith each identification. The suggesters are not\nonly common to most mountains, but definitely point out further and\nmore or less different ideas for each.\nMineral may in turn be identified as matter without life, or be made to\nsuggest a number of things. Perhaps the primary suggesters would be\nkinds, parts, and uses, as associated in the kindergarten and earliest grades\nwith every material thing. Mineral, then, like any other thing, would\nsuggest kinds of material, uses of minerals, and their raw materials; and,\nthru this latter suggestion, the minerals from which other things can be\nmanufactured identified as such. Here thinking and inquiry end, if raw\n\n"}
{"page": 272, "printed_page": "260", "text": "26o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niNational\n\nmaterial has not habitually associated with it such further suggesters as\nsource, locality, production, use, manufacture, market. But if they are\nso associated for each mineral found in a particular mountain, each may\nsuggest still other ideas. For iron, source may suggest iron ore or even iron\npyrites and hematite; locahty — Pennsylvania, Lake Superior, Cuba, etc.;\nproduction — mines, veins, shafts, furnaces, coal, limestone, slag, and pigiron; use — cast-iron, stoves, iron dogs on a lawn, steel cutlery, structural\nsteel, industrial implements, war, material, automobiles, etc.; manufacture— ^iron foundries and foundrymen, patterns and pattern-makers,\ncoke ovens, rolKng-mills, Bessemer process, American Bridge Co., munition plants; and market — anything from the city, with its skyscrapers, and\nthe farm, with its ploughs and harrows, to the African explorer bartering\nknives for gum and ivory.\nWith a different set of suggesters, form, color, weight, hardness, and\nfracture, the identification of each new natural object as mineral may result\nin selective observation and famiharity with the name and characteristic\nquahties of a great variety of stones. The association of particular specimens with locality, stratum, fossil, etc., points the way to still broader and\nmore varied knowledge. The point illustrated is that while the vast wealth\nof associations possible for each educationally useful thing, word, or idea\ncannot be memorized by all pupils or even presented to all, the few most\nfar-reaching suggesters for the most useful details can be and should be\nmemorized, reviewed, and cumulatively added to thruout the entire school\ncourse. Identification adds to vocabulary; definite suggestiveness varies\nand multipHes information and mental interconnections. The pupil must\nknow what a gas is, both physically and chemically, or what it means to\nhave two triangles equal; but if compressibiHty of gas or vapor surely suggests elasticity and condensation, it is more likely to suggest steam-engine\nand projectile, while the mechanical association of equality of angles with\nevery way of proving them equal is often the necessary link in demonstrating triangles to be equal. War or settlement, Kuklux Klan or Abraham\nLincoln, should not be included in history without the association that\nmakes it educationally most useful — not merely thru identifying it for what\nit is, but thru making most probable the useful ideas which it should call to\nmind. I believe that the time will soon come when not a single fact will\nbe put into the course of study that is not definitely associated with\nthe ideas that specify its immediate or specific usefulness or suggest its\nfurther or general usefulness. Only a few can be retained by all pupils\nin such associations — the limit to efficiency here lying in individual retentiveness and effective memorizing and drill. Without permanent memorizing there is no permanent definiteness, and without suggestive definition\nthe greatest educational usefulness is impossible.\nThe results of experimentation now under way will lead course-of-study\nmakers to add these specifiers, suggesters, or interconnection-makers to the\n\n"}
{"page": 273, "printed_page": "261", "text": "CQ\"°\"«\n\n^ TEST OF EFFICIENCY\n\nOF SUPERVISION\n\n261\n\nusual forms of definition, because they compel pupils to\nthink habitually\nand carefully more surely than the temporary \"problems\" and mcenti\nves\nnow popular in method teach them how to study. Preliminary\ndetermination of the relative worth of different details in all branche to any\ns is the\ndetermination of the definite associations thru which each is\ngiven\nits\nhighest educational usefulness.\n9. Its definitely suggestive details, whether specific or general, must be\nsuggestive for every form of mental training or control on which their\nusefulness depends. This is merely a more definite way of saying that all\nknowledge contained in the course of study must result m power or in\n''behavior\" in the broad sense in which I understand Professor Thomdike\nto use the term when he writes me urging \"a definition in the actual change\nof behavior to be brought about grade by grade.\" Nothing is educational\nthat does not result in some form of control over future experience. Hence,\nno course of study is likely to be a means to efficiency of supervision that\ndoes not definitely indicate what subject-matter is to result in each form\nof mental training or control — in impression control that emotionalizes, in\nvocabulary control that merely identifies, in variation control that suggests\ngrowing and varying mental interconnection, in habit and system control\nwhich makes useful things sure, and in conditions favorable to the transfer\ncontrol which makes the most general usefulness probable. No branch\nas a whole is essential to mental training. Each distinct form of mental\ntraining or control requires the selection and emphasis of quite different\nforms of subject-matter. Efficiency demands that the details included\nin the course of study from each branch shall definitely call for each form\nwhich it can usefully and economically develop: impression, in the sense\nof permanent interests and incentives, ideals, tastes, appreciations, and\npoints of view; vocabulary, thru increasing the number of words in\ngeneral, or particular kinds of words; variation, thru mental interconnection, either as the result of multiplying information and association\nin general, or of making particular ideas suggestive of variety in particular\nsorts of experience; habit and system, either in the sense of definitely\nassociated essentials, or unvarying activities or complexes following an\neasily identified stimulus; transfer, thru the presentation of ideas in their\nmost generally useful form, and in definite association with the conditions\nfavorable to their application when identification is difficult, whether in\nthe branch itself or in remoter fields of experience. The course of study that\nis truly educational must not specify mere facts, but rather controlling\nimpressions, vocabulary and vocabulary-makers or suggesters, multipUed\nand varying associations and interconnection-makers or suggesters, habits\nand systems of habits, and the conditions favorable to transfer.\nTo illustrate— whether we follow the popular current and look only for\nsocial values in the teaching of history, or for the unique phases of general\ntraining that it alone can give, its contributions to each of the five forms\n\n"}
{"page": 274, "printed_page": "262", "text": "262\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nof control must be determined and assured thru the selection and emphasis\nof the material which definitely specifies or suggests it.\na) Great care should be taken that the right feelings, interests, opinions,\nadmirations, realizations, ideals, and incentives should grow out of the\nlife of the past thru making them the definite center for cumulative impression assured by emotional passages in history itself, and by the still more\nemotional appeal of Hterary masterpieces. Should it be left to chance\nwhether it is Napoleon or democracy that the pupil idealizes, or whether\nthe impression made by reading Tennyson's \"Revenge\" is hatred of the\nSpanish or pride in the Anglo-Saxon spirit? What characters should be\nemotionalized, which of their characteristics are most ideal, what incidents\ndefinitely point them out, and what material in history, biography, or literature surely suggests the emotion they should evoke ? The efficient course\nof study will make right impressions strong and sure. Then each school\nsubject should result in unique impressions that the course of study should\nspecify. Only properly prescribed historical study, for example, can\ndevelop consciousness of historical cause and effect, realization of the necessity for adjustment to changing social, economic, or political conditions,\nand realization of human betterment as the result of civilization and Christianity.\nh) Oversimplification must not prevent history from contributing the\nvocabulary which it alone affords, or which is earlier gained thru historical\nstudy. Era, reign, epoch, settlement, government, forefather, campaign,\ngeneral, administration, reconstruction, tariff, etc., are examples of a\nmultitude of terms that the study of history involves. The efficient course\nof study should not only include those readily understood and retained, but\nshould see that each general term is associated with the suggesters or\nvocabulary-makers that make its suggestion and retention of other words\nmore probable. The passage in \"Marmion and Douglas\" which begins,\n'*Sir Marmion turned, great was his need,\" emotionalizes rowels, steed,\nwarder, portculKs, and drawbridge, and makes it easier to remember them.\nCastle, definitely associated with parts and uses, can suggest turret, dungeon,\nkeep, rampart, moat, etc., and the use to which each is put; ruler, associated\nwith kings, duties, powers, ceremonials, can suggest an endless round of otljer\nterms, from \"king,\" \"emperor,\" and \"duke,\" to \"throne,\" \"scepter,\" and the\n\"royal touch.\" The course of study should specify for each subject taught\nthe words easily retained, the passages that contain them in the form that\nmakes retention most probable, the words that are the most useful centers\nfor vocabulary building, and the vocabulary-makers or suggesters that\nshould be memorized with them. Even in arithmetic, Troy weight, caret,\ngram, and pennyweight may be so presented that they are remembered as\nunits of measure without any effort at memorizing the tables, and endowment poHcies and assest values are understood without a useless solving\nof problems.\n\n"}
{"page": 275, "printed_page": "263", "text": "Councai\n\nA TEST OF EFFICIENCY\n\nOF SUPERVISION\n\n263\n\nc) The growing but varying interconnection of ideas should add to the\nmere identification insured by vocabulary the further suggestion, variation,\nand multiplication of associations insured by suggesters. For example\nassociated with war in definite sequence, cause, campaign, result, effect, will\nsuggest different events for each war in history, especially if cause is associated with immediate, remote, or final, campaign with ground-gaining,\ndestruction, or capture of an army, or cutting it off from its base of supplies,\netc. In every branch the course of study should specify the general training\nand the suggesters which thru frequent recurrence lead to the greatest\nvariety of new experience.\nBut varying interconnection is furthered, not only by general ideas,\nwith their suggesters, but by interconnecting locations. Both constitute\ninterconnection centers, but the suggesters are what should be definitely\nassociated with an idea, and the locations what an idea should be associated\nwith. The unique value of history and geography to interconnection, for\nexample, Hes in location and sequence in time and space. The course of\nstudy should specify for each essential fact the particular location, general,\nrelative, or exact, which can suggest the greatest variety of associations for\nit. Rarely will this be an exact date or parallels of latitude and longitude.\nIt is usually only the more general periods and locahties that are rich in\nassociations actual and probable.\nSimilarly, the course of study should specify the general logical\nsequences, or groups of ideas, in each academic subject, and the fields of\nexperience, in which an essential idea should be located, with a view\nto furthering suggestion and variation. In biology, for example, the\ngeneral sequence — evolution, origin of species, adaptation, survival of the\nfittest, and De Vries' variation or mutation, constitute such an interconnection location. Any course in \"nature study\" or \"general science,\"\nfrom the standpoint of interconnection, should provide such centers as these\nin each fundamental science, adapted to the age of the learner. A college\ncourse that omits them, for the sake of \"discipUne\" and intensive study,\ncannot be inclusively cultural.\nThe final interconnections and locations that should be specified are those\nphases of the learner's experience which are suggestive of the most recurring\nassociations for the particular idea to be located. It is from this point of\nview that the maker of a course of study must determine whether otherwise\nisolated facts in elementary natural science, geography, and history shall\nbe related to food and clothing, farm life, the city, or a reproduction of\nHiawatha or Robinson Crusoe.\n\nI\n\nd) The course of study in history or in any other subject must prescribe\nthe associations that are to be transformed thru drill and review into habit\nand system. If they are definitely prescribed, every subject becomes\n\" disciplinary.\" If they are not, the so-called \" disciplinary \" subjects may\ncompel the memorizing of an unnecessary amount of subject-matter, or the\n\n"}
{"page": 276, "printed_page": "264", "text": "264\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nrepetition of specifically useless processes to form a few generally useful\nhabits. Habitual associations should include: (i) the definite association\nof ideals with what will certainly emotionalize them, of vocabulary-builders\nor centers with mere suggesters of other words, and of the most useful\ngeneral ideas and locations with suggesters of further information and\nexperience; (2) the associations specifically most useful in themselves,\nand (3) the associations favorable to transfer.\ne) The course of study in history, as in every other subject, contains\ndetails that are general in their application both within the field of history\nand outside of it— the habit of logical grouping, a moral quality, the ideal\nand habit of selection, thoroness, etc. They must not only be specified\nas generally useful, but prescribed for development thru particular subjectmatter and under conditions favorable to their transfer. By ordinary\napplication I mean applications so apparent that they are matters of course;\nby transfer, applications in fields of experience or situations so different\nthat they are hard to discover. The course of study is Httle likely to insure\ntransfer that does not prescribe the material that makes it probable.\nPupils may be led to idealize the patriotic seK-sacrifice of a Revolutionary\nhero, but if it is to be carried over into their own experience as citizens it\nmust be associated with present-day activities and their personal experience;\nthey must look for similar instances in the lives of present-day citizens,\nseek applications in current events, etc.\nThese illustrations are not fully adequate for course of study-making,\nbut they should make clear what is meant by a course of study that definitely\nsuggests what is essential to each form of mental training or control.\n10. It must adequately provide for every phase of the social aim that\ncan be justly or effectively taught thru the school system or institution in\nwhich it is to be used. While the social aim has been variously outlined\nand exprest, it includes morahty and religion, individual and public\nhealth, industrial efliciency, social service, good citizenship, and the enjoyment of social intercourse and individual leisure. After the exclusion of all\nclasses of socially useful details that cannot be justly or effectively taught\nthru a particular course of study — such as sectarianism in a public school, or\npossibly sex hygiene in schools as wholes, as distinct from individuals and\nsocial groups — every course of study should adequately contribute to all\nphases of the social aim.\na) As social development is continuous, its direction and control\nshould be continuous thru every stage and variety of instruction. An\nelementary course that confines the teaching of truthfulness to the second\ngrade and honesty to the sixth, or a law school that fails to teach legal\nethics and social service, is non-social.\nh) Adequate provision for social training, however, does not involve\nthe selection and emphasis of every socially useful detail that can be\n\n"}
{"page": 277, "printed_page": "265", "text": "Councaj\n\nA TEST OF EFFICIENCY\n\nOF SUPERVISION\n\n265\n\nincluded in the traditional school subjects regardless of relative values\nand\nto the exclusion or neglect of material that is generally useful. The current\nmovement toward the social may readily enough interfere with general\ntraining without resulting in social efficiency. Indeed any interference with\ngeneral training is in itself a menace to social efficiency. This statement\nneeds to be put more concretely, or Dr. Snedden would not write: \"Your\ncalling attention especially to the moraHty and citizenship phases of the\nsocial aim is good, provided you state clearly, also, where in the same\nconnection belong arithmetic, English speech, nature-study, etc.\" I mean\nnot only that every academic subject makes social contribution, but\nthat the individual who is not generally efficient is limited in his social\nefficiency.\nc) Adequate social education demands the emphasis of all material\nthat has unique social value, such as selected portions of sociology, civics,\neconomics, domestic science, etc., and the designation, among various\ndetails and branches having a common usefulness for each social aim, of\nthose that most effectively teach it at each stage of development. In this\nselection and emphasis it must not be forgotten that a fact may be social\nwithout being educationally useful.\nd) The adequate teaching of any social aim involves facts only in so far\nas they insure the development of impressions, vocabulary, varying interconnections, habits, and the conditions favorable to transfer. The omission of any one of the five controls, for any social end, may render its\nteaching inadequate. A \"scientific temperance\" instruction that consists\nsolely of facts that may not become incentives to action is ineffective if it\nneglects the formation of ideals, tastes, and habits; while a hygiene that\nis taught thru school baths and school dentists, in the absence of conscious\nefforts to create conditions favorable to transfer, may not carry over to\nhome environment.\nThis necessity for the inclusion of all forms of control to the adequate\nrealization of each social aim throws certain subjects and activities into\nsocial prominence on account of unique or exceptional educational values\nthat would not be involved in the teaching of mere facts. For example,\nliterature is essential to the emotionaHzing of ideals; and the organized\nsocial activities, which President Wilson used to call the side shows that\ndistract attention from the main academic tent, become essential to personal\nhabits involved in social service and social intercourse.\nII. It must adequately provide, thru selected subject-matter, for each\ndefinite form of general training, instead of expecting it to result incidentally\nfrom the teaching of a few subjects as exhaustive wholes.. General training,\nas distinct from specffic and social, reduces itself to the development of\npermanent impressions and habits, more or less general in their application, plus the conditions essential or favorable to their transfer; and,\n\n"}
{"page": 278, "printed_page": "266", "text": "266\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nprominent among these conditions, generally useful vocabulary, and the\nvarying interconnection of generally useful ideas. No branch as a whole\ngives general mental training, but only as its parts contribute to one or\nanother of these definite forms. The effective course of study must specify\neach definite form of general training it means to exact from the prescribed\nparts or uses of every branch.\nThe important test here is not what branches are included to insure\ngeneral training, but whether each of its forms is definitely assigned material, thru which its certain and economical development is required, and,\nin the case of generally useful ideals and habits, thru which the conditions\nfavorable to transfer are insured. It is equally ineffective to assume that\ngeneral training is incidental and matter-of-course, whether thru the inclusion of particular subjects as wholes, or thru the selection and emphasis of\nspecifically useful material. But it is more effective to prescribe the traditional abstract subjects which uneconomically but certainly develop\ngeneral useful ideals and habits — even tho under conditions that make\ntheir transfer less likely than if they are associated with more many-sided\nmaterial — than a course so completely and unnecessarily socialized — ^in the\nspecific sense — that general ideals and habits are forgotten.\n12. While no course of study which adequately provides thru definitely\nsuggestive details for each practicable phase of the social aim and each form\nof general training, can be regarded as inefficient, courses in which these\ndefinitely suggestive details are most many-sided, recurring, and strong in\nemotional or sensory appeal are of relatively greater efficiency. There can\nbe no division of details into essential, optional, and impressionistic, without\nan attempt to estimate their relative worth. And, more or less consciously,\ncourse-of-study makers and textbook writers have recognized many-sidedness\nthru giving prominence to general terms and principles; recurrence\nthru including \"the practical\"; and emotional and sensational appeal thru\nemphasizing what is interesting. While it would be unjust to apply a\nscientific standard before it is generally accepted, and to condemn as inefficient the course that fails to meet it, it is just to point out that manysided details that are not presented in the association that definitely suggests their most useful many-sidedness, recurring details that fail definitely\nto suggest what makes recurrence useful, and emotional details that do not\ndefinitely associate their emotional appeal with the thing that is to be\nusefully emotionalized, are not necessarily useful at all. For example, the\nBritish evacuation of Boston on the mounting of guns on Dorchester\nHeights is a potentially many-sided fact, but its many-sidedness is improbable if it is not associated with an army's surrender or retreat, when cut\noff from its base of supplies. Identification of river is a recurring experience,\nbut not educationally useful if \"river\" fails to call definitely to mind such\nsuggesters as scenery, fertihzation, navigation, and power. The picture\nplay, The Making of a Nation^ is strongly emotional, but it may result in\n\n"}
{"page": 279, "printed_page": "267", "text": "CouncU]\n\nA TEST OF EFFICIENCY\n\nOF SUPERVISION\n\nrace prejudice if it is not definitely associated with the need for impartial\njudges and just laws.\nIt is also just, even in courses that definitely distinguish between\nessentials, optionals, and impressives, to condemn as inefficient the memorizing ofthe relatively less useful, the impressive presentation of what is little\nuseful or has little chance of survival, and failure to omit insignificant\ndetails that fail to concrete larger truths and can be displaced by what is\nrelatively more useful. With the exceptions of details uniquely useful in\nthe sense that nothing else can take their place, the apparent presence or\nabsence of definitely suggestive many-sidedness, recurrence, and emotional\nappeal is an essential criterion for emphasis, inclusion, or omission.\n13. The efficient course of study must have ehminated or rejected all\ndetails (i) antagonistic to any phase of the social aim, (2) useless to the\nmajority of individuals except thru the speciaHst, and (3) incapable of\nefficient furtherance thru the particular system or institution concerned,\nor that have been adequately provided for elsewhere. The two social\naims most likely to. be antagonized in a course of study are moraHty and\ngood citizenship — moraHty, especially in higher schools, thru literature or art\nthat pleasurably emotionalizes wrong characteristics, experiences, and\nideals; and citizenship, thru failure definitely to guard against undemocratic\nideals, viewpoints, and attitudes of mind in historical subjfect-matter, or\ndefinitely and emotionally to associate war with its horror and suffering, as a\ncheck upon militarism and a stimulus to preparedness.\nMost courses of study, and especially textbooks, have failed fully to\neliminate material useful only thru the speciaHst, a failure which usually\ntakes the form of the study of particular branches as exhaustive elementary\nwholes at the expense of what is of relatively far greater educational usefulness inother subjects. In rejecting the material of specialization from\nthe general course, however, care must be taken not to omit so much as to\nclose the door to future speciaHzation in any subject requiring years of\nhabit formation as preparations for advanst work, and essential to a great\nvariety of occupations. This appHes with especial force to mathematics.\nThe movement toward socialization, with its tendency to ignore aU that\nis not immediately and specificaUy useful, must be carefuUy safeguarded\nfrom this extreme.\nThe same movement here and there is resulting in demands for phases\nof instruction that the school cannot effectively or economically provide.\nAbsence of such provision— as class instruction in sex hygiene, or training\nin the care and nurture of infants— cannot be lookt upon as inefficiency.\n14. The efficient course of study (i) must be organized from the standpoint of educational usefulness and relative educational worth; (2) must\ninclude the most useful parts, or selections from the most useful parts, of\nevery branch in the earliest school grade for which their usefulness becomes\naU definitely\nimmediate; and (3) must provide for the continual review of\n\n"}
{"page": 280, "printed_page": "268", "text": "268\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nassociated essentials until they become a firmly memorized and an increasingly complex efficiency system. The immediate effect of the movement\ntoward the socializing of the school course, adaptation to genetic and individual development, and the selection of the most useful details from a\ngreat variety of subjects, is disorganization. Famihar academic systems are\nbeing torn into fragments. But the cumulative result of definitely suggestive associations in the order of their educational usefulness, both specific\nand general, is a pedagogical system more complete, more complex, and\nmore probable of retention and appUcation than the most exact of special\nsciences.\nImmediacy of usefulness, and not natural interest or readiness of development must determine the grade in which particular essentials are first introduced into the course of study. When definitely suggestive details suggest in\na many-sided way ideas and experiences that are recurring in a particular\nschool year, lack of natural interest and readier development later on must\nnot prevent the most many-sided and recurring from being taught. Immediacy of usefulness must include, however, as early preparation as is necessary for what is of high immediate usefulness farther along the course, but\nno activities should be included merely because they are natural, nor\nmaterial merely because it can be readily mastered.\nMuch academic or logical organization will be found to have either\nsocial or general usefulness, but mere logical outlines, however elaborate or\nsystematic, have no educational usefulness in themselves. The test of\norganization is not the recollection of headings and subheadings, but the\nfact that a detail suggests the ideas on which its highest educational usefulness depends, and each suggested idea what is necessary to still further\nusefulness. It matters not at all how detailed and exactly organized a\nbranch of knowledge may be, if its specifically useful facts fail to suggest\nsimilarly useful details in other branches, or its generally useful ideals and\nhabits, the conditions favorable to their transfer. This test of organization isjust alike to the course that sticks to the traditional subjects and to\nthe course that is socialized, and can be applied with increasing complexity\nfrom grade to grade. If the product of any type of course is isolated facts,\nor outlines that suggest nothing and effect nothing, it is not educationally\nwell organized. Obviously, the final test of organization is in the mind of\nthe learner. But while an effectively organized course of study may be\ntaught by such inefficient method that it is not effective for all learners,\nin the absence of an effectively organized course there is little likelihood of efficient organization in the minds of most teachers or of most\npupils.\n15. While the task of course-of -study-making will be greatly simplified\nwhen school textbooks more fully measure up to the standards discust in\nthis report, each suggested standard has been so qualified as to make it a\njust basis for judging all varieties of existing courses.\n\n"}
{"page": 281, "printed_page": "269", "text": "CouncUl\n\nRURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSo qualified, general standards may be agreed to, which are capable of\nbeing applied in a great variety of textbooks— each with its ardent champions. All experts may agree upon standards such as these, yet each would\nwrite a different- textbook or plan a different course. I none the less heartily\nagree with Dr. Snedden when he writes:\nWould it not be a great deal better for men in your position, instead of giving so much\nattention to courses of study, to go to work and produce actual textbooks that would\nexemplify the details of what we have in view ? I am thinking, of course, of a textbook as\nbeing chiefly a teachers' guide to what is to be taught in particular subjects, and I have\nalways desired that this teachers' guide should be supplemented by a small booklet which\nwould give specific recommendations as to method.\n\nAt least, tho unwilling to give less attention to courses of study, I agree\nwith Professors Chamberlain and Suhrie that experts should apply their\nscientific conclusions in actual school texts. Historically, actual reform\nin course of study has usually been preceded by pioneer work on the part\nof school-book writer and pubUsher. Textbooks, already increasingly\ninclusive and selective, will soon become more definitely suggestive of the\neducational usefulness of their details. Some of them will surely be\nwritten by professors of research, and may even seU, if their writers are\nexperts in teaching, supervision, finance, and textbook-making as well as in\ntheory. Occasionally courses like the early Detroit course in hygiene\nwill go further in reform, thru courageous local initiative, than can be\nexpected thru textbooks seeking a general market.\nOne thing is clear. Agreement upon definite but adaptive standards for\nboth textbooks and courses of study by representative experts in research,\nsupervision, and textbook-making, would surely constitute what Mr. Elson\nhas called in this report \"a distinct forward step\" toward both more\nefficient textbooks and courses of study.\n\nRURAL\nJAMES\n\nY. JOYNER,\n\nSTATE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nRALEIGH, N.C.\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\n\nRural education bulks big in public thought and public discussion\ntoday. It is a problem of national as well as of state and local importance,\nof urban as well as of rural interest. Quantitatively it is 58 .4 per cent of\nthe whole educational problem in the nation; a much larger per cent of\nthe problem in all distinctly agricultural states; and at least 80 per cent\nIt is of\nof the problem in the states known as the \"Southern States.\"\nis\ncountry\nthe\nbecause\ncountry,\nthe\nto\nas\nweU\nas\ncity\nthe\nto\ninterest\nvital\nvitaUy related to the well-being of the city. According to the evidence\nof past history and of present observation, the city is largely dependent\nm\nupon the renewal of its population from the countryside for leadership\nss,\nrighteousne\naU lines of business, commercial and professional, for civic\n\n"}
{"page": 282, "printed_page": "270", "text": "^^0\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\nfor spiritual guidance, and for the preservation and the perpetuation of the\nbest in its civiHzation. Truly has Emerson said that if the cities were not\nreinforst from the fields, they would have rotted, exploded, and disappeared\nlong ago. A reliable authority states that five-sixths of the ministers and\nsix-sevenths of the college professors of this country were born and reared\nin the country; twenty-six of the twenty-seven presidents of the United\nStates were country-born; three-fourths of the men in authority in our\ncity churches and about the same percentage of the influential men of\naffairs, merchants, manufacturers, bankers, lawyers, were born and reared\nin the rural regions. From such evidence the supreme importance of this\nproblem of rural education is apparent.\nTo make clear in the outset the viewpoint from which this subject wUl\nbe discust, let me submit for your consideration this simple definition of\nrural education: \"Rural education is the education of country folks in the\ncountry, for the country.\" This definition includes the three things that,\nin my opinion, should be the determining factors in rural education: (i)\nrural education is primarily for country folks, and therefore should be\nadapted to the needs of country folks; (2) the purpose of rural education\nis primarily to educate country folks for the. country, not for the towns;\n(3) the best place for the education of country folks for the country is the\ncountry itself, not the town. These seem to be self-evident truths, and\nyet in the rural education of the past, and in most of that of the present,\nthey have been almost ignored.\nThe content of the course of instruction should be determined by the\npurpose of it. In rural education the purpose of instruction should be to\nprepare country folks to make the most, and to get the most, out of country\nlife and country things for themselves and for others; to make life in the\ncountry as profitable, as comfortable, as healthful, as beautiful, as joyous\nas Hfe anywhere, that country folks may love it more, and be more content\nto live it. The course of instruction, therefore, should be closely related\nto country life; should be adapted to the general and special needs of\ncountry people; should give a knowledge, an appreciation, and a mastery\nof country things and country environment.\nThe fundamental needs of country folks are, of course, the fundamental\nneeds of humanity, namely, economic, social, spiritual; but the material,\nthe opportunity, the means for supplying these are so different in the country\nfrom what they are in town and city, and the specific needs of country and\ncity life are so different as to necessitate different courses of study, different types of school, differently trained teachers. The chief sources of\nwealth in the country, and, for that matter, in the world, are soil, plant,\nanimal. The chief business of the country is farming, which deals with\nthese. The economic needs of the country and of the world must be met\nby the wise and intelligent handling of these. The efficiency of farming\ndepends upon a knowledge of them and the way to handle them most\n\n"}
{"page": 283, "printed_page": "271", "text": "Councai\n\nRURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n2*,\n\ninteUigently and profitably. Yet such has been and is now the inefficienqr\nof rural education that the farmers who live closest to these greatest\nsources of wealth often know least about them and get least out of\nthem. The majority of these farmers do not get enough out of them to\nsupply the bare necessities of the meagerest Ufe, and have nothing left\nto contribute to the wealth of the community or to supply good schools,\ngood churches, and other necessaries for the inteUectual, social, and spiritual needs of the community. Should not country boys be taught in country\nschools by teachers prepared to teach them the simple principles of the\nconservation, the fertilization, the tillage, and the drainage of soils, and\ntheir practical appHcation; a knowledge of plants and plant life and their\nadaptation to soil and environment, how to grow them and how to handle\nthem most profitably; of animals, how to feed them, how to care for them,\nhow best to utilize them ? Health, food, raiment, and shelter— these are\nthe elemental needs of life. They are more easily suppUed in the country\nthan an)rwhere else, and yet, on the whole, more poorly suppHed there.\nHow much does the country teacher know about either ? Should not sanitation, food selection and preparation, canning, sewing, dressmaking, miUinery,\nhome-making, and decoration have a place in the preparation of the country\nteacher, and in the curriculum of the country school for country girls?\nYou may cry, \"Back to the country! Stay on the farm!\" but I declare to\nyou that until you teach country boys in the country schools how to make\nmoney out of soil and plant and animal by better farming and better marketing, how to command in the country the modern conveniences of life, and\nhow to break up its isolation and barrenness; until you teach the country\ngirls in the country schools how to use the money to make country fife and\ncountry homes as comfortable, as healthful, as beautiful, as attractive, as\nsociable, as life and homes anywhere else, your cry will be all in vain.\nGood houses, good churches, good schools, good roads, good vehicles, good\nclothes, modern conveniences, and all other things that reduce the drudgery,\nbreak up the isolation, add to the sociabiHty, the comfort, the beauty,\nand attractiveness of country life, are costly— and the country boys must\nbe taught in the country schools how to make money out of soil, plant, and\nanimal; and the country girls must be taught how to use it m the making\nof country homes and for the enrichment of country life. For 95 per cent\nof these country boys and girls never see the inside of any other than the\ncountry school.\nRural education must minister not alone to the economic needs of\ncountry life thru bread-and-butter studies, thru vocational training for\ncountry life; it must supply the means for meetmg its economic needs— but\nit must do more than this: It must also supply the means for meeting its\nsocial needs. The country school must be adequately equipt in buHding,\nas an intelgrounds, and teachers, to be a social and recreational, as well\nthe adults\nfor\n,\ncommunity\ncountry\nthe\nfor\ncenter\nindustrial,\nand\nlectual\n\n"}
{"page": 284, "printed_page": "272", "text": "272\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nas well as for the children. And the country teacher must be prepared for\nsocial and recreational leadership and instruction. It must never be forgotten that the making of men is more important than the making of\nmoney; that life is more than meat, and body more than raiment.\nFinally, rural education, thru the country school, must be made to\nminister to the spiritual needs of the country people, and the country\nteacher must be prepared for this. I use this term, not in its restricted\nreligious sense, but in its broadest sense, the esthetic, the imaginative,\nthe emotional — in a word, all that is \"likest God in man.\" How reads\nthe record? \"God formed man of the dust of the ground and breathed\ninto his nostrils the breath of life, and man became a living soul\" —\nSpirit, the breath of God in man. God has revealed himself to man\nin three great books; the book of direct revelation the Bible; the book\nof humanity, God incarnate; and the book of nature, the Universe.\n\"The heavens declare the glory of God and the firmament showeth\nhis handiwork.\" \"God made the country, man made the town.\" God\nfirst placed man in the country. The Garden of Eden has remained\never since the ideal home of man, ever since man has wandered thru the\nearth bearing in his heart a life-long hunger for it. God commanded man\nto dress and keep it. The country child and the country school are closest\nto this book of nature — in the heart of this heaven-ordained home of man.\nThe country child, thru the country school, should be taught to dress and\nkeep the garden, might be taught to transform it into a veritable Eden\nagain. Instead, thru neglect of his education and training, he is allowed\nto grow up to kill the birds, to destroy the trees, to trample down the\nflowers, to waste the soil, to defile the streams, to mar the beauty of forest\nand field.\nHow many country children, how many country teachers, know even\nthe names and uses of the commonest trees and plants and flowers, can\neven recognize the wild birds and their songs, know or feel aught of the\nmiracle and the mystery of forest, field, and firmament ? Oh, the pity of\nit! Oh, the folly of it! Oh, the tragedy of it! For the lack of teaching\nthe majority of our country children pass from the cradle to the grave\nsurrounded by this revelation of the glory and the beauty of God in his\nwonderful book of nature, with eyes that see not, with ears that hear not,\nwith hearts that understand not. To them that book is sealed; to them\nthe world is a dull and an ugly place. The infinite harmonies of earth\nand heaven, the very music of the spheres, if heard at all by them, are but\ndiscordant and commonplace noises.\nMy heart grows sick within me sometimes as I watch the little country\nchild in the towns and cities rushing to the moving^picture show, seeking to\nsatisfy his little famisht soul with these poor husks of imitation and artificiality, and I have thought: \"Back there in the country whence you came,\neveryday from the rising of the sun unto the going down thereof, there\n\n"}
{"page": 285, "printed_page": "273", "text": "Council]\n\nRURAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n273\n\nmoves before your eyes God's great moving-picture show, its scenes shifted\nevery moment by his own hands for the delectation of his children, and, in\nthe midst of it all, you move every day with unseeing eye, with unkindled\nimagination, with unmoved heart.\" Sometimes I have watched these little\nones wandering thru the artificiality of town and city, caught by the music\nof the brass band, with its toot of horns and rattle of drum, and I have\nthought: \"Oh, hungry little souls, feeding upon this poor imitation of the\nmelodies of God, while back yonder in the country whence you came, every\nmorning at the rising of the sun, in spring and summer and autumn, and\nat the going down thereof, the earth is filled with the orchestra of the\nbirds, the myriad- voiced music of nature; and you surrounded by these\nentrancing melodies of God, because untaught, hear them not, understand them not, enjoy them not.\" How long, oh! how long, before we\nshall teach these country children to understand and appreciate these\nmysteries and melodies of heaven and earth — to enter into their rich\nheritage? After all,\n'Tis heaven alone that is given away,\n'Tis only God may be had for the asking;\nNo price set on the lavish summer,\nJune may be had by the poorest comer.\nAnd what is so rare as a day in June ?\n\nFor such rural education a new type of country school must be provided— a country school with house enough, land enough, teachers enough\nof the right sort, children enough, money enough, and equipment of every\nsort, to furnish cultural, occupational, and recreational training for country\nboys and girls at home; to fit them for more profitable, more comfortable,\nmore efficient, more complete living in the country; to prepare them to make\nthe most and to get the most out of all that is about them, and to put the\nmost into the life around them; in short, a country school that shall be\nadequately equipt for adequately ministering to all the needs of the coimtry people, and that shall become the social, intellectual, and industrial\ncenter of the whole community— the unifying, uplifting force in its life.\nIn order to do its work, the country school must be made a permanent\ninfluence. At present the prevailing type of country school is a transient,\nunpermanent influence, because of a transient, shifting population, and of\ntransient, shifting teachers. Statistics seem to indicate that about twothirds of the teachers in the country schools teach not more than one year\nin the same school. Rural education of the right sort for any country\ncommunity must, of necessity, be an organic growth of many years out of\nthe life and needs of that community. Permanency and continuity\nthereof are absolutely essential to its success. To make the school a permanent, continuous influence, a permanent, or, at least, a long-tenured\nteaching force is necessary. The rural school of the new type, therefore,\n\n"}
{"page": 286, "printed_page": "274", "text": "274\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nlike the Danish schools, must have its teacher's home, and its resident\nprincipal employed for life or during good behavior.\nThe new t5^e of country teacher must have special training for her\nspecial work — training that will give her a knowledge of country things,\ncountry people, country needs; a sympathy with them, and a love and\nappreciation of them. Above all, the country teacher must have ruralmindedness, a sympathetic attitude of mind and soul toward country life\nand country things born of a scientific and practical knowledge of them,\nand of a love and an appreciation of them. Such a country teacher is\nbeyond price. The virtue of rural-mindedness passes out of her into the\nchildren that touch the hem of her garment; and, tho they may forget\nmany things that she taught, there will abide with them the \"vision splendid\" of the country and the country life that will never \"fade into the light\nof common day,\" and they will never forget how their hearts burned within\nthem as they walkt along the way with her in God's great out-of-doors.\nLet the agencies for rural education cost what they may, they are cheap\nat any price. They will not come in one generation, for all the greatest\nthings in civiUzation are of longest growth. This generation may be well\ncontent to sow in faith the seeds, assured that from them shall grow some\nday a finer flower and fruit than ever were before produced.\n\nTHE GREATER\nS. W.\n\nSTRAUS,\n\nTHRIFT\n\nPRESIDENT, AMERICAN\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nSOCIETY FOR THRIFT,\n\nI have chosen as the subject which I shall discuss tonight \"The Greater\nThrift.\" Your organization has undertaken to investigate the situation\nas it exists in America today with reference to the practices of thrift among\nthe people, with the view of ultimately making recommendations along the\nlines of teaching thrift in our schools.\nI think that, generally speaking, there is a misunderstanding as to the\nscope and purposes of the thrift movement in this country. The lack of\nunderstanding lies primarily in the fact that to the popular mind thrift\nmeans simply saving money. In striving to differentiate between mere\nmoney-saving and the practices of the greater thrift, I am reminded of the\ntruth of an utterance by Benjamin Franklin, who said: \"Learning, whether\nspeculative or practical, is, in popular or mixt governments, the natural\nsource of wealth and honor.\" The difference between mere money-saving\nand the greater thrift is learning — which, as Franklin declared, is the\nnatural source of wealth and honor.\nEducation, taken in the sense of mental discipline, is the foundation of\nall wealth and all honor, national or individual, and it is only thru its\nprocesses that we can bridge the chasm between money-saving and the\n\n"}
{"page": 287, "printed_page": "275", "text": "Council]\n\nTHE\n\nGREATER\n\nTHRIFT\n\n2^^\n\ngreater thrift. Saving money is one of the foundation stones in the building\nof a thrifty character— but it is no more the sum total of thrift than\none\nstone is the sum total in the foundation of a great house. A man may\nbe\na money-saver, and yet, if he dissipates or is immoral, he is not thrifty. A\nman may save money— yet if he works eighteen hours a day, to the detriment ofhis health, he is not thrifty. True thrift consists in the judicious\nuse of all our mental, material, and physical resources, and when we merely\nsave money, we have only gone part way. A miser is an undesirable citizen.\nWhat, pray, would be the fate of a nation of misers ? The wheels of industry\nare turned by men and women who spend and employ their money wisely,\nand live sanely.\nPerhaps I can more clearly indicate the point I have in mind at this\ntime by telling you a story:\nLast summer in San Francisco, while I was conducting the Thrift Congress held by\nthe American Society for Thrift, a lady came to me and said: \"Mr. Straus, you are\npreaching thrift, but do you personally practice what you preach ?\" And I replied by\nasking her if she referred to financial matters or to thrift in health, time, and energy.\nShe said: \"I notice you are living at an expensive hotel in this city— and that you are\ngiving away money for essay contests and things of that sort. Now, you must either be\na very rich man or a very extravagant one.\" And I said: \"If I were a very rich man, or\nif I were a very poor man, and were spending any money unwisely, I would be extravagant; but if I spend what I can afford for worthy purposes which will result in good to\nmyself and to others, I am not extravagant. Suppose we take a school teacher who is\nearning $800 a year, and of this sum she saves $400. Would you call her thrifty ? Of\ncourse you would. Now, suppose this woman is promoted to a principalship and receives\n$1200 a year, and spends $600. Would you still call her thrifty?\" \"Yes,\" was the\nanswer. \"Now, suppose this woman is promoted to a superintendency,\" I continued,\n\"and receives a salary of $2500 a year, spending $1250 and saving $1250. You would\nstill call her thrifty, altho she would now be spending over three times as much as she\nspent at first. Let us fancy now that she has become more ambitious, opens a private\nschool, and earns $10,000 a year. Would she be thrifty if she saved $5000 and spent\n$5000?\" \"Yes, she would,\" was the reply. \"Now, let us presume that prosperity\ncontinues to smile on her and her school grows to the point where she is earning $40,000\na year. With a changed environment, a broadened viewpoint, and wider opportunities,\nshe is able to do much for her family, to donate to charities, and to live well on half her\nincome, while the other half, $20,000, she saves. Now, you will admit, will you not, that\nshe is still thrifty, altho she is spending exactly fifty times as much money on herself, her\nfamily, and the community as she spent at first ? But if this woman had continued to\nincrease her income and had not increast the amount that she spent, so that when she\nwas earning $40,000 she was only spending $400 a year, what would you call her then ?\nWhy, you would call her a miser, of course. Yet there was a time when she lived on $400\na year and you called her thrifty. And as a miser she would be as useless and as undesirable in her citizenship as if she were a spendthrift.\"\n\nThe man who pays $50,000 for a work of art, the product of the brain\nof a genius, and hangs it in his home, or donates it to an art gallery, is not\nthriftless or extravagant— altho many would believe that the advocacy of\nthrift is against such practices. The man who pays $50,000 for a work\nof art places a glorious premium on genius and brains, giving impetus to\n\n"}
{"page": 288, "printed_page": "276", "text": "276\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nartistic progress, refinement, and civilization. In Chicago a man died\nrecently, and left $700,000 to the Orchestra Association of that city, to be\nused subsequently in the founding of a school for music the equal of any in\nthe world. That man has given impetus to artistic development, he has\nexemplified the greater thrift. It is thru such deeds as these that the world\nprogresses. The man who is penurious and tight-fisted is a dead weight\nto civilization. We who have the interests of the great thrift movement\nin America at heart must realize that one of our chief problems is to teach\nour fellow-men that merely putting money in a savings bank is not the\nsum total of thrift. The prudent use of money, and the practice of liberality\nwhere it could be afforded, have brought about the development of the arts\nand sciences, and the manifold blessings of civilization. Nothing ever has\nbeen accomplisht solely thru selfishness and greed. Men who acquire\nwealth by merely piling one dollar on top of another are not good citizens\nin the broadest sense.\nThe man who adorns his home with expensive period furniture, with\ncostly rugs, and who maintains beautiful grounds is, if he can actually\nafford these things, a benefactor, because he is rewarding skill and artistic\naccompUshment. The man who dines from costly china is a more useful\ncitizen, if he can afford these things, than if he uses cheap crockery, because\nin the purchase of fine chinaware and costly linens he places a premium on\nthe development of the applied arts.\nThe woman who buys fine gowns and fine hats, who employs a costly\nmodiste, and who uses expensive fabrics in her gowns, is not thriftless, if she\ncan well afford these things and lives up to the tenets I have heretofore\nstated in the true meaning of the greater thrift. She might purchase a\nsuit or a gown that would cost $20, and it would serve the purpose of the one\nfor which she pays $100, but the $20 goes to unskilled labor and the sweat\nshop. On the other hand, the $100 goes to skilled labor and to a designer\nwhose work is art.\nThe French probably have had a keener understanding of the significance of the greater thrift than any other people, and they have been\nknown for many generations as an exceedingly prosperous nation. They\nhave done everything to encourage art and the industries that demand\nskilled labor and the employment of persons of education and refinement.\nThat is why the average woman in America today thinks that anything,\nfrom a hatpin to an evening gown, if it comes from France, is a little better\nbecause of its origin.\nThere is a happy medium between extravagance and penuriousness.\nOne of the evils of the day Hes in the fact that many of us live far beyond\nour resources. Jealousy, social ambitions, business rivalry, personal egotism, false pride, all play their part in the strife and the stress and mad\nrush of the twentieth century. Many of our false economic conditions are\ndue to this baneful tendency to overHve, to overspend, to overindulge,\n\n"}
{"page": 289, "printed_page": "277", "text": "Councfll\n\nTHE\n\nGREATER\n\nTHRIFT\n\n277\n\nand to overplay our part in life's daily round. On the other hand, we have\nthose citizens who are cheap and tight-fisted in their habits, who are unwilling toreward their fellow-men for work well done. With them progress\nhalts; they contribute little or nothing to the upbuilding of the things\nthat are worth while. Midway between miserliness and extravagance hes\nthe pathway of the greater thrift, and I say that it is in the better understanding ofthis fact and the application of it in our hves and in the Uves\nof those around us, that we have a problem and an opportunity.\nWhat is the \"greater thrift\" ? It is constructive thrift; it is scientific\nthrift; it is liberal thrift; it is thrift that builds character. It is the\nthrift\nthat comes thru education. It is the thrift that is the basis of all progress\nin art, in science, in business. It is the advancement of civilization accomplisht thru the reward of education, moraUty, and industry. Summed up,\nthe greater thrift is personal economics in its broadest sense, and, in a\ngeneral way, the true art of living. This should be the spirit of the twentieth\ncentury.\nMoney-saving is but one link in the chain of a perfect character; economy isonly a strand in the thread of thrift, and it is only thru the process\nof education that it can be developt. It cannot be taught in a haphazard\nmanner. Thru our schools the practices of this great virtue must be introduced. We are teaching our boys and girls arithmetic, history, and geography. Our agricultural schools are teaching them to till the soil scientifically,\nand to develop the resources of the land thru education. We are teaching\nhousehold economics. We are teaching morality and hygiene. We are\nteaching everything worth while but practical thrift; and I say to you,\nmy friends, that we are neglecting one of the most important branches of\neducation. If there is any merit in the greater thrift as I have pointed out,\nif he who practices the greater thrift is a valuable citizen, a benefit to his\nfellow-men, an encouragement to genius, an aid in the progress of civihzation, then is it not worth while to look into this problem more carefully,\nand to discover how and by what means we may develop this virtue in our\npeople ? If there are a million citizens in America today who are practicing\nthe greater thrift, and whose fellow-citizens are deriving the benefit therefrom thru their well-regulated lives, would it not be better if there were\ntwo million such citizens, or five millions, or one hundred millions ?\nThese are simple facts. If every citizen in the United States today\nwere familiar with and practist the greater thrift, what a power of strength\nfor good and righteousness and peace this glorious land of ours would be!\nWe speak of wonderful America— and it is wonderful. Yet if we turn to\nthe statistics on thrift in America we find our enthusiasm tempered; and\nwe perforce wish that America were as wonderful a nation in the practices\nof thrift as it is in wealth and material resources. The last census of the\nUnited States gives the number of families occupying homes as 20,000,000.\nOf this number more than one half, 10,700,000, are renters. Of the 9,000,000\n\n"}
{"page": 290, "printed_page": "278", "text": "278\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwho live in their own homes, 6,000,000 are free from debt, and 3,000,000 are\ncarrying mortgages. Some idea of the thriftlessness of the Americans, with\nall their opportunities, is gleaned from the last national census, which shows\nthat of the 84,198 paupers in institutions, one-half were born in this country.\nThe native-born number 44,254, the other 40,000 are composed of persons\nfrom foreign countries, who were handicapt by ignorance of our language\nand our working methods. Let us take the statistics dealing with the\naverage American citizen. We will take one hundred men at the age of\ntwenty-five. In 10 years we find that 5 have died, 10 have become of\nindependent means, 10 are in good circumstances, 40 have moderate\nresources, and 35 have not improved at all. In another 10 years, at the\nage of forty-five, 11 more die, making a total of 16, and all but 3 of those\nwho had anything have lost their accumulations; 3 have become wealthy,\nwhile 63 are working, and, while self-supporting, have no other resources,\nand 15 have ceast to become seK-supporting. In another 10 years 4 more\nhave died, making a total of 20 deaths, and i more has become wealthy;\n3 others, at the age of fifty-five, have reacht good circumstances, but i of\nthe 3 who was wealthy at the age of forty-five has lost his fortune, so that\nof the original 100 there are but 3 who now are independent or wealthy;\n46 are still working for a Uving, and have no other resources; 28 become\nmore or less dependent upon the charity of society, their children, or their\nrelatives. In another 10 years 16 have died, making a total of 36 deaths.\nOf the remaining, at the age of sixty-five, i is very rich; 4 are wealthy; i\nof those who lost everything before he reacht the age of forty-five has\nregained his hold and has become wealthy; 6 are self-supporting, with no\nother resources, and the other 53 are dependent upon charity — not altogether public charity, but the kind indulgence of children and relatives.\nIn another 10 years 63 of the original 100 have died, 60 of whom left no\nestates whatever; 2 of the 5 who were rich have lost their fortunes; the\nremaining 34, at the age of seventy-five, are dependent upon their children,\nor others charitably inchned. The records of the Surrogate Courts show\nthat out of 100 men who die, 3 leave estates of $10,000; 15 others leave\nestates from $2000 to $10,000; 82 of every 100 leave no income-producing\nestates at all. Thus out of every 100 widows only 18 are left in good or\ncomfortable circumstances, while 47 are obliged to go to work, and 35 are\nleft in absolute want.\nI believe you will agree with me that a thoro appreciation of the greater\nthrift is a national necessity, and you members of the National Education Association, you school teachers, school principals, school superintendents, and college professors are the ones thru whom this must be\naccomplisht. It is only thru education that we can become a thrifty nation,\nand it is you, more than anyone else, who should understand and study the\ngreater thrift, its economic value, and its importance to the industries, arts,\nand sciences. I am making a plea here tonight that the educators of this\n\n"}
{"page": 291, "printed_page": "279", "text": "CouncUl\n\nTHE\n\nGREATER\n\nTHRIFT\n\n279\n\nnation take up this question, because here is a great opportunity and a\ngreat duty. If character-building and sensible Uving and thrift in its\nbroadest sense are worth while, then why not lay the foundation aright,\nwhy not teach these things scientifically, as we teach farming, cooking, and\nall branches of education ? Knowing these things, and understanding these\nthings ourselves, are we doing our duty to our children and to posterity,\nif we fail to do that for which I am pleading tonight? You understand\nbetter than I can tell you the influence of the pubUc schools and of the\nparochial and private schools. You understand that the nation of tomorrow\nwill be no greater than the truth you are teaching your pupils today. You\nunderstand that the boys or girls who go out from your schoolroom into\nactual life with only a haphazard idea of frugality will without doubt never\nbecome frugal men nor frugal women. They will, in all likelihood, live\nhaphazard lives, saving and spending alike, unwisely. But if they had\nbeen taught lessons in thrift, if there had been as much attention paid to\nteaching them personal economics as geography or any other one study,\ntheir equipment for practical life would have been much better. I think\nwe are just beginning to understand these things, and the fact that your\nbody now has a committee which is investigating the question of teaching\nthrift in our schools shows that we have become awakened to a realization\nof these necessities.\nWe cannot, in the schools or elsewhere, teach a boy how to make money.\nMaking money is a knack. But if the boy is not endowed by nature as a\nmoney-maker, we can teach him to live a sensible life, to spend his earnings\nwisely, to the best advantage of himself, his family, and society. We can\nteach him thru the practices of thrift, good citizenship. On the other hand,\nthe boy who is a natural money-maker will, in spite of everything, acquire\nwealth when he matures, and in his school days we can so mold his character\nthat when he becomes a prosperous citizen he will employ his accumulations\nas a sacred trust, using them to the greatest good of himself and his fellowman. We can teach him, by the examples of the lives of worthy and successful men, that it is more praiseworthy to succeed in good citizenship\nthan to be a glorified butcher on a battlefield. From plow boys to captains\nof industry — how many great Americans have trod that path! How many\nof our citizens begin life with the handicap of poverty and gain the heights!\nLet the children learn that success does not mean only the winning of great\npolitical or industrial battles, or the slaughter of human beings, but that\nthe men who build factories, banks, railroads, hospitals, art galleries,\ncolleges, and churches do so because they have learned how to save and how\nto spend wisely, and have mastered the science of living. .\nA few weeks ago I received a letter from a western governor, who told\nme that a wealthy citizen of his state had written him regarding the advisabiKty of endowing a chair for the teaching of thrift in an institution of\nhigher learning. I beheve that the time will come in America, my friends,\n\n"}
{"page": 292, "printed_page": "280", "text": "28o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nwhen the greater thrift will be taught in our colleges, universities, and\nacademies. I believe this just as firmly as I believe that the time is near\nat hand when thrift will be taught in the primary classes, the grammar\nschools, and the high schools; and I believe, above all things, that thrift\nshould be taught in our normal schools, so that our teachers will be especially\nwell equipt to instruct their pupils in personal economics.\nIn one way only has the doctrine of the greater thrift influenst our\ncurricula. I refer to thrift in human material. In past ages feeble or\ndefective children were so much mere human wastage, to be thrown on\nthe scrap heap. Two thousand years ago, the Spartans deliberately put\nto death children who seemed to be below the physical grade demanded\nby the code of that fiercely militaristic nation — abandoned them to the\ntender mercy of the storms and wild beasts in some rocky glen of the\nmountains. Today we conserve this human material. The declining\nfigures of infant mortality show vividly our care for the less robust members\nof the race. Our schools for backward children, our asylums, our charitable\nhomes take the human material that would have been thrown away as\nworthless a few centuries or even a few decades ago, and eventually turn\nthe feeble, the backward, the subnormal child into a good citizen. Yet\nthis is the only instance, with the exception of school savings banks, that\nI can find in which thrift in any of its aspects has even toucht our educational\nsystem of the twentieth century.\nBut whatever comes, the American of the future must be individually\nprepared. He must be strong in character; he must be frugal; he must\nbe sensible. He must be able, not alone to save money, but to spend money\nwisely. He must be educated in the ways of correct Uving. And I trust\nthat we, today, have in our hearts the steadfast purpose to add to the\ncurriculum of our schools the broad principles of the greater thrift, of\nscientific character-building, of personal economics in their most comprehensive sense.\nThis is the patriotism of the greater thrift. This is the duty that the\nAmerica of tomorrow is calling to us to perform. Let us not fail! Let us\nbe loyal and true to the purposes of this republic, and let us feel that as\nthis nation goes forward in its lofty mission that we shall be known thruout\nthe world as a people which is moral and clean and right — which wastes not\nits substance in debauchery, nor saves to the point of miserliness — a nation\nof men and women who are happy in the peace and prosperity and joy\nthat come to those who live the lives of the greater thrift.\n\n"}
{"page": 293, "printed_page": "281", "text": "Coundl]\n\nNORMAL\n\nNORMAL\nWILLIAM\n\nSCHOOL\n\nSCHOOL\nB.\n\nOWEN,\n\nPREPARATION\n\nPREPARATION\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nCHICAGO\n\nFOR THRIFT\n\nTEACHING\n\n281\n\nFOR\n\nTHRIFT\n\nTEACHING\n\nNORMAL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nIn undertaking to discuss the teaching of thrift in the normal school,\nI assume that it is a practical, rather than a theoretical, motive that has led\nto the selection of this subject. On this assumption, then, I shall consider\nthe practical difficulties to be met in introducing the subject into the\nnormal-school curriculum, and suggest some possible ways of meetmg these\ndifficulties.\nFirst, let it be understood that the normal-school curriculum is abeady\ngreatly overcrowded. This is not only testified to by principals and teachers\nof normal schools who are in practical contact with the situation, but is\nproved by the recent changes in the normal-school curriculum designed\nto relieve the pressure. It is a simple, literal fact that the two-year normalschool curriculum designed to train teachers for the elementary schools is\nfilled beyond the saturation point. During the last quarter of a century,\nwe have added so many new subjects, and the development of the subjects\nthemselves has been so great, that the normal-school student is now\nrequired to assimilate a mass of material that is excessive.\nIt would be interesting and perhaps pertinent to the present inquiry to\ndiscuss the question as to how relief is to be secured. The curriculum of\nthe normal school, unlike the curriculum of the college, for instance, must,\nin the nature of the case, be affected by the curriculum of the elementary\nschool which the normal-school graduates are preparing to enter as teachers.\nThe overloading of the normal-school curriculum is directly due to the overloading ofthe elementary-school curriculum. We have been fondly hoping\nthat the congested elementary-school curriculum was going to be relieved\nby elimination of unnecessary material; by closer correlation between\nsubjects; and by new methods of teaching the new subjects, whereby the\nold would get in incidentally. In spite of the theoretical discussions on this\ntopic, and the promises held out by enthusiastic advocates, the fact still\nremains that little relief has been found. Two different methods, therefore, have been adopted recently which give some promise of reUef. One\nplan is frankly to disavow any attempt to give students an all-round training\nfor the elementary school of eight grades, but to set up curricula which\ntrain them for either the kindergarten, the primary, or the grammar grades.\nThus, by narrowing the scope of the training, it is hoped to get some relief.\nThe other plan is to depart from the custom of requiring but two years for\nthe normal-school course, and to add another year, making a three-year\ncourse. Theoretically this would be the desirable solution of the difficulty.\nThere would be a gain of a year's study; increast maturity on the part of\nthe students; a much needed increase of the time given to practice teaching\nunder supervision; and other advantages from a scholastic point of view\nthat cannot be developt here. Under unusually favorable conditions, this\n\n"}
{"page": 294, "printed_page": "282", "text": "282\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nscheme has been inaugurated in Boston and in Cincinnati. It would seem\nat times as if in other places conditions were ripe for the lengthening of the\nnormal-school course. This will be brought about, however, under the\npressure of the law of demand and supply. As long as there is a dearth of\nnormal-school-trained teachers, it will be difficult to increase the years of\nstudy required for receiving a diploma. On the other hand, as salaries\nincrease, and the tenure of office becomes more secure, and more teachers\ngo into the profession for a life-work, we may naturally expect competition\nto lead candidates to seek and obtain a more extended training. The\nbetter trained, then, will have better opportunities to secure better positions, and it will be a relatively easy matter to lengthen the course to three\nand even four years. Furthermore, the recognition given to normal-school\nwork by the great universities, taken together with the fact that graduation from college with a Bachelor's degree is coming to be one of the\nrequirements for teachers in high schools, makes it easier to convince\nstudents that they should take the more extended training.\nIt is this situation that we must have in mind, therefore, as we think\nof taking up the question of teaching thrift to normal-school students.\nWe naturally ask, Is there anything that can be eliminated ? If we are to\ntake the answer of the heads of departments now represented in the normal\nschools, the negative answer is the only one to be expected. The teachers\nof every subject represented in the curriculum are complaining that they\nhave not sufficient time to do the work as it should be done. Then arises\nanother question. Is it possible to find a legitimate place for the teaching\nof thrift within the time allotted to any of the subjects already represented\nin the curriculum ? The answer to this can at best be only a hypothesis.\nWithin the subjects, education, educational sociology, civics, and history,\nit would seem theoretically possible to find the proper place for considering\nthis very important question. There are signs that indicate a growing\nconsciousness on the part of educators that we shall have to find place in\nour elementary-school curriculum, and therefore, in our normal-school curriculum, for instruction in the actual processes and in the methods of control of our industrial, economic, and social life. The traditional American\nhistory, valuable as it was as a source of inspiration and patriotism, and\ncivics, which has so long been a description of the structure rather than\nof the actual processes of government, are even now being transformed internally to meet the demands for a more vital connection with the actual\neveryday life.\nIf this new point of view finally gains the field, the teaching of thrift\nwill fall into its natural place as being one of the virtues on which financial\nprosperity and power of the individual, as well as of the nation, are founded.\nIf the teaching of thrift can come into its rightful place in such a plan for\ninstruction, the result will be not only the spread of desirable knowledge\namong the pupils of the school, but it will serve to enlarge and vitalize the\n\n"}
{"page": 295, "printed_page": "283", "text": "Council]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nPREPARATION\n\nFOR\n\nTHRIFT\n\nTEACHING\n\n283\n\nsocial studies of the curriculum. If on the other hand, the normal-school\ncourse should be lengthened, there would inevitably be found a larger place\nfor social studies, and the teaching of thrift would naturally find a place\nin this enlarged <:urriculum.\nPassing from the question of the time and place for the teaching of the\nsubject, let us discuss briefly some considerations that cannot be overlookt\nif any teaching on the subject of thrift is to have any real value. Teaching\nabout thrift and teaching thrift are two fundamentally dififerent things.\nWe have not recognized this distinction in the older subjects of the school\ncurriculum. The fundamental principle that knowledge must be translated into action may be regarded as the most fundamental factor in transforming our school practice in the last few decades, in laboratory science,\nin the school shop and school kitchen, in dramatization, in art. This\nprinciple is clearly recognized and made fundamental. It has not been so\neasy to work out a method of applying the same principle in history and\nthe social studies. This is the great desideratum of the elementary and\nhigh-school curriculum. How can we impart standards of conduct when\nit is so difficult to provide suitable opportunity for putting the knowledge\nof these standards to a practical test? If we could answer this question,\nthe problem of modern instruction in schools would be solved. Thrift is\na matter of habit, and involves the use of a scale of values. Merely to\nunderstand this scale of values without applying it practically in determining conduct is a very abstract and meaningless performance. In the\nmodern movement for improved teaching in some of the social studies, that\nof civics, for instance, we may find suggestion as to how to proceed. Those\nwho are the leaders of the movement are experimenting successfully in the\ndirection of selecting problems from the immediate social environment of\nthe pupils, and are teaching the pupils how to proceed to solve these problems, and to get a check on the validity of their methods thru the practical\nresults secured. Questions of pubhc health, the proper care of the streets\nand alleys, obedience to city ordinances, and the like, are practical problems\nin civic life that are furnishing real opportunities for a new kind of civic\ntraining, which is teaching government, not about government. If we are\ngoing to teach thrift, we shall have to find some practical way of making the\nchildren's activities themselves the means of imparting knowledge about\nthrift and its results.\n\nIf this general point of view is accepted as sound, let us set forth, then,\na possible program of thrift-teaching in the normal school. Such a program will involve, (i) a minimum of theory of economics, and (2) the use\nof the students' own contacts with economic problems.\nIn expressing a demand for the teaching of economic theory, I wish to\nemphasize again that our teaching must not be merely hortatory. There\nthe range of the students'\nmust be gathered a basis of economic fact withinprinciples\nand ideas which\nown interests and experience. The economic\n\n"}
{"page": 296, "printed_page": "284", "text": "284\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(National\n\ninterpret these facts should constitute the theoretical element in the instruction. Methods of economic control, money, banking, investments, the\nfunction of capital in production, and other elements of economic theory\nshould furnish the groundwork of ideas and the classification of motive\nthat would justify such a course of instruction. Whether this instruction\nin theory should be given in a special course, or should be a part of the\ncourses in history, sociology, and education, is a matter to be determined.\nBut there is no question that the ideas involved in the modern economic\ninterpretation of history, in setting forth the economic basis of social\norganization and the economic need and justification of industrial education,\nfurnish a body of economic doctrine that would suffice for the purpose of\nteaching thrift and that should, on other accounts, be in the possession\nof every school teacher.\nAs to the students' own contacts with economic problems, it would be\nunnecessary as well as impossible to enumerate them all. As typical of the\npossibilities within the range of the subjects of the curriculum, we may\nmention home economics, with its emphasis on the relation of expenditure\nto income, the proper buying of food and clothing, the keeping of family\naccounts and the like, the cost-keeping and cost-reckoning practist in the\nwork in industrial arts. As t3^ical of the extra classroom activities that\nare at hand as a means of vital instruction, we may mention school gardens,\nwith records kept of the earnings of the pupil-gardeners, the home-credit\nsystem, with its emphasis on the economic value of the work for which\ncredit is given, the practice instituted by many schools of publishing an\naccount of the earnings of pupils outside of school hours. Perhaps the\nmost effective means of building up the habit of thrift is the school bank.\nIts effectiveness is due to two things: (i) it makes saving relatively easy\nby providing faciUties for deposit; and (2) it brings social pressure to bear\non the pupil by reason of the power of suggestion and emulation inherent\nin a movement accompanied by such publicity. Other opportunities\nare capable of use for this purpose. The subject of school resources is of\nvital interest to the community, the teacher, and indirectly to the pupil.\nThe school as a financial enterprise on the part of the community is a topic\ncapable of yielding both theoretical knowledge and practical motive.\nSchool entertainments which are cooperative enterprises for some specific\ngood that the school community can understand and appreciate might well\nserve as a means of sound economic instruction. The care of school property, taken in connection with the subject of school resources, can be made\na means of inculcating the habit of community thrift and individual responsibilities so sorely needed in America.\nThere is a timeliness in the discussion of teaching thrift that should not\nbe overlookt. If we are wasteful in America it is because we have grown\nso as a people on account of our abundant natural resources and the relative\nease with which, until recently, we have been able to make a living. Our\n\n"}
{"page": 297, "printed_page": "285", "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nHEALTH\n\nPROBLEMS\n\n285\n\nforefathers came to this country with the habits of thrift that Europea\nn\nconditions had imposed on them. We have lost those habits because we\nhave not been Hving under European conditions. As our population\nincreases, and our natural resources in land, timber, coal, mines, etc.,\nare\neither exhausted or appropriated, we begin to approximate to European\nconditions. The European war will perforce teach us many lessons. It is\npossible that the economic competition that will follow the end of hostiUties\nwill serve to emphasize in striking fashion the advantage that accrues to\nthe man or nation that learns to eliminate waste. If no such economic\npressure comes to bear upon us, we can still appeal to the real genius of the\nAmerican mind by emphasizing the importance of thrift, not so much as\na niggardly saving of a little money, but as the proved method of attaining\nfinancial and industrial power, with its consequent social good.\nREPORT\nCHARLES\n\nOF COMMITTEE ON HEALTH\nIN EDUCATION\nH. KEYES,\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nPRESIDENT, SKIDMORE SCHOOL\nSARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y.\n\nOF ARTS,\n\nThe committee held its annual meeting in Detroit, and authorized as\nthe work of the current year: (i) the printing of a small introductory\nedition of a second report of twenty-four pages on the health care of ruralschool children; (2) the reproduction of the committee's health charts in\npamphlet edition to be distributed as effectively as may be and if possible\nthru the Bureau of Education; (3) the reproduction in actual size of an\nedition of one hundred copies each of all, or some, of these charts to meet\nthe demands which we are receiving in considerable and increasing numbers (the committee would hope to lend some sets of these charts in answer\nto requests for them, and to sell the sets or individual charts at cost in\nresponse to requests that may be received; it seems desirable that the committee should have sets to lend to state or county fairs and to other exhibits\nattended particularly by people from rural regions) ; and (4) to undertake\nwhen there may be sufficient funds made available for the purpose, under\nthe auspices and supervision of the committee, a national investigation in\nten or fifteen states of the health and welfare of teachers.\nThe second report of the committee, entitled \"Health Requirements for\nRural Schools,\" has been printed in an edition of 800,000 copies, and all\nbut a small portion of these have been distributed by the United States\nBureau of Education. The printmg of 750,060 copies of this report was\nmade possible by a generous gift of approximately $3,000 from the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund in Chicago. This report, from the evidence of many expressions received by the chairman of our committee, is\nexerting a very extensive influence for better health conditions in rural\nschools in many parts of the country.\n\n"}
{"page": 298, "printed_page": "286", "text": "286\n\n.NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[National\n\nThe third report of the committee, a twenty-four page pamphlet,\nentitled \"Health Essentials for Rural-School Children,\" is now in press\nand a preliminary edition, made possible by a small balance of the jointcommittee budget of the year just closing, will be ready for distribution\nin the near future. The purpose of this report is: (i) to state the health\nconditions of rural-school children at the present time; (2) to propose and\nrecommend the practical measures which seem necessary and possible for\nthe health care of children in country schools; and (3) to report praiseworthy efforts which are now being made in a few instances to provide for\nhealth care of rural-school children, and which may result in giving to\nrural-school children at least as much health care as is provided for children\nin the cities. Commissioner Claxton, of the United States Bureau of\nEducation, has already stated the desirabihty of having 400,000 copies of\nthis last report provided to meet the needs of the whole country.\nOur committee exhibit of twenty charts was installed in the PanamaPacific Exposition with the exhibits of the United States Bureau of Education. These charts attracted much attention, particularly from the\nrepresentatives of Japan and of South-American republics. A revised\nand enlarged chart exhibit of our committee was displayed at the meeting\nof the Department of Superintendence at Detroit. After further revision,\nselected charts from this exhibit are being reproduced, first in pamphlet\nform for general distribution, and, secondly, in full size for loan and for\nsale at cost. A large number of requests have been and are being received\nfor sets of these charts.\nThe small balance of the joint-committee budget will provide only for\nthe beginning of this program of reproducing and distributing the committee charts. The chairman of the committee is constantly receiving\nrequests for committee reports and for information and advice relating\nto matter included reasonably within the general program of this committee.\nWith reference to its future program, the committee recommends as\nof great importance the following phases of health work in the field of\neducation.\n1. Experiments in, and demonstration of, improved health work in the\nschools (particularly in the rural schools) to which our committee has given\nspecial study and attention. Proposals for such experiments and demonstrations (particularly for improved health of rural-school children) have\nreceived cordial approval from leaders in the field of public health, education, and social service.\n2. A comprehensive and authoritative study of physical conditions\nand characteristics of children for the purpose of establishing physical\nnorms of child-development. Such standards would improve greatly the\nvalue and efficiency of health examinations and health supervision of\nchildren generally. All those who are engaged in work for children agree\nin endorsing a study and report of this kind.\n\n"}
{"page": 299, "printed_page": "287", "text": "Council]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nHEALTH\n\nPROBLEMS\n\n287\n\n3. A national investigation of the health and general welfare of teachers.\nThe present study of health and welfare of teachers in New York State\npoints convincingly to the need for a national study in this field.\n4. A thoro investigation of the health effects of athletic games upon\nschool pupils of various ages and of both sexes. Such an investigation is\nrecognized as of great present importance by leaders in the medical field\nas well as by educators.\n5. A study and report on health-teaching and training in the schools.\nHealth- teaching is in a period of rapid and significant transition. An\ninvestigation of the work of the schools brings to light many valuable\nefforts in this field. A report in the near future which might authoritatively support the principles of sound health-teaching and make conveniently available information regarding some of the best efforts in this\nfield would provide a valuable document for the guidance of teachers.\nThe support of the committee during the last four years has come from\nannual appropriations from the National Education Association, which\nhave been duplicated by the American Medical Association. That great\nAssociation stands ready today to appropriate from their treasury for the\ncoming year any sum up to $3000, that shall be appropriated by the\nNational Education Association for the use of this committee. We are\nasking that this Council recommend to the Board of Directors an appropriation of$1000 for the support of the committee's work for the ensuing\nyear. In this connection, I desire to call attention to the fact that no part\nof the funds appropriated in previous years to the committee has been\nexpended for traveling or personal expenses of members of the committee;\nall such expenses have been cheerfully borne by the individual members.\nThe same policy will be continued with any appropriation which may be\ngranted for the ensuing year.\nThe committee desires to express its appreciation of the continued\nencouragement and help of United States Commissioner Claxton. We\ndesire to record our high appreciation of the continued splendid support\nand cooperation which the American Medical Association has extended\nto this work thru its Council on Health and Public Instruction and thru\nthe special cooperation of its members on the Committee on Health\nProblems.\n\nI\nI\n\nThis report cannot be closed without expression of the very deep feeling\nwith which members of the committee learned of the sudden death of Henry\nB. Favill, who has been such a tower of strength. Dr. Favill was chairman\nof the Council on Health and Public Instruction of the American Medical\nAssociation, and has been considered in interest and by courtesy an active\ncooperative member of our joint committee. His death causes an\nirreparable loss to the country, removing as it does one of our most influential personalities, devoted unselfishly in spirit, and effectively in constructive action, to many vital interests in our national welfare.\n\n"}
{"page": 300, "printed_page": "288", "text": ""}
{"page": 301, "printed_page": "289", "text": "DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Mary B. Fox, dean of women, Chicago Kindergarten Institute\nChicago, 111.\nVice-President — Ella C. Elder, supervisor of kindergartens\nBuffalo, N.Y.\nSecretary — ^Fannie A. Smith, principal, Smith-Froebel Training School\nBridgeport, Conn.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 6, 1916\nThe department was called to order by the president, in Concert Hall, Madison\nSquare Garden, at 9 130 a.m., and the following program presented:\nTopic: Educational Trend as Shown in Some Recent Experiments {with Lantern Illustrations)\n\"Relation of the Kindergarten and the Primary in the School of Childhood of the\nUniversity of Pittsburgh\" — Meredith Smith, School of Childhood, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.\n\"Kindergartens of Yesterday and Tomorrow\" — Patty S. Hill, head of Kindergarten Department, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Demonstration-Play School of the University of California\" — Mrs. C. W.\nHetherington, director of Play School, University of Cahfomia, Berkeley, Cal.\nAt the close of the meeting the chair appointed the following Committee on Nominations:\nLuella A. Palmer, New York, N.Y., Chairman\nEmily Pryor, S. Pasadena, Cal.\nLucy Wheelock, Boston, Mass.\nMay Murray, Springfield, Mass.\nPearl Johnson, Cleveland, Ohio\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday Afternoon, July 6, 1916\n\nReception and story-telling at 4:30 p.m. on Columbia University Campus, by local\nkindergartners of Greater New York.\nMadam Kraus Boelt6 was presented as one of the oldest and most loved kindergartners; at one time a president of this department, and a member of the Association\nsince 1873.\nSTORY-TELLERS\n\nMary Adair, Normal School, Philadelphia, Pa.\nMarietta Stockard, Wilson Normal School, Washington, D.C.\nAnna Tyler, Children's Department, PubUc Library, New York, N.Y.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 7, 1916\n\nEducation,\nThe department met in joint session with the Department of Elementary\nat 9 : 30 A.M. The following program was presented:\nTopic: The Relation of the Kindergarten and Primary Grades\nries Over from the Kindergarten\n\"The Educational Values Which the ChildXar\n289\ninto the Primary Grades\"-Mary D. Hill, supervisor ^f kmdergartens, Louisvm^^^^\nTeach an Equal Numb^of\n\"Should the Kindergartners and the PrimaryE. Teachers\nChadsey, supermtendent of schools,\nReceive the Same Pay ? \"-Charles\nHours and\nDetroit,\nMich.\n\n"}
{"page": 302, "printed_page": "290", "text": "290\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\n\"Practical Means of Unifying the Work of the Kindergarten and the Primary\nGrades \" :\n(i) \"The Elementary Point of View\" — Junius L. Meriam, professor of school supervision, School of Education, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.\n(2) \"The Kindergarten Point of View\" — Luella A. Palmer, assistant director of\nkindergartens. New York, N.Y.\n(3) Discussion — Thomas M. Balliet, dean, School of Pedagogy, New York University, New York, N.Y.\nThe papers will be found in the report of the Department of Elementary Education.\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION— Friday Afternoon, July 7, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 2:30 p.m., and the following\nprogram presented:\nTopic: The Arts in the Kindergarten\n\"Literature for the Kindergarten Child\" — Marian P. Greene, Public Library, New\nYork, N.Y. (An exhibit of books suitable for children of all ages was presented for\ninspection.)\n\"Art in the Kindergarten\" — Grace Cornell, Fine Arts Department, Teachers College,\nColumbia University, New York, N.Y. (An exhibit of work done by children and adult\nstudents was presented for inspection.)\n^\n^\n,\n\"Evolution of the Dramatic Arts in Child Life\" — Caroline Crawford, Teachers\nCollege, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. (Interpretative illustrations of the moods\nand feelings of the child were given by Miss Crawford.)\nThe following officers were elected on recommendation of the Nominating Committee:\nInd.\n\nPresident — Elizabeth A. Woodward, instructor, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nVice-President — Gail H. Calmerton, supervisor of primary instruction, Fort Wayne,\nSecretary — Mary HiU, supervisor of kindergartens, Louisville, Ky.\n\nA vote of thanks was given to the various committees which had made our sojourn\nin the city such a pleasant and profitable one, to the Press for its generous publication\nof the Proceedings, and to the ofl&cers for the pleasing and helpful program which has been\nan inspiration to those present.\nFannie A. Smith, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nRELATION OF THE KINDERGARTEN AND THE PRIMARY\nTHE SCHOOL OF CHILDHOOD, UNIVERSITY OF\nPITTSBURGH\nMEREDITH\n\nSMITH, SCHOOL\n\nOF CHILDHOOD, UNIVERSITY\nPITTSBURGH, PA.\n\nIN\n\nOF PITTSBURGH,\n\nWith this question of relation of kindergarten and primary grades is\nbound up the problem of so correlating the work of both as to make the\neducation of the early years a more consecutive process — one which eliminates the break in education at the period of promotion from kindergarten\ninto the first grade. We all know that no markt change appears in the\nchild of six years. He has the same impulses and tendencies and about the\nsame capacities and powers as the child of five years. The same principles\nshould determine and govern the education of both.\n\n"}
{"page": 303, "printed_page": "291", "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nPRIMARY\n\n201\n\nIn our School of Childhood in the University of Pittsburgh, we have not\nconsidered particularly the problem of the relation of the work of one grade\nto that of another. We have been very deeply concerned with the problem\nof the relation of education in each particular grade to the child, his impulses,\ncapacities, and needs. If the child is a growing, developing organism, and\nif the work of the school is adapted to his needs at each stage, his education,\nas he passes from one grade to the next, must follow a process of continuous\ndevelopment. The attempt has frequently been made to work out a solution to the problem of relationship from another standpoint. We have\nexpected the teachers in the kindergarten and first grade to become\nacquainted with each other's work to the end that the primary teacher may\ncarry over into the first grade valuable phases of kindergarten work, and\nthat the kindergartner, recognizing the needs and demands of the primary\nschool, may prepare her children to meet them.\nThe problem of psychology is here involved. Psychology is a comparatively recent science, and many believe we have made a mere\nbeginning of the understanding of the human mind and its processes.\nBut psychologists have told us enough about child nature to give us\na basis, at least, for reconstruction of early education. We know children\nare essentially active beings; that the period of childhood is preeminently the time when they are interested in doing and making. It is\nthe time when they are educated thru and by means of their activity.\nKindergarteners have recognized these facts, and they have, as part of their\nequipment, a wide variety of materials, such as blocks, dolls, clay, sand,\ntrains, hammers, nails, etc., which make many forms of activity possible.\nHowever, we cannot say that the use they have made of these has always\nbeen in accord with child nature. The kindergarten furniture is not stationary, so that floor space is available When needed. But the primary\nteacher is not so provided. She may have clay, possibly a sand table,\npencils, and paints, and, of course, books. But this is, as a general thing,\nthe limit of the material provided for her children. In such a situation,\nhow can she adjust her work to the child's needs and capacities ? In our\nattempt to work out a scheme of education adapted to child nature, we have\nfound it necessary to equip our first grade with even more material and a\nwider variety of material than is provided for the younger children. They\nare older and they need more material to carry out their ideas. They have\nas much available floor space as the younger group, and they keep it nearly\ncovered with their constructions most of the time. The absorption of the\nchildren in the work, their joy in it, and the results achieved lead us to feel\nthat we are on the right track.\nAnother great handicap to the primary teacher in adjusting the education ofthe first school year to the children's needs is the absolute necessity\nimposed upon her to teach all the children to read before the end of the\nyear. Reading has very little relevancy, it seems, to the activities of a chfld\n\n"}
{"page": 304, "printed_page": "292", "text": "292\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nof six years, or to his mental needs. Interest may be aroused in a more or\nless artificial way, but it is generally independent of other interests of child\nlife. Someone will say very truly, \"But children want to learn to read.\"\nThe traditional idea that reading holds the key to enlargement and enrichment of life is past on to children. Learning is identified with acquiring\nability to read, and children come into the primary grade eager to learn.\nSo it was with our children. They did not care so much at first for the\nmaterial, but askt for reading. It was enlightening to see the change of\ninterest as the possibilities of the constructive occupations opened out\nbefore them. They became more and more absorbed in working out their\nideas and had less and less time for reading and soon ceast to ask or care\nfor it. The vision of a child, psychology tells us, is adapted essentially to\nseeing large, moving, and somewhat remote objects in the mass. They\nare warning us of the danger to the child of undue nervous strain consequent upon this ejffort at so early an age to make the fine and accurate\nadjustments of the eye necessary in following printed or written words.\nThe age of eight years seems to be considered early enough for axhild to\ngive more than incidental attention to the written language forms.\nThe processes of production, transportation, consumption, etc., which\nare most significant in our social life, may be reproduced by children in a\nminiature way. In their spontaneous play they do this to a certain extent,\nbut, as an educational agency with direction and proper management, it\nhas possibilities that have not begun to be realized. Such reproductions\nplayed by the younger children are the simple activities of the home and\nimmediate neighborhood, furnishing and caring for the playhouse, providing\nfor the needs of the doll, buying and selling, visiting each other, etc. Our\nyounger children are supplied with large blocks, five-inch cubes, and bricks\n10X5X2I in. so that they may build stable houses large enough to live\nin, sometimes with roofs, often with walls only a foot or two high. In\nthese they relive the life they see about them, assuming obHgations and\nresponsibilities in play that they are not afforded in real life. The experiences of the primary children are wider, and their constructive work is\ndevelopt along the line of reproductions of city and country Ufe. With\ndevelopment we find the objects made become smaller, allowing for greater\ncomplexity and detailed representation. Thus we have different sets of\nmaterials for these children.\nIn the work of the primary grades as well as that of the younger group,\nthe children largely determine their own ends. There is guidance and suggestion, ofcourse, but they are carrying the play on themselves. They\nsuggest a great deal to each other. For example, one day some one said,\n**We ought to have a hospital,\" and a group of children took up the idea,\nerected a building and equipt it, making beds for the patients and tables\non which were placed boxes of clay pills. They had a storeroom filled, it\nseemed to me, with everything that could be shipt there — barrels of apples,\n\n"}
{"page": 305, "printed_page": "293", "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF KINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nPRIMARY\n\n293\n\noranges, etc.— Hailman beads— sacks of flour, meal, etc. As they were\nworking on it, one of the children said, \"We ought to have some place to\nbuy beef tea and other things for the hospital.\" And in time a drug-store\nwas built and equipt. Another day it was said, \"We ought to have a fire\ndepartment; these buildings might take fire.\" Two or three boys took\nup the suggestion, built the fire-engine house, with apartments upstairs\nfor the firemen, constructed an engine, made ladders, and completed it,\nall just in time to put out an imaginary fire in one of the buildings. Later\nmany of the children became interested in reproducing certain phases of\ncountry life. They built barns with a hayloft and a pulley and string to\ndraw up the hay. They made bins for then: corn and hauled it in wagons\nto the train, which carried it to the mill. Sacks of meal were then shipt\nfrom the mill to the grocery store in the town. These children all had\nbroken bits of experience regarding farms, farm products, etc., and this\nplay helpt to organize the knowledge they had, and enlarged and made more\ndefinite their conceptions. They went to their store one day, bought meal,\nand made corn-meal mush for luncheon.\nIn connection with these plays children should have the opportunity\nto enlarge their experiences by excursions to museums, parks, and pubUc\nbuildings, to every available place of industry, and to the country, or, if\ncountry children, to the city.\nOn the side of mental training, more distinctively, these children are\nacquiring control of the method of experimentation which, with certain\nregulations regarding observation and verification, is the method of science.\nIt is the method by means of which human beings gain access to the new,\nthe unknown. It is the method we all must use in any new or problematic\nsituation if we are exercising control of experience, and if we are making\nadjustments in a thoughtful way. When analyzed, we find in all experimentation an element of inference. From something observed, something\nknown or believed, an inference is formed regarding what will be or may be\nbrought to pass. It is by means of this ability to look ahead, to anticipate\npossible results of action, that we gain control of experience and are not\nleft to the mercy of the immediate, of habit, nor of instinct as an animal is.\nAs we cannot be certain in advance that what we infer will come to pass,\nall inference and consequently all thinking involve risk. Training and\nexperience are necessary to make inference accurate and reasonable.\nIf this is a method so significant in our modern life that progress is\ndependent upon it, and if training is necessary to make it trustworthy,\nwould it not be the part of wisdom to expect education to make some provision for it, especially when it is a method children may become acquainted\nwith and use ? They are using it contmually m their spontaneous activities,\nbut before Dr. Dewey gave us his analysis of thinking we failed to recognize\nit. A child building a barn, when perhaps he has never seen one, infers\nfrom buildings he has seen that shelter for an animal would be of a certam\n\n"}
{"page": 306, "printed_page": "294", "text": "294\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nkind. As he works out his ideas and gets the consequences of his endeavors,\nhe tests the reasonableness of his inferences and thus develops power of\njudgment.\nIf education has any influence at all, it will make a great difference in\nour social life whether children are trained in the attitude of passive,\nunquestioning acceptance of authoritative material, mastered by a process\n,of memorization under conditions of external control, or whether they are\ntrained to think and plan for themselves, in situations where they are\nreceiving the natural consequences of success or failure which follow the\nexecution of their ideas, and where knowledge acquired and skill developt\nin the process make it possible to conceive and execute ever more adequate\nends. It seems a far cry from the education of a child to the development\nof democracy; but the analysis of the mental processes of child and adult,\nand the increast understanding of the educational value of play in all its\nphases, are giving us a new conception of the significance of childish occupations, not only for individual development, but for social and national\nprogress as well.\nKINDERGARTENS\n\nOF YESTERDAY\n\nAND\n\nTOMORROW\n\nPATTY S. HILL, HEAD OF KINDERGARTEN DEPARTMENT, TEACHERS\nCOLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nWhile the kindergarten is the youngest member of the educational\norganization, it has now been in existence for three-quarters of a century,\nand has been an organic member of our public-school system in America\nsufficiently long to play its part in the history of education. The history\nof the kindergarten is worthy of study in so far as we may profit by its\nmistakes and make them the stepping-stones to kindergartens of a higher\ntype for the children of today, while the radical reconstruction which the\nkindergarten is undergoing today is our sole guaranty for a future kindergarten far better than the best ones of the present time.\nAs we cast a retrospective glance over the kindergartens of yesterday,\nwe can trace three distinct stages thru which they past. In the first period\nthe kindergarten was far in advance of current education and was struggling\nto voice a superior message. The second period was one of arrested\ndevelopment, when the kindergarten fell in love with itself, and formalism\nthreatened further development and progress. In the third period the\nkindergarten was torn by opposing factions within itself, one in favor of\nradical reconstruction, the other fearing the results of any attempts to\nimprove upon the theory and practice of Froebel and his immediate\nfollowers.\nNo impartial judge can doubt the fact that during this first period the\nkindergarten was nearly a half-century ahead of its time. The struggle\nwas a noble one — the battle of the new against the old, the modern against\n\n"}
{"page": 307, "printed_page": "295", "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTENS\n\nOF YESTERDAY\n\nAND\n\nTOMORROW\n\nthe traditional, the superior against the inferior in educational\nthought and\npractice. Faulty as these kindergartens appear, when measur\ned by our\npresent-day knowledge and standards, they were so natural\nand\ncompared with the schools of that day, that the average teacher so happy\ncould not\nconceive of such activities as educative. The kindergartens of this\nperiod\nwere based upon so much truer conceptions of the nature and needs\nof\nchildren, and the children were surrounded by so much more freedom,\nthat\nthey naturally developt into \"misfits\" when they entered upon the deadly\nregime of the elementary schools. The kindergarten suffered\ngreatly from\nthe demand made by the schools at this time. They lookt upon the\nkindergarten solely as a place to prepare the children to enter the primary\nschool. As the primary schools were devoted almost exclusively to a\nmechanical method of acquiring the three R's, had the kmdergarten yielded\nto the criticisms made from above, its specific message and contribution\nto education would have been lost. While the enthusiasm of the kindergarten for Froebel's theory of self-activity, appealing to and based upon the\ninstinct of play, was ill understood by the schools of the day, still, when\nthe\nhappy results on both children and teachers were observed, the primary\nschool began to adopt the best the kindergarten had to offer. In this way\nthe original order was reverst. The school grades above gradually adapted\nthemselves to the new ideals in the lower grades, and in time the theory\nand practice of the primary school was transformed, and rivaled the kindergarten inits intelligent appHcation of self-activity.\nAll would have gone well had the kindergarten continued to develop,\nfollowing the spirit and outgrowing the letter of Froebel; but unfortunately,\nin this second epoch of our history the kindergarten became self-satisfied\nand consequently entered upon a stultifying period of arrested development.\nIn the preceding period the kindergarten was in the lead; during the\nfollowing one it fell behind. The cause of this is not difficult to trace.\nThe era was that of genetic psychology and child-study, and when new\ndata from these sources were offered the kindergarten, they were measured\nby those conceptions of the child past on from the days of Froebel; and\nwhen they ran contrary to these they were denounst and declined. This\nattitude arrested the development of the kindergarten for some ten or\nfifteen years, and had it continued, or been universal among kmdergartens,\nthe kindergarten would already have sunk into obUvion. Fortunately\nthere are in every generation leavening elements — those who refuse to\nbend the knee to the god of custom or tradition. A few kindergartners\ntimidly gave a Hstening ear from the very first, and grew bold as they were\nmore and more convinst that the returns from the experts in child-study\ntalHed with and illuminated their daily experience with little children.\nAs this conviction demanded some renunciation and much modification\nof the kindergarten procedure of the day, decided difference of opinion\narose and initiated the thu-d period in the kindergartens — a period of struggle\n\n"}
{"page": 308, "printed_page": "296", "text": "296\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nfrom within, as one wing fought for the right to renounce much of the past\nor to alter and reconstruct radically in the light of the new psychology.\nThis conviction grew rapidly and finally resulted in a widespread demand\nfor progress which has emancipated the kindergarten from slavery to the\ntraditions of a half -century ago.\nBut what may be said about the kindergartens of the present ? Are\nthey the blind worshipers of Froebel, as they are frequently accused of\nbeing? Are they isolated from other educators and falling behind the\ntimes? Most decidedly, no! It must be granted that kindergartners\nmay be found here and there who still belong to the primitive period, but\nthey are diminishing rapidly and are losing the race. On the other hand,\nit can truthfully be said that kindergartners as a body are thoroly awakened\nto the demand for progress and reconstruction. They are an open-minded,\ndeveloping body of teachers, eagerly searching for ways and means of\nbettering their best. A survey of teachers studying now would, it is\nbelieved, find as large or a larger number of kindergartners in proportion\nto the kindergartners as a whole than of any other body of teachers. It\nmust also be acknowledged to our credit that the proportion of kindergartners studying primary work is far greater than the number of\nprimary teachers studying kindergarten work. There should be no separation between the two. The kindergartens and primaries of tomorrow\nwill be taught by teachers thoroly trained in the psychology and educational\nprocedure for the period from four to eight; but in the meantime all teachers\ntrained separately should familiarize themselves with both fields; and\nkindergartners are actively preparing themselves along both lines.\nExperimental kindergartens are springing up here and there, with kindergartners leading who are absolutely free from any desire to cling to Froebel,\nor to prove him superior to his critics. These experimental kindergartens\nhave but one aim, namely, to discover what is best for the child at this\nperiod, be it kindergarten, Montessori, or whatnot. The experimental\nkindergartens are permeated with the spirit of service. They are eagerly\nendeavoring to discover the native tendencies of the child at this period\nof life, and the most developing materials for these instincts and impulses\nto feed upon. They are trying out many new materials and methods, and\nare eager to have their results put to the test, so that all false claims of\nvalue may be eliminated and all worthy ones verified. It is actuaUty, not\nconjecture, which we must face. It is the period, not the system, we are\nstriving to protect and enrich. Many of us are more than wiUing to forswear both the name and the system when better ones are found. We\nbelieve this period is rich with possibilities for the child and the race, and\nwe believe that it is one which will prove worthy of all the best that civilization can offer in environment and equipment at any cost to the community. But in order to secure these advantages for little children, we\nmust prove that the investment of the best is not only worthy, but a good\n\n"}
{"page": 309, "printed_page": "297", "text": "Department]\n\nKINDERGARTENS\n\nOF YESTERDAY\n\nAND\n\nTOMORROW\n\n297\n\ninvestment from the economic point of view. As J. J. Findlay, professor\nof education in Manciiester University, says: \"The chief reason why\ngovernments support education is because the investment is sound.\"\nThe results must be proved actual, not potential only. If we claim development in initiative, in self-control, self-dependence, abiUty to solve problems\nindependently, habits and acquirements which carry over into the schools,\nthe home, and society, we must invite investigation of our claims. Better\ntests and investigators must be found or made if need be. So far neither\nthe tests nor the investigators seem to be such as will get at the best that\nthe kindergarten legitimately has to offer in results.\nWe need a new curriculum of stories, songs, games, and materials which\nwill hold the child at the kindergarten period with the minimum of coercion\nand persuasion from the teacher. The test of worth in these should be\ntheir actual holding power under conditions of freedom. The test will not be\nthe teacher's ability to hold the child to the material, the story, the game, or\nthe problem in hand, but to cause these to present an appeal to the child as\nhis own, whether the teacher is present or absent. Can the teacher leave the\nindividual or the group with any assurance that activities will continue to\nhold when she withdraws her authority, her influence, and her personaUty ?\nIt seems safe to prophesy that one of the greatest assets in the kindergarten of tomorrow will be health. The kindergartners of the future must\nof the priority of health over all other demands at the kinderconvinst\nso\nbe\ngarten period that they will educate the boards of education, the parents,\nand superintendents to the fact that they should not crowd little children\ninto small, dark, ill- ventilated rooms; that they should not increase the\nnumber of little children to the teacher in order to add to the educational\nresources of the older pupils who are mature enough to protect themselves\nby protest or request; that the child at this period must have the largest\nspace possible for exercise and air, the greatest amount of hght, and the\ncleanest and most dust-proof quarters it is possible to procure. The child\nmust not lose ground when he enters school, as at present. It is not\nsufficient even that he hold his own. He must add to his capital in weight,\nheight, vitality, and resistance to all of those cruel diseases to which he is so\npeculiarly susceptible at this period.\nWe will now turn to the stereoptican, hoping to give some convincing\nproofs of the immense progress made by the kindergartens of today over\nand welthose of yesterday, urging all who are interested in the protection\nfrom all\nthem\ng\nprotectin\nfare of helpless little children to unite with us in\nmvite\nWe\nage.\nonable\nimpressi\nthis\nat\nbody\nevil influences on mind and\nphysithe cooperation of parents, boards of education, superintendents,\nperiod of\nthis\nmake\nto\neffort\nour\nin\nsts\nsociologi\nand\ns,\ncians, psychologist\nrace. Truly should\nchildhood yield the richest output for the child and the\n\"He grew m\nit be said hereafter of every child in future kindergartens,\nwisdom and stature and in favor with God and man.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 310, "printed_page": "298", "text": "298\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nTHE DEMONSTRATION-PLAY SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY\nOF CALIFORNIA\nMRS. C. W. HETHERINGTON, DIRECTOR OF PLAY SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY\nCALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL.\n\nOF\n\nThe Play School was organized under the Department of Education\nof the summer session of the University of California in 19 13. The demonstration was conducted during the summers of 1913, 1914, and 1915, culminating during the Exposition year, 191 5.\nOur schoolhouse consisted of about three acres of ground covered with\nfine old oak and eucalyptus trees. The Uttle equipment we used was, in\ngeneral, of the crudest character, consisting of tables quickly thrown\ntogether by the carpenters of the university, a large platform for the\nrhythmic and musical activities, large sand boxes, quantities of large\nblocks and boxes, and about two dozen blackboards nailed against the huge\neucalyptus trees which groupt themselves obligingly close together. The\nwork benches for the manual activities were constructed of heavy boards\nalso nailed securely to the eucalyptus trees. Nearly all the books and tools\nwere borrowed from the university and the city public schools. Large\nboxes fastened with padlocks served as storage cases for the tools and working materials. Water was pipt to the grounds for drinking and toilet purposes as well as for the animals which the children used in their animal\nexperimentation. Pianos were rented for the rhythmic and musical\nactivities, and vocophones were purchast for the band. In the pictures\nwhich I shall show later you will see the band in operation. Near-by the\nAgricultural Department furnisht a plot of ground for experiments with\nplant life. All of the activities were conducted outdoors, but the outdoor\nfeature, while important, is not an essential one in the play-school plan.\nThe play school is a demonstration of a school organization covering\nthe child's whole active life thru the 365 days of the year from birth to\nestablisht adolescence. The organization is based on a present-day interpretation ofchild nature and its institutional control and direction to meet\nthe conditions of modern social life.\nIf we consider child nature and child education broadly thru all stages\nand conditions of human development, there are two conspicuous outstanding phenomena: (i) the child's spontaneous active life or play, with its\nevolved forms; and (2) the child's dependence, complemented by parental\ninstincts for protection and control with their evolved institutional forms.\nIn considering the organization of the child's education, the points of view\npresented by these two conspicuous but complementary phenomena have\nequal weight.\nThe child is a bundle of hungers and instinct tendencies, and in these\nhungers and instincts are found the fundamental springs of all his conduct.\nHe acts spontaneously because he is driven from within. He is spontaneously a manipulator of things and of ideas. He is spontaneously\n\n"}
{"page": 311, "printed_page": "299", "text": "Departmeptl\n\nDEMON STRA TION-PLA\n\nY SCHOOL\n\nA T CALIFORNIA\n\n299\n\nlinguistic and talks until he can express what he thinks and feels. He is\nspontaneously social and enters into social relationships. He is spontaneously suggestible and educable; he is a follower, an imitator, craving\nleadership and instruction in ways of acting that will satisfy his hungers\nand give him adjustment.\nNow, this spontaneous and expanding expression of energy (impelled\nas it is from within by the power of hungers) is play. Thus you see that\nplay is not the popular \"just play\" nor the schoolman's \"mere play,\" but\nis identical with the child's spontaneous Uving.\nIn this expanding play Hfe the child develops all his powers for response.\nAmong other things he learns to work. We emphasize play, but the child\nmust learn to work; for his needs— supplied in early Hfe by parents— he\nmust later satisfy thru work. Moreover, if he is to become an efficient\nsocial being, he must learn to perform duties that frequently are not pleasant,\nand his later social adjustment will be flexible and complete in proportion\nas he masters the essential culture of the race. The abiUty to satisfy needs,\nto perform onerous duties, demands the capacity for long-sustained volitional effort under the control of an idea of need or duty.\nPlay activities frequently take forms that are not efficient from the\nadult or educational standpoint, owing to lack of leadership; and it is this\naspect of play that the educator thinks of when he rebels against it. Leadership isas necessary in play as in work. To identify the child's play with\nfooling, or futiUty, only shows a twisted understanding of child nature that\nis a very subtle survival of mediaevaUsm in modern educational thought.\nOne sees this attitude exhibited so often by our educators when play is\neven suggested as an educational force in the life of the child. They fairly\nshrink away and tremble at the thought. During the play-school demonstration this attitude was often displayed by teachers. A woman teacher\nof perhaps fifty-five years, after a short period of observation, said to me\none day: \"Well, you may call this teaching, but I don't believe you can\nteach children anything unless you put them into seats and make them study\ntheir books. I believe in discipline.\" She could understand neither the\nmethod nor the organization of the play school. Contrast this attitude\nwith that of a well-known professor of biology from another university,\nwho, after observing the groups of children in their various activities, said\nat a pubhc gathering on the evening of that day:\nI walkt about the play-school grounds this morning and it is hard for me yet to say\nthat I have not been dreaming. All my life I have dreamed of a school organization that\nwould allow children to live and develop normally while they are being instructed in the\narts that man has developt. I could only dream, because I couldn't get far enough away\nfrom our traditional school organization to see how my ideal could be accomplisht. But\nI saw it this morning — my life-dream realized.\n\nPlay is a better developer of the capacity to work than work itself,\nbecause of the emotional content in play. Play is more intense, more\n\n"}
{"page": 312, "printed_page": "300", "text": "300\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nvaried, and of greater duration because of the sustaining power of enthusiasm which postpones the onset of fatigue and reduces the consciousness\nof effort. Enthusiasm is the very spirit of healthy childhood. It carries\nthe burden of sustained voUtional effort until the capacity for sustained\neffort is establish t as a habit. Play, therefore, is a better developer than\nwork, of the whole work mechanism. It develops organic vitality, nervous\nenergy and skill, interests, volitional attention, and enthusiasm together\nas a unified and efficient working-whole. Work is less effective because\nenthusiasm is lacking, and enthusiasm is necessary in the development of\nvolitional capacity.\nThe capacity to work, therefore, is best developt in the child's natural\nlife or play. It is developt only in a negative way when the child sits still\nand does things foreign to its nature in obedience to the command of adults.\nThe capacity to work from its simplest to its highest form is acquired most\nefficiently by living out in activity, broadly and intensely, the instinct\nhungers of each age period. By realizing a progressive series of aims in\nplay, the child learns how to work and how to achieve life thru work.\nThis is the law of child progress.\nBut no aims can ever be accomplisht without leadership. The child\nmust have leadership if his activities are to be satisfying or educationally\nefficient. So in the play school we shifted the emphasis in our organization from subjects of study, that are selected products of racial achievement, to the organization of the child's own spontaneous active life; from\nthe attitude of teaching primarily to that of leading.\nThus it seems that the natural, the most economical, the most effective\nmethod of educating the child is to organize his natural, spontaneous activities— his play life — and to bring all the resources of the adult into the leading, the guidance, and the discipUne of these activities.\nAt the present time there are three classes of institutions that control\nthe child's active life: the home, the school, and the play centers or playgrounds. In the past the home was the center of life and experience.\nThe majority of homes were not only the centers of family life, but industrial\nand social centers as well, furnishing large opportunity for the child to see\nand participate in all the essential human activities. The factory took from\nthe home both the industrial occupation and the machinery of manufacture,\nwith all their stimulus and opportunity for child activity. Hence the\nfunction and the size of the home have contracted. Moreover, the size of\nthe family has decreast, leaving children not only without generous opportunities for activity, but without even the stimulus of an ade.quate characterbuilding companionship. Parents are helpless in their efforts to supply the\nleadership needed. So, instead of the home and its immediate environment supplying practically all the opportunities for the child's activities,\nthese must be furnisht by the school and the playground. The school has\nabsorbed an increasing amount of the child's time, but it has not, except\n\n"}
{"page": 313, "printed_page": "301", "text": "Department]\n\nDEMON STRA TlON-PLA Y SCHOOL\n\nAT\n\nCALIFORNIA\n\n301\n\nin a very limited way, attempted to supply what has been eliminated from\nchild life by modern social changes. The public playground has come in to\nhelp fill the need for educational activity and experience otherwise limited\nby a physical environment that is unnatural, and a social one that is complex\nand specialized.\nThe playground, if properly equipt and directed, not only furnishes\nmany of the opportunities for activity which have been squeezed out of the\nhome, but it also furnishes leadership. As the home approaches the apartment type and the family the one-child type under the pressure of modern\nsocialized conditions, the relative importance of the play center and the\nschool increases.\nIn this new social situation child welfare requires a new spirit and a\nnew organization of the school and of the playground. Both are extrahome institutional centers of child life, and both exhibit the inefficiency of\nan incomplete organization of child life. As the playground is a center\nof life and education organized from the child's standpoint, and the school\nis a center of child experience and education organized from society's standpoint, the two institutions should be combined to unite the two points of\nview and to unify the child's educational experience. It is not sufficient\nthat a playground space be added to the school nor that a group of manual\nor other activities be added to the games of the playground. The play\ncenter and the school center must become one in spirit, aim, and organization.\nThus the play school purposes to organize the child's whole active\nlife. It is a single extra-home educational center in which the child's\nspontaneous, natural activities are organized; and, by means of leadership, all the essential culture of the race is loopt up to these natural\nactivities.\nThe organization of the child's whole active life requires a classification\nof his activities for administrative purposes. The classification must\ninclude all the natural phases of his complete living, and the activities\nwhen organized must be as natural as when unorganized. The difference\nconsists in the educational results which are possible thru organization.\nWhen these activities are thus organized they furnish a progressive curriculum that is as easily administered as a subject-of -study curriculum, and\nit includes everything that the latter includes and more.\nThe following classification of activities gives the divisions of the child's\nwhole active life. It provides for the development of all powers, feeds all\nthe native hungers, and will evolve naturally into the racial forms of\nadjustment.\n1. Vocal and linguistic activities\n2. Social activities\n\n3. Environmental and nature activities\n4. Rhythmic and musical activities\n\n"}
{"page": 314, "printed_page": "302", "text": "302\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\n5. The manipulating and manual activities\n6. Big muscle activities\n7. Economic activities\n1. The linguistic activities arise from the vocalizing and communicative instincts. These instincts are the primary elements in the evolution\nof the languages and the literatures of the world. The linguistic activities\nare naturally associated with each group of activities, and develop in questions and discussions, or in organized intercommunication. This is especially important in the environment and nature activities. Under this\nclass the mechanics of reading, the mechanics of number, and foreign languages develop, and are used as tools in intercommunication.\n2. The social activities arise from the social instincts. These tendencies in human nature have created society. In his social activities the child\ndevelops his social habits and ideals, and his fundamental sex and civic\nconsciousness, as well as the art expressions of these adjustments. The\nmiscellaneous social contacts of the school and the social life of the several\nactivities are unified in the special social hours of song, exhibits, discussion,\ndancing, dramatics, etc. In these activities are centered the spirit of the\nschool.\n3. The environmental and nature activities arise from the investigating\nand interpreting tendencies. They include all environmental exploration\nand all experimentation with the physical, biological, and social environment. Racially, these activities have discovered continents and produced\nscience and philosophy. In the child they are the source of experience with,\nand information about, the environment and life. They include geography,\nhistory, and all science.\n4. The rhythmic and musical activities arise out of vocal and manual\nexperimentation, and the pleasures derived from rhythm, tone, and melody.\nIn the race these tendencies have produced the musical arts of man. In\nthe child they are the source of a developt capacity to enter into the most\ninfluential art-expression and form of community social recreative life.\n5. The manual activities arise from the manipulating and constructive\ntendencies and needs. Racially they are conspicuous in all survival efforts.\nThey have produced the vast range of industrial enterprises and the graphic\nart of man. In the child they develop the constructive powers. They\nare the direct avenues to industrial skill, adaptability, and economic\nadjustment.\n6. The big muscle activities arise from the primary hungers for activity\nand the instincts controlling locomotor adjustments to the environment.\nThus they include spontaneous hiking, playful gymnastics, dancing, vigorous games, and athletics. In the history of the race these activities have\nbeen the great socializers and primary sources of many fundamental artexpressions. In the child they are the sources of organic vigor and general\nnervous power. While regarded usually as mere muscular exercise, these\n\n"}
{"page": 315, "printed_page": "303", "text": "Department!\n\nLITERATURE\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nCHILD\n\n303\n\nactivities carry the discipline of racially old instincts, and are therefore\nfundamental in their influence on character-development.\n7. The economic activities arise out of the acquisitive impulse and\neconomic needs. The organized leadership of these activities ranges from\nincidental money-making to vocational training and guidance.\nNow, if this analysis of activities is correct, we have a natural grouping\nof the child's activities susceptible of practical organization and administration for efficient educational results.\nThus the play school is a demonstration of a school organization— a\nlarger school and play center, that fuses the child's play life with his need\nfor instruction and society's demand that he be instructed. It is adapted\nto meet the needs of the child and the demands of society arising from\nchanges in the home caused chiefly by the introduction of modern machinery. The functions of the school and the play centers are fused, educationally fused, so that we have one extra-home institutional center in\nwhich, thru leadership, the child can satisfy all his spontaneous growth\nhungers and play enthusiasms.\n\nLITERATURE\nMARIAN\n\nFOR THE KINDERGARTEN\n\nP. GREENE, PUBLIC LIBRARY, NEW\n\nCHILD\n\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nIt is more than a hundred years since Froebel taught the world that\nchildren need play to help them in learning to work. The kindergarten\nembodies principles that have come to stay, and FroebeUan methods are\nnow introduced in every grade and in every school, from the baby class,\njust entering, straight on thru coUege.\nThe modern teacher is so accustomed to the idea of \"learning by domg\"\nthat she does not often stop to think that there ever was any other way.\nPlay — ''healthful play\" — has come to be generally accepted as a factor for\ngood. The very foundations of a love for literature are laid by play and at\nan extremely early age. It is thru the real, old-fashioned \"Mother Goose,\"\nfor instance, that we teach poetry; for rhymes and jingles are poetry in its\nsimplest form, and are invaluable aids in developing a sense of rhythm in\nthe child which may train its ear, in later years, to catch the throbbing\nbeauty and music of real poetry.\nFew, if any, children are born utterly prosy. Very often a child who is\nfull of imaginative poesy loses this quality as the years go on. To be kept\nalive, our powers must be exercised constantly, and grown people are too\nmuch inclined to forget that poetry is language at its highest power, and\nconsequently they neglect to give it to children at the age-when they would\naccept it without question to be enjoyed and understood like any other\nform of story. The love of literature is not a thing to be forst upon us at\nthis age or that. It must just grow, simply and unconsciously. A tiny\n\n"}
{"page": 316, "printed_page": "304", "text": "304\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nchild invariably responds to rhythm. There is hardly an English or American home where \"Pat-a-cake, pat-a-cake\" has not brought a smile to some\nbaby face, and the babies of Germany, France, Italy — every country of the\nworld — have their own rhymes and jingles, constituting a Hterature of the\nnursery that is common to all nations. In my own childhood poetry was\nread aloud to us almost as much as prose, and tho a great deal of it went over\nour heads, we loved the music of the words and the beauty of poetic description. In those days our elders had to hunt about for poems that were\nsuitable for childish ears, whereas we now have such collections for little\nchildren as Kate Douglas Wiggin's Posy Ring, Thachers' Listening Child,\nLucas' Book of Verse for Children, Burton E. Stevenson's Home Book of\nVerse, and other delightful anthologies.\nThe child loves first anything rhythmic, whether it is understood or not.\nWe all remember the charm of mystic words which meant nothing, but\nnevertheless delighted us by the mere sound. All children sing words that\nhave absolutely no meaning; the sound alone, apparently, is all they care\nabout. Soon, however, words begin to have the value of pictures. Any\nfive-year-old who cares for fairy stories would be sure to love such a description, for instance, as that of the tiny warrior, the *' Culprit Fay.\"\nHe put his acorn helmet on;\nIt was plumed with the silk of the thistledown;\nThe corselet plate that guarded his breast\nWas once the wild bee's golden vest;\nHis cloak, of a thousand mingled dyes,\nWas formed of the wings of butterflies;\nHis shield was the shell of a ladybug queen,\nStuds of gold on a ground of green;\nAnd the quivering lance which he brandisht bright\nWas the sting of a wasp he had slain in a fight.\n\nWe may, therefore, safely include simple poetry in the literature for\nchildren under six. Among the minor poets who have given us stories in\nrhyme are Jane and Ann Taylor, who chose their subjects from the daily\nlife of normal children, described them in language that children use and\nunderstand, and also imagined them much as a child would have done.\nAUce and Phoebe Gary wrote in the same style; but Phoebe, at least, had\nmore charm and wit. The \"Grow's Ghildren,\" \"That Galf,\" and the\n\"Ghicken's Mistake,\" among others, are thoroly clever and entertaining.\nWe have, however, real poetry, written by a true poet, when we read the\nSongs of Innocence of William Blake, poet, dreamer, philosopher, as well as\npainter and engraver. Tho written long ago — he died in 1827 — ^his poetry\nfor children is so full of tender charm that it will appeal to childish hearts\nforever. Many passages from the Bible, tho written in the form of prose,\nare really poetry of the purest type. Read the Songs of Solomon, or the\nPsalms, and try to think of anything more poetically beautiful. Since I\nhave spoken of the Bible, it seems natural to discuss the telling of Bible\n\n"}
{"page": 317, "printed_page": "305", "text": "Department]\n\nLITERATURE\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nCHILD\n\n305\n\nStories to the child of kindergarten age. Personally, I believe that Bible\nstories are better left to the child over six. Many disagree with me, and\nI must leave the matter to your own judgment. I feel that the very small\nchild gets nothing more from these stories than from fairy tales, and I am\nnot satisfied with any of the rewritten versions of the Old Testament\nstories that have come to my notice. The very titles of some of these collections excite my prejudice. Truly Stories from the Surely Bible was the\nname of one that appeared this year. I am narrow-minded enough to\ndecide from the title alone that I do not like it!\nBy training the child's ear, thru poetry, we develop in him that most\nimportant thing, a feeling for English. Just as necessary is it to train his\neye, by presenting to him correct form and harmonious color in the many\ndelightful picture-books that are now available. In the picture-books of\ntoday we find everything that the child needs to satisfy his inherent love\nof color, his awakening imagination, and his developing sense of humor.\nThis last is a precious thing to encourage, but why should vulgarity so often\nbe mistaken for fun? The \"Charlie Chaplin\" variety of humor is cheap\nand degrading, yet that is the kind widely exploited by the newspaper supplements and the moving-picture films. When I saw the spectacle of twentyfive little children drest as \"Charlie Chaplins,\" marching in a \"Baby\nParade,\" drunkenly staggering and stumbling in piteous imitation of that\nhero of the \"movie\" world, my heart was sick within me. We can, at\nleast, oflFer an antidote to these pictures and to the comic supplement in\npresenting to the children picture-books provided for them by the bestknown artists and illustrators of Europe and our own country. Leslie\nBrooke's Three Little Pigs, for example, is full of clever fun. Kate Greenaway will always be beloved by children. Her very name brings sunny\nmemories of green fields, neat village streets, with bright-colored roofs and\ngay, blooming gardens, where rather sedate little boys and girls roll hoops,\nskip rope, pick flowers, or walk peacefully, hand in hand. Nothing is violent, everything is cheerful.\nNew York with its humor, its tragedy, its gaiety, and sordidness, has\n\nbeen rightly termed \"the greatest melting pot of the world.\" Here Jew\nand Gentile, every nationality and every type, are all in a great process of\namalgamation. How are we to reach them all? How help? The best\nand biggest answer is, \"Thru the children.\" Picture-books and fairy tales\nare the first means by which we win the interest of the little strangers within\nour gates, and, thru them the interest of the older members of the family.\nMuch informal work has been done with picture-books, and for about ten\nyears some libraries have made it a practice to hold picture-book^ story\nhours for kindergarten classes with markt success. A little girl in the\nthese\nkindergarten for cripples told her first coherent story after one of\naroused\nexpression\nfor\ndesire\nthe\nis\nThus, thru interest in the subject,\nvisits.\nand stimulated.\n\n"}
{"page": 318, "printed_page": "306", "text": "306\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThere have been story hours for foreign children in the German,\nItalian, and Bohemian languages, and at the Seward Park, branch mother's\nmeetings have been held in Yiddish. Tho those who come to the story\nhour are older than the kindergarten child, they retell the stories to younger\nbrothers and sisters and even to the parents. One little girl in my own\nbranch had a regular story hour for the little ones in her neighborhood, at\nwhich she told stories read or heard in the library. \"I listen very hard\nand try to do it just as you do,\" said Bessie, as she told me of her \"club,\"\n\"and when I grow up I am going to be a 'liberry' teacher too.\"\nAnd now we come to the literature that seems most to belong to the\nsmall child — the great field that is covered by fables, fairy tales, and folk-lore.\nHow many of us, in our daily conversation, realize the origin of countless phrases borrowed from Aesop and La Fontaine — expressions we have\nused ever since we first began to understand language? \"Sour grapes,\"\n\"a wolf in sheep's clothing,\" \"counting our chickens before they are\nhatcht,\" \"dog in a manger\" — all these are actually literary references which\nare, or should be, familiar to the smallest children. Fables and folk-tales\nappeal to children in many ways, but perhaps the characteristic they love\nbest in these stories is the constant presence in them of animal life, the\nnaturalness of relation between animals and human beings.\nThe child himself lives in a world of wonder, and to him all things are\nseen with a sort of glamor. The ordinary occurrences of daily life are\noften, to him, fairy marvels. I knew of a little boy who came from the\ncountry to visit an aunt who lived in New York. The basement kitchen\nwas never seen by him, nor were the unknown intricacies of a dumb-waiter\nexplained. What wonder then that he should tell his brother when he\nreturned to his home: \"Auntie doesn't have to bother about cooking.\nWhen we are hungry we just sit down at a table, and a little magic elevator\nbrings us all the food we want!\"\nExcellent collections of fairy tales are those of Kate Douglas Wiggin\nand Nora A. Smith; and there are many books to help in story- telling.\nEdna Lyman's Story-telling; What to Tell and How to Tell It is a practical\none, but, to my mind, the best of them all is The Art of the Story-Teller^ by\nMarie Shedlock, herself a true fairy godmother to all story-tellers and storylovers. Miss Shedlock is a real artist. It is so easy to confuse art with\nartificiality, and that is what many would-be story-tellers do. Art is not\na thing assumed; it is something felt, and unless you feel a story you never\ncan tell it at its best. Once more I desire to emphasize the necessity for\ngiving the child the very best that you can find,^ whether it be poetry,\npictures, or stories. It is better to cling to the things that have stood the\ntest of time rather than to search constantly for something new and wonderful. In an age when mediocrity and vulgarity are presented in new\nforms on every hand, not the latest thing, but the finest thing for children\nshould be the concern of every parent, teacher, or Hbrarian.\n\n"}
{"page": 319, "printed_page": "307", "text": "Department!\n\nART\n\nIN THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n307\n\nART IN THE KINDERGARTEN\nGRACE CORNELL, TEACHERS\n\nCOLLEGE, COLUMBIA\n\nUNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nI recently read this paragraph in a book on the sense of beauty: \"We\nknow on exceUent authority that beauty is truth, that it is the expression\nof the ideal, the symbol of divine perfection, and the sensible manifestation\nof the good. A litany of these titles of honour might easily be compiled,\nand repeated in praise of our divinity.\" In this talk I shall try to show art\nas a structure, a building-up of harmony by means of arrangement and\nfine choices. The material out of which we build our structure is threefold. Itis shape, tone, and color— or line, dark and light, and color. To\nbe sure, everything has shape, tone, and color, everything that we can see,\nbut in art we think only of the fine or beautiful shapes, lines, tones, and\ncolors. The artist is able by appreciation to choose and combine lines\nand colors so as to produce harmony. He composes or puts together elements in such a way that beauty results. Many people do not think of\nart in this way. The old Greek stories of the painter whose picture of\nfruit was so natural that birds peckt at it, or the one who deceived a\nbrother artist by pamting a curtain, show only the childish view of art as\nrepresentation. Henry James has said: \"Nothing counts in art but the\nexcellent.\" Let us accept that as absolutely right. It is the excellent, the\nfine, not the true, nor accurate, nor anything else, that makes a work of art.\nKindergartners have askt this question, \"How shall we put art into the\nkindergarten ? \" Other kindergartners have askt, \"How shall we bring out\nand develop the art which is in the kindergarten?\" The kindergartners\nwho ask the second question show the right thought about art and its\nrelation to the kindergarten, because the art faculty is a common human\npossession which is given to each of us, and, while it is frequently allowed\nto remain inactive, it may be developt thru use. We do not put this gift\ninto the mind of the kindergarten child, but we either do or do not lead\nthe child to use its gift. If the children are to be led, it is important for\nthem to have efficient leaders. The efficient leaders are those who have\ndevelopt their art faculty thru appreciative study of fine things and thru\nthe exercise of their own creative thought. I emphasize especially one's\nown preparation as a leader thru doing. Many of us read about art in\nbooks, we travel and visit museums, and some of us possess beautiful\nthings; but each of us can choose and create, if we wish to, and that is the\nsurest and quickest road to art-appreciation. There is the person who says,\n\"I know nothing about art, but I know what I like when I see it.\" Then\nthere is the one who says, \"I know nothing about art, but I can feel it.\"\nWe forget, however, about these people when we meet the people with\nsincere art interest who say, \" What can we do with art ? \"\nSince the development of the kindergartner's own appreciation thru\ndoing is so important, I shall tell about this in the first part of my talk\n\n"}
{"page": 320, "printed_page": "308", "text": "308\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nKindergarten\n\nand in the second part shall tell you a little about its application in the\nkindergarten.\nQuality is the one thing sought by the artist, and quality is obtained\nthru choices. All art has grown up from simple arrangements and spacings,\nfrom something where there was opportunity to choose as to size, shape,\nplacing, tone, and color. The exhibit which is on the wall back of the platform isthe work of students in the training school of the New York Kindergarten Association. This work was planned so that the student could\nhave opportunity to choose and invent good arrangements of space, mass,\nand color.\nThese three elements, line, dark and light, and color, might be called\nthe *' language of art.\" Beauty of line is seen in architecture, sculpture, or\nmetal work. When you visit the MetropoHtan Museum of Art, you will\nsee some Gothic figures, part of the sculptured detail from Rheims Cathedral,\nwhich are examples of beautiful line. Beauty of dark and light lines is one\nof the chief elements in the textiles, and laces, the porcelains, and the paintings which you will see there. Then there is the beauty of color, which is\nseen in textile design, stained glass, embroidery, pottery-decoration, and in\npainting. If we study the art of the world, we find this language exprest\nin many different forms. There is the idea of good proportion, which is\nillustrated by such great examples as the Parthenon and Giotto's Tower.\nThese simple line exercises are the result of an effort to invent some good\nproportions of space.\nOne of the oldest and most common ways of creating harmony is that\nof rhythm, the production of beauty by repeating the same lines or groups\nin rhythmical order. Rhythm, in fact, forms a large part of our lives.\nThere is the march of the seasons and the alternating days and nights.\nEach season gives us its rhythm. In the winter there is the falling snow,\nin spring the sound of the rain. In the summer we see fields with rhythmical patterns of flowers, and in the autumn we watch the fall of the leaves.\nThere is the rhythm of clouds in the sky, and at night the rhythm of stars.\nWe like the rhythm of marching figures in processions and the rhythm of\nthe dance. By rhythm I do not mean mere repetition or placing of things\nin a row. By rhythm I mean the ordered arrangement of shapes or masses\nwhich are finely related to each other. This art principle is shown in\nprimitive art, in textile design, in Byzantine mosaic, in the decoration of\nGreek vases, in architecture, in sculpture, and in painting.\nThere is another art principle which is the opposite of rhythm. This\nis the creating of harmony by having one great central idea and other parts\nsubordinate to it. Salisbury Cathedral is a great example of this kind of\nbeauty. The idea of principality does not belong to visual art alone. In\nan epic poem the principal thought may be some grand event of historic or\nreligious importance, to which all the other events that are mentioned are\nsubordinate. In drama principaUty may be given to some character, like\n\n"}
{"page": 321, "printed_page": "309", "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nIN THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n309\n\nHamlet or Lear, to whom all the other characters and their actions are in\nsome way subordinated. These elements, rhythm and harmony, are some\nof the great principles of spacing and dark and hght.\nThis study of line and tone helps very much in the study of colors.\nColor may be reduced to three simple elements: (i) hue, as red and green;\n(2) value, as light blue, dark blue; (3) intensity, as bright red, gray red!\nThese three elements may be called the language of color. I refer you to\nAlbert H. Munsell's book, A Color Notation, for a very clear statement\nof color theory. There are violent differences of opinion among artists,\nteachers, and critics as to what constitutes good color instruction. The\nmost that I can do in this short talk will be to show you how different kinds\nof color harmonies may be created with the three sunple elements of hue,\nvalue, and intensity.\nLet us consider difference of hue. If we wish a color scheme which\nis full of vitality and life, we choose bright contrasting hues. Sometimes\nwe harmonize these bright, contrasting hues with black or gray. If we\nchoose, we may harmonize them with white. Any of these three are great\nharmonizers of bright contrasting hues when they are used in the right\nproportion. Again, we might harmonize the bright hues by contrastmg\nthem with each other. If we wish a color harmony which is delicate, poetic,\nand subtle, we choose neighboring hues, as blue and violet blue, or we\nchoose hues which are not very intense. After we have selected our hues,\neither bright or gray, we need to know how to use them. It is here that\nthe study of good spacing helps. Beautiful hues, when used in a poor\nspace arrangement or, in other words, when used in the wrong proportions, frequently produce a disagreeable discord. One of the simplest\nways of creating color harmony is to choose different values of one hue,\nas light blue, middle blue, and dark blue. If we wish the color scheme to\nbe vigorous and forceful, we choose values with a decided difference of\ndark and light. If we wish a subtle scheme, we may choose the lighter\nand more delicate notes with slight differences of value, or if we wish\na rich, mysterious scheme, we choose the dark, low-tone-value notes.\nSometimes it is interesting to have a large quantity of dark color surrounding small starlike shapes of light, or one may prefer masses of dark\ngroupt against a light background.\nIt has been my experience that difference of intensity is not understood\nby students as readily as difference of hue or value. This may be because\nmuch color-study is based upon color as having two quaUties, hue and\nvalue, or \"tint\" and \"shade,\" as they are sometimes called, and not upon\nthe fact that color has a third quality as well, that of intensity. Arranging\ncolor notes of one hue, from bright and gray, gives a simple and beautiful\nkind of color scheme which is often delicate and iridescent in its effect.\nAnother way of using this idea of intensity is to arrange small starlike\nshapes of very bright color against larger contrasting masses of dark or gray.\n\n"}
{"page": 322, "printed_page": "310", "text": "3IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\nThese are a few of the things which the kindergartner who wishes to\nbecome a leader toward art might do toward developing her own appreciation. You may say, \"I have no talent for art.\" Of course, some\npeople have more talent than others, but each of us has the art faculty,\nand this power may be developt.\nAfter emphasizing the importance of the kindergartner developing her\nown appreciation thru doing, let us consider some of the ways in which the\nart-principles studies may be applied in the kindergarten. One would not,\nof course, talk about art principles to little children. But it is possible,\nthru simple art activities, to give children the experience of using these\nprinciples. The kindergartner, and not the art-teacher, is the one best\nfitted to say how this experience shall be given to the children. Surely\nthere are opportunities in many of the occupations to use the ideas of\nspacing, invention, and color.\nIt is not necessary to limit art activity to so-called \"art materials\"\nsuch as paints, brushes, crayons, or the like. Art is broad and it enters\ninto many things. The choice of pictures, their proper mounting, the\narrangement of the room, the sense of order, the breadth of interest, are all\nthings in which art has a finger. And it is inspiring to think of what the\nkindergartners will do with art. They will lead thousands of children to\nmake choices which bring forth the hidden treasures of the mind. They\nwill start them on the road to good taste and sincere art-appreciation.\nThey will aid in forming a vast throng whose desire for beauty will help\nto create great art.\n\n"}
{"page": 323, "printed_page": "311", "text": "DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\n\nPresident— Ehwoov P. Cubberly, professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University,\nStanford University, Cal.\nVice-President— SiDVisv E. Mezes, president. College of the City of New York, New York, N.Y.\nSecretary— Jon^ E. Rouse, head of School of Education, James Millikin University,\nDecatur, lU.\n\nFIRST session—Friday\n\nForenoon, July 7, 1916\n\nThe department met in the Horace Mann Auditorium, Teachers College, Columbia\nUniversity, at 9: 30 a.m., and was called to order by President Cubberly.\nThe following program was given:\n\"Present Tendencies in College Administration\" — Stephen Duggan, professor of\neducation. College of the City of New York, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Elective System — Its Function and Its Limitations\"— Thomas M. Balliet,\ndean, School of Pedagogy, New York University, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Great War in Its Relation to the Study of History, Politics, and Sociology\" —\nEdward Krehbiel, professor of history, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stafford\nUniversity, Cal.\n\"The Baccalaureate Degree as an Obstacle to Educational Progress\" — Barclay W.\nBradley, College of the City of New York, New York, N.Y.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Friday Afternoon, July 7, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:30 p.m. in the Horace Mann Auditorium, with\nPresident Cubberly in the chair.\nThe following program was given:\n\"Possible Modifications in Our Educational Work Likely to Come as a Result of\nthe Great War\"— James E. Russell, dean. Teachers College, Columbia University,\nNew York, N.Y.\n\"Education and Militarism \"—George W. Alger, of the New York City Bar.\n\"The Service of Business Schools at the Close of the Great War\"— James C.\nEgbert, dean. School of Business, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.\n\"An Experiment in Practical Commercial Education m the National City Bank of\nNew York\"— F. C. Schwedtman, director of efficiency, National City Bank of New\nYork, New York, N.Y.\nThe following officers were elected for the ensuing year:\nPresident— Edwa,Td C. Elliott, chancellor. University of Montana, Helena, Mont.\nVice-President— ChsLiles H. Johnston, professor of secondary education, Umversity\nof Illinois, Urbana, 111.\n,\n,,.,,.,. tt •\n•*\nJohn E. Rouse, head of School of Education, James MiUikin Umversity,\nSecretary—\nDecatur, 111.\n„ ^\n^\n,\nJohn E. Rouse, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 324, "printed_page": "312", "text": "312\n\nPRESENT\nSTEPHEN\n\nNATIIONAL\n\nEDUCATON\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nTENDENCIES\n\nDUGGAN,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nIN COLLEGE\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nPROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, COLLEGE\nNEW YORK, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nOF THE CITY OF\n\nThe body of i&nal control in the American college and university at the\nopening of the twentieth century was the board of trustees or board of\nregents. In state universities the board was usually appointed by the\ngovernor, as in Wisconsin, tho sometimes elected by the people, as in Michigan. In private institutions the choice was by cooperation, tho there were\nsome institutions, chiefly of a larger size, in which the alumni were permitted\nto choose trustees either directly, as in Columbia, or indirectly, as in Harvard. All powers not specifically delegated to any other body or individual\nwere understood to reside in the board.\nA board of trustees was, and is, almost wholly made up of business men\nand lawyers. From its personnel as well as its method of appointment it\nwas essentially a conservative body. The average lawyer is guided by precedent and has his face turned to the past; the average business man usually\nwishes conditions as they are at present to be maintained. The board of\ntrustees appointed the president and all the instructing staff. Tho it had\nlegal control over the educational as well as the financial and material\ninterests of the institution, it usually turned over the educational interests\nto the president and faculty. But practically nowhere did the idea prevail\nthat the faculty was a body coordinate with the board of trustees. In most\ninstitutions the principle of relation was that of the employe and employer.\nJust as the board appointed teachers, tho nearly always upon the recommendation ofthe president, so it dismist teachers sometimes of its own\nvolition and against the advice of the president. Appointment, tenure,\nand dismissal were wholly within its discretion.\nAs stated, the board usually turned over the whole matter of educational policy to the president and trusted him to work out the details.\nSince he was held responsible, he was given great powers. He was the sole\nmeans of communication between the board and the faculty. As he nominated all candidates for appointment and recommended promotions to the\nboard, he practically controlled the teaching staff. For the same reason\nhe dictated the policy of the institution, as few of the faculty cared to oppose\nhis wishes unless he were personally very democratic. He organized the\nbudget and thereby controlled departmental policies. In practice the\npresident held the heads of departments responsible for the good working\nof the departments without making prescriptions as to how it should be\ndone. Sometimes the president was also president of the board of trustees,\ne.g., in Dartmouth, with a vote, or in Michigan, without a vote. President\nEliot believes that the president of the college should be chairman of the\n\n"}
{"page": 325, "printed_page": "313", "text": "Department]\n\nPRESENT\n\nTENDENCIES\n\nIN COLLEGE\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n313\n\nboard of trustees. As the trustees knew very Uttle of the actual running\nof the college, the president usually imposed his views upon them, and with\nthe great growth of higher institutions of learnmg m the United States he\nbecame more and more a business-manager and often introduced into coUege\nadministration the ideals and methods of business-management. In few\ngreat American corporations was there an individual who had such autocratic power as the American college president.\nThe principle of autocracy ran down the line.- The senior professor\nwas usually the head of, the department and determined the policy of the\ndepartment; he also recommended appointments and promotions withm\nthe department. In many institutions the faculty was made up only of\nheads of departments, or if assistant professors and instructors were admitted, itwas only to express views, not to vote.\nThe student body was usually under the control of the president, the\ndean, or a faculty committee on student affairs; and this control usually\nextended to most student activities, athletics, publications, organizations,\netc., as well as to matters of discipline.\nAs to the relation of the institutions to the pubUc, only in a few places\nwas there maintained the idea that the college or university existed dhectly\nfor the public welfare and that it should interest itself in all kinds of social\nactivities looking toward a better organization and administration of society.\nBut as the result of changed conditions, the pressure of public opinion,\nand the growth of new ideals, it is undoubtedly true that where changes are\ntaking place they are usually in the direction of placing the educational\naffairs of colleges more in the control of the faculty than of the president;\nthe affairs of departments more in the control of the entire staff of the\ndepartment than of the head; and the control of student affairs and activities more in the control of the students themselves than of the faculty\ncommittees.\nLet us take up these points seriatim.\nThe relation of the board of trustees to the faculty and president.\nThere is a decided movement away from cooperation in the filling of vacancies on boards of trustees of private institutions and toward the granting\nof increast alumni representation. It is noticeable, however, that the new\nspirit has not yet affected the representation of different vocations and\ninterests on the board of trustees. It is still made up almost exclusively\nof lawyers and successful business men.\nA second tendency is the growing recognition that the trustees and\nfaculty occupy something approaching a coordinate position. In an increasing number of institutions it is expUcitly provided in new constitutions\nor amendments to constitutions that all appointments and promotions\nshall be recommended by a committee of the faculty (Pennsylvania, Bryn\nMawr, Reed) . In a still greater number the tendency has no expUcit recognition in trustee by-laws but has in actual practice. President Hyde, of\nBowdoin, writes: \"In an informal but not in a legal way, the full professors\nare given an increasing influence in determining the poKcy of the college.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 326, "printed_page": "314", "text": "314\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nThis is the report that comes from the great majority of those who\nhave answered my questionnaire. In William and Mary faculty government isabsolute in everything not involving finances. In Randolph-Macon\nall matters of educational policy are settled by majority vote of full professors. The desire that the board of trustees and faculty should have\nsomething approaching coordinate position is, of course, especially manifested inthe faculty. The report comes from the University of California\nthat a considerable number of members of the faculty would like to see\nfaculty representation on the board of trustees (non- voting). The most\nexphcit recognition of this desire was given in Cornell. In his annual\nreport for 19 12 President Schurman recommended that the faculty of the\nuniversity have \"a larger measure of participation in its government.\"\nThe board of trustees appointed a special committee to confer with a special\ncommittee of the faculty, and the conference committee reported two\nrecommendations: (i) that the university faculty elect three representatives to the board of trustees who should have all the powers of trustees\nexcept that of voting; (2) that there should be councils representing the\nseveral colleges of the university for conference with the trustees on matters\naffecting the several colleges. The board of trustees on April 29, 19 16,\nadopted both recommendations.\nThe tendency on the part of boards of trustees to get the advice of the\nfaculty on matters of policy is shown by the increase in the number of institutions where the faculty appoints advisory committees to confer with the\ntrustees, e.g., Lawrence College, Wisconsin, and the College of the City of\nNew York. The plan adopted by the board of directors of Bryn Mawr\non May 29, 19 16, provides for the election by the faculty of a committee\nof three which shall have the right to attend and take part in the discussions at all meetings of the board of directors.\nIt must be evident from all that has been stated that the position of the\npresident is nearly everywhere becoming less autocratic, as a result either\nof legislation or of practice. In some large institutions, especially universities, the tendency is for the maintenance of a cabinet or a council (Reed\nand Kansas) to which the president submits proposals for changes in policy\nand administration before bringing them to the board of trustees. Clark\nUniversity organized recently a \"senate consisting of full professors only,\nwho advise upon all matters pertaining to the conduct of the university,\nleaving ordinary matters to the faculty.\" Even where such advisory\nbodies do not exist, the tendency is for the president to yield to the faculty's\ndesire upon educational matters (Lehigh University) and to throw the\nadministrative work more and more into the hands of the faculty committee\n(Earlham College).\nThe president has ceast to be in some places the autocrat that he was\nin the matter of appointment, promotion, and tenure. In most institutions ithad always been the policy of the president to consult heads of\n\n"}
{"page": 327, "printed_page": "315", "text": "Department]\n\nPRESENT\n\nTENDENCIES\n\nIN COLLEGE\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n315\n\ndepartments in these matters, but in recent years in new constitutions or\namendments adopted by a number of institutions it is explicitly stated\nthat appointments and promotions shall be upon recommendation of the\ndepartment or school concerned, e.g., lUinois, Reed, Kansas, Pennsylvania.\nThe new plan at Bryn Mawr provides for a faculty committee of five, whose\nduty is to become familiar with the teaching staff. This committee must\nbe consulted by the president before he makes any recommendations to the\nboard of directors on reappointments or refusal of reappointments. Whenever practicable the committee is also to be consulted on initial appointments. That the *' hired-man\" principle is gradually passing into obUvion\nis evident from the explicit provisions for security of tenure that have\nbeen\nput into all the more recently adopted constitutions and amendments to\nconstitutions. Pennsylvania now provides that professors be appointed\nfor an indefinite term, assistant professors for a first term of three years\nand then for periods of five years, instructors for one year. Kansas provides\nthat \"professors and associate professors are on permanent appointment,\nassistant professors are on one-year appointment for the first two years, after\nwhich their appointment, unless otherwise stipulated, is permanent.\" Illinois provides that appointment as professor or associate professor shall be\nfor an indefinite term. This shall be construed to mean definite tenure.\nIllinois, moreover, provides that \"only immorality, gross neglect of\nduty, or conspicuous and continued ineflSciency and incompetency shall\nbe considered cause for discharge. No appointee shall be removed before\nthe expiration of his term of service without the filing of formal charges and\na hearing before the board of trustees.\" Pennsylvania and Bryn Mawr,\nwhich have most recently adopted new principles with reference to tenure,\nprovide that no teacher shall be dismist until after a conference between\na faculty committee and a trustee committee and only after a written report\nof the findings of such conference shall be made to the board of trustees\nfor consideration and action by it.\nIt is evident that the old conception of the college teacher as \"employe\"\nof the board of trustees is rapidly passing away. The former conception\nwas natural to boards of trustees made up of business men solely, but the\nnewer conception and the one rapidly gaining ground is the one exprest last\nJanuary by the committee on academic freedom of the American Association ofUniversity Professors.\nThere is a growing tendency to distmguish between two functions of the\nfaculty, (i) policy-determining, and (2) administration, and for the faculty\nto give more and more of its attention to the former and leave the latter to\nbe done by committees and individuals. Possibly it is for that reason that\ndepartmental organization has felt the democratizing influence less, perhaps, than other elements in college and university administration. Even\nconstitution adopted (Kansas) provides that the senior professor\nlast\nthe\nshall be chairman of the department. This is still the status in the great\n\n"}
{"page": 328, "printed_page": "316", "text": "3i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nmajority of institutions, but there is a growing number, especially among\nthe larger institutions, organizing departments in the manner of Wisconsin.\nWisconsin provides that each department shall have a departmental committee, which shall consist of all members of professorial rank. The immediate government of each department shall be vested in such departmental\ncommittee, which shall have jurisdiction over all the interests of the department with power to determine all matters of educational and administrative\npolicy pertaining thereto. Harvard and Yale in the East, Chicago and\nIllinois in the Middle West, and Idaho in the Far West are typical of a growing number of institutions which are abandoning the old system of permanent headship of departments upon the part of the senior professor in favor\nof temporary chairmen appointed by the president from the members of\nthe department for a limited period. In Mt. Holyoke, in two departments\nwhich have no professors, the experiment is being tried temporarily of\nhaving the chairmanship rotate among the associate professors. In Yale\nthe chairman of the department is elected by its full professors. This year\nin the College of the City of New York, in the case of two departments\nwhose heads had retired, the department was put in commission, i.e.,\ndepartmental policy was to be determined by the members of the department in departmental meeting, the chairman, who is appointed by the\npresident for two years, being merely the executive officer of the department. This is also true of smaller institutions. In Middlebury College,\nVermont, \"heads of departments have no distinction in salaries or powers.\nThe department is run by its most influential member, if he has the president's approval.\" This tendency toward greater democratization is more\nevident in the organization of faculty committees. In a growing number of\ninstitutions it is now true that the chairman of a committee, who naturally\nguides its activities, need no longer be a full professor. A few years ago\nthe Harvard Committee on Admission, one of the most important of all\ncommittees, had as its chairman an instructor who had proved himself\nespecially efficient in that kind of work. Of course, this principle is not\neverywhere accepted. From Union College comes the information that\n\"the increase in the number of the faculty makes necessary an increasing\nsubordination of those of lower rank to the heads of departments.\"\nIt is a gratifying evidence of a willingness to share powers that the\nfaculty, which has been demanding an increasing voice in the conduct of\naffairs, has shown its belief in the democratic principle by giving an increasing share of power to the students in the administration of their own affairs.\nNot only is it true that the student council is called more and more into\nconsultation by the faculty, but the responsibiUties placed upon it or\nassumed by it are astonishing. The better means of getting evidence\npossest by the students and their more appreciative viewpoint undoubtedly\nmake the student council a safer organization for discipline than the faculty.\nThe administration can get many things done thru the student council\n\n"}
{"page": 329, "printed_page": "317", "text": "Department)\n\nPRESENT\n\nTENDENCIES\n\nIN COLLEGE\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n317\n\nwhich would be difficult to secure by the exercise of\nauthor\nabohtion of hazing. Chicago is typical when it writes that ity, e g the\nthe decisions\nof the student council are usually accepted without questi\non by the university authorities. California writes that the facult)* committee\non\nstudent affairs has had but one meeting in seven years. The\ngreat confidence shown in the integrity and fairness of student councils was well illustrated inWilliam and Mary College two years ago when the parents of two\nstudents appealed to the faculty against a penalty of expulsion impose\nd by\nthe student council, and the faculty refused to interfere.\nThe student council has control of the widest variety of interests as\nwell as of discipUne in most institutions. The publications of the students,\nincluding financial responsibility, then- dramatic and musical organizations^\nathletics, and those who participate in them, are under the control of the\nstudent council. Several institutions write that the student council decides\nhow much extra-curricular activity a student may undertake. In Ohio\nWesleyan the student council not only establisht a budget fee to cover expenses for athletics, student publications, etc., but a hospital association\nwhich they maintain by a fee paid by each student. This is also true of\nCalifornia. No c6llege representative wrote in disparagement of the work\nof the student council, and the great majority wrote enthusiastically about\nits advantages.\nThe desire to be of greater service to the community may not necessarily\nbe a democratic tendency, but it is certainly a present tendency in college\nadministration. Of course, we are all familiar with the wonderful work\ndone by the state universities, practically all of which is a twentieth-century\nproduct. The summer sessions, extension work, seasonal courses, correspondence courses, bureau of general information, public-welfare service,\nare only the most striking of these. But from small and relatively unknown\ninstitutions comes the information that their libraries, art buildings, hospitals, and material plant generally are at the service of teachers, farmers, and\nthe community. Another illustration of this spirit of service is the\nentrance of the college teacher into civic employ as an expert on state and\ncity committees, library boards, etc. Too great emphasis cannot be placed\nupon the amount of time and energy given by college teachers to this kind\nof service. Another tendency is that of extreme frankness on the part of\nthe university in its dealings with the public. It is only comparatively\nrecently that the urban institutions were inspired by the example of the\nstate universities. Two years ago there was formed an association of urban\nuniversities, and it was then discovered that the amount of work that is\nbeing carried on by urban institutions for the public welfare, is truly remarkable. The faculty is a sort of professional body of consultants for the\nmunicipal government in its various departments of administration, in\nhealth, public works, finance, and education. Moreover, there is a widespread tendency in both state and urban institutions to provide training\n\n"}
{"page": 330, "printed_page": "318", "text": "3l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Higher\n\nfor the improvement of those in the public service. Cahfornia even has\ncourses for poUcemen in abnormal psychology and in sociology. On the\nother hand, the college and the university are taking advantage to an\nincreasing exten.t of the great laboratory possibilities of organized society\nin the city itself to give field experience to their students in the various\ndepartments. If space permitted, it would be interesting to continue the\ndiscussion of this aspect of college and university administration. But I\nthink enough has been said to permit the generahzation that the present\ntendencies in college and university administration are toward democratization and socialization.\nTHE ELECTIVE\nTHOMAS\n\nSYSTEM— ITS FUNCTION\nLIMITATIONS\n\nM. BALLIET, DEAN, SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nNEW\n\nAND\nYORK\n\nITS\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nWidely differing views have always prevailed since its introduction and\ndo now prevail among educators as to the true function and scope of the\nelective system in American high schools and colleges. Four reasons have\nbeen assigned in justification of it: (i) the field of knowledge has become\ntoo wide for any one student even to sample all departments of it; (2) the\nstudent gets more profit from a study which appeals to his native abihty\nand interest than from one which is forst upon him against his taste; (3) it\nenables a student to elect his undergraduate studies with reference to his\nlater professional studies; and (4) it enables him also to elect teachers,\nwhich is quite as important as to elect studies, and which may, incidentally,\nhave a wholesome effect on teachers themselves. These are the reasons\nassigned by educators; to the student there appears a fifth reason, which\nhas had no little weight with some, to the effect that it enables him to elect\neasy courses and secure his diploma or degree at a minimum cost of labor.\nThis last type of student is the \"pass degree\" man of the English university\nand the man who makes a \"gentleman's grade\" in the American college.\nThe merits and the evils of the system are well understood; they need\nnot be discust here; but its specific function and its specific limitations\nhave been but vaguely conceived; and its administration, both in colleges\nand in high schools, has been correspondingly lacking in definiteness of\naim. Is it possible to formulate both its functions and its limitations more\ndefinitely ?\nEvery person needs at least four types of education:\nI. It is essential that he must master those fundamental studies a\nknowledge of which is not only universally necessary for practical life, but\nis basic for all further scholastic attainments. This includes the curriculum\nof the elementary school and certain studies of the high school and college.\nThese must be required studies.\n\n"}
{"page": 331, "printed_page": "319", "text": "Department]\n\nFUNCTION\n\nAND\n\nLIMITATIONS\n\n319\n\nOF ELECTIVE\n\nSYSTEM\n\n2. Every individual is entitled to a training which fits him for some\nspecific calling in which he may not only make a Uvelihood, but in which\nhe may realize the aims of his life and render to the world the service which\nhe owes it. This is vocational education. In this type of education election islimited to the choice of the vocation. There is no room for the\nelection of studies, except in so far as a specialization within the calling or\nprofession is possible. After the student has chosen his calling, it is for the\nschool to prescribe the curriculum. This applies not only to trade schools,\nbut to all types of vocational schools, including the professional schools of\nthe university.\n3. Each person must have such training as his native capacity enables\nhim to receive, which shall fit him specifically to discharge the duties of\ncitizenship. In a broad sense, all legitimate education fits for citizenship,\nbut there are certain studies which specifically and directly aim to do M]is.\nWhat are these studies ?\nThey are not— for the secondary school at least— the study of the\nnational and state constitutions which form the whole course in\nso-called \"civics\" in most high schools. Such a study is useless for\nsecondary schools, and properly belongs to the college, where it should\nform only a part of the larger subject of political science and government.\nBriefly stated, most of our political questions today have an economic\nbasis and cannot be understood without at least an elementary knowledge\nof economics. An elementary course in economics should therefore be a\nrequired course in every secondary school and in every college. Many of\nour political problems have an immediate sociological basis; hence an\nelementary course in sociology should be required of all pupils in every\nsecondary school and college.\nA few generations ago it was a dogma of writers on economics that the\nlaws of economics, like the laws of physics and of chemistry, have nothing\nto do with the principles of ethics. Today we recognize a most intimate\nrelation between the two. Furthermore, no one can comprehend the meaning of economics and of social conditions who is blind to their ethical\nsignificance. Hence a course in ethics should be a required course in all secondary schools and colleges. Such a course should, however, not be based\non metaphysics nor theology, but should be a practical course, based on\nsociology, and should deal with the actual ethical problems which arise in\nlife. Morality is a social phenomenon or fact, and the force of ethical\nprinciples can be felt only when seen in the light of the concrete social facts\nof life. Hence the effectiveness of the parable in moral instruction. In\ncity high schools and in all colleges a course in municipal problems should be\nrequired as a part of the specific trainmg for citizenship.\nThis is but a very crude and brief statement of the courses which should\nbe required as a training for efficient citizenship.\n\n"}
{"page": 332, "printed_page": "320", "text": "3 20\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\nIt is obvious that in this type of education — the ethical, or moral —\nthere is no room whatever for either an election of calling or an election of\nstudies.\nNo one can be allowed to elect, if native-born, whether he will be a\ncitizen or not; and it is for the school to prescribe the studies which fit\nhim to discharge the duties which citizenship makes incumbent upon him.\n4. Everyone should be educated for leisure as well as for work. For\nthe working classes, at least, the eight-hour law will soon be universal.\nThen there will be eight hours for work, eight hours or more for leisure,\nand the remainder of the twenty-four for sleep. The way in which a man\nspends his leisure hours, whether he finds his pleasures in activities which\nare elevating or in activities which are debasing, is of great importance to\nthe community and of the greatest importance to the man himself. Public\nand private morality depend far more on how the hours of leisure are spent\nthan on how the hours of work are spent. We must educate for leisure to\nprevent leisure from becoming mere idleness with all its proverbial consequences.\nIn this education for leisure must be included legitimate amusement\nand recreation, as well as the more intellectual pleasures of books and\nof art.\nIt is obvious that an education which is intended to fit a person to find\nelevating pleasures during his leisure hours cannot be forst upon him.\nThere is no room for prescription here. After relatively mature years have\nbeen reacht, as in the high school and the college, election must be absolutely\nfree.\nTo summarize: there is no room for election in case of the studies fundamental for practical life nor for all further study; in vocational education\nthere is room for the election of the vocation (under advice) but none for\nthe election of studies, except in so far as specialization within the vocation\nis possible; in the education for citizenship there can be no election at all;\nin the education for leisure there must be absolutely free election.\nIt may be added, in conclusion, that the need for an elective system\nin this country has grown out of the fact that our secondary education has\nbeen too little differentiated, and out of the further fact that our colleges\nare continuing general and undifferentiated education farther by two years\nthan any country in Continental Europe. The need for election has been\nespecially felt during the last two years of college, and in some colleges\nelection has been limited almost wholly to these years.\nSecondary and higher education is in process of radical reconstruction.\nWe have recently developt four types of high schools in place of one —\nnamely, the literary, the technical, the commercial, and the agricultural, or\nrural, high school, each providing a distinct type of training. Children now\nelect, in the main, schools, and to some extent courses within schools, but\nrarely individual studies.\n\n"}
{"page": 333, "printed_page": "321", "text": "Departmentl\n\nTHE\n\nBACCALAUREATE\n\nDEGREE\n\n321\n\nWe are developing a junior high school which will ultimately take not\nonly the two upper grades of the elementary schools but also the first two\nof the present high school. These schools will be of various types as to\ncourses, but will have each a definite aim, and will therefore make election\nof schools, rather than election of studies, a necessity^\nThe strong city high schools will soon incorporate the first two years of\ncollege; and general education will end, as in all European countries, with\nwhat is now the sophomore year in our best colleges. The junior and\nsenior years will be incorporated in the professional schools of the university, with possibly some telescoping, and the college of arts in its present\nform will disappear. The academic studies of the present junior and senior\nyears, when incorporated in the professional schools, will naturally become,\nin the main, required studies.\nIn short, with the differentiation of our secondary and higher education,\nthe need for election of studies will be reduced to a minimum, and the\nproblems which the elective system was invented to solve, will be solved\nby this differentiation.\n\nTHE BACCALAUREATE DEGREE AS AN OBSTACLE\nEDUCATIONAL PROGRESS\nBARCLAY\n\nW.\n\nBRADLEY,\n\nCOLLEGE OF THE CITY OF NEW\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nTO\n\nYORK,\n\nIn the days of chivalry the page at the age of seven began a seven-year\nterm of service, and then was bounden to seven more years as squire before\nhe was accepted into the fellowship of knights by the touch of a veteran.\nLikewise the normal period of apprenticeship in the manual crafts was\nseven years. It would take us afield to trace even a little way the origin\nof this use of the number seven. But those were days when not all human\ninstitutions were under the control of pure reason. Have those days yet\nended ?\nIt was in those days that the baccalaureate originated. Whether the\nbaccalarius was first a cowherd, the tenant of a stock farm, or something\n\nentirely different, it is certain that in the universitas, or corporation—\nwhether of smiths, tailors, or scholars— for some time before 1200 the term\nare\nwas practically a synonym for apprentice. Three stages m its history\nacademic\nthe\nin\nuse\npertinent to this inquiry: (i) the cause of its restricted\nrevival m\nfield; (2) its crystallization as a university degree; (3) its\nAmerica.\n.\n,-„ •\nParisof\nsity\nThe baccalaureate under the faculty of arts in the Univer\ncon-was\nof our own degree\nwhich alone may be lookt on as the ancestorwhich\nUy\nofficia\nity\nunivers\nthe\nin\nny\nceremo\nferred in a student-initiation\nupon\ned\ndepend\nit\nhad no part. The important features of it were (i) that\n\n"}
{"page": 334, "printed_page": "322", "text": "322\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nthe time unit as the measure of scholastic standing, and (2) that it was preliminary to the study which was to follow. In respect to control the ceremony was more nearly akin to a cane rush or sophomore cremation than to\ncommencement day. There was reason for measurement of proficiency\nby time, in that knowledge then was not acutely subdivided, and consisted\nchiefly in acquaintance with certain books. The baccalaureate ceremony\nwas part and parcel of the great wave for fraternization and organization\nthat swept over Europe in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.\nWithin a hundred years the originally voluntary and half-playful\nceremony had become a necessary preliminary to the ecclesiastical license\nto teach. And by 1400 at Paris, as elsewhere on the continent of Europe,\nit became synonymous with matriculation. At Oxford, however, it took a\ndifferent turn, which is reflected in the early history of Harvard University\nand of American colleges.\nIn the first statutes of Harvard the baccalaureate is referred to only as\nthe \"first degree.*' It was given at the end of four years of residence, to be\nfollowed immediately by three more years leading to the Master's, which\nwas called the *' second degree.\" Note the total of years. There is no\nevidence of any intention or thought that anyone would stop at this intermediate stage.\nThe development since then is obvious. As preparation has been more\nfully given before college-entrance, the baccalaureate has been pusht up\ntoward the end of the course; and the Master's degree has crumbled away\nuntil it now represents the work of one supplementary year and recently\nwas given without resident study after the baccalaureate; and but few\n.Bachelors proceed to it. The usurpation of the final place by the baccalaureate isjustifiable provided the course which leads to it is modified\nto accord with the new position, so as to give it always a rational basis.\nIn this very brief sketch I have tried to give prominence to two thoughts:\n(i) that the time unit is the traditional standard of measurement for the\nBachelor's degree, and (2) that in its origin and after transplantation to\nAmerica it was a preliminary step to higher academic study. To these\none other consideration should be added: that the Master's degree was\nalways a vocational degree and par excellence for one profession — teaching;\nin lesser degree it was a prerequisite to the study of theology and law. To\nwhat extent are these characteristics in accord with present educational\nthought and conditions ?\nPermit me to assume that there are two conceptions of education, one\nas growth or general development, the other as specific preparation for\nspecific ends; that the trend of modern educational thought is toward the\nlatter, namely, that every element which enters into an educational course\nfor an individual should work for a specific end in a specific way; that these\nends may be vocational (concerned with the livelihood), avocational (pertaining to general human duties, such as citizenship, domestic life, social\n\n"}
{"page": 335, "printed_page": "323", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nBACCALAUREATE\n\nDEGREE\n\n323\n\nbetterment, etc.), or liberal (directed solely to personal enjoyment); that\nevery course should be centered around the vocational, with the addition\nof such avocational and (possibly?) liberal material as is adapted to the\ntemperament and capacity of the individual and can be included without\nunduly deferring vocational maturity.\nThere is now apparent a great contrast in present educational conditions.\nIn comparison with the mediaeval university or with Harvard in the seventeenth century we have now an infinite differentiation of vocational ends\nto serve. It stands to reason that these vocations require various periods\nof time of preparation, from the elementary school plus zero years to seven,\neight, or even more years after high school. The tradition of the baccalaureate has caused us to pad our college courses to fill time units.\nIs there any reason why a person who requires less vocational preparation should have a greater amount of avocational and liberal, and vice\nversa, for the sake of making the totals equal ? Should not the quantum\nof each of these, ideally, be adapted fully to the individual ? Finally, is not\nany artificial stimulation to depart from the ideal the antipode of useful ?\nThe first effort to get away from the time unit in this country was\nprobably the elective system. But it was imperfect, because it still required\na fixt number of unit courses. The next effort was first made, I think, in\nthis university (Columbia), the conferring of the baccalaureate after one\nyear of study in a professional school. This plan is manifestly applicable\nto a very limited number of vocations.\nThe question has become acute in the secondary field, and you see the\nsecondary schools reaching down two years into the elementary and reaching up two years into college domain. Two-year and three-year commercial and other courses have been given for a long time. The secondary\nschool is comparatively unhampered by graduation day— shall we saythanks to the fact that the baccalaureate got away from its original\nposition.\nShall the baccalaureate be discarded ? The whole question is involved\nwith the doctrine of general training. Any action based upon faith m\nspecific training for specific ends will be confounded by its opponents unless\nvocational value and avocational value are both interpreted in the very\nbroadest manner, with accurate regard— so far as may be— to the ultimate\neffects of each study. For example, I should not hesitate to say that for\nof all\nmany persons— other than teachers— Latin is the most vocational\ncan\ndecision\njust\nA\nthis.\nin\nstudies. (Some of you may not agree with me\nthe\nupon\nstudy\nthe\nof\nbe reacht only as we are able to measure the effect\ncertam\na\nin\nthat\ne\nconceivabl\nis\nit\nindividual. You will grant, at least, that\nor certam habits\ntype of mind the study develops a certain kind of abiliiy\ns.) Agam,\nprofession\nwhich are indispensable to the highest success in a few\nvalue than\nl\ncertainly no other study has in general greater avocationa\nnil.\nbe\nmay\neffect\nits\nliterature; yet for some\n\n"}
{"page": 336, "printed_page": "324", "text": "324\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nAn alternative to summary execution of the degree is suggested by the\nplan of Columbia, and now of other universities. The degree might be\ngiven to those who have satisfied the college on the avocational side, after\nthey have practist efficiently for a certain time the vocation or profession\nto which they have been trained in the Alma Mater. The unit of scholarship should be a course starting somewhere in the secondary field and continuing one, two, three, four, or more years beyond it, the length being\ndetermined (as stated above) by the amount of institutional training\nrequisite for the specific vocation combined with the amount of avocational\ntraining that can be had simultaneously with it. Similar courses might\nend, as they do now, within the secondary period; and others, parallel\nwith those final in the college, would, as now, meet merely a definite standard of preparation for higher university work.\nWe have been accustomed to think of our college courses as standing\nlike piles ready for laying the flooring of a pier. We should think of them\nrather as the pipes of a great church organ — as many in number, perhaps\nas there are individual students at any one time.\nPOSSIBLE\nMODIFICATIONS\nIN OUR EDUCATIONAL\nWORK\nLIKELY TO COME AS A RESULT OF THE GREAT WAR\nJAMES E. RUSSELL, DEAN, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\n{Outline)\nIn a world- war a world-wide adjustment is taking place. Even America\nniust reckon with a new concept of the state, and with it expect a new type\nof public education.\nThe power of the schoolmaster stands clear in the record of German\neducation. A few generations have seen the German schools, almost\nsingle-handed, develop loyalty to a cause and obedience to authority, cultivate the arts and sciences, develop industry, and direct trade — all in a way\nthat is the envy and despair of the rest of the world.\nThe Prussian of the nineteenth century just had to be a soldier. The\nfirst duty of the German school has been to prepare boys fit in mind and\nbody for military service. MiHtary rule demands obedience; the German\nschool fixes implicit obedience irrevocably in the character of the German\nboy. Everything comes from authority; the boy does not recite; he learns\nwhat is given him. Religious instruction begets respect for authority and\nobedience to superiors. Patriotism is taught in the language, the history,\nand the literature of the Fatherland.\nFor purposes alike of peace and war, productive industry is needed.\nGerman trade and commerce have grown as no other country's, owing to\nthe skill and training of the workmen and to intelligent direction from above.\n\n"}
{"page": 337, "printed_page": "325", "text": "Department\n\nBUSINESS\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAT THE\n\nCLOSE\n\nOF THE\n\nGREAT\n\nWAR\n\n325\n\nThe German continuation schools have led the world m supplyi\nng skilled\nworkmen, while higher education has cooperated m furthering a worldwide trade.\nThe German state takes full control over this system of education.\nIt\ntrains the teachers, inducts them into office, fixes their salaries, pension\ns\nthem in old age; prescribes the curricula, defines methods of instruction,\nand by a system of examinations at once judges the output and controls the\nentrance to all professions and the public service— all to the successful\n\"making of God-fearing, patriotic, self-supporting subjects of imperial\nGermany.\"\nOur business is to consider anew the rights of the American citizen and\nhis duties toward the state in order that our professional experts may do\ntheir part in the realization of those ideals for which this nation stands.\nWhat we need in America is a system of educational administration that\nshall eliminate the politician; a professional spirit that shall put the pubhc\ngood ahead of personal gain; teaching and school-management that shall\nappreciate reasonable law and secure voluntary obedience to constituted\nauthority; and finally, educational leadership that shall rise indeed to the\nheights of patriotic statesmanship.\n\nTHE SERVICE\n\nOF BUSINESS SCHOOLS\nGREAT WAR\n\nAT THE CLOSE OF THE\n\nJAMES C. EGBERT, DEAN, SCHOOL OF BUSINESS, COLUMBIA\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nUNR'ERSITY,\n\nWe are all familiar with the old adage *'In time of peace prepare for\nwar.\" The appropriateness and force of this saying have been deeply\nimprest upon the world recently by reason of the course of the war in\nEurope. The advantage held by nations known to be prepared stands in\nsharp contrast to the serious danger which threatened those who have been\ncompelled to devote their energies during the last two years preparing for\nthe great conflict in which they were already engaged.\nOur own land, in which has existed, as among no other people, a sincere\ndevotion to the cause of peace, is reluctantly compelled to accept as a truism\nthe saying which calls for preparedness for war in time of peace. Regretfully, to be sure, but nevertheless unhesitatingly, we must prepare for war.\nAs a natural reaction from this candid acknowledgment we turn from\npreparedness for war to preparedness for peace. This is the burden of our\ntheme. In the morning, after a dark and stormy night, the brightening\nof the sky in the east often foretokens the clear and cloudless day. Thus\nthe glimmer of light, altho so faint and dim as yet, appearing in the east,\ngives promise of the peace so earnestly lookt for. Even such an uncertain\nsky calls upon us to prepare for the day. How often do we hear the\n\n"}
{"page": 338, "printed_page": "326", "text": "326\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Highe*\n\nprophecy as to what will take place and will be done when the war is over\nand the dreadful night of horror has past! Of course, the pacifist will turn\nhis thoughts and energies to preventing war in the future. The soldier will\nbecome a pacifist and think of home and his future career. Nations will\nadjust themselves to the new situation which the war has produced. But\nthat nation which, like the mihtarist, prepares for the future will reap\nthe advantage which is sure to come to those who are ready. It is in this\nrespect that our own theme is most appropriate and its consideration most\ntimely.\nBy reason of the great war in Europe, the center of power and influence\nin the business world will be found, at its close, in the United States. This\nis due, mainly, to the fact that this nation is the only great people not involved in the terrible conflict. To this country financiers of other lands\nhave already lookt for aid and must, of necessity, do so in the future. The\ndollar, rather than the pound, will become the standard of value, and American gold will take the place so long held by the gold of England.\nAgain, the cessation of manufacturing, or at least the interference therewith, in the countries at war must, of necessity, lead to the transfer of business of this character to the United States. Goods formerly produced\nexclusively in Europe will be manufactured in this country. Hence, the\nother nations will look to us for these goods, and we ourselves, being compelled to engage in this new and strange form of manufacturing during the\nwar, may readily claim the control of such productions, and that finally\nwith little competition. We should, therefore, be ready for this service,\nso that we may not only supply the demands of our own country, already\ndeprived of essential materials by reason of the war, but may produce for\nthe nations now at war in a manner and to an extent never known before.\nThis trade, formerly maintained by the belligerent powers, should fall to\nthe United States. The allurements of foreign trade will be extraordinary\nand will demand the best service of our American business men, who should\nseize the advantage placed in their hands thru the folly of the warring\nnations and the disasters of the conflict. The control of the world's trade\nis at hand and almost within our grasp. This is particularly true of South\nAmerica; hence, we are confronted with the greatest opportunity that ever\noffered itself to an ambitious people, and our own neglect and lack of foresight will be at fault if this passes from our hands.\nIt is well for us to consider what our share in this great achievement\nmust be. Is this the duty of the business man alone ? Will the financier\nor the manufacturer alone be responsible if this opportunity is lost ? We\nshould rather say that every institution, every individual, should feel the\nresponsibility at this time of crisis, even if this is a crisis in the world of\ntrade and business. Educational institutions, particularly the collegiate\nschools of business which have now assumed an important part in the\ndevelopment of education in this country, should be a most powerful factor\n\n"}
{"page": 339, "printed_page": "327", "text": "Department)\n\nBUSINESS\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAT THE\n\nCLOSE\n\nOP THE\n\nGREAT\n\nWAR\n\n327\n\nin this venture. Time will allow us to consider only a few of the duties and\nservices which these schools can render. In the first place, there never\nwas a\ntime when the well-educated, well-trained business man was so much\nneeded as today, for education, if seriously employed, produces men of large\nvision. Small men cannot always see the opportunity afforded them, much\nless grasp it. Our schools of business must produce men of large vision.\nThey must be well educated, using the term in the broadest sense. Their\ngeneral education must give them foresight and judgment, and their technical training must enable them readily to grasp the new problems of finance\nand trade. In other words, we must educate men so that they may become\nprofessional business men. Only in this way can our country produce\nthose who shall reach the marts of the world and obtain and control the\ntrade so long held in other hands.\nIn days gone by we have given men a cultural training, then left them\nto obtain their knowledge of business alone thru practical business experience. Years have been wasted when time is so precious in the lives of\nyoung men. General cultural training is as indispensable as ever as the\nfoundation, but it must be supplemented by the technical knowledge of\nbusiness which may be obtained in our schools as professional training.\nThe schools of business must also arrange for practical training in the\nlaboratory of business, just as in the schools of science.\nSchools of business must make an impression on the business world\nthat they may accomplish what is so greatly needed in these respects. This\ncan only be brought about by their coming in close contact with the business world and by earning the confidence which educational institutions\nhave never hitherto held. This is not all. The business house should\nbe of help in supplying practical experience and thus aid schools of business\nin furnishing fully trained men. Cooperation between educational institutions and the bank, the factory, and the store is the epoch-making feature\nof this new development and is of the greatest importance in our attaining\nthe objects which the European war has made possible.\nThis reciprocity imphes the careful training of young men for service\nin business houses and the consequent establishing of confidence on the part\nof the business world. These, in turn, may find in the work of the specialists associated with such institutions opportunity for the solution of problems in their own experience. Their own part will be one of suggestion and\nadvice in general, but, in particular, the furthering of the practical training\nwhich must not be disregarded in the education of business men.\nThe professional schools of business have certain special duties to perform because of the possibilities which are at hand by reason of the great\nwar. There are fields of study and research which should be brought to\nthe attention of students, and emphasized with peculiar force. Our schools\nmust produce men who have a knowledge of foreign exchange and foreign\nsystems of banking. These students must be familiar with the geography\n\n"}
{"page": 340, "printed_page": "328", "text": "328\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nof trade, with the institutions — commercial, political, and social — of the\npeople with whom trade may be desired, and, finally, with the languages of\nthose with whom they expect to carry on the peaceful arts of business. A\nknowledge of commerce and commercial opportunities, a clear conception\nand understanding of the products of various lands, a grasp of the history\nand institutions of nations, a famiHarity with foreign languages — all must\nbe supplied by our schools of business in view of the possibilities of the future\nand after the close of the war. We, of course, need not emphasize in this\nconnection the prosperity of the position and the importance of the history\nof our own land, its institutions, its trade, and, above all, its language.\nThere is one phase of this question which we might be tempted to\noverlook. I refer to the moral influence which schools of business should\nexert in the commercial world. When I employ this word \"moral,\" I do\nnot restrict it to the sense in which it is commonly used. It is presupposed\nthat institutions of learning should inspire and establish a final moral sense\nin their students. The field of business certainly demands such an influence\nfrom these institutions of business training. Honor in business is yet an\nuncertain quantity, and a spirit of fairness in competition is not unduly\nprevalent. Hence, we should look for the encouragement of this spirit\nof fairness in our schools of business. We readily think of this as belonging\nto individuals, but that between nations is likewise of importance, and never\nso fully as in these days of recovery from the hatred and ills of war. We all\nknow of the declared intention of the Entente Allies to form a league of\ntrade which shall have for its purpose the exclusion of the central powers\nfrom trade reciprocity after the war. It is already generally accepted by\nthose who are neutral that such a spirit will endanger the peace of the world\nin the years to come. Here is the work of our institutions of learning,\nespecially those devoted to studying problems of trade, namely, to show\nthe folly and wickedness of such a spirit.\nWe must, therefore, stress what some have called the international\nmind, which can bring one to understand the problems of other nations\nand realize their point of view, a characteristic which is vital, particularly\nin the development of trade and commerce. Here is plainly the duty of\nthe higher schools of business in view of the great future which Hes before\nour beloved land. We must remember that \"peace hath its victory as\nwell as war.\"\nIn summing up, let us emphasize the necessity for a form of education\nadapted to the possibilities which the war has .placed before us so that\nfuture generations may be equipt for added responsibilities in both the\nworld of finance and of trade. We are almost startled with the immense\nexpansion of our foreign trade and are becoming rapidly aware of the relations which we hold as world-bankers. We must not neglect cultural\ntraining which gives breadth of view, and will enable us to consider properly\nthe terms of human responsibility which the war is defining for the present\n\n"}
{"page": 341, "printed_page": "329", "text": "Department]\n\nEXPERIMENT\n\nIN PRACTICAL\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n329\n\ngenerations and the generations which are to come. The technical professional training must be of a character adapted to our new responsibihties\nin banking, finance, and trade. Our young men must know, as never\nbefore, the lands, the people, and the institutions. Finally, we must\nestabHsh a moral sense in business which will render us capable of appreciating the point of view of our neighbor and the rights which belong to him.\nWe must train our students to consider the trade welfare of others while\nwe are eagerly thinking of our own. In this altruistic spirit we may train\nour students to build up trade with all the world. Surely, there is a great\nfield for the new school of business in accomplishing the ends which I have\nindicated and which lead to the preparedness in economic policy for the\nresuming of international, commercial, and financial relations after the war.\n\nAN EXPERIMENT IN PRACTICAL COMMERCIAL\nIN THE NATIONAL CITY BANK OF NEW\nF. C. SCHWEDTMAN,\n\nDIRECTOR OF EFFICIENCY, NATIONAL\nOF NEW YORK, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nEDUCATION\nYORK\nCITY BANK\n\nSuccess in international commerce demands the highest development\nof the individual, the least possible waste in business-organization, and\nthe highest efl&ciency of the combined nation. It is a well-establisht fact\nthat nations as well as individuals have accomplisht most when bitter\nnecessity compelled extraordinary effort. Most of the nations that under\nnormal conditions have been our successful competitors in the world's\nmarkets are at present engaged in a struggle which will tax their future\nheavily. This struggle, however, will bring out also ability and ingenuity\nwhich will astonish us when conditions have again become normal.\n- •\nThere is a need for realizing on the part of our educators and business\nmen that cooperation in the business education of the coming generation\nis by far the strongest, if not the only, factor that can balance the scale of\nfuture international trade in our favor. The foundation of a national\neducational system which is to endure must rest upon something more\ndiscernible and substantial than the somewhat elusive things— \" ethics \"\nand \"precedents\"— which many have talkt about, but nobody has ever\nbeen able to define to everybody's satisfaction.\nI realize that to provide students with means for earning a liveUhood\npossibly should not be the strongest object, and certainly not the only\nobject, of our schools and colleges. High ideals, good citizenship, and individual and collective happiness are higher motives for teacher and pupil.\nHowever, judging from my experience with hundreds of young people with\nevery possible kind of training— from grammar schools to postgraduate\ncoUege courses— 99 out of 100 have studied, not so much for the love of\nknowledge, not so much for the sake of high ideals or ultimate happiness,\n\n"}
{"page": 342, "printed_page": "330", "text": "330\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nbut primarily and principally for the purpose of greater or more rapid\nsuccess in making a living. And after all, if higher and more general edutation can be the result of a desire to get on in the world, is it not a good\nthing for all concerned? We find, as an illustration, that the possibility\nof attending educational classes, conducted primarily for the purpose of\nfitting individuals for higher and better-paid places, brings to the National\nCity Bank the very best applicants from all parts of the globe. If our\nexperiment results in benefiting the pupils as well as the bank, and at the\nsame time is a step toward bringing our country to a higher place in national\nand international banking, then, surely, it is highly beneficial and desirable\nall around.\nThis need is being met by educational classes in the large commercial\nand industrial institutions of the United States, and they are no longer\nexperiments. Leaders in educational, commercial, and financial life have\nfor some time agreed that theory and practice must be closely coordinated\nin training the successful men of the future. Such coordination spells\nsound patriotism as well as good business; it assures the success of the\nindividual so trained, and it guarantees the pre-eminence of our country\namong the nations of the world.\nBefore I enter upon a description of our classes, let me explain a few\nunderlying principles of our class-organizations. We believe that our\nsuccess depends in a large measure upon our ability to develop the individuality ofeach member of a class: we endeavor to standardize the work\nof the individual, not the individual. The greater the opportunity for\nindividual self-expression — always, of course, with proper regard for class\nunity — the greater will be the happiness and efficiency of the whole institution. Each class has its own committee; instead of depending primarily\nupon outside forces to make the class-organizations effective, we depend\nupon these selected committees for efficient class performance. The whole\norganization is thoroly democratic — there is no distinction, no preference,\nexcept that based upon class and bankwork well performed. Under such\na system fellowship and teamwork are developt to a remarkable degree,\nand these in turn kindle and sustain a spirit in the whole organization which\nspells certain success.\nThe National City Bank employs approximately looo clerks at its\nhome institution at 55 Wall Street. Approximately 700 attended the\neducational classes during the last school year with an attendance efficiency\nof 81 per cent. The needs of the institution dictate the number and kind\nof classes. That these needs are great is illustrated by the fact that this\nyear we had 29 classes composed of 14 different subjects and taught by 19\ninstructors. The enrolment of classes varies from 10 to 120.\nThe first group of classes are those for our younger boys. We found\nthat these boys, the best we could get, lackt enthusiasm and push. They\nhad little conception of their place in the world, and failed to realize the\n\n"}
{"page": 343, "printed_page": "331", "text": "Department] EXPERIMENT\n\nIN PRACTICAL\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n331\n\nimportance of individual effort in making good. We started an officepractice class, and each Monday morning one of our officers gave these boys\nan inspirational talk with good results. We saw that most of the boys,\nwho were to be our future ledger clerks and bookkeepers, were poor penmen, so we taught them penmanship. They made poor figures, so we\ntaught them how to make proper figures. Their grammar was poor—\nthey exprest themselves badly— therefore we taught them grammar.\nThen we drilled them in the simple operations of addmg, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing, showing them simple but effective methods, which\nthey should have been taught at the pubUc schools, to increase speed and\ninsure accuracy.\nIn the next group of classes come English, stenography, and an elementary class in practical banking. A better knowledge of EngUsh, especially letter-writing, is quite necessary for our junior clerks and younger\nstenographers. A speed class in stenography keeps the older stenographers\never improving, and a beginners' class makes it possible for the bank to train\nstenographers who are already acquainted with bankwork and routine.\nOur first-year, or elementary, banking class performs the needful service\nof giving the young men a thoro grounding in the elementary principles\nand facts of banking.\nAnd so I might go on thru the various groups of classes, illustrating the\nspecial need which has prompted the organization of each class and showing\nhow each need has been met. The results can be measured, not in terms of\ncollege credits, but in terms of definite progress and advancement in business.\nUntil the establishment of branch banks in foreign countries, our educational work was confined to the training of the employes to increase their\nworth and to insure their progress to the home institution. But with the\nestablishment of branch banks in various parts of the world came new\nresponsibilities. The need for the special training of men for foreign service soon became apparent. A number of the bank's regular employes,\nwho had won distinction because of exceptional work and ability, were\nfirst chosen. In addition to being rotated thru the various departments\nthey were enroled in classes in foreign exchange, practical banking, commercial geography, political economy, and in language classes— French,\nSpanish, Russian, or Portuguese.\nIt soon became evident, however, that the available places m the\nbranch banks could not be filled by this method alone. We then turned\nto the universities. Twenty young graduates were chosen to come into the\nbank and enter upon a year's course of training to fit them for foreign work.\nDuring the day they workt in the various departments of the bank getting\nand for an hour in the morning, at noon, and in the eveactual experience,\nning they attended classes.\nnext\nIn choosing these young college graduates full account was taken,\nfar\nSo\nto personaUty, of the kind of courses they had selected at college.\n\n"}
{"page": 344, "printed_page": "332", "text": "332\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIHigher\n\nas a college training could do so, they were as well equipt for foreign branchbank service as any college men in the country. A year's work and study\nwere absolutely necessary, however, to fit them for work abroad.\nThey studied international commerce and commercial geography, and\nformed an adequate conception of international trade and trade relations.\nSpecial emphasis was laid on the growth and development of American\ncommerce and the opportunities for its expansion. They listened to talks\non the customs, manners, and habits of foreign people, with a view of obtaining a better knowledge of their needs and preferences and a better understanding oftheir temperament and point of view. Under this broadening\ninfluence much of the native provincialism of Americans was dispelled.\nThey learned about foreign exchange, tracing shipments from their origin\nto their destination, famiHarizing themselves with the kind of documents\nused and the method of handling documents to protect both the bank and\nthe customer. Special classes were instituted to give the students a speaking knowledge of the language of the country to which they were to be sent.\nTo make this most effective, special textbooks based on the practical\nbanking and commercial terms of each language were written by the language instructors of the bank.\nI am aware that there is a decided difference of opinion as to the effectiveness ofthe present methods of teaching languages in most of our universities. The universities, of course, will have to work out that problem\nfor themselves, but the evidence we have collected from our training classes\ndemonstrated, to our satisfaction at least, the inefficiency of the general\nmethods now used. Students with four and five years' training in French,\nor with two and three years' study of Spanish in college come to us unable\nto carry on a simple conversation in either language. With six months'\ntraining in our conversational methods, young men who had never before\nstudied Spanish and Portuguese have gone to our branches equipt to\nstart their work in the language of the country.\nAfter one year's experimenting with the college men, we find it necessary\nin defense of our ledgers and for the general efficiency of the bank to put\nthe students thru our elementary course of penmanship and banking arithmetic.\nI mention these points and the larger fact that the students come to us\nwholly unequipt for the work that is expected of them in no spirit of criticism\nbut for the purpose of calling attention to the need for a close scrutiny of our\ncollege courses with a view of determining how they may more properly\nfulfil the requirements of the present-day business world. In this much\ncan be gained by a closer cooperation between the universities and the\nbusiness interests of the country.\nIn selecting our first class of 20 young college men, we were in a way\nbut following the example of several large manufacturing organizations\nin selecting young engineers for their force. The coUege in^ii, fe banking\n\n"}
{"page": 345, "printed_page": "333", "text": "Department]\n\nEXPERIMENT\n\nIN PRACTICAL\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n333\n\non the scale we had planned, however, had not been tested out, and the plan\nwas started with the skepticism of many of the older practical business\nmen. It will take years before the last word can be said in connection with\nour experiments. We can report, nevertheless, even now that the takingin of college graduates for training in banking is to a large extent a demonstrated success. It is true that most of these young men could hardly\nadd a column of figures, that their writing was merely a scribble, and that\ntheir knowledge of banking was decidedly lackmg. Their enthusiasm and\nkeen young minds, however, overcame the obstacles imposed by lack of\npractical training, and their fine college-instilled spirit of sportsmanship\nand their splendid teamwork not only won for them our support and\nestablisht the reputation of the college man, but brought into the bank\nan atmosphere that is of material aid in improving the spirit of the institution.\nEncouraged by the experience with last year's class, we have selected\n40 college nien this year with the aid of 16 universities. With them we\nhave inaugurated a plan which, if successful, may prove, in a measure, an\nanswer, or at least point the way, to the solution of the problem of closer\ncooperation between the universities and business, and thus bring about\na closer coordination of the theoretical and practical training of young\nAmericans for success in commerce — both domestic and international.\nMay I quote you the purpose of the plan as we have conceived it:\nIn order to bring the universities of the United States into closer touch with the needs\nand demands of the large commercial institutions of our country for the purpose of helping the university student to come to an early decision as to his life-work, and, at the same\ntime, of assuring him of an opening in a business for which he has been specially trained,\nand with the view of furnishing the National City Bank each year with specially trained\nmen for its foreign and domestic service, the National City Bank of New York purposes\nthe establishment of a business fellowship. This fellowship will enable certain students\nselected by the universities and colleges of the United States to spend one year in the\nemploy of the National City Bank during their four years or more in college, and in consideration ofthe practical work obtained at the bank, and certain courses of study pursued while there, the universities will allow the students to graduate with their A.B.,\nB.S., or some like or higher degree, along with their class.\n\nThe National City Bank wants the pickt young men of the country\nfor its service; yet in putting this plan into execution it was not unmindful of the college student and also of a larger service that may be rendered\nto our educational system if the plan proves a success, as we all hope it\nwill. I need not dwell upon the fact that most of our young men graduate from college with no definite purpose as to their future.\nBy accepting young sophomores under this plan, and by giving them\nthree months' training during summer vacation, we help them to determine\nfor themselves and inspu-e in their classmates the necessity for determining\nearly in their college course what their life-work will be. Immediately\nupon graduation, when they wiU have had one year's banking training\n\n"}
{"page": 346, "printed_page": "334", "text": "334\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Higher\n\nalong with their four years' of college work, they are promoted into permanent positions.\nThere are 567 universities and colleges in this country, graduating\napproximately 25,000 young men and women — not counting the professions.\nThink of what it would mean for these young people if in their sophomore\nyear they could tie up with some bank, insurance company, mercantile\nhouse, firm, or corporation, that would assist them in determining their\nfutures and help them in shaping their college course to best equip them for\ntheir life-work. Think what it would mean for the development of the\nindustries and commerce of this country to have their ranks recruited with\nthe best young minds of the country. The possibilities of the universal\nappHcation of such a plan startle the imagination. There are 27,000 banks\nin this country alone — every one of which would be materially improved by\nthe addition of some college men to its force.\nThere is a proper place in the industrial and commercial life of this\ncountry for every young graduate of our colleges — commerce and industry\nneed them, and they need to find their life-work. Such a system working\non a large scale would emphasize as never before the need and advantages\nof education for success in business, and demonstrate to the practical man\nthe ability of our American universities to rise to the occasion and meet\nthe country's need for young men who can succeed.\nWe hear a great deal about convincing the hard-headed matter-of-fact\nbusiness man of the need of education. To the educators of this country\nI can say, as a business man with experience in training men in industry\nand banking, that the business man is already convinst; he is waiting for\nour educators to meet him half-way; he will do his part and go more than\nhalf-way.\nUnderlying the success of this plan for closer cooperation between the\nuniversities and business is: (i) the necessity for recognizing the fact that\nsome things our universities are teaching can be taught equally well, if not\nbetter, in the practical laboratories of business; (2) the needed concession\non the part of our universities of the principle that college credit can be\ngranted for work done off the campus, if it meets with college requirements\nand comes up to university standards. On this point I am glad to report\nthat in connection with the National City Bank's plan 4 colleges have\ntaken favorable action on the question of granting credits for work done in\nthe bank; 5 others believe that favorable action will be taken by their\nfaculties, who have the matter under advisement; 5 colleges cannot give\ncollege credit, and several more have not been heard from. College and\nbusiness, however, have many means for cooperating, not measured in\ncollege credit. Cooperation in selecting the best-fitted students, supervision ofstudies in business houses by college faculties, suggestions of new\nsubjects for college work by business men, all these are required to give us\nthe ideal business- training course of the future.\n\n"}
{"page": 347, "printed_page": "335", "text": "Department]\n\nEXPERIMENT\n\nIN PRACTICAL\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\n335\n\nWe have found the greatest wiUingness on the part of all the colleges\nwe have dealt with to be of assistance, and, on the other hand, we have\nhad requests from business concerns all over the United States for information with regard to the development of cooperative educational schemes\nsimilar to ours. Let us hope that the day is near at hand when colleges\nand business institutions in every part of the United States will lay aside\nprejudices and precedents and get together on a common-sense basis to\nsupply the clear-thinking, right-minded, and well-equipt youths, from whom\nmay be developt future captains of commerce, of industry, and of finance.\n\n"}
{"page": 348, "printed_page": "336", "text": ""}
{"page": 349, "printed_page": "337", "text": "DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident— O. M. Plummer, director, Board of Education\nVice-President — George W. Auch, president, Board of Education\nSecretary — Frank M. Bruce, manager, American School Board Journal\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday\n\nNorth Portland, Ore.\nDetroit, Mich.\nMilwaukee, Wis.\n\nForenoon, July s, 1916\n\nThe meeting of the Department of School Admmistration was called to order in\nAeolian Hall at 10:00 a.m., President O. M. Plummer presiding.\nAn address of welcome was given by William G. Willcox, president, Board of Education, New York City.\nAddresses were then delivered by Joseph Lee, member, School Committee, Boston,\nMass.; Cora Wilson Stewart, president, Kentucky Illiteracy Commission, Frankfort, Ky.;\nEdward C. Elliott, chancellor. University of Montana, Helena, Mont.; P. P. Claxton,\nUnited States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.; Thomas W. Churchill,\nmember, Board of Education, New York, N.Y.\nThe following Committees were appointed by the chairman:\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nNOMINATIONS\n\nJoseph Lee, member, School Committee, Boston, Mass.\nOssian Lang, member, Board of Education, Mount Vernon, N.Y.\nThomas W. Churchill, member. Board of Education, New York, N.Y.\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON THE\n\nSTANDARDIZATION\n\nPLANNING\n\nAND\n\nOF SCHOOLHOUSE\n\nCONSTRUCTION\n\nFrank Irving Cooper, architect, Boston, Mass., Chairman.\nS. A. Challman, state commissioner of school buildings, Minneapohs, Mmn.\nLouis M. Terman, supervisor of hygiene, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nLeonard P. Ayres, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y.\nC. E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich.\nAt noon a luncheon was tendered by the Department to David B. Johnson, president,\nNational Education Association, at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, at which 367 members\nand guests were present.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 6, 1916\n\nballroom of\nThe meeting was caUed to order by the president at 10:00 a.m. in the\nthe Waldorf.\nThe following papers were read:\n\nMethods of Boards of Educations-Beatrice Wmser, member,\nns and Newark,\nBoard\"Functio\nof Education,\nN.J.\nj e t?a „«-;«« m*™ Vnrt\n, New York,\n\"After the Architect\"-C. B. J. Snyder, architect, Board of Education\nn \"-Thomas\nLocal Administratio\nState in Albany,\no^s of ofthe\n^'^\"Functi\nstate\ncommissioner\neducation,\nN.Y.\n337\n\nE. Finegan, deputy\n\n"}
{"page": 350, "printed_page": "338", "text": "338\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\n\"The Business Man and the Public Service\" — Jacob M. Loeb, president, Board\nof Education, Chicago, 111.\n\"A Reply\" — EUa Flagg Young, formerly superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111.\nThe following resolution was then introduced by B. F. Montague, chairman, School\nBoard, Raleigh, N.C.:\n1. Resolved, That this department request P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner\nof education, to address a letter to the commissioners of education of each state of the\nUnion, suggesting and urging that each county of the several states send a representative\nto our next meeting of this association.\n2. Resolved, That we request said state commissioners to urge every board representing a city or town of 10,000 population to send a representative of the administrative\ndepartment of the schools of that city or town.\n3. Resolved, That said state commissioners of the said several states be requested to\nissue a circular letter to the commissioner of education of each county in the several states\nsetting forth the advantages to be derived by sending delegates to this Association, and\nthat said circular letter be issued to said county commissioners and to the school authorities\nof each city or town with a population of 10,000 in the month of May in the year 191 7.\n4. Resolved, That the secretary of this department of this Association be requested to\nforward a copy of these resolutions to P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of\neducation, and that a copy be sent to the American School Board Journal and any other\neducational journals of like nature with the request that they give the same publicity,\nparticularly in the month of May or June in the year 191 7.\nThe report of the Nominating Committee was read and the following officers were\nelected:\nPresident — O. M. Plummer, member. Board of Education, Portland, Ore.\nVice-President — Frank D. Wilsey, member. Board of Education, New York, N.Y.\nSecretary — William C. Bruce, editor, School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis.\nFrank M. Bruce, Secretary\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\n\nWILLIAM\n\nG. WILLCOX,\n\nADDRESS\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nBOARD\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nIt is my great privilege to say a word of greeting and welcome, as you\nare met this morning to discuss school administration. It is perhaps but\nnatural that a business man who comes as a recent recruit into the educational ranks should view the problem of school administration from a business standpoint. Others will discuss it on the professional side far more\nably than I could do, but I wish to speak briefly of some general principles\nof eflicient administration which apply alike to all forms of organized effort.\nThe fundamental basis of any effective organization is such harmonious\ncooperation as utilizes the powers and faculties of all its members to the\ngreatest advantage, and combines them in effective teamwork. Individual ability is important, but individuals, however able, accompUsh but\nlittle as an organization if they work at cross-purposes. Different qualities,\ndifferent methods, different points of view supplement and strengthen each\nother if they pull together, but neutraUze each other if they pull in opposite\ndirections.\nThis does not mean, however, that individuality must be submerged or\nlost, and that individual incentive has no place in the program.\nOn the\n\n"}
{"page": 351, "printed_page": "339", "text": "Department]\n\n'\n\nADDRESS\n\nOF WELCOME\n\n330\n\ncontrary, no organization is effective if it is merely a machine; and there\nis no more important problem in any organization than the problem of\nsecuring, retaining, and utilizing individual initiative, enthusiasm, ambition, and pride of workmanship, while at the same time promoting harmonious cooperation. Careful selection of competent, trustworthy, and\nloyal individuals is important; intelligent appraisal of their capacity and\ncareful assignment to the work for which they are best fitted is important,\nbut as both will fail without effective teamwork, so also both will fail if\nthese individuals are denied opportunity and incentive to grow and develop.\nIt is by no means rare to find at the head of a business organization a\nstrong, forceful leader who has built up a large business by the sheer force\nof his own personahty, but who has failed to develop an effective orgam'zation because he has been unable or unwilling to tolerate any opposition or\nindependence among his subordinates. The stronger an executive the\nmore danger there is of his dominating his whole organization with his own\nindividual ideas. Strong, capable assistants and successors are often\nspoiled in the educational field, as they are in the business world, thru lack\nof responsibility, lack of appreciation, and lack of encouragement in individual initiative. To hit every head that rises above the common level,\nto snub every expression of diverse opinion, is not the way to develop\nstrength and efficiency in any organization. Good administration does\nnot suppress nor discourage subordinates. A good executive has no occasion to assert his own dignity or superiority. His task is to train strong\nand effective men and women under him. To give every individual as much\nresponsibility as possible, to hold him accountable for results, to encourage\nand help him over difficulties, to praise and reward him for success, is as\nvital in school administration as it is in business administration.\nOn the other hand, there is danger also in the oft-repeated assertion that\nthe administration of the schools should be left to professional experts\nwithout interference from laymen. If education were an exact science,\nif the work of the educational engineer were based upon establisht and\nrecognized laws and principles such as guide civil or electrical engineers,\nthen indeed might the educational expert reasonably ask for freedom from\nignorant interference, but so long as experts differ radically among themselves, and no one can say with assurance and certainty what should be\ntaught, nor how it should be taught, how long or how short should be the\nhours or the term, how heavy or how light should be the individual taskso long as these and a thousand other questions of school administration are\ndebatable questions there will always be room for the views and advice\nof laymen. It is one thing, however, to influence the judgment of a superintendent orprincipal and quite another thing to force a superintendent or\nprincipal to act against his judgment. It is one thing to act thru the\nsuperintendent or principal and quite another thing to act over his head.\nNo one can do his best work and no one can develop his own power if con-\n\n"}
{"page": 352, "printed_page": "340", "text": "340\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nstantly exposed to interference from above. Teachers, principals, directors,\nexaminers, and superintendents in their own departments should receive\nloyal support from their superiors. Anything tending to humiliate them\nbefore their subordinates or to undermine and weaken their influence is bad\nadministration. Principals must help teachers to hold the respect and\nconfidence of their classes; superintendents must help principals to hold\nthe respect and confidence of their teachers, and boards of education must\nbe equally jealous of the position and influence of their superintendents\nif the best results are to be obtained in school administration.\nLoyalty from subordinates is universally recognized as a vital part of\nany organization, but loyalty from superiors toward subordinates is no less\nvital. Mutual appreciation and mutual confidence are imperative for good\nteamwork, and they are no less imperative for the development of individual\ninitiative and individual power.\n\nTHE EDUCATION\nJOSEPH LEE, MEMBER,\n\nOF SCHOOL\nSCHOOL\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\nCOMMITTEE,\n\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nI will proceed in this talk on the true educational principle: from the\nknown to the unknown, from the bromide to the bomb.\nI. My first piece of wisdom is for school committees, and it is included\nin the well-known saying of Solomon: \"If you keep a dog to bark, don't\nbark yourself.\" This saying contains the law and the prophets for all\namateur administrators, whether in schools or elsewhere. It applies even\nto the dogs of war. But what is barking ?\na) Don't appoint teachers. Don't promote teachers. That is the\nsuperintendent's job. Don't prescribe irrelevant qualifications for teachers.\nThe qualification now most insisted on by school committees is geographical.\nNot what she knows nor what she can teach — nor whether she knows anything or can teach at all — but where she lives is the question most passionately askt. The teacher must be a resident of the city in which the voters\nreside, preferably in the part of the town, best of all, in the family of the\nchief or master voter. The requirement is, of course, all right in my\nown town, because living in Boston is itself an education. But what a\ndeprivation to the rest of the country ! School committees outside of Boston\nshould drop this time-honored test. You think the voters will not let you.\nThen educate the voters to a new idea: that the schools are for teaching,\nnot for poor relief.\nb) Don't bark at the teacher after she is appointed, nor at the principal,\nnor at the superintendent. People who cannot get used to a stranger,\nand must bark whenever they see one, are not fitted for service on school\ncommittees. Butting into administrative affairs (the dog here fulfilling\nthe office of the goat), whether for the purpose of discrediting an appointee\n\n"}
{"page": 353, "printed_page": "341", "text": "Depaftmentl\n\nTHE EDUCATION\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nCOMMITTEES\n\n341\n\nwithout the geographical qualification or, worse still, of \"helping teacher,\"\nis a second way in which the school committee exceeds its province, and is\nonly second in its ill effects.\n2. And yet, tho it may surprise long-suffering superintendents, there\nis a place even for school committees. And there is something for them\nto do beyond the selection of a superintendent, namely, legislation. For\nlegislation is not barking. It is what the amateur administrator is for. It\nis the scene-painting part of school administration, containing those features ofit that are on so large a scale that even the pubHc may see and\nunderstand. And the school committee represents the public, the great\nbody of citizens who support the schools and on whose educational purposes\nthe future of every school system ultimately depends. Here in the larger\ndecisions about the extent and direction of public education the school committee isnot only justified in thinking for itself, but as trustee for the public\nit is obHged to do so. For if it cannot understand what the schools are\ndoing and cannot justify their operation to itself, what chance is there that\nthe general public will understand and justify them? In these larger\nmatters upon which the people have a conscious opinion, be it right or\nwrong, it is the school committee's business to take the advice of the experts,\nbut not to swallow it whole. They must somehow Fletcherize it, get it\nassimilated in their systems, before they act upon it.\nAnd I say to superintendents: Be not too impatient with your school\ncommittee. It is your safety-first, your shock-absorber. In this legislative\nsphere it is itself the dog, not now to bark, but to try things on. If you\ncannot get by with those whom you have seen and labored with, what\nchance have you with the great pubHc whom you have not seen? Rail\nnot, therefore, at your school committee and its stupidity. It represents\nthe public, and in mental capacity as in other respects it must be a true\nsample. The slower it is to understand the more valuable are the tests\napplied to it and the greater your protection.\nAnd then, be it said with deference, sometimes a school committee may\nknow something. It is indeed interesting to notice how often in teaching,\nas indeed in every other human interest, progress has come from outside the\nprofession. Taking the case of my own town of Boston, the contributions\nof outsiders to our present school system have included the kindergarten,\ncooking and sewing, sloyd, playgrounds and physical education, the licensing\nof minors, medical inspection and nurses in the schools, the social centers,\nthe High School of Practical Arts, the Girls' Trade School, classes for\nstammerers, and (practically) the special classes for the mentally defective.\nAnd Horace Mann was himself a lawyer. Law had its Bentham, medicine\nits Pasteur, and school administration— may profit by their example. If\nthis be treason, make the most of it.\nBe not utterly scornful, therefore, of suggestions from amateurs, even\nfrom those upon the school committee itself. It is the ambition of most\n\n"}
{"page": 354, "printed_page": "342", "text": "342\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nprofessionals, and of practically all officials, to escape from every experience\nwithout learning anything. And it is wonderful with what skill they\nmanage to come out unscathed, to keep their shields unspotted from profane\nknowledge, to emerge from every ordeal of suggestion with the same purity\nof knowledge or of ignorance with which they entered it. Do not take this\nattitude. Out of the mouths of babes and sucklings, even of school committees, wisdom may occasionally proceed.\nThere are, in truth, two ways in which superintendents may deal with\ntheir committees. They may put things over on them, or they may educate\nthem. Each way has its advantages, but it is a drawback to the former\nthat it does not improve with time; it gets thinner, in fact, is Hable to\nwear out altogether.\nAgainst the other method, that of educating your committee, the\nobjection may justly be made that it is slow. But, on the other hand, it is\nsolid and it is cumulative. School committees have shown, on occasion,\nalmost human intelligence — I have seen it in other members and have\nfelt it working in myseK. And then education is after all your business, is\nit not? All that is necessary is that you should apperceive your job (I\nhave been planning to get in that word ever since I began, and this is the\nfirst chance) a Uttle more widely.\nAnd then thru the school committee you educate the public, and\nthus build up what is, after all, the only solid basis for advance. It may be\ndifficult at first to have faith in the public understanding. When you have\nseen the people apparently more indignant over the dismissal of an unfit\nteacher than they have ever become over wasting the time of forty or fifty\nchildren every year, when you see them apparently more interested in\ngetting their friends a job than in having their children educated, you are\ninclined to wonder whether anybody really cares at all for education.\nBut, courage! What is most needed in a democracy is faith. People\nreally do care if you can once get the thing before them. Make the school\nvisible, develop your parents' associations, let them know your hopes\nand plans, have school and home visitors, give stereopticon lectures and\nshow the measurable results obtained. I believe that in time we can get the\nidea accepted by the general public that the schools are for education.\nThe notion is revolutionary, I know, but I think I see a dawning possibihty\nin that direction. For one thing, I think the teachers will back the idea\nwhen they understand its implications. Schools for education and not for\npoor relief means, for them, appointment and promotion by merit. It\nmeans teaching treated as a profession, the teacher accepted as a true\nprofessional, not as the creature of pull or politics, or as an object of public\ncharity. The teacher will help to educate the public.\nAnd once the public takes it into its head that the schools really are\nfor education, all other good things will follow.\n\n"}
{"page": 355, "printed_page": "343", "text": "\\\nDepartment]\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nFUNCTIONS\nBEATRICE\n\nAND\n\nWINSER,\n\nAND\n\nMETHODS\n\nMETHODS\nMEMBER,\n\nOF BOARDS\n\nOF BOARDS\n\nBOARD\n\nOF\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\n343\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nNEWARK,\n\nN.Y.\n\nIf I had been askt to talk to educators, I should have been, most\nreluctant to do so, because what I am about to say is so obvious and so\nmuch a part of the creed of the educator that only the fact that I am talking\nto fellow-laymen, members of boards of education, gives me courage to\nattempt to define our functions.\nAs a librarian I have for years been interested in our schools, and\nwhen I was appointed the first woman on the Newark Board of Education,\nas well as the first woman appointee to any municipal office, I took keen\npleasure in the thought that I was to help shape the poUcies of our system.\nFrom being a desultory reader of matters educational I became an\nomniverous one and devoured educational periodicals, city-school reports,\nsurveys, and books. As I read I became more and more convinst that the\nopinions with which I began my studies were correct, and that a school\nsystem ought to be managed hke a large business enterprise.\nAs I listened to the matters brought to our attention as members of\ncommittees on buildings, grounds and supphes, and instruction and educational supplies, I found that the attitude of the board members toward\nthe superintendent and his associates — and I say this, not in a spirit of\ncarping criticism, but simply to show you the effect of that attitude upon\none accustomed to managing a business — was that of employers toward\nemployes and not of directors toward experts.\nI decided that this fault could in a measure be attributed to our rules,\nwhich perhaps served their purpose well when nine years ago the large\nelective board of thirty members was superseded by our appointive board\nof nine, but have long outlived their usefulness.\nI began then to study still more seriously the functions and methods of\nboards of education. As a result of that study I prepared a set of rules,\ncomprising 1653 words, which simply put the members of the board of\neducation in the position of directors of a corporation with legislative\nfunctions and with the superintendent as their executive officer. The\nreason for not shortening the rules still more is that there are certain\nunfortunate provisions in the state law which prohibit it.\nIn the rules under which the board of education is still conducting its\nbusiness there are 5445 words. They put the members of the board in\nthe position where they administer as well as legislate. This is illustrated\nby the facts: (i) during 16 months there have been held 38 meetings of\nthe whole board and 127 meetings of the two committees of seven members\neach, and 25 meetings of a committee of six members, a total of 199 (I\nregret to say that as a member of the board and a member of two commit e s Ifelt it my duty to attend 151 of these meetings); (2) nearly all\nthe business brought before the committee has to do with details which\n\n"}
{"page": 356, "printed_page": "344", "text": "344\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nshould have been settled by the board's experts under the direction of the\nsuperintendent.\nThe conclusions I reacht, of course, had very little value merely as\nconclusions of my own, because, after all, I am a layman only. But I submitted the important points in them to leading educational experts of the\nUnited States today, men like Paul H. Hanus, Nicholas Murray Butler,\nG. D. Strayer, Leonard P. Ayres, John Dewey, Frank W. Ballou, Charles\nH. Judd, George H. Melcher, and P. P. Claxton, and I have their letters\nof hearty approval.\nThen I askt a few leading business concerns, like the General Electric\nCo., the Whitehead & Hoag Co., the American Oil and Supply Co., the\nSphtdorf Electric Co., the Lister Chemical Works, and R. C. Jenkinson\n& Co., whether they would approve of a general-manager plan of administering a$3,000,000 business such as ours is, and I have also their unqualified\napproval of my plan, the essence of which is making one man responsible\nto the board of directors, the executive head of our whole system.\nMy ideas of the proper functions of a board of education are stated in\n148 words, as follows: (i) members of a board of education are directors of\na large corporation and should apply the principles of good corporationmanagement to educational affairs; (2) their executive officers should have\nauthority and be held accountable for results; (3) a board should supply\nfunds, supervise expenditures, and determine the general policy and the\nextension of the system; (4) its duty is to see that the schools are properly\nmanaged, and not to manage them itself; (5) it is not appointed to erect\nbuildings, but to see that they are built; (6) it is not appointed to supervise teachers, but to see that they are supervised; in short, it is appointed,\nnot to do the work itself, but to get it done. As running a school system is\nan expert business, directed to one end, the education of children, it should\nbe managed in all its aspects by an expert manager, and that manager\nshould be an educator.\nNEEDED CHANGES IN THE PRESENT METHOD OF CONDUCTING THE BUSINESS\nOF A BOARD OF EDUCATION AND REASONS THEREFOR\n\n1. Eliminate standing committees. A city looks to the board of nine\nmembers to manage its schools. With standing committees the board\nbreaks itself up into several smaller boards, loses some of that unity of\nimderstanding on the part of the whole body which is so essential, scatters\nits energies, and wastes its time.\n2. Systematize its business and give to its executive staff full responsibility for executive detail, and devote itself only to oversight and direction\nof all that is done.\n3. Make the superintendent the executive officer, give him full powers\nand responsibilities, and hold him strictly accountable for the successful\nconduct of all departments of the^system.\n\n"}
{"page": 357, "printed_page": "345", "text": "Department]\n\nAFTER\n\nTHE\n\nARCHITECT\n\n3^5\n\n4. Appoint the superintendent for a three years' term.\n5.\nWith the superintend\nservice. ent's aid define the functions of every member\nof the educational\nThe board should say to the superintendent:\nEverything to be done here is for one end, the education of the child. Everything you\nrecommend we shall ask you to justify in one way only— by showing that it is necessary\nto the running of a good school system. You are the expert whom we have put in charge\nof it, and we shall see that you do your work, and you are to keep us fully informed and\nat all times convinst that the work is being done as we wish it done— in as complete and\neffective a manner as funds permit.\nIf you recommend new things, you must convince us that they are necessary. You\nwill be held strictly accountable for every expenditure. We shall watch the results which\nyou get with the utmost care.\n\n6. The superintendent shall plan a policy of development and submit\nthe same in great detail; the same to include a report on the school system\nas it is, with recommendations as to what it should be. The board should\nstudy the report with great care and decide either for or against the policy\nlaid down. This procedure should be repeated at frequent intervals.\n7. The superintendent, as an expert in education, should convince the\nboard, by frequent reports thereon, that the schools are continually progressing intwo respects particularly — in the efficiency of teachers and in\nthe character of the training given to the children. The superintendent's\nbusiness is to secure this progress; the board's duty is to see that he secures\nit and to give him ample powers with which to produce it.\n8. If the board makes its executive officers take full responsibility for\nthe proper workings of the school system, one regular meeting a month\nof the board will be ample to transact all its business.\n9. Adjourned and special meetings may be called when needed.\n10. Special committees can be appointed to investigate and report\nin writing to the board on matters that require very special attention.\nIn conclusion, let me say that I have discovered by observation and\nreading that boards of education are fearful of losmg prestige, power, and\na certain dignity if it is not noted thru the public press that they manage\ndetails and give orders to their educational experts, whom they unfortunately look upon as mere subordinates.\nThis fear of losing publicity and prestige is a prime cause of the constant\ninterference by boards in matters of which they are quite ignorant, and concerning which they can do nothing that is helpful, but much that is harmful.\nAFTER\n\nTHE ARCHITECT\n\nC. B. J. SNYDER, ARCHITECT, BOARD OF EDUCATION, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nBy this alliterative title I do not refer to those occasions after the erection of a new school building where the dissatisfied schoohnasters get\nafter the architect with a sharp stick or mayhap a club. I prefer, rather,\n\n"}
{"page": 358, "printed_page": "346", "text": "346\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nto have your thoughts concerned for a few moments with what happens\nto the building after the architect turns it over, completed.\nThe school building is put to various and, perhaps, changing uses. It\nmust be equipt for science classes, housekeeping, dramatics, physical\nculture, and many forms of industrial training — each with its own* particular\ntype of equipment. Every provision is bound round with restrictions,\nnot only from the schoolmaster's point of view, but also as to financial\nlimitations, rules and regulations of the state and municipality, and others\nwhich, with the necessity of making the buildings structurally sound and\narchitecturally beautiful — or at least pleasing — altogether affords abundant\nopportunity for intellectual exercise.\nThe Old World has long since accepted, as beyond argument, the principle that public buildings must not only serve the protective uses whose\nneeds they supply, but must also adorn the city. There is no class of building to which this quality more fittingly belongs than the schoolhouse. Its\noccupants are in a plastic state. Whatever lessons of beauty the community\nis to teach by its parks and buildings, its monuments and its paintings, they\nare presumably productive of greater results if directed toward the child\nbefore its tastes have been blunted by the too-prevalent ugliness of our\naverage American city.\nThe requirement that the schoolhouse be a lesson in beauty, or at\nleast in good taste, is particularly strong in that it is a material possession of\nthat department of the city which is concerned with the preservation and\nextension of culture and refinement. More and more in America has the\narchitect been permitted, and even encouraged, to perform this function;\nto design and construct buildings that are municipal lessons in good proportion, harmonious coloring, and pleasing influence to the eye and mind\nand spirit of the beholder. Further, the people have come to recognize that\nthis provision applies with particular emphasis to the school building, as\nnot only is the respect of the citizen for his municipality enhanst thereby,\nbut the very purpose of the structure — the education of the children\nthemselves — is greatly furthered.\nThere are numerous and well-proved instances where there has been a\nremarkable increase in the efficiency of all the teaching — literary, mathematical, scientific, and all other branches of the work of a school — where\nthe organization as a whole has been transferred from an old, out-of-date\nstructure to one designed and equipt in accordance with latter-day ideas.\nIt reaqts very strongly upon the personnel of both the teaching force and\nthe pupils. We all know that there is a certain pleasure in doing even\nroutine work in agreeable and convenient surroundings. This has now\nbecome a recognized factor in the manufacturing world, where returns on the\ninvestment are far more carefully scrutinized and more easily measured in\ndollars and cents than is possible in public educational matters. For with\nthe maintenance of pleasing, even if not beautiful, physical surroundings\n\n"}
{"page": 359, "printed_page": "347", "text": "Department!\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF STATE\n\nIN LOCAL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n347\n\nthere is a stimulation of the mental processes, a reduction in fatigue,\nand\nhence an improvement in the efficiency among the operatives that\nresults\nin a very great increase in capacity or output.\nThe architect does delight in the fact that thru the medium of stone and\nbrick and other rough materials he may perhaps design a buUding\nthat\nwill be pleasing to the eye and prove adequate and convenient for its\noccupants. But in the mind of the man giving the best that is in him in the\ndesign of a modern school there is also the hope that he is making easier,\npleasanter, and more effective the tremendously important work of education which is to be done in the buildings that come from his hand. The\narchitect, however, like the shipbuilder, launches his product and leaves it\nin other hands; and we have come to believe that unless the fundamental\ntruths I have referred to are graspt and lived up to by those into whose care\nthe buildings come the whole doctrine of beauty and utiUty is lost.\nThe schoolmaster is in this respect a most important member of the\ncommunity, and should lead in the spirit of appreciation, and hence preservation and improvement of not only the building and equipment, but\nits external setting. To those who have given thought and study to the\nspirit of protection thrown about the public buildings of Europe there is the\never-present hope that the civic spirit which prompts this, and of which we\nsee certain evidences here and there in our own country, shall quicken\nand expand so that it soon shall become a part of the everyday education\nof the child.\nThere is nothing new, I am sorry to say, in the fact that in very many\ninstances those who were responsible for a beautiful school building with\nadequate setting of shrubs and flowers, and who have relied upon the\ncivic pride of a neighborhood to care for grass, hedges, and flowering shrubs,\nhave had their faith in human nature shattered and almost lost upon\nreturning at some later date to find the building defaced, the flowers stript,\nthe shrubs destroyed, and the grass worn down to the ugliness of a dog with\nthe mange. We have laid out open grounds with generous, unobstructed\nspace and have otherwise, as opportunity offered, provided for the development of civic pride, only to find it necessary to inclose the premises with a\nhigh iron fence, as if it were a jail instead of a public school.\nIn Italy, in France, in Germany, and elsewhere you will see open\nprojects which it would be folly to attempt now in New York City. The\nschool child of those countries does not think of destroying the shrubbery\nnor of defacing the building, knowing, as he does, that should he do so\npunishment swift and sure would inevitably fall upon him.\nThe preservation of school grounds and buildings is essentially the\nresponsibility of the schoolmaster. He comes after the architect. The\nadvantages of order, symmetry, and beauty are chiefly assets for his\nbusiness. We have school buildings which receive from their intelligent\nmasters a care that not only makes them attractive and pleasant, but is\n\n"}
{"page": 360, "printed_page": "348", "text": "348\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\neasily translated into dollars and cents, since it materially reduces the cost\nof maintenance. It pays. It is a splendid provision of mind to see that\nthe purpose for which a building was made pleasant and attractive is given\nan opportunity to function. Teachers, pupils, and the custodian learn\nfrom an intelligent and alert principal the pride and enjoyment that spring\nfrom the use of a beautiful building. Neatness and order in such use\nengender like qualities in the minds of all associated therewith. Carelessness and lack of interest on the part of the principal in this particular matter\nare reflected in the minds and acts of the pupils. It thus becomes a damage\nto a community. But a principal or schoolmaster who realizes why a\nschool building was constructed and equipt with an eye to beauty and convenience, who appreciates that its mission cannot succeed unless he becomes\nits missionary, who maintains a well-ordered, well-cleaned, well-preserved\nschool building — such a one is, as he should be, an agent of civilization and\nrefinement with whom it is a pleasure to work.\n\nFUNCTIONS\nTHOMAS\n\nOF THE STATE\n\nIN LOCAL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nE. riNEGAN, DEPUTY STATE COMMISSIONER\nALBANY, N.Y.\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nWhat I regard as one of the great fundamental principles of school\nadministration in this country is that public education is a function of the\nstate and not a function of a municipality nor of any local division of the\nstate. Every school system of every state in the country has been founded\nupon that principle, and whenever it has been challenged in any state of the\nUnion, and the courts of the state have had the opportunity to pass upon\nthe question, they have weighed the matter and held that public education\nis a function of the state and not a function of a locality.\nNo one can point to a single decision of a court of final jurisdiction in\nany state in this Union which has held to the contrary.\nNow, what is meant by \"education being a function of the state\"?\nDo we mean that the state is to put itself in place of the locality and is to\ndominate the administration of public education in a city or any other\nsection of the state ? That is not it at all. It means that the controlling\npower in public education shall always be reserved to the legislative power\nof the state, and the locality may exercise such powers as are delegated to\nit by the legislature.\nLet me give you an illustration of what I mean by public education\nbeing the function of the state and not of the locality. A few years ago\nin a city in one of the states of this country there was what is known as a\n\"bipartisan board of education.\" Now, that sounds good — bipartisanequal representation in public education of the two great parties. Why\nthink about representation of parties on a board of education?\nWhy\n\n"}
{"page": 361, "printed_page": "349", "text": "Department]\n\nFUNCTIONS\n\nOF STATE\n\nIN LOCAL\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n349\n\nshould parties as such be given representation upon a board of education?\nWe have no business to take into consideration the question of parties when\nwe are determining what the personnel of a board of education shall be.\nWe are to take into consideration just one thing, and that one thing is,\nWhat is for the best interest of the children of the state ? Now, they did\nhave on the board of education in that city representation from both political\nparties. There were four men on the board, good men— two Democrats\nand two Republicans— and they sat down to select the teachers. There\nwere only ninety teachers in that city. These four men intended to do just\nwhat was the absolutely right thing for the people of their city, and so the\nfirst teacher chosen was taken from the Democratic faith, and the next\nteacher chosen was taken from the Republican faith, and so they proceeded.\nIn this way each of the two great parties had equal representation in the\nteaching force. There were forty-five teachers taken from the Democratic\nfamilies and forty-five from the Republican families, and the board of\neducation believed it was discharging its faithful obligation to the people\nof the city because it was a bipartisan board of education. That workt very\nwell for two years, but the city grew somewhat, and it soon became necessary\nto appoint ninety-one teachers. The board convened to make their annual\nappointments, and they proceeded tentatively to assign one teacher to the\nDemocrats and one to the Republicans until they had ninety appointed.\nThe board then proceeded to appoint the ninety-first teacher and the\nDemocratic representatives said: \"Now, we carried the election last fall, we\nelected the mayor, and we think we should have this additional teacher.\"\nAnd the Republican representatives on the board said, \"That is very true,\nbut we have carried the election four times out of five; therefore we are\nentitled to this additional teacher.\" The board could not agree upon the\nappointment of that one teacher, and so it decided not to appoint any\nteachers, and no teachers were appointed. The first of September came,\nand the schools were not opened; the middle of September came, and the\nschools were still closed, and on the first day of October the compulsoryattendance law became operative. There was a state law which durected\nthat every child in the state, of school age, should be under instruction on\nthe first of October. Under such law it was the duty of the municipahty\nto provide for the instruction of the children from the first of October until\nthe end of June, and for failure to do this penalties were imposed. This\nboard could not agree, and the head of the state school system had given\nnotice to the board of education that if the schools were not opened on the\nfirst of October he would appoint teachers and see that the schools were\nopened and properly administered On the first of October the commissioner of education of that state appointed a temporary superintendent of\nschools, ninety teachers, attendance officers, and janitors, and the schools\nwere opened. The board of education challenged the legality of the power\nthus exercised by the commissioner of education and applied to the Supreme\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 362, "printed_page": "350", "text": "3SO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nCourt for a writ of prohibition to restrain the commissioner of education\nfrom performing such function. The court held that the commissioner was\nnot only within his constitutional rights, but was obeying a mandate of the\nconstitution adopted by the people, which required the maintenance of a\nsystem of free common schools wherein all the children of the state should\nbe educated, and that it was a question of interest to all the citizens of the\nstate as to whether or not there should be 5000 children in any city of the\nstate deprived of the privilege of attending school. The state was bound\nto protect every child in its right to an education.\nThe law of the state makes it the duty of every locality to supply\nthe personal staff necessary for the operation of its school system, and\nwhen any community fails to meet such obligation, the state possesses\nthe power to take such action, unusual as it may be, to open and operate\nthe schools.\nThere are questions coming before the public continually in all sections\nof the country which involve this principle. In many of the states educational measures have been before legislative bodies which, if enacted iato\nlaw, would contravene this principle. The assaults which have been made\nupon school systems, by forces in no way responsible for the management\nof schools, for the promotion of selfish interests at the expense of the schools\nmake it necessary that educational administrators, who know the evils\nwhich will result from the abandonment of this time-honored fundamental\nAmerican principle of school administration, shall insist upon legislation in\nevery state which shall preserve the independence of officers charged with\nthe administration of public education.\nA few years ago I was askt to speak before the educational committee\nof a legislature where this question was under consideration. In that\ninstance the state had prepared a bill to reorganize the school system of\nits cities. A bill applying to one city was also introduced. This bill had\nbeen prepared by the corporation counsel under the direction of the mayor,\nand I want to tell you some of its essential features, and see whether or not\nyou would be willing to substitute the principles on which it was based for\nthe great fundamental principle on which the school systems of the several\nstates in the Union have been founded. The first important feature of that\nbill was to abolish the board of education and to provide that the mayor\nof the city should be ex officio the board of education. The bill further provided that the mayor should be given the power to make annual contracts\nwith teachers; that the mayor should have the right, at his pleasure, to\ndiscontinue contracts; that the mayor should have the right to purchase\nall kinds of supplies used in the school system; that the mayor, as the\nex officio board of education, should be given the authority to let all contracts for repairs of school buildings and for the construction of new buildings. The mayor who had this bill prepared went just a little farther than\nany man I have ever known in attempting to devise a scheme for the\n\n"}
{"page": 363, "printed_page": "351", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE BUSINESS\n\nMAN\n\nAND\n\nTHE PUBLIC\n\nSERVICE\n\nadministration of a public-school system, and provided that he—\nthe\nmayor— should further have the power to examine and license teachers\n.\nNow, I submit to you, is there any person in this room who believes that\nthere should be written upon the statutes of any state a law which provides, 351\nin effect, that city officers shall have the absolute control and jurisdiction\nof the administration of the public-school system, and that the prmciples\ninvolved in the proposed legislation should be substituted for the principle\nthat public education, being a state and not a municipal function, shall\nbe administered by the school officers who are independent of municipal\nauthorities ?\nThe several states have universally reserved the power to determme the\ngeneral policy of public education, but at the same time have recognized\nthe principle that local school authorities should be given the power to\nadminister such policy within the limitations imposed by the state thru\nlegislative enactment.\nTHE BUSINESS\n\nMAN\n\nAND\n\nTHE PUBLIC\n\nSERVICE\n\nJACOB M. LOEB, PRESIDENT, BOARD OF EDUCATION, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nGenerally speaking, we Americans know two types in the public life of\nour municipalities. One is composed of men of legal training, the other of\nmen of no particular training. Both make a business of politics and find\na profit in its pursuit. Politics is always the main and often the sole\nbusiness of their lives. Briefless lawyers or misfits from various vocations\nfill the large places in the public service. An aptitude for forensic declamation characterizes one type, the ability to control votes, the other.\n*' Neither,\" to quote James Bryce in The American Commonwealth ^ \"has\nany comprehension of political questions or zeal for political principles;\npolitics means to them merely a scramble for places or jobs.\" These\npolitical conditions arise largely out of social and economic ones. There is,\nas yet, no large leisure class with time to give service to the community, no\nintellectual group with minds bent on political science, no independent\nwealth with inclination toward public affairs. Those who have leisure are\nengrost in the pursuit of the light and vapid pleasures of life. Those who\nhave education are devoted to less vital, or perhaps more profitable, studies.\nThose who have wealth are striving for still larger accumulations. In the\nmain there is no public spirit, and the public service is left to the ill-equipt\nand the unfit.\nWith a better social attitude, with a more universal higher education,\nwith a greater economic security, there should be promise of considerable\nand important changes. To speak of one of these is the purpose of this\npaper. I refer to the advent of the business man to public service. I come\nto you as a business man, and— in all modesty I say it— as a successful one.\nThe busmess maJi need make no apology because of the fact that he is\n\n"}
{"page": 364, "printed_page": "352", "text": "352\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nin business, nor because of the fact that he is successful. Neither is he\nto be condemned either for his business or for his success, provided only\nhis busiuess has been properly conducted and his success honestly attained.\nHe should not be excluded from, but should be welcomed into, the public\nservice; for the very capacity which has made for the development and\nsuccess of his business will make for the good and betterment of the public\nservice. Business-management and busiuess methods are needed, sadly\nneeded, in the public service. No one is better qualified to apply them to\nthe public service than the independent and successful man of affairs.\nWe must differentiate between the business man in the public service\nand the politician who has a business. One is a new, comparatively rare,\nand a desirable type; the other is an old, familiar, and undesirable type.\nOne brings business ability and experience to the solution of the problems\nof the public's business; the other uses his public trust and oflScial position\nfor the advantage of his private business. One enters the public life\nbecause he has ideals; the other because he lacks them. One works for\nthe benefit of the municipality; the other for personal profit. One strives\nfor the good of the service; the other for the good of the servant.\nThe business man who enters the public service has no easy road to\ntravel. The conduct of our municipal business has, in the main, been such\nas would involve a private business in bankruptcy. Its management has\nbeen loose, its methods slipshod, and its trend shiftless. It has been characterized byfavoritism, spoils, and corruption. Political futures and\nparty fortunes, not sound fundamentals, have been its determining factors.\nContracts have been let and positions assigned with a view to currying\nfavor or influencing votes regardless of economies or efficiency. The\nbusiness man who deliberates and seeks the truth, who demands the elimination ofwaste and decries extravagance, who wants to put the municipal\nbusiness on a business basis, meets with opposition. He is urged to do what\nis expedient rather than what is sound. If he refuses, he is threatened with\npolitical annihilation.\nThe business man who enters public life must be prepared to make\nsacrifices, not only of time which might be valuable to his own business, but\nmore. He will be abused, his motives will be impugned. An establisht\norder resents interference. It resists change. The professional politician\nhas so long been in undisturbed and comfortable control of municipal\naffairs that he cannot comprehend the participation of honest, capable, and\nindependent business men. He has drunk so long at the public trough\nthat he cannot understand why anyone should come to the trough except\nto drink. He has stabled so long in the public stall that he chafes at\nsharing it with a newcomer. That the trough is not his alone, or that the\nstall may need renovating, is to him inconceivable. So the business man\nwho contests for a place beside him and who, forsooth, differs from him has\nhis purposes questioned, is vilified and vituperated. All of this must not\n\n"}
{"page": 365, "printed_page": "353", "text": "Department]\n\nTEE BUSINESS\n\nMAN\n\nAND\n\nTHE PUBLIC\n\nSERVICE\n\n353\n\ndeter him from continuing in the public service. It is part of the sacrifice\nwhich he must make in the community interest. It is part of the necessity\nwhich compels him to remain. It is part of the goad which drives him to\npersist. It is part of the proof positive and convincing that he is needed\nin the public service.\nYou will pardon me if I speak, nay, you will expect me to speak, of the\nbusiness man in the branch of the public service in which most of us here\nare engaged, namely, public education. There is no place which is more\nworthy of his time, his thought, and his energy. There is no place for which\nhe is better fitted, none where he is more needed. The business of the\npublic schools is big and various. There is a large investment of the public\nmoneys. There are large holdings of property, real and personal. There\nare tremendous incomes and expenditures. The product of that business\nis second in importance to no other. The child who is to be the future\ncitizen of our municipalities and our nation is here in the making. That\nthe investment may be safeguarded, that the property may be managed in\na business-like manner, that expenditures may be wisely adjusted to\nincomes, that the interests of the school child may be conserved, that they\nmay not be subordinated to those of designing partisans — for this the\nbusiness man is fitted by experience and training. It is true that he is not\nqualified to arrange the curriculum nor to select school teachers. That\nthese functions lie far from his proper field is beyond question. But it is\nalso true, and should be beyond question, that they are neither the function\nof any persons nor power other than those of the trained educators — the\ngeneral superintendent of schools and his staff. It is for no faction nor\nclass to say what the child shall be taught nor who shall teach him.\nI have no quarrel with trades-unions, properly conducted and in their\nproper place, but a trades-union in the public school is intolerable. Teaching isnot a trade. It is a profession and one of the noblest professions. In\nprinciple and in practice trades-unionism is inconsistent with, and unnecessary to, a professional career. In the schools it makes for a divided allegiance; it breeds suspicion and discontent; it destroys harmony and\ncreates strife; it interferes with discipline and halts efficiency.\nThe young teacher comes into the service full of enthusiasm for her\nwork. Her thoughts are engrost with the children. But no sooner is she\nengaged than the union sets to work poisoning her minti. She is told that\nshe cannot stand alone, that her enthusiasm and her capacity will not win\nher recognition, that she must look to the union, as if she were in a trade,\neither for promotion or salary increase. \"The slogan of the union,\" she is\ntold, \"is not children first, but teachers first.\" She is made to view herself as a victim. \"Her employer, the board of education,\" she is led to\nbelieve, \"is trying to crush her and to keep her down.\" Class prejudice is\nencouraged and class hate engendered. Her ideals are shattered. She\nhad hoped to devote herself to a noble and sacred calling. She finds herself\n\n"}
{"page": 366, "printed_page": "354", "text": "354\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Admbistration\n\nin a sordid, salary-grabbing and self-seeking occupation. She is cajoled,\nthen threatened, should she still not affiliate herself with the teachers'\nunion. If she submits, she pays her fees as peace insurance and keeps\nsilent to avoid trouble. If she resists, she feels the subtle and intriguing\nlash of the persecutor. In either event, she is terrorized, and the school\nchildren suffer. The inner circle, the few in synapathy with, and in control\nof, the union — openly dissatisfied, contemptuous, and rebellious toward\nthose in authority — send forward children who in turn are likely to be dissatisfied, contemptuous, and rebellious toward authority, and to have no\nregard and no respect for law and order.\nI am not theorizing nor drawing on my imagination. I am stating facts\nas I have actually found them. Not fitness, but allegiance to a class, not\nefficiency, but membership in a trades-union, in my experience, have been\nthe tests by which a teacher's right to position or promotion were determined. Beside the subterranean influences at work in our public-school\nsystem; beside the high-handed methods employed — sometimes secretly,\nsometimes openly and barefaced, but always thoroly organized — the influences, the fraud and trickery which characterize the lowest type of\nward politics; the violence and graft of the labor movement, which\neven its most ardent admirers will not defend, pale into insignificance —\npale because those influences are at work and those methods employed\nto the lasting detriment of the most delicate, the most plastic, the most\nsacred charges which God has given us — the mind and soul of the school\nchild. They are made the plaything, the shuttlecock, of a small, ambitious,\nand designing coterie, blinded to everything but self by a lust for power\nand dominance.\nNo other learned profession presents such conditions. No other is\nunionized. Bar associations, medical societies, and engineers, architects,\nand ministers of the gospel in groups are maintained for the free interchange\nof new and valuable ideas. They are intended for the good, not the degradation, ofthe professions. Men devoted to higher education and scientific\npursuits have their associations. But none of these meets and exists to\ndiscuss fees, pay, and so-called working conditions. By all means let\nus have a teachers' organization. But let the leadership go to the best\nteachers, not to the most astute politicians. Let the organization discuss\nproblems of education, not the problems of self. \"No servant can serve\ntwo masters, for either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will\nhold to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and mammon.\" So spoke the greatest Teacher of them all, the greatest Teacher\nthe world has ever known.\nNo father with children in attendance at the public schools, no citizen\nwho loves his country's institutions, no man with red blood in his veins can\nsit idly by and let conditions as they are go unchallenged. No true business\nman who, in his private business, selects workers with a view to their ability,\n\n"}
{"page": 367, "printed_page": "355", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE BUSINESS\n\nMAN\n\nAND\n\nTHE PUBLIC\n\nSERVICE\n\n355\n\nwho advances them for merit and rewards them for loyalty, can do other\nthan register his protest when he finds a different and a demoralizing set of\nstandards fixing the selection, the advancement, and the reward of servants\nin that branch of the public service in whose administration he has been\nchosen to participate. If he has had success in his private business and his\nsuccess is lasting, it is because he has brought energy, hard work, eflSciency,\nand high ideals to it. Competition has been constant and persistent. To\nsucceed he has had to offer his consumer a better product or his clientele\na more attractive service than was offered by his competitor. To accomplish this, skilled workers, capable assistants, and conscientious lieutenants\nwere required. Pull and \" outside \" interfetence have prevented neither the\nelimination of the unfit nor the recognition of the competent man or woman\nin his employ. He cannot understand why the same principles and the\nsame course of conduct which he has successfully applied to his private\nbusiness cannot and should not, with equal success, be applied to the\nbusiness of the public schools. So he undertakes to apply them. Of\ncourse, here again his task will be a difficult one. He will be reviled by the\npress. Let him remember that the press is not always independent. It has\nnews to sell. Not infrequently it gives its readers what it thinks they want\ninstead of what they ought to have. He will be discouraged by his political\nsponsors. Let him remember that success of party, not the best public\nservice, may be their predominant aim. He will be abused by the \"sobsisters.\" Let him remember that they are moved more often by maudlin\nsentimentalism than by a knowledge of the facts. He will feel the pressure\nof public opinion. Let him remember that too often \"public opinion is a\ncontrolled opinion,\" and that the controllers are not always disinterested\nnor honest. He will be betrayed even by an associate who may be a fellowbusiness man with political aspirations, standing in mortal dread of that\nbugaboo, that myth, \"the labor vote.\" Let him but strive the harder.\nHis will be the unpopular position. Let him defend it fearlessly. His is\nthe task of helping to introduce sound business-management into a vital\ndepartment of the public service. His is the task of helping to reclaim the\nprofession of teaching and to free it from the baneful influences which\nthreaten to prostitute it to base purposes. It will take of his time. It will\nbe worthy of his best thinking. It will require all of his courage. He\nmay be courting political oblivion; but withal he is a business man and he\nprefers good business to bad politics.\n\n"}
{"page": 368, "printed_page": "356", "text": "356\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nA REPLY\nELLA FLAGG YOUNG, FORMERLY SUPERINTENDENT\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nOF SCHOOLS,\n\nI thought this morning that I should speak on the subject of \"The\nRelation of the Superintendent to the Teachers,\" but some statements in\nthe last paper oblige me to move somewhat from that subject and get the\ntruth before you. The feeling of authority which possesses the human\nsoul when it gets into a position of recognized influence is something that\nno one can fully estimate.\nHave you read Bury's History of the Freedom of Thought, publisht\nwithin the last two or three years ? If you haven't, I wish that all of you,\nevery man and woman in this room, would buy a copy of that book and\nlearn something about what the human race has suffered and done in\norder to attain a fairly respectable right to freedom of thought and its\nexpression.\nNo one realizes more fully than I the difficulties in carrying out\nthat plan which has been referred to by the president and was very finely\noutlined in the first paper — having the members of the board attend to all\nthe administrative business affairs, and the expert — the superintendent —\nattend to the educational affairs. And in the last part of that first paper\nwas the gathering up of the main difficulty — that the men and women who\nare on the board of education, almost without exception, are there with\nsomeone behind them. If they are successful business men, the commercial\norganizations are behind them, and the successful women have the women's\nclubs behind them, and so they must maintain the standards set by the\nmen or the clubs or the organizations which have put them there as the\nmouthpiece. Labor unions, teachers in federations, teachers whose federations are affiHated with labor unions, seem to be the main points in the mind\nof the business man who has just addrest you.\nThe teachers of this country have the great work of preparing the children for efficient membership in this democracy when they become voting\ncitizens. The teacher has to prepare the pupils, not, as in common parlance, to become as those who are taken to the polls and referred to as\n\"voting cattle,\" but to become men and women who know the duties and\nthe rights of an American citizen and are ready to meet them and fulfil\nthem. That is the work of the teacher.\nI have a theory — I know it will not be supported here — that first\nand foremost, no person should ever be on a public board of education who\ndoes not send his own children, or did not send his own children while they\nwere of school age, to the public schools. And why should that restriction\nbe made ? Because sympathy with the work of the school should be given,\nand can be given, only by one who believes in the public-school ideals laid\ndown in the state constitutions in this country with their system of public\n\n"}
{"page": 369, "printed_page": "357", "text": "Department!\n\nA REPLY\n\n357\n\nschools freed from sectarianism, freed from everything except that which\nmakes citizens of this American country, and not by one who takes his\nmoney and his children, and puts them into a pay school because they will\nget into better society, or by one who for religious purposes draws away\nfrom the 46 constitutions of the 48 states that laid down the law that\nthere is to be no sectarianism nor any religious instruction in the public\nschool, and who, because of that, must turn to the sectarian school and\nsend his children there — these people ought not to be on the board of\neducation. They cannot have sympathy with the aim that animates the\npubUc school.\nWhen I began teaching in the city of Chicago, the teaching force was\nso small that the superintendent, who had his institutes once a month, had\nin one schoolroom the teachers of the high school, the principal of the high\nschool — there was then only one — the principal of the elementary schools,\nand all the grade teachers. There we met and discust, on the same level,\nthe subjects which were presented to us, or which were raised by persons\npresent. But today it is simply impossible for the teachers in a great city\nor for even the principals, in a city like New York, to meet and discuss freely\nthe questions — a few do the talking, and they talk to the galleries. With\nthis growth of the public-school system in cities like New York and\nChicago, where a large proportion of the membership of the pubUc school is\nmade up of the foreign element and of Americans who have not yet learned\nto be successful business men — and it is true, not only in these two cities,\nbut wherever there has developt a good-sized school system— there has\nbeen a tendency toward factory-evolution and factory-management, and\nthe teachers, like children who stand at machines, are told just what to do.\nThe teachers, instead of being the great moving force, educating and\ndeveloping the powers of the human mind in such a way that they shall\ncontribute to the power and the eflSciency of this democracy, tend to become\nmere workers at the treadmill, but they are doing all thru this country that\nwhich shows that it is diflScult to crush the human mind and the love of\nfreedom in the hearts and lives of people who are qualified to teach\nschool. As a result they are organizing federations to get together and\ndiscuss those questions which are vital in the life of the children and m the\nlife of the teachers— you cannot separate the life of the children and the\nlife of the teacher if you know what you are about.\nIn Chicago— I might as well say Chicago outright; you know that\nwhat has been said referred to Chicago— as a district superintendent I saw\nthe beginnings of the Chicago Teachers' Federation, and I felt very uneasy;\nI feared those teachers were becoming too grasping— else why were they\norganizing the federation, independent of the superintendent and the\nboard of education ? I was not large enough in the beginning to see, I had\nnot the insight to see, that these women were reaUzing that they had not\nthe\nthe freedom, the power, which people should have who are to train\n\n"}
{"page": 370, "printed_page": "358", "text": "358\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Administration\n\nminds of the children. They came into the committee (I used to attend\nthe meetings of the Committee on School-Management when I was a district\nsuperintendent), and askt that the board consider increasing their salaries.\nI can see that committee now, as they sat there and listened calmly, with\nimmovable, expressionless faces. When all had spoken, the chairman\naskt whether there were any more to speak. There were no more; hence\nthey were dismist; and then the smile that went around that table ! They\nhad had their say. I don't know whether you take that situation in fully\nor not. The result was — nothing! And again they came, and the same\ncourteous reception and the same dismissal and the same nothing! And\nafter a while they said, \"This is silly.\"\nWhen they were affihated with the Labor Union I was sorry. I thought\nthey had made a great mistake, and I said publicly that I thought it was a\nmistake, and on general principles I would be willing to make that statement today. But what affected my general principles and brought me\ndown to something special? It was this. They found that in order to\nget anything done they must have voting power behind them. And they\nfound that the people, the men, in their own station and rank in life, the\ncollege-bred men, were not ready to do anything for them; therefore they\nwere compelled to go in with those who had felt the oppression and the\ngrind of the power of riches. That is why they went into the Federation\nof Labor.\nWith regard to their browbeating young teachers: if a person desires\nto make friends with one in authority, and that person has a noble\nmind and dare speak what is in it, and speak it properly, he can go to those\nin authority and lay his condition or wishes before them; but if a person\nhas a mean mind, he will go and tell the one in authority the petty thing\nagainst somebody which is concocted to please the person in authority, and\nthat, I think, is the main source of this talk that was given here more dramatically than I can repeat it. Small-minded persons have gone to those\nwho are opposed to the Federation of Teachers and have described those\nthings as they have been described here.\nMy friends, which shall we accept ? The words of a body of teachers\nwho have studied the way to lead children to the higher lights and the\nbroader spheres and the dignity and nobility of citizenship in this country,\nor shall we accept the tales told by those who curry favor? That is\nwhat I need to know, and I speak in all sincerity, just as I assume that\nthe speaker before me believed what he said. But I know more about it.\nI know what I am talking about, and I know that these talks of intimidation\nand browbeating are the results of a currying of favor with those members\nof the board who are known to have such affiliations as to believe that\nteachers must come to realize that they are the great army of the employed,\nand it is their business to be careful and walk circumspectly before their\nemployers.\n\n"}
{"page": 371, "printed_page": "359", "text": "Department]\n\nA REPLY\n\n^^g\n\nI am very sorry— I had no idea that I should hear the teachers of\nChicago attackt as they have been, and if the reader of that paper had\nworkt in those schools, or if he had gone thru those schools, or if he had\npatronized those schools, he could not so attack these teachers.\nI desire to make one more point. In every body of people there will\nalways develop two parties. It is for the good of the nation that we have\nthe radical and the conservative. It is for the good of any organization\nthat there be two parties, but not necessarily factions. But what are you\ngoing to do if bitterness is developt? And what develops bitterness?\nThat is the question. There is evidence and report of great bitterness between some members of the board and the teachers. That bitterness\noriginated in the class antagonism, developt by the teachers in bringing\nwealthy tax-dodgers under the law. It has no basis in the classroom.\nI believe — and I have visited the schools of almost every large and middlesized city and town in this country — I believe that nowhere does there exist\na clearer vision of the aim of the public schools, and nowhere is there more\nlife that indicates the conduct of the work in harmony with that vision\nthan in the city of Chicago.\n\n"}
{"page": 372, "printed_page": "360", "text": ""}
{"page": 373, "printed_page": "361", "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF BUSINESS\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\n\nPresident— J. L. Holtsclaw, director, High School of Commerce\nDetroit, Mich.\nVice-President— L. Gilbert Dake, Soldan High School\nSt. Louis, Mo!\nSecretary — Clyde Blanchard, instructor in business economy, extension\ndivision. University of California, Bericelqr, pj.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 4, 1916\nThe department met in Room 804, Washington Irving High School, at 9:30 a.m.,\nwith President Holtsclaw in the chair.\nThe secretary of the department bemg absent, the chair appomted H. G. Healey,\nNew York, N.Y., secretary pro tern.\nThe following program was given:\n\"Fundamental Amis in the Teaching of Bookkeeping\"— W. E. Bartholomew,\nspecialist in commercial education, state department of Education, Albany, N.Y.\n\"Penmanship\nBusiness High Schools\"— Horace G. Healey, editor. Business\nJournal,\nNew York, in\nN.Y.\n\"T3rpewriting in the Public Schools\" — Frederick R. Beygrau, instructor in typewriting, High School of Commerce, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Organization of a Business-Practice and Office-Routine Course and How to\nMake It a Success in Business High Schools\" — ^W. J. McCarty, director, business-practice\ndepartment, Packard Commercial School, New York, N.Y.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 6, 1916\n\nThe department met in Room 804, Washington Irving High School, at 9:30 A.M.,\nwith President Holtsclaw in the chair.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"Economics in the Commercial High School\" — Cheesman A. Herrick, president,\nGirard College, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\" The Relation of the Library to Business Education \"—Louise B . Krause, ex-president,\nChicago Library Club, and librarian, H. M. Byllesby & Co., Chicago, 111.\n\"How Teachers Can Increase the Efficiency of Accounting and Bookkeeping Courses\"\n— Robert Montgomery, ex-president of the American Association of Public Accountants\nand assistant professor of accounting, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Teaching of Business English and Advertising in Business High Schools\"—\nGeorge B. Hotchkiss, professor of business English and head of the advertising and market\ndivision. New York University School of Commerce, New York, N.Y.\nThe report of the Committee on Research, Standardization, and Correlation was in\nthe form of three papers, as follows:\n\"Commercial Geography\"— J. Paul Goode, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\n\"Business English\"— James Fleming Hosic, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, HI.\n\"Shorthand and Typewriting \"—Ada R. Collins, Colorado Springs, Colo.\nThe following officers were elected for the ensuing year :\nPresident— Cheesmam A. Herrick, president, Girard CoUege, Philadelphia, Pa.\nVice-President— Hoia.ce G. Healey, Evander Childs High School, New York, N.Y.\nSecretary— Geoige H. Van Tuyl, High School of Commerce, New York, N.Y.\nHorace G. Healey, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 374, "printed_page": "362", "text": "362\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nFUNDAMENTAL\nW.\n\nE.\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Business\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nAIMS IN THE TEACHING\nBOOKKEEPING\n\nBARTHOLOMEW,\nSPECIALIST IN COMMERCIAL\nDEPARTMENT\nOF EDUCATION,\nALBANY,\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\nN.Y.\n\nSTATE\n\nBookkeeping is the pioneer among commercial subjects. The earliest\nbusiness schools taught bookkeeping primarily, altho penmanship and\ncommercial arithmetic were given a measure of attention in their relation\nto the main subject. The high schools taught bookkeeping long before\ncommercial courses with their complete list of commercial subjects were\nthought of. At one time it was a required subject for one of the academic\ndiplomas issued by the University of the State of New York, the idea\nbeing that a knowledge of bookkeeping was desirable in a general highschool education. The teaching of bookkeeping thus markt the beginning\nof commercial education. With the development of commercial work in\nthe high schools and the consequent increase in the number of commercial\nsubjects, bookkeeping has retained an important place in the curriculum\nof commercial studies. Today a high-school commercial course is considered\nscarcely worthy of the name unless it prescribes two or three years' study of\nthis subject. Aside from the \"momentum of an early start,\" the general\nconviction that bookkeeping has direct value in the preparation for business\nlife tends to make it still the central subject in the commercial group of\nsecondary-school studies.\nThere are two points of view from which one may judge the value of\nbookkeeping training — the vocational and the educational, the former looking toward values directly practical, the latter looking more toward informational, disciplinary, and cultural values in the subject. The vocational\nviewpoint presupposes that the subject-matter has a close relation to the\nwork of the business office, and that the school training will assist the boy\nor girl in taking up readily the duties of a clerical position. It is evident at\nonce that the extent to which the teaching becomes practical must be determined by the success with which the work of the school is adapted to the\nneeds of the business office. The character of the work of the business office\nhas changed greatly during the last twenty or thirty years, so that what was\nformerly vocational instruction in bookkeeping would not now be so considered. During that time we have observed the remarkable development of \"big business\" and the gradual elimination of the small estabhshment. The simple methods of keeping accounts, requiring not much more\nthan the use of the daybook, journal, and ledger, have been supplanted by\nelaborate systems of accounts and statistical bookkeeping involving all the\nmodern labor-saving devices. The work of the modern business office,\n\n"}
{"page": 375, "printed_page": "363", "text": "Department]\n\nFUNDAMENTAL\n\nAIMS\n\nIN TEACHING\n\nOF BOOKKEEPING\n\n363\n\nlike that of the factory, which it may control, is highly specialized. This\ncondition is quite in contrast with that in the small business office in which\none person frequently is charged, not only with making the bookkeeping\nrecords, but also with performing the variety of details incident to the\ntransactions that occur in the course of a day's business. While the bookkeeper incharge of the small office needs to have a faurly comprehensive\nknowledge of bookkeeping principles and practice and of business procedure, the clerk in the larger office has very little occasion to apply even\nthe elementary principles of bookkeeping.\nAs you know, bookkeeping instruction, as generally carried on, centers\nabout the so-called \"bookkeeping set,\" a series of connected and related\nbusiness transactions designed to typify business routine from the making\nof the investment to the closing of the books and the preparation of statements. Business practice — that is, the preparation and the handling of\nbusiness papers — forms usually a large part of the work of the set. Now, if\nour pupils were still going chiefly into the smaller business offices, there\nmight be some reason for emphasizing the routine of business transactions.\nSince, however, the majority of boys and girls who take clerical positions\nfind themselves confronted with the specialized work of the modem office,\nthe value of the routine form of bookkeeping instruction becomes very\nslight indeed. It is desurable, therefore, to make a change from this oldtime method of presentation to the topical method by which the various\nphases of the subject may be treated intensively in order to develop skill\nin doing the work of the single and specialized task. Furthermore, the\ntopical method will permit the application of sound teaching principles\nnot possible by the other method.\nIn the intensive treatment made possible by this method there is an\nopportunity for giving a traming suited to the requirements of the modem\nclerical positions. A few illustrations will serve to make my meaning clear.\nTake, for example, the subject of billmg or invoicing. After the pupil\nhas learned the correct method of writmg an invoice and has become\nfamiliar with the various types of invoices, exercises typifying the work\nof the invoice clerk should be introduced. With a given price list, a stack\nof orders, and a pad of billheads he should be mstructed to prepare the\ninvoices, list them on a sales sheet, which may contain columns for different\ndepartments of a business, and make a recapitulation of the totals. Similar\nexercises may be prepared for the writing of notes and the subsequent\nrecording in the billbook. The work of the cashier may be illustrated by\ncash\ngiving the pupil a page of the cashbook with instructions to enter the\ncash payreceipts from the record slips or the original cash papers, and the\nments from the stubs of a checkbook, the page to be properly balanst as at\na\nthe close of the day. . The distribution of charges from vouchers to\nthis\nof\nvoucher register may also be made an excellent exercise. Exercises\nis\ncharacter afford drill in \"working under pressure,\" something that\n\n"}
{"page": 376, "printed_page": "364", "text": "364\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Busmess\n\ndemanded of all office workers. In every bit of this work accuracy and\nfecility in execution must be emphasized and insisted upon.\nI have not said anything about the adaptation of subject-matter to the\nrequirements of the clerical positions. The great variety of methods for\ndoing the same kind of work makes it inadvisable to model too closely after\nthe practice of any particular office. The vocational purpose will be\nrealized better by duplicating as closely as possible some of the working\nconditions in which the pupil will ultimately find himself than by attempting to embody the exact duties of any specialized clerical positions that\nhappen to come to the attention of the teacher.\nBut there is something more to be accomplisht in the teaching of bookkeeping. Properly taught, the subject possesses important educational value\nand may thus become a factor in the general training, not only of commercial\npupils, but of all high-school pupils. A knowledge of the general principles\nof accounts and of business procedure will enable the clerk in the specialized\nposition to imderstand better how his particular unit of work forms an\nintegral part of the whole accounting system. With an intelligent appreciation of the application of bookkeeping principles in the system in use in his\noffice, he will be better qualified for the advancement that every office clerk\nhas reason to expect. The bookkeeping or business practice set with its distracting business routine and its superabundance of business practice has\nhindered the sort of teaching that gives the subject its real educational value.\nWhile most people are wilUng to admit that bookkeeping, properly\ntaught, furnishes a field for the development of mental qualities, there\nare few outside the commercial teaching profession who have any appreciation of the disciplinary value of the subject. This is partly explained\nby the fact that the written record or statement is so much in evidence in\nbookkeeping work. They do not appreciate that this is, or should be,\nmerely the formal expression of results obtained by the very best application of the trained powers of the mind. Of course, if the instruction stops\nwith giving directions for the mechanical work involved in the preparation\nof the written record, it results in little or no mental discipline.\nIn a recent report on commercial work in the city of Cleveland is given\nthe following list of mental qualities most desired in business:\nAbility to associate ideas and to group facts\nHabit of seeing part in relation to whole\nAbility to note resemblances\nAbility to make deductions\nSense of system; classification and subordination\nJudgment\nConscious habits of attention, observation, memory\nAbility to assimilate ideas and facts\nAccuracy\n\nAs the writer says, bookkeeping furnishes the practice field for all the\nreasoning quahties and an abundant chance for drill in the habit of accuracy.\n\n"}
{"page": 377, "printed_page": "365", "text": "Department!\n\nPENMANSBIP\n\nIN BUSINESS\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n365\n\nIf time permitted, it could be shown wherein these qualities are trained to a\ngreater or less degree in one or another phase of the subject. Aside from\nthe routine work of making entries, posting, etc., the problems involved\nin the preparation of an income and profit-and-loss statement, in opening\nand closing entries, in partnership settlements, and the like furnish an\nexcellent opportunity for developing the ability to associate ideas and to\ngroup facts, the habit of seemg part in the relation to the whole, the sense'\nof system, judgment, and accuracy. The study of such topics as depreciation and reserves affords excellent training in reason and judgment. The\nability to make deductions is exercised in the analytical study of the\naccounting facts that pupils should be required to make all thru the course.\nWe should not overlook the fact, however, that disciplinary training\nresults from the quality of the teaching rather than from the subjectmatter itself. It is not necessary that the teacher have in mind a conscious\naim in this direction. He must regard a thorogoing treatment of the subject as the important consideration, and, in accompUshing his desired purpose, he will obtain, as a by-product of his teaching, the trained minds of\nthe pupils. Just as the by-product in an industry may possess greater value\nthan the primary product, so the mental qualities the pupil acquires may\nultimately be of greater value to him than the knowledge he has gained of\nthe subject.\nFinally, the subject of bookkeeping can be given cultural value, if we\ntake Dr. John Dewey's definition of culture as the vital union of information\nand discipline, designating the socialization of the individual in his whole\noutlook upon life and his mode of dealing with it. Many of the economic\nforces operating in the different phases of activity are defined in a language\nexprest in accounting terms. Bookkeeping, therefore, in its proper presentation, not only should contribute a broader understanding of the activities\nof commercial life, but should enable the possessor of a knowledge of its\nprinciples to appreciate more fully the significance of the phenomena of\nbusiness in their relation to the rest of his affairs.\n\nPENMANSHIP\nHORACE\n\nG. HEALEY,\n\nIN BUSINESS\n\nEDITOR,\n\n\"BUSINESS\n\nHIGH SCHOOLS\nJOURNAL,\" NEW\n\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nIt is an open question in the minds of many educators whether penmanship is,or is not, a high-school subject. For many years I maintained\nthe position that, if properly taught and if sufficient time were given to the\nsubject in the grammar grades, there would be no need for specific instruction in penmanship in the high school. That was before I had had highschool experience. After several years of active work as chairman of the\ndepartment of writing in one of the largest high schools in America, and\nafter having had many opportunities to inspect, not only the work, but the\n\n"}
{"page": 378, "printed_page": "366", "text": "366\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nmethods employed in teaching the subject in a large number of other high\nschools, I am willing to go on record as saying that the subject should not\nonly be taught and carefully supervised thruout the high-school course, but\nit should be continued even into the college course, if the student has not\nacquired sufficient skill in movement, sufficient degree in quality of line,\nand sufficient accuracy in application of form. In other words, I do not\nbelieve there is a period in the course of the pupil's education where we may\narbitrarily say that supervision of the subject of penmanship may be automatically discontinued.\nTo give sufficient time in the elementary grades for the thoro mastery of\nthis subject and the perfect crystallization of correct habits in posture,\nposition, and execution, would make it necessary to neglect other and\nequally important subjects in the course of study. Another obstacle lying\nin the path leading to the point where adequate preparation and training\nin the subject of penmanship has reacht the stage where it no longer need\nreceive the attention of the teacher, is the fact that pupils leaving the\nelementary grades at the age of thirteen or fourteen years have not sufficiently matured to warrant our belief that muscle and nerve coordination,\nstrength of character and definiteness of execution, will still retain their\npresent degree of efficiency. Pupils from this age on undergo great changes\nphysiologically and psychologically. If this period be not carefully supervised, there is great danger of relaxation and reversion, to say nothing of the\nunwelcome entrance into the intellectual and physical natures of those\ncharacteristics which are sure to become impediments.\nThe subject, I believe, should be treated somewhat differently in the\nhigh schools. Individual-instruction, as against class-instruction, should\npredominate. At the beginning of the course a careful examination should\nbe made of the writing of each student, and at once a process of elimination\nof serious faults, both in form and execution, should be entered upon, and\nthat which is correct should be substituted. Particular attention should\nbe given to assisting the pupil in adapting his style of writing, not only to\nimmediate school needs, but to the needs of the business world in general.\nTo this end considerable drill should be devoted to writing in circumscribed\nspaces similar to those found in the blanks of business papers, journals,\nledgers, etc. Short loops, small capitals, and compact grouping should\ncharacterize this part of the work.\nThere will be little, if any, need to devote time to elementary movement\ndrills as such. Whatever practice work is done in this line should be upon\neither word or sentence drills.\nBy reason of the more extensive experience and matured judgment on\nthe part of the pupil, a closer mathematical analysis may be made of letter\nand word forms. Pupils in the elementary grades are inclined to rely upon\nthe imitative faculties alone in mastering these forms. We should now\nappeal to the constructive faculties — those faculties which enable one to\n\n"}
{"page": 379, "printed_page": "367", "text": "Department]\n\nTYPEWRITING\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n367\n\nmeasure and compare. I would require pupils to block out in proper proportion, not only the letters themselves, but the proper spacing which should\nbe found between various letters. The chief cause of the failure on the part\nof students to maintain correct letter and word forms after they leave school\nis that they make these forms a matter of memory and not of reason. If\nthey know, for instance, that the capital M is only three-fourths as wide as\nit is high, they will not, in their practical work, make it two or three times\nas wide.\nDuring this period the matter of correct posture will be the object of\nthe greatest care. The adolescent age is almost synonymous with the\n\"slouchy\" age. Pupils who have never appeared tired or lazy or careless\nbefore will frequently show many evidences of these traits of character\nduring this age. This is a good period also to train the pupil in the exercise\nof proper choice and discrimination in the matter of materials and equipment.\nOn the whole, the teacher of writing in the high school will find that\neach pupil presents individual problems requiring the exercise of patience,\njudgment, and common-sense. While some pupils will possibly need to have\ninstruction and supervision thruout the first part of their high-school course\nat least, others may enter the school who have well-formed habits and who\nshould be excused from the writing class in order to devote their time to\ntheir other studies. I would place a premium upon conscientious effort\nand application by excusing pupils from the writing class just as soon as\nthey have shown by their work and interest that they are qualified to continue without the teacher's help. On the other hand, I should reassign to\nthe writing class those students, in whatever grade the work may be,\nwho show the least signs of slipping back either in their writing or in their\nposture.\nTYPEWRITING\nF. R. BEYGRAU,\n\nINSTRUCTOR\n\nIN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\nIN TYPEWRITING, HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nCarlyle says: *'Man is a tool-using animal. He can use tools, devise\ntools; with these the granite mountains melt into dust before him; he\nkneads the glowing iron as if it were soft paste; seas are his highways,\nwinds and fires his unwearying steeds. Nowhere do you find him without\ntools— without tools he is nothing; with tools he is all.\" Typewriting is\none of the preliminary steps in business Hfe— the young man or the young\nwoman at the right hand of the employer has an excellent opportunity to\nlearn the business. Typewriting widens the reach and the powers. The\ntypewriter is an aid to the poor speller, the poor penman, and the sluggish\nthinker. It is therefore of little wonder that many of our leading educators\nadvocate the use of the typewriter in the early stages of a child's education,\n\n"}
{"page": 380, "printed_page": "368", "text": "368\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nand it is indeed the right course. From my experience in the High School\nof Commerce, which has one of the largest typewriting departments in the\nworld, I have long since come to the conclusion that typewriting should be\ntaught in the first year of the high-school course; in other words, \" the earlier\nthe better.\" Anyone who has the will power may learn to operate a typewriter scientifically. Interest, attention, and will are three most important\npsychological factors. It is presumed one has the interest when one desires\nto learn typewriting. Then all other things must be sacrificed to attention. Every mistake in typewriting is due to an error of the mind and not\nof the fingers. However, the mind is not wrong when it simply wanders\nwith some other line of thought and the necessary concentration is lost.\nThe only remedy for errors in typewriting, then, is the development of this\nconcentration, which is one of the most important faculties the typist can\npossess. A great opportunity is given for this development in memorizing\nthe keyboard in a darkened room by means of a stereopticon, as will be\nexplained later.\nThe development of a degree of concentration which enables one to\nkeep the mind on one thing alone is essential. This is not easy to do. Few\nhave the power naturally; it must be developt, but it is worth cultivating.\nThe mental side of typewriting rarely receives much attention from the\nbeginner. The reason for this is that it is lookt upon as being purely\nmechanical. This is far from true. The more attention you give to the\nmental side of the question at the beginning the deeper and more lasting\nwill be the impression of the location of the keys. Time is wasted if one\npractices while the thoughts are flitting from one subject to another far\nfrom the one which should have undivided attention. Real progress can\nbe made only when the attention is concentrated upon the subject and the\nwill is used in pushing the work steadily along. Success in typewriting\nmeans the breaking of a bad habit, already formed, rather than a creation\nof a new one. Break the student of the habit of looking at the keys, and\none of the hardest tasks in typewriting will have been accomplisht. Shields\nor blankt keys are not altogether satisfactory, because there is always a\ntendency to look at the keyboard.\nThere are some excellent textbooks on the market which teach the student how to operate a machine by touch, but I have found that it requires\nsomething more than a textbook to compel a student to break the inborn\nhabit of \"not thinking when it is not absolutely necessary,\" and to force\nhim to write by the sense of touch.\nIt is true that shields and blankt keys have been successfully used in\nteaching touch typewriting, but not in very large classes. No matter how\nvigilant the teacher may be, there will always be a temptation to look at the\nkeys when the attention of the instructor is momentarily distracted.\nI hold that the proper way to teach touch t3^ewriting is by visual\ninstruction. In my classroom I use a stereopticon, by means of which the\n\n"}
{"page": 381, "printed_page": "369", "text": "Department]\n\nTYPEWRITING\n\nIN THE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n369\n\nlessons in the textbooks are reproduced on slides and thrown on a\nscreen\nin a darkened room. This method is continued until the student has mastered the keyboard, or until the student is able to associate a particular\nfinger with a corresponding key. I have yet to find a student who has not,\nby these means, mastered the art of writing by touch better and m less time\nthan by the other method. The students, being in the dark, are compelled\nto concentrate, and being unable to watch the keyboard are forst to locate\nthe keys by the sense of touch. Another claim that I make for this unique\nmethod of instruction is that the teacher is enabled to cover more ground\nin less time. To illustrate: any teacher of typewriting will agree with me\nthat it is practically impossible to explain to a whole class the mechanical\nconstruction of a typewriter, or the way to put on a new ribbon, because\nit is not feasible to demonstrate these things to more than five or six at a\ntime. By the new method a photograph of the particular part of the typewriter isthrown on the screen in full view of everybody in the room, and\nin this way the correct method of holding the fingers and wrists may also\nbe presented.\nTypewriting, however completely mastered, would not be fulfilling its\nhighest function were it not properly correlated with its sister art, shorthand. Just as soon as a student has acquired sufficient skill in typewriting\nto enable him to write by touch at a low speed, he should be required to\ntranscribe his shorthand notes. No student should ever be graduated from\nthe shorthand and typewriting departments who cannot write at least forty\nwords a minute net, with the rating based upon the international rules.\nIf an ideal condition is to exist in the shorthand and typewriting department, then the importance of perfect correlation must be emphasized.\nIt must be borne in mind that the student is paid for the finisht product of\nhis labors, which in this instance is the t3^ewriting. Unfortunately this\nfact is lost sight of by the average pupil, who seems to lay more stress on\nthe proverbial one hundred words a minute in shorthand than he does on\nthe more important matter of the finisht product.\nThe War and the consequent changed conditions in commerce thruout\nthe world have had their influences on shorthand and typewriting. The\ndemand for stenographers with a knowledge of Spanish and French is\ngreater than the supply, and the opportunities for well-trained American\nstenographers who are able to take Spanish dictation are unbounded.\nThe extension of American trade in South America is primarily responsible\nfor this condition.\nWithin the last few months two organizations for the promotion of\nartistic typewriting in the United States have come into existence. Every\nprogressive shorthand and typewriting teacher will welcome this innovation,\nas it will fill a long-felt want. Their purpose is to help teachers to keep\nup the enthusiasm of their students so that they may be inspired to strive\nfor the highest degree of accuracy and speed of which they are capable.\n\n"}
{"page": 382, "printed_page": "370", "text": "370\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Busines\n\nNow we are in the day of the expert typist; tomorrow I expect it to\nbe a common art. As the scribes of the Bible times gained their living and\ntheir title from their ability to write, so in our times many thousands of\npeople are gaining their living from their ability to write shorthand and use\nthe typewriter.\nTHE ORGANIZATION OF A BUSINESS-PRACTICE AND OFFICEROUTINE COURSE AND HOW TO MAKE IT A SUCCESS\nIN BUSINESS HIGH SCHOOLS\nW. J. MCCARTY,\n\nDIRECTOR, BUSINESS-PRACTICE DEPARTMENT,\nCOMMERCIAL\nSCHOOL, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nPACKARD\n\nThere are three prerequisites to the estabUshment and successful\nconduct of a business-practice and office-routine course in a business high\nschool of a large city. They are the director, the student, and freedom of\naction. I wish to offer a few remarks on the first two — the director and the\nstudent. It is not within the province of this paper to dwell upon the\nthird — the freedom of action— except to express the opinion that it is of\nparamount importance that such freedom be vested in the one who will\ndirect this course of study and practice.\nThe director should be a man of many capabilities. His preparation\nfor this work should consist of a broad, general education, which should be\nsupplemented by a down-to-the-minute technical training. The technical\ntraining should embrace theory, as found in textbooks, and accurate\nknowledge of conditions prevaiHng in the business world; and there is no\nbetter way to obtain the latter than by engaging in a general practice as\na public accountant. The director must be strong in the work of organization and management, be familiar with the principles of efficiency, and\nbe able to make practical application of them in his own work. One of the\nduties of the director will be to prepare the narrative for the guidance of\nthe student while he is a member of the department.\nNow, as to the student, the English training should be the equivalent\nat least of a grammar-school course. Previous training in bookkeeping\nshould result in ability to write up, in the simpler forms of posting mediums,\nsuch transactions as purchases, sales, receipts, and disbursements. He\nshould be able to post the transactions to a ledger, and to test the accuracy\nof his work by the use of a trial balance. But the abiHty to prepare income,\nprofit-and-loss statements, balance sheets, schedules and abstracts, and,\nfinally, close the ledger or ledgers by journal entry is not required. It\nis better that no instruction be given, as to the latter operations, prior to\nthe entrance to business practice than that the method employed and\nillustrated in the standard texts on bookkeeping be attempted. I wish to\nmake the observation at this time that it is not the object of a businesspractice and office-routine course to teach bookkeeping.\nBut bookkeeping,\n\n"}
{"page": 383, "printed_page": "371", "text": "Department!\n\nBUSINESS-PRACTICE\n\nAND\n\nOFFICE-ROUTINE\n\nCOURSE\n\n371\n\naccounting, and business are so closely allied that a practical knowledge of\nbookkeeping and accounting should result from properly directed study of\nthe organization, conduct, and liquidation of a representative business.\nThe director prepares a \"narrative\" which outUnes the business operations ofthe student. For example, at certain places the narrative will say,\n\"Buy dry goods, groceries, grain, fruit, provisions, produce,\" etc. The\nterms are given, such as \"on account, ten days\"; \"on note, five days\";\n\"on account, subject to sight or time draft.\" Similar instruction is given\nas to the matter of sales. The parties\nto the transaction and other details\nare left to the student. Later, instruction will be given as to the disposition\nof the note or account. Information for the initial pay-roll is given and\nother necessary suggestions are offered touching the distribution of the\nexpense of the labor. Effort is made to impress upon the mind of the\nstudent the expense incident to the launching of a business enterprise, as\nwell as the cost of keeping it in a vigorous condition as a going concern.\nThere is a minimum and maximum to the extent of purchase or sale. A\nlarge variety of commodities may be represented by printed cards as effectively as notes, checks, and drafts of real value can be represented. Manufacturers', wholesalers', and retailers' prices can be maintained. These\nprices change at least weekly. No two sets of records will be similar.\nThere is no key for use in locating errors nor for testing the work. The\ndepartment at once becomes a bustling, busy, business-like community.\nEvery student commencing business practice is a sole owner. He finds\nhimself in a new situation — the owner of a business, in possession of goods\nwhich are fluctuating in value; he has capital to protect; he has banking\nconnections; he is surrounded by fellow-students who are eager to receive\nhis signature to an order for goods or are insisting on the payment of an\naccount due, perhaps past due; or they may wish to call his attention to\nan error in a bill which they have received from him; or they may be calling\nfor his note, as per the terms of a certain transaction. It may be that a note\nwhich he gave to a creditor was discounted at the bank and is due at this\ntime. The indorser is prevailing upon the maker to pay it and avoid protest charges. Thus many new situations will arise daily which will develop\nin the student power of action, and in a general way will result in the accumulation ofpractical knowledge and mental culture.\nThe records of the sole proprietor's business are made in a simple set\nof double-entry books. Following the directions given in the narrative,\nproper exhibits are prepared, such as income, profit-and-loss statement,\nbalance sheet, schedules of creditors' balances and customers' balances,\nand a schedule of the stock of goods on hand at the time of the accounting.\nAt this time accruals, prepaids, the provision for the depreciation of\nproperty, and the provision for doubtful accounts comes up for consideration. This is work for an intelligent proprietor, not a bookkeeper, and his\ndeliberations and conclusions should be in accord with certain principles of\n\n"}
{"page": 384, "printed_page": "372", "text": "572\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\naccounting. The student experiences no difficulty here, for he is working\nunder proper direction. The books are closed by journal entry. The sole\nproprietor is ready to meet with other proprietors who have completed this\nfeature of the course for the purpose of creating a partnership relation.\nThe partnership firm results, in this instance, from a number of sole\nproprietors combining their cash, property, and labor for the purpose of\nconducting business under a firm name. There should be a sufficient\nnumber of partners that one or more members of the firm may be present\nat all periods of the school day.\nThe use of a personal-efficiency card was establisht at the beginning\nof the course. This card will play a more important part when the student\nbecomes a member of a firm. It reflects the degree of interest which he\nmanifests in the welfare of his firm. There will be an assignment of the\nvarious kinds of work to be carried out by the different members of the firm,\nsuch as, student A, purchasing and recording of the bills; student B, the\nsoliciting of orders and writing up the going-inventory ledger; student C,\ncollections; student D, the treasurer, receipts, disbursements, and cashbook records; student E, general bookkeeper; student F, business-manager;\nstudent G, president. The asignments are rotary, thus giving each member\nan equal chance to become familiar with the different lines of work and\nresponsibiHty.\nThere will be ample time during the period of this kind of ownership\nfor assigned readings on the following subjects: personal salesmanship, selling methods, retailing, purchasing problems, credit and collection methods,\nkeeping up with rising costs, office-management, business-administration.\nThe bookkeeping will receive the attention the subject demands. The\nsystem employed will be strictly modern and as brief as is consistent with\ngood accounting practice. The inspection of these books, at the proper\ntime, will be made by a committee selected by the director from the advanst\nstudents. Upon completion of the audit, a written report will be filed.\nHere is most excellent practice for the cultivation of dormant powers which\nthe earlier part of the course failed to awaken.\nThe expansion of the business necessitates additional expenses. The\nselling, administrative, and capital expenses are kept in close harmony with\nthe business at this stage. The subjects of good-will, drawing accounts,\nloans by partners, interest on investment and on withdrawals, the division\nof the net profits or the sharing of the net loss, come in for special consideration. The accounting at the close of this period is in keeping with the\nbest practice of our times. Everyone should be able to read balance sheets\ncorrectly. The ability to do so cannot be obtained by the reading of books\nalone. A rather intimate knowledge of each element which enters into the\nentire business structure is necessary.\nThe student's next step in the study of business-organization and\nfinance will be under that form of ownership known as a corporation. It\n\n"}
{"page": 385, "printed_page": "373", "text": "Department]\n\nBUSINESS-PRACTICE\n\nAND\n\nOFFICE-ROUTINE\n\nCOURSE\n\n373\n\nwill be remembered that a number of sole proprietors joined in the formation of a partnership. In this instance a number of partnerships are consolidated. The members of the firms become the stockholders of record.\nSole proprietors are also subscribers, if they wish to invest some of their\ncapital in this way. In the determination of the amount of stock each\nfirm is entitled to, it will be necessary that the assets and liabiUties undergo\na process known as elimination. The new company will be granted the\nprivilege of issuing two classes of stock, viz., preferred and common. The\ncommon will have no par value prmted on the certificates. Each firm will\nreceive a certain number of shares of preferrred and common in settlement\nfor the firm's net worth. Each partner will come in then for his share of the\nstock. It will readily be seen that some very interesting problems arise\nhere; yes, fascinating ones. But they are all true to the business world of\ntoday; and the information gleaned from the transactions of this division\nof the work will be invaluable to the student in after life. Among the books\nselected for the corporation will be a voucher-payable register. There will\nbe quite a number of controlling accounts set up in the general ledger.\nScientific classification of accounts, if I may refer to it in that way, will\nobtain in the ledger of the company. The narrative so directs the transactions of the company that each student directly connected with the\nbusiness will be made familiar with such accounts as capital stock, impairment of capital, stock-donation account, mortgage payable, reserve for\nsinking fund for mortgage payable, sinking fund for mortgage payable, and\na number of others which cannot be mentioned owing to the limited time\nallotted to this paper.\nThe same plan for carrying out the narrative in the corporation as was\nused in the partnership will be continued. Here we have more officials,\nmore clerks, a larger pay-roll, increast expenses. But the sound judgment,\nbusiness ability, and ease of carrying out intricate business-transactions,\nwhich will be in evidence now, will be a great source of gratification, not\nonly to the student, but to everyone connected with the conduct of this\ndepartment of work. Eventually the company will go thru liquidation.\nAll obligations will be met as the assets are converted into cash. The distribution ofdividends and the taking-up of the stock marks the final step\nof this division.\nThe students who complete the work under the sole proprietorship,\n, and corporations will be advanst to the office-routine feature\npartnership\nof the course.\nThe offices will consist of banks, trust companies, a stock broker,\na real-estate and insurance agency, wholesale, commission, and some form\nof transportation companies. A post-office will be likely to be found of\nbe conducted in conadvantage. However, this branch of service maye office\nwill be found a\nnection with some other office. In the real-estat\nof\nnotary pubUc for the acknowledgment of signatures, the protesting\n\n"}
{"page": 386, "printed_page": "374", "text": "374\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\npaper, and in the event of \"holding court,\" the notary will make a good\nmagistrate.\nThe systems of books and records for the offices, while not the most\ndifficult part of the work, are, however, of no little importance. There is an\nexcellent field here for the development of practical sytems of accounting.\nLabor-saving devices together with books designed for proofs by sections\nwill assist in overcoming the usual annoyance resulting from students\nworking but part time.\nThere will be directions for conducting each office, and free use of the\nbulletin board for announcements. But there is no need for a narrative to\ncreate business. Students engaged in business practice deal directly with\nthe offices. For example, the banks receive deposits, discount notes,\nreceive notes and drafts for collection, issue certificates of deposit, certify\nchecks and honor checks by payment when presented properly, provided,\nof course, that the drawer has sufficient funds to his credit to meet them.\nThe wholesale companies will receive orders for the various lines of merchandise. The orders are filled by the delivery or shipment of cards which\ndesignate the kind and quantity of the commodity sold. Bills may be\nmade out in duplicate. The copy may be filed as a ledger card. At the\nclose of the week or period assigned an abstract is taken of the \"unpaid'*\nfile. Another abstract is taken from the unpaid sales, as reflected in the\nsales journal. The footings of the abstracts will agree with the balance of\nthe accounts-receivable account in the general ledger, this being the controlling account for the customers' balances.\nIn the library maintained in the department will be found many good\nbooks for supplementary reading in connection with the work of the officeroutine course. From the office force will be drafted, from time to time,\ncommittees whose duty will be the inspection of the offices and the books of\nthe students of the business-practice department. Every opportunity of\nleading a student to take the initiative will be recognized. It is this phase\nof the work which results in the greatest development.\nA brief course of assigned readings from the more technical presentations\nof advanst business and accounting subjects preparatory to the final\nexaminations has proved to be invaluable to the majority of students.\nI do not wish to leave the impression that the director, single-handed,\ncan develop this course of study and practice to the extent indicated. He\nneeds two instructors to assist — one in business practice and the other in\nthe office-routine feature of the course.\nThe foregoing will be recognized by teachers who are familiar with\nbusiness practice and office routine as a very brief review of the work.\nHowever, it is submitted in the hope that it may lend encouragement to\nthose who may be contemplating the establishment of a course of study\nalong the lines indicated. The fact that the work and the merit flowing\ntherefrom are so little understood by educators generally is a reason why\n\n"}
{"page": 387, "printed_page": "375", "text": "Department]\n\nECONOMICS\n\nIN THE\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n375\n\nthose of us who teach it and believe in it should permit no opportunity to\npass unimproved to assist in giving it publicity, so that eventually business\npractice and office routine may be assigned a prominent place in the\ncurriculum of our public business schools.\n\nECONOMICS\nCHESSMAN\n\nA. HERRICK,\n\nIN THE COMMERCIAL\nPRESIDENT,\n\nGIRARD\n\nHIGH SCHOOL\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nPA.\n\nPolitical economy was long regarded as the \"dismal science.\" An\nacquaintance of mine once likened it to a man in a room looking out into a\ndark night for a black man who isn't there. Practical men and those in\nother fields of specialization have alike lookt askance at poUtical economy.\nBut for the earlier discredited and threadbare subject of poHtical economy\nthere has, in late years, come into use a new term, \"economics,\" which\ncarries with it a different connotation, and which commands a new interest.\nThe term political economy originated from an effort on the part of governments to get the largest revenue for states with the least inconvenience to\ntheir peoples. And it was long used to mean \"the housekeeping of the\nnation.\" As thus conceived, political economy was of keen interest to\npublicists, but made little appeal to others.\nIn the early period of its development political economy took form as a\nbody of doctrinaire theory, far removed from the everyday interest of the\nman of the world. Much of the early work in political economy was not\nwholly bad nor useless, altho in itself it had little value, and at best it was an\nincomplete work. The newer and more correct notion of this branch of\nsocial science is conveyed by economics, which has come to mean a wide\nrange of descriptive, historical, and theoretical study on the phenomena\nof our present industrial and commercial order. Economics, in a broad\nsense, is the science of wealth, dealing with its production, distribution,\nexchange, and consumption. The study may well be defined as a \"science\nof business,\" and men who do business in any sphere are consciously or\nunconsciously employing economics, just as one who navigates a ship uses\nastronomy, an engineer uses physics, or a manufacturer uses chemistry.\nMen in all callings will be more efficient as a result of a training in the\nsciences which are fundamental m their callings; and as all men have to deal\nwith business affairs, they will be better equipt by a study of economics.\nThe commercial high school should be particularly interested in this study.\nEconomics, as thus conceived, is not narrowly the science of getting\nmoney, but broadly the science of welfare, and it is of supreme mterest to\nthe individual, the family, the state, and the world at large. Fundamentally\neconomics is the science which shows how individuals and associations of\nindividuals can provide their necessary food, clothmg, and shelter, and\nwhatever else is deemed a proper part of their life.\n\n"}
{"page": 388, "printed_page": "376", "text": "376\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nIt will readily be seen that economics is an art and a science. Every\nperson must practice it as an art, and the suggestion is here made that\nsimilarly all should study it as a science. Men can scarcely escape some\nform of economic study; in all walks and callings they must guide their\nactivities by calculations of supply and demand; they must deal with\ninvestments and securities and reckon on incomes and expenditures.\nPeople should be more largely interested in what has been well termed \" the\nbackward art of spending money.\" It should be obvious, tho it seems\nto be little understood, that skill, wisdom, and discernment in the consumption ofwealth are quite as important to the individual as is his added\nincome thru increast producing power.\nAs a science economics offers an educational instrument of first importance. The study is largely informational, and it gives information which\nappeals to those of varying ages and diverse attainments. But more than\nthis, the study is a universalizing or generalizing one, which will give\nvaluable lessons in dealing with details and reducing these to a system.\nFrom this last aspect of the subject it becomes of large significance to our\nsystems of education. Economic phenomena have so multiplied and claim\nso large a place in present thought that the abiHty to handle these pheQomena and to reduce them to an orderly system is a highly desirable, if not\na necessary, element in present education. Economics properly conceived\nis a statement of the principles which are fundamental to present life.\nThere is a grave present necessity for coordinating and applying the great\nbody of social knowledge.\nEconomics as a science seeks to accomplish this.\nIn determining the worth of economics we should first consider its value\nto the individual. In brief, this subject teaches men to care for tliemselves\nand those directly dependent on them. It teaches the lesson to the individual ofliving for the better time to come. The habits which pupils form\nduring their school lives are likely to have a large influence in their later\nexperiences. The possibility and the wisdom of small savings, the knowledge of savings banks and building and loan associations, should be a part\nof the preparation for complete living. Those trained to understand the\nmeaning of savings will understand that a limited amount set aside each\nyear not only gives immediate pleasure, but affords a guaranty for future\nsafety.\nBut this provision for the future goes farther than the savings to protect oneself. It teaches that duty which everyone owes to posterity, to\npreserve and perpetuate the material blessings with which he has been\nendowed, so that each generation may rise to a higher plane of living than\nwould be possible if each generation attempted to live to itself alone.\nEconomics should teach, furthermore, that the range of occupations\ncommonly termed \"business\" are of real service to society, and from its\nstudy the business man can be made to feel the responsibility for a larger\ncircle than his immediate family. This branch of knowledge will show\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 389, "printed_page": "377", "text": "Department]\n\nECONOMICS\n\nIN THE\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n^yj\n\nthat those who are in legitimate forms of business are helping to feed, clothe,\nand shelter their fellows, and thus busmess will be given its true place in the\nlist of occupations.\nThe study of economics will make clear, as pointed out by Bishop Newman, that it is no more a sin to make money, if men aid their fellows in so\ndoing, than it is to seek honor by similarly attempting to aid their fellows.\nSuch a point of view will give a new notion of success, and it will be found\nthat success is not limited to a few chosen occupations, and that, in the\nbest sense of the word, large numbers can succeed. Thus, and only thus,\ncan men who are in the commercial and industrial callings be given a professional attitude toward their work.\nEconomics will, m the next place, furnish a largeness of view by which\nmen can recognize the rights of others and see the interdependence of all\nthe factors in the modern mdustrial system. Class distinctions are the\nmost baneful influence of the present age. Landlords against tenants,\nemployers against employed, capital class against debtors, and other\nantagonisms threaten the safety of society. Ignorance and self-interest\nhave led to a partial and prejudiced view on these questions, and too largely\nthe condition of our economic system is that of a primitive society in which\nevery man's hand is against his fellow and his fellow's hand is against him.\nEconomics teaches, unmistakably, that labor and capital are not enemies,\nbut friends, and a proper understanding of its lessons will lead the capitalist\nto ask, not how little, but how much he can pay his laborers; and similarly\nwill lead the laborers to ask, not how little, but how much they can do\nfor their employer. One-half of the ills of our social system would be cured\nif men could be led to view their fancied differences from the point of view\nof those whom they are opposing.\nBut there is a larger view with which the schools should be vitally concerned, and that is the preparation for what may be denominated an\neconomic citizenship. Modern society is going thru a sort of economic\nrevolution not unlike the intellectual revolution of the fourteenth and\nfifteenth centuries known as the Renaissance, and the religious Reformation\nof the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. It is not sufficient that leaders\nonly be intelligent on the troublesome questions of public policy. Ours is a\ngovernment of public opinion, and in the minds of the people, in the last\nanalysis, is found the true stability of governmental institutions. John\nMorley well says that to bid a man to do his duty, and then to forbid him\nto study economic questions, utilitarianism, and kindred subjects which\nare the means of determining what his duty is, is but \"bald and naked\ncounsel.\" Andrew D. White long since made the observation that man\nis an economic animal as well as a political animal; and that he is bprn into\nan industrial system just as surely as he is bom into a political state. In\nan enumeration of the ideals for a course of study President Butler once\nput as fundamental the statement, \"The dominant note of^our society is\n\n"}
{"page": 390, "printed_page": "378", "text": "378\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\neconomic.\" In a larger sense political questions, state's rights, individual\nliberty, constitutional privilege, etc., have been settled, and the alignment\nof parties is now on economic questions, such as government ownership\nof public utilities and the regulation of insurance. Momentous consequences are bound up with our economic citizenship.\n\"Moneymania\" and \"dollarhood\" are terms more apt than one could\nwish in description of our present social standards. The United States\nshould be something vastly better than the \"land of the almighty dollar.\"\nLife in this country should not be permitted to degenerate into a mad race\nfor wealth; and the standard of success should never be the amount of\nmoney which one can accumulate. Of our own country we can say, as\nGoldsmith said of his \"Sweet Auburn\":\n111 fares the land, to hastening ills a prey,\nWhere wealth accumulates, and men decay.\n\nWe are in greatest danger from the failure to regard the gravity of\npresent problems. In health one is likely to disregard the laws of\nhealth, and in the bountiful prosperity and seeming security of our economic system we are in danger of disregarding the basal principles for the\nwell-bemg of society. This is all the more seductive in America because\nour prosperity has largely come from rich endowments in natural resources\nand the fortunate conditions under which we have lived.\nThe conservatism of the schools is well noted by President Butler, who\nsays, \"It is a constant fight to get any proper teaching from an economic\npoint of view\" — a statement which he held true of both schools and colleges. Those who are deemed mature enough to handle the intricacies of\nforeign languages or to study the abstruse principles of higher mathematics\nare thought by educators too immature for any economic study. Economics isheld to be speculative, impractical, etc. It often seems that\nschoolmasters seek to isolate from the present world those whom they\ntrain, and to \"orient\" them instead to an earlier age.\nIt is probable that economics can be considered with profit as an incidental subject in grammar schools and hi the earlier high-school years. It\nmay also be introduced as a part of the general exercises of the school and in\npopular form as lectures. The subject, however, is altogether too important to be left wholly to any haphazard treatment. In the third or fourth\nhigh-school year students are suflSiciently mature and so grounded in history\nand acquamted with the world that they may safely be askt to undertake\nthis subject.\nA few years ago President James suggested a syllabus of economics\nand social science for use in both elementary and secondary schools. Such\na syllabus would serve as a guide to teachers, indicating topics to be studied,\nand their order, treatment, and relations to other subjects; also methods of\nstudy and the like. A syllabus which cannot fail to be of great service has\n\n"}
{"page": 391, "printed_page": "379", "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF THE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nTO BUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\n379\n\nbeen workt out by the faculty of political economy of the University of\nChicago. Many manuals of the sort here indicated are already available\nfor English, mathematics, geography, science, etc., covering both subjectmatter and methods of instruction.\nThere are three divisions of economics, or three methods of treatment:\nFirst, there should be an inductive, concrete, descriptive treatment based on\nthe observation of the student and on an accumulation of familiar industrial\nand commercial facts. In this aspect of the subject the study should conform to the principle, not words, but thmgs. It is this method of approach\nwhich will give economics a point of contact with the world outside of\nschool. The most natural introduction to economics is a study of the\nplace and meaning of industrial and commercial employments in modem\nsocial life. Secondly, there should come a study of the more general laws\nand principles which make up the body of doctrine ordinarily passing as\ntheoretical economics. This should naturally follow the introductory study\nsuggested above, and may well be based on a textbook. This method is\nnecessary in order to give unity and cohesion to the introductory studies.\nThirdly, there should be forms of applied economics along such lines of\nstudy as transportation, insurance, money, banking, and regulation of\nbusiness.\nThe first of the three methods suggested above may very well take the\nform of the study of the local community, its manufacturers, and commercial operations. It can well be introduced in the early high-school\nyears, and serve at once to give valuable information on the community\nwhich the school serves and the material which afterward may be used\nin the more formal course in economics. The study of more general aspects\nof the subject may well come in the third year, while the fourth year may\nbe reserved for applied economics along the lines indicated > Whatever the\ncourse in school, whether long or short, or whatever the type of school, it\nappears desirable that the three elements mentioned above should be involved inthe study of economics, so that those being trained in the schools\nmay have the information and point of view which will enable them to\nunderstand and serve their own community.\n\nTHE RELATION\n\nOF THE LIBRARY\n\nTO BUSINESS\n\nLOUISE B. KRAUSE, LIBRARIAN, H. M. BYLLESBY\n\nEDUCATION\n\n& CO., CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nThe recognition of the important relation of libraries to education in\ngeneral has been one of the markt features of modem library-development,\nand the subject has long since past the stage of question or discussion;\nfor the library is recognized as a permanent and vital factor in secondary,\nas well as in college, education. Not only have our educators put the\nemphasis upon the use of many books in place of a single textbook in the\n\n"}
{"page": 392, "printed_page": "380", "text": "380\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nStudy of a subject, but they have gone even further and have incorporated\ninto the curricula of elementary and high schools, normal schools, and\ncollege courses giving instructions, not only in the use of books and libraries\nin general, but also in the most effective use of them in the study of a\nparticular subject.\nThe relation of the library to the studies which are commonly called the\n\"humanities\" is therefore permanently establisht; but the relation of the\nlibrary to courses of instruction for business education has not yet been\ndefinitely formulated. Courses of instruction for business education are\ncomparatively new in educational institutions, and there still exists in the\nminds of some a sense of incongruity in associating the two words, \"business\" and \"education.\"\nThoughtful investigation of existing conditions, however, reveals some\ndefinite facts in regard to the relation of business and education. Business\nis no longer conducted on a rule-of-thumb basis, but according to organized\nand systematized methods, and there is a science of business just as truly\nas there is a science of law or of medicine.\nAltho the conception of the vital relation of books and libraries to\neducation in general has taken root in our educational systems, the principle has not been applied systematically to business education, and it is\nthis subject in particular which we are to discuss in this paper. Business\nliterature differs from the literature of other sciences in that it is a widely\nscattered literature, varied in form, related to many subjects, and drawn\nfrom so many different sources that no public library is able to bring it\ntogether on its shelves with the exactness with which the Uterature of\nother subjects can be assembled. The literature which pertains to business\nactivities must be sought in many different directions, and it is therefore\nall the more important that one know where to find it.\nThe recognition of this fact has led to the estabUshment within large\nbusiness organizations of business libraries, in order to meet the intimate\nand specific needs of the particular business with a special collection of\nmaterial adapted to its needs, in addition to the help which may often be\nobtained from the technical, civic, and business departments which have\nbeen organized in many of our large public libraries to help business men.\nSmall business firms, which are in the majority and which cannot afford\nto employ a librarian, have often just as vital, tho not as many, needs\nfor information as large business organizations have, and the burden,\ntherefore, of knowing what printed information exists and how to get it\nfalls upon the various workers in the organization, particularly upon the\nyoung men and women who are filling secretarial or stenographic positions.\nIntimate acquaintance with business conditions reveals the fact that the\nstenographer in a business firm without an organized library is expected\nto know, or find out by some hook or crook, what his chief wants to know\nin matters of general information.\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 393, "printed_page": "381", "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF THE\n\nLIBRARY\n\nTO BUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\n381\n\nI wish to give in this paper an opinion, based on experience as a business\nhbranan, of the kind of training in the knowledge of books and\nthe use of\nlibraries which should be given to young people studyin\ng for business\npositions, and which would give them some general equipment for\nknowing\nhow to find desured information.\n^ In order to present this subject in as practical a manner as possible, I\nwish to give first of all some genuine illustrations of questions which are\nconstantly arising m a number of business houses with which I am\nacquamted. Most of these questions have been askt first of the secretaries\nor stenographers, who m turn have appealed to the librarians of the business\norganizations for assistance, where they have been fortunate enough to\nhave one. You will note that the nature of these questions is such that\nany student trained in the use of reference books should be able to find\nthe answer to them without the special aid of a busin^gs Kbrarian:\nWhere is the periodical Power publisht, and by whom ?\nWhat is the address of Mills College? (The business man, a college graduate, who\nwanted to know was found endeavoring to locate it in the Encyclopaedia Britannica.)\nWhat is the educational record of a prominent professional man who is under consideration bya company to be engaged on a special investigation?\nA letter is received from the head of a department of the government, but the signature isblurred. Can the correct name be ascertained ?\nA telegram is received containing a hotel address which is not plain. Can the names\nof hotels in a certain city be found ?\nWhat is the latest official population of a given city?\nWhat are the latest crop statistics of the state of Oklahoma?\nHow to use Lieber's code in wording a cablegram.\nWhere to purchase in Chicago the back number of a periodical which is publisht\nin New York City.\nHow can a copy of a certain government publication be obtained ? Is it necessary\nto write to a senator or representative for it ?\nHas the United States government issued any publications dealing with a given\nsubject?\nWhat are the industries of a given city ?\n\nThere often arises need for information which the inquirer thinks might\nbe found at the public library, but in nine cases out of ten I have found he\ndoes not know how to use the public library nor to whom on its staff to go\nfor help. A frequent question is, \"How can I find out if the public library\nhas anything that will answer what I want to know?\" The reference\ndepartment and its workers are unknown, and the card catalog and printed\nfinding-lists are unexplored labyrinths.\nThis practical experience in working with business people has led me\nto the conclusion that all students taking business courses should be educated to know what the public libraries of their cities (both circulating and\nreference) can do for them. They should know how to get lending privileges; how to use card catalogs, finding-lists, and open shelves; how to\nuse the special reference collections and the help of the reference librarians.\n\n"}
{"page": 394, "printed_page": "382", "text": "382\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nThey should also be informed as to what special material the public libraryhas to offer in technical and civic rooms or business men's branches. In\naddition to knowing how to use the establisht library facilities of the community, the student should also know the names of the reference books that\nare helpful as aids in answering business questions, and how to use them.\nThis would include a knowledge of encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbooks\nof statistical information, indexes to periodical literature. The Hotel Red\nBook; Rand McNally's Commercial Atlas; Lippincott's Gazetteer; Who^s\nWho in America^ and similar reference books. Training should be given\nin a knowledge of government publications which are valuable for business\nuse, and students should know also how to use the Office of Superintendent\nof Documents and the monthly catalog of government publications.\nStudents should be made familiar with the best periodicals and handbooks bearing upon the work of large and important industries; for example,\nin the public-utility corporation which I serve as librarian the stenographers\nand clerks are often able to locate information they need in their work and\nabout which they dislike to ask the busy man \"higher up\" by the use of\nthe Electrical World, Electric Railway Journal, McGraw's Central Station\nand Electric Railway DirectorieSy Poor's Manual of Public Utilities and\nManual of Industrials; Thomas' Register of American Manufacturers, and\nsimilar books to which the library of the company has introduced them.\nThe ability to find information is not a matter of intuition, but of\ntraining, and it will not suffice merely to tell students of existing resources.\nThe knowledge of these resources should be drilled into them by thoro\ninstruction and lesson assignments which will demand the mastery of the\ncontents of the reference books studied. I saw not long ago a very plain\nand practical application of this statement in an engineering periodical\nedited for men whose business it is to work with boilers and engines, and\nwho, we might think, would not need to know much about books, which is\nas follows: \"Books and papers are just as much engineers' tools as wrenches,\nhammers, or cold-chisels; and it takes practice to successfully manipulate\nthem.\"\nAnother contribution which library science can make profitably to\nbusiness education is the application of some of its methods of work to the\nsubject of office filing. The term \"filing \" in business may be briefly defined\nas the arranging and indexing of all correspondence, also printed and manuscript data pertaining to the transactions of a firm, not only for permanent\npreservation, but especially for quick consultation as the need arises.\nThere is no department of modern business which presents so crying\na need for intelligent and trained workers as the one which, in business\nphraseology, is called \"the files.\" Sometimes the filing difficulties of a\nbusiness organization are the result of inadequate systems of fiUng which\nhave been installed, but 90 per cent of the difficulties are due to the fact\nthat those in charge of this work are not sufficiently well educated to\n\n"}
{"page": 395, "printed_page": "383", "text": "Department]\n\nBUSINESS\n\nENGLISH\n\nAND\n\nADVERTISING\n\n383\n\nunderstand the content of the papers they are handling, and also have\nhad no preliminary training in the principles of filing. All the filing\nschemes which are being used in business organizations today are adaptations of the principles of classifying and cataloging as taught by modem\nlibrary science, and it is entirely practicable to take this small portion of\nlibrary science and make it the basis of well-defined instruction for the\nvocation of filing.\nAt my earnest request this spring the president of the Department\nLibrary of the National Education Association, Miss Irene Warren, took\na class of file clerks who are employed in the file departments of some business houses in Chicago, and who have plenty of practical everyday problems, and gave them a course of twelve lessons on the science of filing, using\nas a basis certain well-defined principles of library science. The results\nwere most gratifying, and made very patent the fact that such a course\ncould be given with profit in our schools of vocational training.\nMay I be permitted to say, in closing, that after seven years of service\nin the business world I believe there are no two subjects related to business\neducation which need more earnest attention than the ones outlined,\nnamely: a working knowledge of books and printed material which give\nbusiness information, and a knowledge of filing methods combined with\npersonal efficiency in putting them into practical operation. May I also\nbe permitted to go on record as stating that my acquamtance with many\nclasses of business workers and the demands made upon them make it clear,\nin my judgment, that business education must be built upon the solid\nfoundation of a thoro general education, and, in fact, I do not beHeve that\nvocational training should be divorst from it, if the rank and file of employes\nare to be adequately equipt for successful business careers.\n\nTHE\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF BUSINESS ENGLISH AND\nIN BUSINESS HIGH SCHOOLS\n\nADVERTISING\n\nGEORGE\n\nBURTON HOTCHKISS, PROFESSOR OF BUSINESS ENGLISH, AND HEAD\nOF THE ADVERTISING AND MARKETING DIVISION, NEW YORK\nUNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF COMMERCE,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\n\"Why Business English?\" is a question I often hear, and I presume\nyou do also. I might answer it as the March hare answered Alice: \"Why\nnot?\" Or I might dismiss the matter with the statement that business\nmen demand that high-school graduates shall have a better preparation for\nwritmg busmess letters and other business messages than the ordinary\ncourse in EngUsh composition gives them. However, I prefer to treat the\nquestion seriously, for it deserves serious consideration. On the answer to\nthe question \"Why\" depends the answer to the question \"How.\" This\nlatter question, I assume, is the more important one for you, because I am\n\n"}
{"page": 396, "printed_page": "384", "text": "384\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nsure that you need no argument to convince you of the necessity of having\nbusiness English taught. And so I ask seriously, \"Why English at all?\"\nIn view of our recently reawakened Americanism, it really seems a pity\nthat our forefathers, when they brought forth on this continent a new\nnation 140 years ago, did not also bring forth a new national language. As\na matter of fact, we have a national language at the present time, tho it\nis not called \"American,\" as it well might be. It is called \"business English\" in honor of the business men who discovered it and first used it—\naltho it is no longer confined to business uses. Business English first\nappeared in business as a matter of practical necessity. When you write\na letter to induce somebody to buy your goods, or pay a bill, or modify a\nclaim, you must write in the reader's language and adapt your message to\nhim. Your power to evoke a favorable response depends, not upon what\nyou give, but upon what he receives. Your object is not merely expression\nbut impression. We who teach boys and girls who are going into business\nmust teach them to write that kind of practical, result-getting English.\nA mastery of the King's English will not serve the purpose if it cannot move\nthe hearts and hands of the reader. The only test of good business English\nis results capable of translation into terms of dollars and cents.\nThe ideal and the test of business English is service. For the motto,\n\"The king can do no wrong,\" it has substituted the slogan, \"The customer\nis always right.\" The writer of business English does not seek to impose\nhis will upon another. He tries to transmit his point of view and win\nacceptance for it. He conceives of a message as a two-ended thing, in\nwhich the receiving end is more important than the sending. Now, I do\nnot maintain that all business men have this ideal, nor that all English used\nby them measures up to this standard. But they are working toward it,\nmore perhaps than writers in other fields. They have, at least, discovered\nthat the task of writing is not completed when words have been put on\npaper, but only when the letter has been received, understood, and\nresponded to.\nThis business-Enghsh ideal (or American ideal) is gaining steadily. Our\nnewspapers and magazines are tinged with it, for they voice public opinion,\nand their circulation is the foundation of their revenue. Our advertisements\nare charged with it, for they are the hands and arms that get and hold our\nbusiness prosperity. Even the Standard Oil Company of New York and\nthe National City Bank have the spirit of service to the public who reads.\nAnd yet I look forward to the time when business English will not be\ntaught, or, rather, when it will be so generally taught that the name will\nbe unnecessary. At present the King's English is being taught in a great\nmajority of schools, even in some that call it business English. The great\nmajority of students are still learning to write compositions instead of\nlearning to convey messages — which is about the only use they will ever\nhave for the English language.\n\n"}
{"page": 397, "printed_page": "385", "text": "b\n\nDepartment]\n\nBUSINESS\n\nENGLISH\n\nAND\n\nADVERTISING\n\n38s\n\nEven in the classical high school the students should have instruct\nion\nin writing business letters, not only because of its practical usefulness,\nbut\nalso because they get a better conception of the real value of EngHsh in this\nway than they do in the writing of the usual compositions. Purposeless\nwriting is the most futile thing I know. Art for art's sake is a delusion.\nEven so eminent a professor of English literature as William Lyon Phelps\nhas exprest the opinion that the ordinary theme-writing is not only a waste\nof time usually, but often injurious.\nBut you will begin to think I have forgotten that I am talking to a\ngroup interested in the business high school. I have strest these general\nconsiderations because I believe no words of mine are needed to prove the\ncase of business English for the business high schools, and I also believe that\nwhat I have said will indicate some of my views as to the manner in which\nit should be taught. In my opinion, it should be taught with a broader\nvision than is often the case. It should be taught with more emphasis laid\nupon principles than upon methods. There is danger that in the business\nhigh school the teaching may too often consist of a study of grammatical\nrules transferred bodily from the ordinary EngHsh composition and a set\nof detacht formulas useful in business. Such a practice may supply pupils\nwith some useful technique, but it can hardly give them real abiUty to\nuse the flexible tool of the English language for all their needs.\nStudents in our business high schools should not be taught, nor even\nallowed to believe, that the writing of business letters is apart and distinct\nfrom other kinds of writing. They should not try to absorb a set of formulas for constructing different types of letters. What is more vital is\nthat thru the writing of these purposeful forms of literature they should\ngain a mastery of the eternal principles that are true and useful in all kinds\nof writing. They should see grammar, and rhetoric, and mechanical\nmake-up, and every other part of English technique in relation to the\nobject they are setting out to achieve — that of inducing a favorable\nresponse.\nTo this end I recommend that their technical exercises be very close to\nthe material of business messages and drawn from this material whenever\npossible. I recommend that purpose be shown always. It is astonishing\nto see how the dry subject of grammar assumes new life and interest for\nthe pupil when he sees it bearing upon the object of his letter.\nI recommend that pupils read and analyze current specimens of good\nwriting in whatever form it appears, newspaper editorials and stories,\nmagazine articles, advertisements, booklets, business letters. They may\nbe given practice in the writing of any of these. The only requirement is\nthat it have a purpose in impressing some reader somewhere. It is just as\nbad to ask students to write a sales letter as to ask them to write a composition on a \" Summer's Day.\" They should be given full information about\nthe conditions, and a clear picture of the business situation involved, in any\n\n"}
{"page": 398, "printed_page": "386", "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\n386\nletter or other message they are called upon to write. Much depends upon\nthe ingenuity of the teacher, but in practically every community plenty of\nmaterial is available for real, live business problems. Incidentally, I have\nalways found it wiser to refer to the letter-writing exercises as problems\nrequiring solution than to represent them as merely exercises in writing.\nSo far as advertising is concerned, I am not convinst that it can be, or\nought to be, taught as a separate high-school subject. The writing of\nadvertisements, however, may well appear in advanst classes in business\nEnglish as a useful field of practice. In connection with this work the study\nof advertisements and talks about advertising are helpful. To attempt\nmore than this seems inadvisable. Advertising men I have talkt with\nwould be satisfied if high-school graduates who came to them for employment were only able to write a good letter and to convey their ideas in other\nbusiness messages in a clear, forceful way.\nIf classes in business English are kept busy writing purposeful messages;\nif they are made to realize that the fundamental ideal of their writing is\nservice; if our teachers who supervise their work keep in actual contact with\nbusiness, then the graduates will have what is today the touchstone of a\ngood education, a mastery of English. It won't be the King's EngUsh in\nwhich a split infinitive is a vice and an observance of all the rules and\nregulations the whole of virtue. It will be the kind of English that wins\nbecause it serves the reader and is adapted to him — business English.\n\n"}
{"page": 399, "printed_page": "387", "text": "Department!\n\nHOW\n\nTEACHING\n\nACCOUNTING\n\nAND\n\nBOOKKEEPING\n\nTEACHERS CAN INCREASE TEE EFFICIENCY\nACCOUNTING AND BOOKKEEPING COURSES\n\n387\n\nOF\n\nROBERT H. MONTGOMERY, EX-PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF\nPUBLIC ACCOUNTANTS, AND ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ACCOUNTING, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nIn discussing the problem of teaching bookkeeping and accounting\nmost efiFectively, we must assume that the students who take the courses\nare old enough and intelligent enough to understand the value and the\nprospective uses to be made possible by such study. If a child is too young\nto comprehend the significance of a financial statement, I am about persuaded that the child is too young to take up bookkeeping, even the most\nelementary beginning exercises.\nBookkeeping courses should be preceded by thoro grounding in many\nsubjects, or the student will not grasp the significance of the practice transactions with which he must work. I would start bookkeeping classes as\nlate as possible and make them as intensive as possible.\" Mathematics\nand English are most essential. Economics and commercial geography are\nimportant. Fiction now contains many interesting references to business\nmethods. Some stories, such as those found in the Saturday Evening Posty\ndeal directly with finance, bookkeeping experiences, the value of thrift,\netc. If the bookkeeping student is not interested in this sort of literature,\nI doubt whether the determination to succeed is present, and if not, the\ncourse can hardly be of much benefit.\nYou may explain that a man owns three or four different classes of\nproperty or assets, that he owes certain sums, that the aggregate of the\nassets being larger, he has a certain net worth or capital; but if your explanation does not appeal to your students as logical, then I would be afraid to\nattempt to teach them bookkeeping.\nFor after all why should we teach bookkeeping unless we have an\nintensely practical purpose in so doing ? Good bookkeeping is the foundation for many financial successes. It is a major department, not a minor\none, in a modern establishment. Bad bookkeepmg has been directly\nresponsible for a vast number of business failures. Bad bookkeepmg predominates inbusiness concerns in large cities as well as in small towns. I\nneed only refer to the recent frequent statements of the vice-chairman of\nthe Federal Trade Commission to corroborate my assertion. He ascertained this fact from a nation-wide mvestigation. Public accountants have\nknown it for many years.\nFrom frequent talks with teachers I am led to believe that they do not\nhave enough first-hand information as to how their students who get\npassing marks succeed in applying what they have learned. I regard this\nimportance to teachers than the preliminary experiences which\nof more\nwriters advocate.\nsome\n\n"}
{"page": 400, "printed_page": "388", "text": "388\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nThe best substitute for such experience, I think, is a laboratory or a\nplace where teachers may see, have explained to them, and, if possible,\nanalyze and reconstruct the work of others. Such a medium for imparting\nbookkeeping and accounting knowledge offers to teachers who lack practical\nexperience a very good equivalent. Several years ago we started such a\nlaboratory at Columbia University, and the results so far have justified\nthe experiment.\nThese laboratories will, in the course of time, afford facilities for both\nteachers and students. Obviously the arrangement of courses which include\nlaboratory work for students will differ materially from the assistance which\nteachers will derive from their use.\nOf course, the chief difficulty lies in the lack of good material. I am\nconvinst, however, that the idea is good and is worth developing. The\nyears which may elapse, therefore, before any considerable number of\nlaboratories may be installed may as well be spent in a gradual building-up\nof suitable records as in drifting along the old way.\nHow much of the poor bookkeeping which is so prevalent is due to poor\nor inadequate textbooks ? Too much space is given to the explanation of\naccount books and forms which are nearly obsolete. If underlying principles were always involved, perhaps the time so occupied might be justified; but there is little excuse for spending a lot of time in teaching methods\nno trace of which appears in a modern office. Teachers of commercial\nsubjects must make up their minds that textbooks have decided limitations.\nNo textbook, however complete, will ever be a sufficient basis for a teacher.\nTeachers must depend more upon research work.\nI am convinst that the supplemental routine demanded by most of the\ntextbooks requires too much time, and that a considerable part of the time\nspent in writing up sets of books based on imaginary transactions carried\non by, and among, imaginary people fails to impress the average student,\nand consequently fails to equip him for a position as bookkeeper.\nI think teachers are so engrost with what they are teaching that they\noverlook the possibilities of checking up the results of their teaching. I am\naware of the casual inquiry as to how an old student is getting along, and\nthe usual reply, but I see no reason why a teacher should not investigate,\nsay, fifty cases where students have secured satisfactory marks in a bookkeeping course, and who are keeping books, and spend several hours in each\noffice examining the work and making critical comparisons with the school\ncourses. Whether good or bad bookkeeping is found, it should prove\nilluminating for comparative purposes.\nIf a teacher is able to visualize the objects to be attained, I do not see\nwhy it cannot take the place of much repetition. Why have students\nwrite up hundreds of imaginary transactions if they can be shown how\ntransactions should be properly recorded and dealt with thru illustrations\nand explanations based on real things ? After I commenst to teach book-\n\n"}
{"page": 401, "printed_page": "389", "text": "Department)\n\nTEACHING\n\nACCOUNTING\n\nAND\n\nBOOKKEEPING\n\n389\n\nkeeping, I was not content until I could show the students some sets of\nbooks which had been written up and used in connection with actual enterprises. believe\nI\nbooks of this sort are available in all localities. The\nmost available records are those where a concern has gone out of active\nbusiness, by bankruptcy as related to insolvent concerns, and dissolution\n(for one of many reasons) as related to solvent concerns.\nIf dilficulty be experienst in securing such sets of books, I would have\nthe students write up a few model sets, spending, if necessary, several years\non the work, and retaming the completed records for illustrative purposes.\nThe school courses would certainly be modified if a full set of books were\nwritten up along textbook methods, and comparison made with the system\nin use in an up-to-date office.\nIt would be found that most of the entries copied in the books are never\nmade at all under present practice, the original memoranda of transactions,\nin connection with mechanical devices, being used without subsequent\nduplication.\nIf I could, I would teach bookkeeping by talking to the students about\nit rather than by requiring them to spend most of their time copying and\nposting and taking trial balances. I repeat that poor bookkeeping predominates. Now, as good bookkeeping is so tremendously valuable to a\nbusiness, and bookkeepers who have medium ability only receive substantial salaries and are in great demand, I would like to take the time to tell\nstudents the difference between routine bookkeeping and good bookkeeping.\nI would explain financial statements and tell them how much more important itis that each item of asset and each item of liabiHty mean something,\nand be accurately named, and readily identified with the things themselves, than it is that two sides of the statement should be in balance. Any\npublic accountant will be able to relate countless experiences where books\nare in balance and where the usual bookkeeping rules are followed, but where\nledger accounts are not self-explanatory, where they remain unadjusted, and\nwhere the true financial position of the concern is completely obscured.\nAccounts, if rightly stated, should be interesting reading. It is, however,\nhard to become interested in anything unless the reading is made easy.\nThe public accountant takes facts and figures and arranges or rearranges\nthem, and frequently it is the means whereby the proprietor of a business\nlearns for the first time important news relative to past transactions.\nSo far as I have been able to discover, courses m bookkeeping are just\none thing after another. The student is so exhausted by the time he finishes\none practice set that, if it receives a passing mark, he hopes he will never\nsee it again. Would it not be feasible and desirable to have him spend some\ntime on a set after it is completed, working out the st6ry involved, and\napplying common-sense standards to see if it will stand up under a comeveryday business methods? If not, the material must be\ndefective.parison with\n\n"}
{"page": 402, "printed_page": "390", "text": "390\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\nI would ask the students to prepare a balance sheet and income and\nexpense statement based on something with which they are familiar. In\ncollege, students may be askt to make a statement of their own afifairs.\nThis has been tried out successfully. With younger students it would not\nbe practicable, but in nearly every case some example should be procurable.\nIt would definitely stimulate thrift if the scheme could be applied to family\nfinances.\nIf nothing else is feasible, the accounts of a town or city are available.\nHave the students attempt to schedule the assets and liabilities, the income\nand expenses, of their municipality.\nI have found very creditable accounts where all bookkeeping rules have\nbeen violated. What of it, provided the ones who depended upon the\naccounts for a true and complete record of their business understood them\nand found them to be dependable ? I am just as keen for correct terminology and standard practice as anyone else, but I am unwilling to be a\nparty to an insistence on methods which do not work well in practice.\nBookkeeping must be intensely practical in its uses or it is of no value.\nAccounts are said to be the history of business transactions, but it is the\nclass of history that needs to be kept strictly up to date and be presented\npromptly and accurately, or it will be of value only to lawyers and accountants, who tell the creditors just how the failure occurred.\nI suppose I must say something on the differentiation between bookkeeping and accounting. So far I have not paid the slightest attention to a\ncareful use of the two words. Personally, I do not know where bookkeeping ends and accounting begins. I have read explanations without\nbeing satisfied. I know so-called *'good bookkeepers\" who are, in my\nopinion, accountants; and I know so-called \"accountants\" who are not\ngood bookkeepers. If a man keeping books has enough knowledge of\naccounts to do more than keep them accurately; if he can so state the\naccounts that the proprietors will have presented to them intelligent\nanalyses and comparisons, and if, as is possible, most of this work can be\ndone by a skilful arrangement of accounts in the books themselves, and an\nequally skilful arrangement of subsidiary records coordinated with the\nregular books of accounts, and prepared simultaneously, I do not see why\nthis is not accounting, altho it is usually called bookkeeping.\nIn my opinion all bookkeeping is a part of accounting. A student\ntaking up the rudiments of bookkeeping will, if the subject is being presented\nproperly, also acquire the first elements of accounting. I can easily distinguish bookkeeping which has not a particle of what I call accounting in\nit. Such bookkeeping, I hope, will no longer be taught in the schools, I see\nno reason why we should not commence to teach accounting as soon as a\nstudent is old enough to understand assets and liabilities, profits and losses.\nIn our accounting courses we should include bookkeeping, but only the kind\nwhich has been demonstrated to stand the wear and tear of modern business.\n\n"}
{"page": 403, "printed_page": "391", "text": "Department]\n\n'\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nCOMMITTEE\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nGEOGRAPHY\n\nREPORTS\n\nREPORTS\n\nAS AN ELEMENT\n\nJ. PAUL GOODE, UNIVERSITY\n\n39I\n\nIN BUSINESS\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nCommercial geography has abeady demonstrated its high value as a fundamental\ncourse in a liberal education for business. But the field of geography is so vast, and its\nsubject-matter so prolific -and ramifying so intimately into the realms of contributory and\nrelated sciences, that it is an exceedingly difl&cult task to delimit it from the field of general\nscience. And when the general subject has been delimited, it is quite as difficult a matter\nto formulate a logical sequence in the presentation of the subject-matter, and to distribute\nemphasis so as to bring out topics of most value, and to train the reasoning power of the\nstudent by a compelling search for the relations between cause and effect. There is no\nsubject in the curriculum that offers a better opportunity than geography for training\nthe logical faculty or for widening the horizon of the student in matters of everyday\n.interest in the world about him.\nOur ideas in commercial geography were borrowed bodily from an English text by\nChisholm. His volume consisted of 800 pages or over, in which he discust all the important commodities of modern commerce, and followed this discussion by a study of all the\nleading commercial countries. Our American texts, planned for high schools, not for\ncolleges, have attempted to cover the same field in 400 much smaller pages. The result\nhas been to reduce the work of the student to so rapid a scanning of many things as to\ngive him small chance to get fundamentals firmly planted, or to do any particular thinking\nabout causal relations.\nHence, it is a worthy quest to attempt to establish standards in subject-matter and\nmethods of presentation; and it is with a hope of helping on in this quest that this paper\nis written and the following suggestions offered. The best approach I have found to the\ngreat study of industry and commerce is by way of a general swing around the horizon\nof the chief commodities of commerce. This study calls for a recognition of the entire\nlist of geographic influences acting, as they may anywhere m the world, in the production\nand movement of a given commodity. This establishes a wide view of world-relations,\nand gives a good preparation for the study of a country or a region as a unit. A study of\nthe commodities of commerce, then, is recommended as a minimum unit of study, to\noccupy half a year in the high school. This may be foUowed by a half-year devoted to a\nstudy of a few of the leading commercial countries. Briefly, the scope of a year's work may\nbe presented as follows:\n\nSynopsis of the Geography op Industry and Comuercx\nfirst half-year\nI. Brief Introduction:\nThe geographic influences underlying industry and commerce. •\nPosition on the earth as determining climate.\n.\nhighland bamen,\nLand relief: barriers of mountain or dissected land; passes and valley routes thru\nplains and their influence.\nMineral resources: character, areal distribution, accessibility.\nPlant and animal life, wild and cultivated, as a basis of commerce.\nstage of mdustnal develop\nHuman life and development, especially as bearing on industry and commerce:\nparticipation m mdustry\neducation and training, population density, wealth, and government\nment,\nand commerce.\nII. The Chief Commodities of Commerce:\n1. Products of the farm, orchard, and range.\nproducts.\nThe cereals, sugar, fruits, vegetables, beverages, drugs, animal\n2. Products of hunting and fishing:\nFurs and fish.\n3. Products of the forest:\nLumber, rubber and other gums, cork, dyes, drugs, etc.\n\n"}
{"page": 404, "printed_page": "392", "text": "392\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n•\n\n[Business\n\n4. Products of mines, quarries, and wells:\nThe mineral fuels, iron and other common metals, the precious metals and stones, cement, clay\nproducts, etc.\n5. Power as a commodity.\nSECOND\n\nHALF-YEAR\n\nin. The Geographic Intltjences in Commerce:\nAdvantage of position with reference to trade.\nThe development of land routes of trade.\nWinds and currents and the great ocean routes.\nThe organization of ocean commerce.\nThe development of market foci.\nIV. Leading Commercial Countries and Their Commerce:\nSelected important countries, studied as to commercial development and possibilities.\nThe growth of world-trade and the part played by leading lands.\nThe countries might be chosen in the following order: United States of America, Brazil; the United\nKingdom, British India; Germany, Russia; France, the Argentine, etc., contrasting a highly developt\ncountry with a new or undevelopt land, a temperate climate land with a tropical land, and so on.\n\nAs an illustration of the method of study, showing the thought-provoking possibilities\nof the subject, let us indicate the subtopics in the study of wheat: (i) Origin and plant\ncharacters of wheat; climate and soil required; types and qualities of wheat; relations\nbetween plant characters and the climatic conditions in place of origin. (2) World's\nwheat-producing areas, the reasons for their location and rank. (3) Influence of climate,\nsoil, surface, labor conditions, the use of machinery, transportation facilities, skill of the\nfarmer. (4) Problems of milling, marketing, establishment of world-market center, and\nthe method of making the price. (5) Wheat in international commerce and politics.\n(6) The problem of the wheat-supply of the future.\nOr suppose we take a mineral commodity, say, iron: (i) The qualities of iron which\nmake it valuable; the significance of iron in the civilization of the race. (2) The chief\niron-producing regions of the world. (3) Methods of winning the ore in France, Spain,\nSweden, and the Lake Superior region. (4) The transportation of the ore; the r61e of coke\nand limestone. (5) Rank of producing regions. (6) The world's present steel centers, and\nreasons for their location and rank. (7) The revolution wrought in industry and commerce\nby the introduction of cheap steel. (8) Changing rank of nations in iron- and steelproduction.\n(9) Significance of government participation in the industry.\nIt will be observed that the commodities are studied from an economic as well as a\ngeographic point of view, and geographic and economic influences underlying industry\nand commerce are sought in every stage of the study. This makes of the subject a\nfascinating field for both teacher and student, and it has the superlative advantage\nof continual growth, of eternal youth. Tho its principles may be firmly rooted in the\nnature of things, its data are in continual flux with the everyday changes of the weather,\nof market conditions, and of international political relations. For these reasons it is not\nan easy subject to prepare in, nor to teach. But the reward of such a study is found in the\nexhilaration of a constantly widening horizon, and of migration out of a provincial frame\nof mind. There is a continual incentive to follow developments in the special government\nreports, the studies publisht in periodicals, and the shifting observations of the daily\npress.\nThis subject, properly presented, is really not a year's work in high school; it is an\ninoculation of good health which will last thru life. No other study offered in school or\ncoUege is better adapted to an extensive acquaintance with the current history of the industrial world, and this in itself is a large element in a liberal education.\n\n"}
{"page": 405, "printed_page": "393", "text": "Department)\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nREPORTS\n\nBUSINESS ENGLISH: A SUMMARY\nJAMES\n\nF. HOSIC, CHICAGO\n\nNORMAL\n\n3q^\n\nOF PRINCIPLES\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nCHICAGO,\n\nILL.\n\nThe term \"business EngUsh\" is estabUshing itself, but there is, as\nyet, no agreement as to what it means. Two meanings are obvious: (i) technical training\ncommercial correspondence, advertising, and the like; and (2) general trainmg in English,\nplanned with reference to the needs of all students who intend to enter commercial life\nirrespective of whether they will keep books, take dictation, or seU. The situation is\ncomplicated at present by the regrouping of the grades so as to place the seventh and eighth\nwith the ninth in what is called the \"junior high school,\" and within these grades to organize the classes accordmg to dominant interests, as academic or professional, commercial,\nand industrial or technical. For clearness it seems necessary to confine the term\n\"business English\" to courses regarded as direct preparation for vocation.\nEven in such courses emphasis upon forms and details necessary in business must not\nbe permitted to hinder the development of general intelligence and adaptabiUty. Next to\ncertain rudimentary matters of correctness, employers prize thoughtfulness and gumption.\nOral composition should receive as much attention in business English as in other\nEnglish classes. Even the stenographer requires the feeling for language which practice\nin careful speaking gives. Certainly all will find a good voice and pronunciation an\nenormous asset. Sales talks, reports upon commercial activities, debates, conversation\non business ethics, and similar exercises are easily arranged and full of zest.\nWritten composition should consist largely, but by no means wholly, of letter-writing.\nContent should receive as much attention as form. The assignments should be of the\nnature of problems calling for the exercise of tact and judgment. To drill mechanically\nmerely adds to the number of * ' bone-heads \" in the world. Life and reality may be secured\nby group correspondence so conducted that a given pupil is appealed to by several rivals\nand must make a choice.\nBesides letters, the pupils should write reports, advertisements, and newspaper\nstories. These exercises will provide excellent opportimity for enforcing the elementary\nprinciples of correctness and effectiveness.\nThe details to be emphasized in grammar, punctuation, and spelling must be determined by actual investigation. Charters and Ayres have made a beginning in doing this.\nThe details finally selected should be perfectly mastered.\nMuch of the reading of pupils in business English should be contemporary and related\nto business. Biographies and accounts of achievement wiU provide much that will be\ndirectly inspirational.\nIt should be remembered, however, that hiunan nature is, after all, the great factor\nin business as elsewhere. Literary study which really helps pupils to imderstand themselves and others, and which develops their personalities is invaluable. Many English\nclassics can serve these purposes, even in the case of pupils with narrow outlook. Whether\nthey actually do so or not depends upon the teacher. There is good salesmanship in\nJulius Caesar, but assuredly the coUegercntrance grind will never reveal it.\nThe general reading of business pupils should be stimulated and guided with special\ncare for two reasons: (i) for its value in keeping one well informed; (2) because in the\ncase of those in whom the habit of reading is rightly formed, it may become the great\nmeans of self-education and of true enjoyment.\nTHE CONTENT\n\nAND PRESENTATION\nADA\n\nR. COLLINS,\n\nOF SHORTHAND\n\nCOLORADO\n\nSPRINGS,\n\nAND TYPEWRITING\n\nCOLO.\n\nCommercial education was originally conceived to be merely clerical trainmg, like\nthat carried on in busmess colleges, and that notion, largely unchanged, still persists in\nthe minds of many. It came into the public schools of the country at an unfortunate\n\n"}
{"page": 406, "printed_page": "394", "text": "394\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Business\n\ntime, at a time when it was pedagogically unfashionable for schools to have a vocational\npurpose. All subjects were idealized in order to make them yield what were considered\n\"cultural values.\" But, thanks to the changing conditions, the commercial high schoo.\nand the commercial department of the public schools need to be no longer on the defensivel\nCommercial education has become a part of the school curriculum, not by design, but\nrather because of the impossibility of disregarding the demand for it. It involves vastly\nmore than familiarity with commercial subjects. These are, of course, fundamental\nand important, but it is a tremendous mistake to ignore the fact that the business world\nof today demands a much wider range of training than is provided in the old-fashioned\nbusiness-school curriculum. The aim should be to give the student the best possible\npreparation for a career of business usefulness.\nA very large percentage of the \"clerical and secretarial positions\" to which the student is attracted are entered by means of a knowledge of shorthand and typewriting.\nStenography is the open door thru which young people may enter business life. What,\nthen, is adequate training for this work ? In no field are the duties more variable than in\nthat of the stenographer. The stenographer may address envelopes all day, or he may be\ncalled upon to dictate original letters to others. He may do one thing exactly as he is told\nfrom the beginning of the week to the end, or he may organize, control, and initiate. The\nimmediate task, then, may demand only a limited experience and training, or it may\ncall for the broadest possible culture, the finest personality, and the utmost executive\nability.\nThis fact is plainly emphasized by interviews with employers in connection with\nwhat they expect the employe in the office to offer in the way of qualifications. For convenience,have\nI\ngroupt those qualifications under four chief heads: character, personality,\ngeneral education, and technique.\nCharacter. — The character of the stenographer is indicated by his response to the\ndemands put upon him. Whether the work is small or great, he must be absolutely\ntrustworthy. The work of the office is a private matter, not, imder any conditions, to\nbe communicated to others; hence, he must be trained to have a fine sense of honor, to\nbe worthy of confidence.\nPersonality. — By personality we mean all the gracious gifts which individuals have\nwon from their environment. It is the initial test to which the student applying for a\nposition is put. Some students inherently lack personality, and, for this reason, should\nbe directed to some other occupation. Others have latent possibilities in the matter of\npersonality. Lack of information, failure of the home to supply proper inspiration, general unfortunate environment may retard promising students in attaining success. The\nteachers should secure personal information about the student's home, his father's occupation, and then in every way possible give him the knowledge that will help him to\nrealize v/hat is required of him.\nGeneral Education. — It is evident from the variety of the positions awaiting the stenographer that general education is indispensable. It gives a background which makes\npossible an intelligent grasp of the details of the particular occupation. This education\ndoes not necessarily mean facts and figures dug from books in the classroom, but rather\nthe ability to apply these facts and theories to the practical affairs of life. The stenographer who expects to advance must always be a student of English, for the sake of clearness of expression and style, as well as understanding. If he has a good general education,\nhe will take up his new work with enthusiasm, rejoicing in every new thing to be learned,\neager to achieve new tasks. It is the capacity of the trained mind that coimts quite as\nmuch as the knowledge which it is supposed to bring.\nTechnique. — This I have put fourth in the list of essentials because it is the qualification which determines the rapidity of the advancement of the student possessing the\nother necessary characteristics. It is with this essential that the average teacher of\nshorthand and typewriting is perhaps most concerned.\n\n"}
{"page": 407, "printed_page": "395", "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nREPORTS\n\n395\n\nIn launching a student in a course in shorthand, the average teacher finds it profitable\nto give a short course in phonetics, havmg the student memorize the names of the diacritical marks and familiarize himself with the different vowel sounds. Especially is this\ntrue in the position systems. After this has been accomplisht and the consonant and\nvowel alphabet has been learned, I have found it helpful to have the students not only\nwrite words in their correct positions, but pronounce words with great rapidity and give\nthe positions in which they should be written. In doing board work in shorthand, I have\nfound that various grades of students may be helpt by having each student write as many\ntimes as possible the word pronounst, while the slowest student is writing it but once.\nThis calls for very careful supervision to see that the outlines are correctly made.\nTypewriting is so closely allied with shorthand that it must necessarily fall under the\nsame careful supervision. The teacher should insist upon the student using pure touch\nsystem. A great many theories have been advanst for the accomplishment of this purpose,\nbut most teachers have found that different students call for different methods. After\nthe practice lessons in the manual have been completed, the student may begin upon the\npractical application of his practice work. Almost every school affords ample opportunity\nfor plenty of practical work.\nLet the classes in shorthand and typewriting make the outlines for the various\ndepartments of the school. In the typewriting room stencils may be cut for review and\nexamination questions. Work for the other members of the faculty, the copying of theses\nfor students not taking typewriting, notices sent out by the principal — all this work may\nbe profitably done by the students, always, however, under the close supervision of the\nteacher.\nWhere part-time employment is possible, it is found to be very helpful. In actual\nbusiness the student realizes his failures and is imprest with the need of certain qualifications in a way that it is impossible to make him understand in the schoolroom. In the\nbusiness office he is kept in touch with the constantly changing conditions caused by the\nintroduction of new office appliances. The practice of having prominent business men\nof the community, especially large employers of office help, speak to the classes about the\nrequirements of office help will be found of valuable assistance. Courses in office practice,\ndemonstrating right and wrong office methods, will be found practicable and helpful.\nCommercial education must greatly expand its scope in order to embrace the larger\nopportunities of business; and teachers must invite the cooperation of business men if\nthis expansion is to be accomplisht.\n\n"}
{"page": 408, "printed_page": "396", "text": ""}
{"page": 409, "printed_page": "397", "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\n\nPresident— Ada Van Stone Harris, director of elementary practice teaching, public\nschools,\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nVice-President — Bertha M. McConkey, assistant superintendent of schools, Springfield, Mass.\nSecretary— M.XBiia Turner Harvey, teacher. Porter Rural School, Adair County,\nKirksville, Mo.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 4, 1916\nThe department was called to order by President Ada Van Stone Harris at 9:30 a.m.,\nin Concert Hall of Madison Square Garden.\nIn the absence of the secretary, the chair appointed the vice-president of the department. Bertha M. McConkey, to serve as secretary.\nThe following program was presented:\nTopic: A Study of the Question of the Transfer of the Upper Two Grades of the Elementary\nSchool to the High School, Based On —\n\"The Peculiar Psychological Conditions and Social Needs of the Seventh and Eighth\nGrades\" — David Snedden, professor of educational sociology, Columbia University, New\nYork, N.Y.\n\"The Organization of the Upper Elementary Grades Contrasted with the Organization of the Lower Elementary Grades and the High School\" — ^John D. Shoop, superintendent ofschools, Chicago, 111.\n\"The Necessity of Changes in the Curriculum of the Upper Elementary Grades, both\nin Subject-Matter and in Content\" — Mary D. Bradford, superintendent of schools,\nKenosha, Wis.\n\"The Intensive Study of Large Topics\"— .Charles A. McMurry, professor of elementary education, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn.\n\"Proper Vocational Guidance in the Upper Elementary Grades \"—William M.\nDavidson, superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.\n\"The Place of the Corporation and the Continuation Schools\"— CUfford B. Connelley, dean. School of Applied Industries, Carnegie Institute of Technology, PittsPa.\nburgh,\n'\nrr C\nThe chair appointed the following to serve as a committee to nommate officers for\n1917:\n\nSusan M. Dorsey, assistant superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\nOlive M. Jones, principal, Public School No. 27, New York, N.Y.\n^ ^ , _\nEast Carolina Teachers Trammg School, GreenRobert\nville, N.C. W. Wright, president.\nC. J. Scott, superintendent of schools, Wihmngton, Del.\nA. Ruth Pyrtle, prmcipal, McKmley School, Lmcohi, Neb.\n\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 5, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 A. M., in Concert HaU of Madison Square\nGarden, the president in the chair.\nThe following program was carried out.\nTopic: Is There a Need for More Reality in the Elementary School Curriculum?\n\n\"In Industrial Arts and Crafts— Getting Manual Skill and Makmg\nJohn M. Mills, supermtendent of schools, Ogden, Utah.\n397\n\nThings\"—\n\n"}
{"page": 410, "printed_page": "398", "text": "398\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\n\"In Arithmetic — Socializing Arithmetic\" — Georgia Alexander, supervising principal\nof schools, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\"In Geography— the Social and Industrial Point of View\" — ^John Willis Slaughter,\nrecent lecturer on sociology, University of London, England; Philadelphia, Pa.\n\"In Elementary Science — Relating Studies of Force and Life to Human Needs\" —\nCharles L. Edward, director of nature-study, Los Angeles, Cal. This paper was read by\nSusan M. Dorsey, assistant superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\"In English Composition and Grammar — Based upon Correct Speech, Correcting\nCommon Errors of Children\" — H. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Topeka, Kans.\n\"Will Standard Tests Economize Time, Lead to a Broadening of the Subject-Matter,\nand Make for Efl&ciency of both Teacher and Pupil?\" — ^Lida Lee Tall, supervisor of\ngrammar grades, Baltimore County Schools, Towson, Md.\nThe following ofl&cers, as recommended by the Committee on Nominations, were\nelected:\nPresident — Georgia Alexander, supervising principal of schools, Indianapolis, Ind.\nVice-President — Grace de GrafiF, principal, Kenton School, Portland, Ore.\nSecretary — ^Lida Lee Tall, supervisor of grammar grades, Baltimore County Schools,\nTowson, Md.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 7, 1916\n\nA joint meeting with the Department of Kindergarten Education was called to order\nby the president at 9:30 a.m., in Concert Hall of Madison Square Garden.\nThe following program was presented:\nTopic: The Relation of the Kindergarten and Primary Grades\n\"The Educational Values Which the Child Carries Over from the Kindergarten into\nthe Primary Grades\" — Mary D. Hill, supervisor of kindergartens, Louisville, Ky.\n\"Should the Kindergartens and the Primary Teachers Teach an Equal Number of\nHours and Receive the Same Pay?\" — Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools,\nDetroit, Mich.\n\"Practical Means of Unifying the Work of the Kindergarten and the Primary\nGrades\":\n1. \"The Elementary Point of View\" — Junius L. Meriam, professor of school supervision. School of Education, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.\n2. \"The Kindergarten Point of View\" — ^Luella A. Palmer, assistant director of\nkindergartens. New York, N.Y.\n3. \"Discussion\" — ^Thomas M. Balliet, dean, School of Pedagogy, New York University, New York, N.Y.\nBertha M. McConkey, Secretary pro tern.\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHE\n\nPECULIAR PSYCHOLOGICAL CONDITIONS AND SOCIAL\nNEEDS OF THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES\n\nDAVID\n\nSNEDDEN,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nOF EDUCATIONAL SOCIOLOGY,\nVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nUNI-\n\nI. The topic assigned me falls a bit short of the subject I shall treat,\nin two respects: (i) I shall deal with all children from twelve to fourteen\nor fifteen years of age, instead of with the seventh and eighth grades only;\nand (2) I shall assume that there is no proposal to transfer pupils of these\nages to the high school as we know it, but rather to organize for them a\nspecial type of school, at least in urban communities, to be known as the\nintermediate school or junior high school. I shall, as my topic suggests,\n\n(\n\n"}
{"page": 411, "printed_page": "399", "text": "Department]\n\nPSYCHOLOGICAL\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nNEEDS\n\n399\n\ndiscuss the pros and cons of the proposed change, from the standpomt of\nthe psychological conditions and social needs of the children involved.\nII. But first, let us get our bearings. Proposals for the junior-highschool type of school-organization are chiefly, as yet, proposals for administrative readjustments. I hear very Uttle regarding probable pedagogical\nchanges in courses of instruction and methods of teaching, as now desired\nor expected, in the upper grades. In large measure the new type of organization isought simply as a means — in the minds of many persons an\nindispensable means — of attaining the educational goals which, long ago,\nwe set ourselves for children in upper grades, and in some cases for all children over twelve years of age.\n1. The existing type of organization as found in almost any urban community in the United States is usually as follows:\na) The elementary school consists of eight or nine grades, the children\nin which, ranging from five to about fifteen years, are all housed in one school\nbuilding.\nb) From one-fifth to one-third of the pupils of twelve years of age and\nupward are found retarded in grades below the seventh, competing with\nyounger and, as a rule, brighter children.\nc) The grade teachers teach all subjects in grades below the seventh,\nand in the seventh and eighth all but manual training for boys and household arts for girls; at times music and drawing are taught departmentally ;\nand in perhaps 3 to 5 per cent only of all schools fairly comprehensive systems\nof departmental teaching in general are found.\nd) The upper-grade teachers are women, with increasingly rare exceptions; these women have not had special training for upper-grade work, but\nare, as a rule, the abler of the teachers who obtained their first experience\nin country schools or lower grades (upper-grade positions frequently carry\nbetter salaries, and are therefore sought by women who expect to remain\npermanently in the teaching profession).\ne) The course of study is uniform for all pupils aUke, except for the\ndifferentiation of manual training for boys and household arts for girls.\nIts primary elements are: Enghsh language, English literature, geography,\nAmerican history, and arithmetic; while hygiene, science, drawing, music,\nmanual arts, civics, etc., are secondary or incidental elements; foreign language and vocational guidance are rare elements.\n/) Standards of graduation are determined almost wholly by the prevaiHng standards for admission to high school; hence, as a rule, less than\n50 per cent of all pupils required to attend school obtain the elementary\ndiploma.\n2. The school-organization which I have in mind as being toore effective,\nnamely, the junior high school, should have the foUowing features:\na) All children from five to twelve (except children under twelve who\ntheir\nhave finisht the sixth grade) should be taught in schools located near\n\n"}
{"page": 412, "printed_page": "400", "text": "400\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nhomes (schools which need not exceed four or five rooms in size), by women\nteachers only.\nb) These lower elementary schools should never be very large — ten\nor twelve rooms would be a desirable maximum — and the principal should\nbe simply a head teacher; but for each fifty to seventy teachers in these\nschools in any community there should be a woman supervisor of instruction.\nc) All children between twelve and fifteen years of age (including\nchildren under twelve ready for the seventh grade, and excluding children\nunder fifteen ready for the regular or senior high school) should be sent to\nthe central junior high school or intermediate school. It should be assumed\nthat a walk of one and one-half or even two miles is not excessive for this\npurpose.\nd) The course of study in the central school should offer the pupils\na large range of elective or optional studies in addition to certain essentials\nin Enghsh language, EngUsh literature, American history, community\ncivics, and geography, which latter should be prescribed for all (for retarded\npupils special classes in these subjects should be formed).\ne) Promotion should, as far as practicable, be by subject, so that, for\nexample, retarded pupils in the fourth grade in arithmetic may, if quahfied,\nenter seventh-grade geography; and a boy backward in history may\nnevertheless take eighth-grade industrial arts (manual training) if qualified.\n/) Teaching in the junior high school is expected to be departmen tally\norganized by subjects or, preferably, along lines of the Gary plan, by\ngroups of related subjects; and it is expected that this organization will\nproduce a demand for specially qualified teachers.\ng) If the state is wiUing to pay the price, a certain proportion of men\nteachers should be assigned to departmental positions, not primarily because they are necessarily better teachers than women, but because it is\ndesirable to introduce, in boys' classes, at any rate, the influence of masculine personality.\nIII. Those of us who favor such reorganization of education as will\ngive us the six-three-three plan or the six-two-four plan, with the junior\nand senior high schools either as two- and-four-year or three- and-three-year\nschools, respectively, and, in any event, as large central schools, do so\nbecause we beheve that, on the whole, the psychological conditions of\nchildren as well as their social needs justify such reorganization, even if it\ncost the community slightly more financially. What are those conditions,\nand what are those needs ?\nI. The conditions are summed up in the two words \"increasing variabiUty.\" Uniform programs of education, uniform teaching methods, and\nnon-specialized teachers presuppose groups of people of substantially\nuniform characteristics. But all recent inquiries tend to bring into relief\nfacts as to the increasing unUkeness of children beyond twelve years of age.\nWe recognize them as differing moderately as regards height, weight, and\n\n"}
{"page": 413, "printed_page": "401", "text": "Department]\n\nPSYCHOLOGICAL\n\nCONDITIONS\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL\n\nNEEDS\n\n401\n\nbodily strength ; materially as regards abilities in such studies as literature,\nvernacular language, and history; and vary greatly, indeed, as regards\nabilities and interests in music, plastic and graphic art, abstract mathematics, alien language, and manual constructive work.\nLet us now make two general propositions with regard to which there\nwill be no serious debate.\na) If, possest of endless resources and hampered by no restrictions\nof any kind, we were making educational programs for our children, we\nwould doubtless, in the light of what we now know regarding the unlikeness of individuals among them, make the programs for no two of them\nexactly aUke in all respects. We would pay tribute to obvious differences\nas regards the gifts bestowed by the gods of heredity and of early environment; and we would not ignore the probable opportunities and hmitations\ndecreed by fortune in the child's future life. We would strengthen some\nof his already strong powers; and where he is weak, we might justly forego\nto strive for the powers for the foundation of which nature did so Uttle.\nb) On the other hand, except in rare cases of genius or defect, it is not\npracticable to educate children on the basis of strictly individual qualifications. In education, as in war, industry, transportation, worship,\nhousing and entertainment, economy and general efficiency require that\nwe deal with people in squads, platoons, and divisions. We must have\ncompanies and regiments for fighting; congregations for worship; gangs,\ncrews, and departments in industry; audiences and parties for entertainment; passenger groups and classes for transportation; and grades and\nclasses in schools. To talk of individual instruction, except as that is\npracticable within group organization, is to talk nonsense, except where the\nfew children of wealth and rank are concerned. In the organization of\ngroups for school education, therefore, we cannot, tho we would, provide\nspecial programs for each individual, as men and women did for Helen\nKeller. We must provide for a certain amount of regimentation, classification, grouping. But these groupings must not be fixt in rigid groups.\n2. Besides the psychological \"conditions\" of the individuals composing\nour school classes, what are their social \"needs\" that justify the proposed\nreorganizations of upper-grade work? The keynote to these needs will\nbe found in the words \"progressively increasing differentiation.\" Modern\nciviUzed Ufe is like modern industry or modern army-organization. Functions are being increasingly differentiated, and activities and interests\nspecialized according to all kinds of capacities and opportunities.\nBut it should be clear at the outset that as regards fitting individuals\nfor group life, the school has two different functions that are at times in\nconflict. The groups into which children must fit are of .various kinds.\nThere are large groups and small groups, such as the nation, the reUgious\ndenomination, the political party, the potential army of defense, the readers\nof good books, the economic organization; and, opposed to these, the local\n\n"}
{"page": 414, "printed_page": "402", "text": "402\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\ncommunity, the particular church or sect, the political gang, the squad or\nmass, the partisans of a particular book or writer, the embattled employes\nof a particular industrial establishment. There are vocational, as against\ncultural, groups — farmers, machinists, bankers, teachers, waitresses, homemakers and defenders, as against patrons of art, readers of classic literature,\nsubscribers to specified magazines, visitors to the \"movies,\" illiterates,\netc. Various other groupings may be distinguisht, such as family groups,\nracial groups, socialibility groups, economic cooperative groups, worshiping groups, etc.\nNow, it is one of the functions of education to predispose and fit its\npupils for assimilation with the larger, as against the smaller, group in the\ninterests of a wholesome social order, harmony, and economy of effort.\nWe therefore seek that all American children shall speak a common tongue,\nwrite a mutually understandable prose, have a common knowledge of\ncertain standard literature, comprehend and appreciate alike the important\nfacts of our geography, history, and civic Ufe.\nBut it is another function of education to see that our young people\nare fitted efficiently to discharge their responsibihties in the small groups of\nwhich they will inevitably be a part. Membership in, and sympathy with,\nthe large groups of civilized society are essential to the harmony, of the\nsocial order; but active and properly coordinated participation in the\nactivities of smaller groups is essential to efficient personal growth, individual efficiency, and ultimate social usefulness.\nHence, the desirability of partial group-differentiation of pupils, even\nas early as twelve years of age. Their needs include fitting for those special\ngroup activities in which they can most profitably serve themselves and\nsociety. As to some of these children it is certain that their opportunities\nfor school education will close forever at or near fourteen years of age.\nWe may not always know the particular individuals of whom this is true,\naltho a shrewd social diagnostician, knowing the facts as to the home conditions, school standing in studies, intellectual interests, general moral\nbehavior, and physical conditions of one hundred children at twelve years\nof age, could, I think, guess rightly as to 90 per cent of them. But even\nif we do not know the future as regards particular individuals, we do know\nit in large measure of collected groups in the statistical sense. We know of\nprobable numerical ratios and percentages; hence, any refusal on our part\nto provide opportunities into which individuals will fit as well as may\nbe on the initiative of themselves or their parents, with perhaps our advice,\nis wasteful, inefficient, and essentially undemocratic.\nThere is a certain small percentage of our pupils who, by virtue of their\nprobable future opportunities for usefulness and self-gratification, ought to\nhave early opportunity to study a foreign language — German, French,\nPortuguese, Russian, or Japanese. Here again, with pupils at the age of\ntwelve, we may not be able to select just the persons who should be advised\n\n"}
{"page": 415, "printed_page": "403", "text": "Department) ORGANIZATION\n\nOF UPPER AND LOWeR grades\n\n403\n\nto do this; but, if the opportunities are provided, and if parents are fully\nadvised as to the conditions, requirements, and probable fruits of this\nwork, and if admission to it is restricted to those who have shown superior\nabiUty in the vernacular, choices will be right perhaps 50 or 70 per cent of\nthe time.\nIt is assumed here, of course, that no vocational training as such will\nbe given in the junior high school. That will come later and will naturally\nrequire a large degree of speciaUzation— in a city the estabUshment of\nperhaps hundreds of different and unhke specific vocational schools to\nprepare for the hundreds of separate conunercial, industrial, and domestic\noccupations into which modern life is divided.\nBut in the junior high school large opportunities should be given for\npractical-arts training, which, while not vocational ui its outcome, may\nhelp toward vocation-finding, and if properly directed, will certainly give\ninsight into the ideals and social significance of occupational life.\nTo be of real service, however, practical-arts education (industrial arts,\nagricultural arts, household arts, nautical arts, and commercial arts are all included under this head) must be diversified according to the fundamental\ninterests of children; and the spirit in which each type of work is to be approacht should be that of the amateur. Courses should be very flexible. A\npupil entering printing for the first time, for example, should have the option of several simple introductory projects; after he has given reasonable\nattention to any one he should, if he wishes, be permitted to take up projects in a totally unrelated field — gardening, for example. Hence the need\nof the flexible course of study which only the junior-high-school type of\norganization can provide.\nLet us repeat: The proposed junior-high-school type of school organization isan administrative means — a necessary means — to certain essential\nforms of improvement of the education of young people from twelve to\nfifteen years of age.\n\nTEE ORGANIZATION OF THE UPPER ELEMENTARY GRADES\nCONTRASTED WITH THE ORGANIZATION OF THE LOWER\nELEMENTARY GRADES AND THE HIGH SCHOOL\nJOHN D. SHOOP, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nI have been requested to discuss briefly the relation of the various\nstages of elementary and secondary education, and to disclose, if possible,\nthe presence or absence of a logic of continuity in an analysis of our general\nregime of instruction.\nThe gradation which has come to us as a heritage, modified and improved\nas it has been in successive stages of advancement, still bears the earmarks\nof tradition and some scars of cleavage over which fines of rational connec-\n\n"}
{"page": 416, "printed_page": "404", "text": "404\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\ntion must still be constructed. If we may appropriate for the moment a\nphrase from the vocabulary of practical mechanics, the aggregation is that\nof \"assembled parts.\" It is indeed true that the movement of the years\nhas been along the line of a more vital relation and organic connection, but\nwe have not yet advanst to the place where the cross-sectional or transverse\nperspective, from which we have so long viewed the various steps or gradations of the curriculum, has been displaced by the longitudinal view. The\nbasis of gradation, moreover, has been for the most part that of the power\nor grasp of the student rather than the adaptation of the materials of the\nschool course to the diverse interests peculiar to each epoch of child life.\nResults of scientific investigations in the field of education and the\nembodiment of the child, with all his variations in type, as factors in the\nprocesses of curriculum-making, have revealed to us, often unhappily, that\nthere have been pronounst cases of abnormahty in courses of study as well\nas in children. The problem of adapting materials and methods to meet\nthe needs of the variable type in childhood and youth has opened to us one\nof the most interesting and promising fields of educational research. It\nis significant of the tenacity of purpose of those who have sought the truth\nin this scheme of readjustment that it has extended itself to the work of\ndisintegrating and reassembling the groups of the grades in the curriculum,\nwhich have become hoary with age, and which, hitherto entrencht in tradition, have defied the onset of the educational reformers. As a result, out\nof this reclassification there have been presented for our consideration such\neducational experiments as the junior high school, the six-and-six plan,\nand the six-three-and-three plan of organizing the elementary- and\nsecondary-school curriculum. In all these schemes of readjustment, however, itis noteworthy that tacitly or by common consent the earlier stages\nof the elementary course remain unchanged. Doubtless this work of the\nearUer school years will, in the very nature of the case, always remain distinct and constant in relation to the later activities of the school Ufe of the\nchild. In considering the problem of structural planning, therefore, this\nperiod may well be denominated as an educational constant. Its relation\nto the succeeding years of school experience is distinctly preparatory.\nWithout being expUcit, may I say that there is current a false concept of\nthe province of education during these years which should be sacred to the\nvital interests of early childhood, and it has resulted in blasting the hopes\nof thousands of our youth, and has strewn the paths of school experience\nwith inexcusable failures and disappointed ambitions.\nTo introduce a phrase which brings the problem of school-management\ninto closer analogy with the business world, we need more of the genius of\ncapitalization, the recognition of values and potentiaHties in each stage\nof the educational process. During the first six years of school fife the\nchild's imagination is found to be active, the senses keen, the imitative\npowers at high tide, the will flexible, the mind receptive, and the memory\n\n"}
{"page": 417, "printed_page": "405", "text": "Departmentl\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nOF UPPER\n\nAND\n\nLOWER\n\nGRADES\n\n405\n\nretentive. It is a storage-battery period in the life of the youth. It is the\nage when the capacity to receive a wealth of varied experiences and impressions isat its maximum. At the risk of being thought trite, I desire to\naccentuate the fact that this period, covering the first half-dozen years of\nthe child's school Hfe, is prime for the mastery of symbols and the full command of those agencies thru which the creative products of higher mental\nactivities are in the future to find acceptable expression.\nIn mastery of subject-matter and modes of expression, tho not essentially\nin method of approach, we must never allow ourselves to forget the standards of the earlier schools. We should not be afraid of the appellation\n\"old-fashioned.\" When we trace to causal origin the failures of many of\nour children in the upper elementary grades, we often discover that sequential relations were ignored and rational preparedness was left to the law of\nchance. Many a so-called laggard has failed miserably in the classroom\nand has been driven from school, only to succeed briUiantly later in the\ncountingroom or shop. The fault has lain partly in the failure to recognize\nthe fact that certain individuahties cannot be reacht by the orthodox school\nmedia and the historically prescribed methods of teaching very useful and\nindispensable subjects, but also in the failure to ground the child thoroly in\nthose fundamental arts of the school which are basic to further intellectual\nprogress. The former diflaculty does not lie with the child, neither with\nthe subject-matter taught, but rather in the fact that there has been failure\nto recognize that certain types of children, when they reach the preadolescent years, develop unique personalities which require differential methods\nof teaching and a wider variety of subject-matter in the course of study, if\nthey are to attain to that degree of intellectual growth of which they are\ncapable.\nIn the upper grades of the elementary schools, especially the seventh\nand eighth years, therefore, differentiation is required, if every child is to\nbe put into the possession of his lawful heritage. It should not be necessary\nfor the youth who possesses instincts, interests, and abilities which do not\nconform to the historical type for whom the regulation courses of study\nhave been outlined in the past, to be driven from school and be compelled\nto enter the work-a-day world undirected by the sympathetic and intelligent hands of those to whom has been intrusted the guidance of our youth.\nNot least among the values and purposes to be served by a differentiated\ncourse in the upper grammar grades, therefore, is the opportunity it offers\nto the lost and bewildered boy or girl to find himseff or herself, which, if\nattained, is the sesame that throws wide open the portals of hope and discloses the path to success.\nIt is easy, unless one exercises care, to confuse differentiation in the\nupper grades and in the high schools with opportunities for industrial\ntraining and for the exercise of one's prerogatives to prepare for a cooperative place in the social fabric, which is the right of every child. While\n\n"}
{"page": 418, "printed_page": "406", "text": "406\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nindustrial schools for those who are not academically minded, whose\ncapacities lie primarily in avenues where they may deal with the concrete\nrather than the symbolic, constitute a feature of differentiation, yet they\ndo not define its intent nor its scope. Modern pedagogical investigations\nhave made it quite clear that children must perform work suited to their\ncapacities if they would progress and be put into possession of abiding\ninterests that will carry them thru life; and at the same time they must\nwork with those who have comparable abilities, ideals, and aims if a consciousnes ofthe measure of their value to society is to be engendered and\nthey are to be made to feel that there is a useful and dignified function in\nlife which they may subserve. It is clearly recognized that the high schools\nhave been measurably performing such a function, particularly with their\nrecent acquisition of a rich accumulation of activities — a variety of opportunity for delving deeply into this or that field of science, literature, history,\nlanguage, or art. But the high schools fail to reach more than a fraction\nof that motley crowd that surges thru our elementary schools, a few, to be\nsure, reaching the high school, but more dropping out as failures before they\nhave reacht the seventh and eighth grades, feeling the stigma of having\nfailed, and complacently resigned to their fates with a fatal pessimism at\nan age when they should be filled with optimism and a zest for meeting life's\nproblems.\nFor those who have completed the work of the eight grades, too, there\nare trade schools to meet the needs of any whose capacities are limited in\nrange within relatively narrow limits. While I should not want anyone\nto think that I wish to speak disparagingly of the work of the trade schools,\nyet, unfortunately, the number of children to whom their doors are ,closed\nis all too large, since they are unable to get over the hurdles of the uppergrade studies in order to enter them. Besides, there lurks in the trade\nschools a subtle menace to the basis of our democratic institutions, since\nthey tend to a iSxity of life and motive, and are likely to act as a deterrent\nto individuality, initiative, and the ambition to reach higher levels of\naccomphshment and service. Particularly is this true if speciaUzation is\nbegun too early, and those delicate tendrils that have been thrown out in\nevery direction to bring the young life into the widest possible varieties of\nexperience are broken by the narrowness and the restriction that industrial\ncourses impose upon those who pursue them too early in life. It is the\nbroader type of differentiation that I would urge as best suited for that vast\nnumber of the youth who find it impossible to adapt themselves to the\nacademic fixity of the historical upper-grade grammar school.\nInvestigators have come more and more to learn that mental differentiation occurs in children much earher than was formerly thought possible,\nand that considerably before the years of adolescence there are to be\nnoted those changes that are so premonitory of the kind of man or woman\nthe child is to become, what his interests are to be, and in what particular\n\n"}
{"page": 419, "printed_page": "407", "text": "407\nDepaitmentl\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN CURRICULUM\n\nOF UPPER\n\nGRADES\n\ndirections there is to be entertained any hope of success for him in afteryears. Failure heretofore to recognize soon enough the early change\nin\nthe mental complexes of our youth and their need of a wider opportun\nity\nfor choice in studies is assigned by educational experts as one of the most\npotent causes of school failures and the elimination of children from school\nas soon as the age of compulsory attendance has been past. From what\nwe now know it appears that our conception of an eight-year course of\nstudy in our elementary school as an \"educational constant\" for every\nnormal child is in error. It is contrary to nature and therefore unscientific. The age of twelve rather than the age of fourteen probably more\nnearly marks the point where a change in method and a wider variety of\ncontent is demanded. At this age the average child is still in the elementary\nschool. In the elementary schools especially, which are the testing and\ntraining laboratories for a world of action, it should be the heritage of every\nchild to receive a due proportion of the essentials and the culture, measured\nto his development and his interests, differentiated to suit his abihties and\nhis capacities, so that he may grow into the fullest possible usefubess, and\nbe able to render the widest measure of social service.\n\nTHE NECESSITY OF CHANGES IN THE CURRICULUM OF THE\nUPPER ELEMENTARY GRADES, BOTH IN SUBJECTMATTER AND IN CONTENT\nMARY D. BRADFORD, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, KENOSHA, WIS.\nThe children of the rapidly growing industrial city of 30,000 people in\nthe Middle West where I work are indebted to economic reasons for the\nreorganization of their public-school system. The situation is typical.\nOvercrowded conditions in the elementary schools and high school made\nsome sort of readjustment necessary. The completion of a large new\ngrade-school building permitted changes by which it is possible to vacate\nanother grade building, centrally located, which can accommodate the\nseventh and eighth grades from five schools, thus starting the new organization. Our overcrowded high school will also receive the benefit of this\nchange by being freed from the necessity of taking care of these pupils when\nready for the ninth year.\nThe following facts concerning our school system are typical, and seem\nto demonstrate the need of the changes under discussion.\nThe pupils graduating from the eighth grade of the Kenosha schools in\nFebruary last had lost 29 per cent of their number on the road from the\nsixth grade. Carefully kept histories of classes entering the high school\nshow that, while some encouraging effects have resulted from an improved\ncurriculum, still, in each of the last six years, we have lost about one-third\nof our pupils between the eighth and the ninth grades; that is, only from\n\n"}
{"page": 420, "printed_page": "408", "text": "408\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\n65 to 68 per cent of those completing the eighth grade continued in school;\nfrom 10 to 22 per cent of those entering high school dropt out before the\nend of the first year; and recent classes have lost from 40 to 49 per cent of\ntheir original numbers at the beginning of the tenth grade. We thus see\nthat in the city mentioned, during the critical period between the close of\nthe sixth and the beginning of the tenth school year, as great a loss as 85\nper cent of the pupils has occurred. Familiar statistics found in the federal\nand other reports show these conditions, with variations for better or worse,\nto be general.\nThese facts furnish the fundamental reason for thinking some sort of\nchange necessary. It seems to me that the refusal of boys and girls by\nthousands to accept our old plan, and the evidence in this of the negative\njudgment upon this plan of the common social mind, are reasons enough for\nthe change; but when the psychology of adolescence reveals to us the\nprobable cause of the trouble, there is surely nothing to do but to seek a\nremedy. The one proposed is to make six years suffice for elementary\ntraining, and then to offer a change for the next precarious three years with\ncourses of study and teaching processes better adapted to the \"desires,\naptitudes, interests, capabilities, and future possibilities\" of every boy and\ngirl who continues beyond the elementary grades.\nA common fundamental belief seems to be shaping these courses of\nstudy, namely, that the school should return to society at any stage of their\nprogress those prepared as far as possible at that stage to become intelligent, able-bodied, progressive citizens, citizens \"not only good but good\nfor something.\" Earning a living forms part of the ideal, and follows as\na matter-of-course if the larger training is successful.\nWe find in these courses, therefore, certain fundamental subjects for\nevery pupil, whether he contemplates entering the high school or not.\nThese make up the constants of the curriculum, and their inclusion in the\ncourse is evidence of the growing realization of the connection between\ndemocracy and education. They may be considered the common denominator of thought and sympathy, by which the people of a democracy may\nbe added together. We also find variable elements. What these are\ndepends upon circumstances, the size of the school and its facilities, and\nthe demands of the community; but in general they point forward to some\nspecific vocation or to further schooling.\nThe first constant which all course-makers are agreed upon is English,\nwhich includes reading, writing, spelling, composition, grammar, and\nliterature. Self-realization is impossible without ability to express; but\npractice for the attainment of clear, forceful, correct expression must be\nmotivated by the idea that such expression is used for the purpose and in\nthe way that life demands. The pupil says something to somebody,\nbecause of his interest in having that somebody understand and feel what\nhe — the pupil — understands and feels. This makes composition an essen-\n\n"}
{"page": 421, "printed_page": "409", "text": "Department]\n\nCHANGES\n\nIN CURRICULUM\n\nOF\n\nUPPER\n\nGRADES\n\n409\n\ntial phase of all other work, and makes grammar the \"critical instrument\"\nfor use in the attainment of correct expression, a means, and not an end.\nAbility to influence thru clear, forceful, correct English is important; but\nit is no more important than abiHty to appreciate the literature that has\nbecome a common possession of the race. All should be led into a love of\nbooks and good reading habits. This age of children is just the time for\narousing appreciation of great characters and stirring situations. This io\nreal \"bread\" for the unfolding moral life, and we must see to it that these\nchildren are not handed the unpalatable and often indigestible substitute\nof prescribed college-entrance requirements, of the traditional sort, served\nup with a dry sauce of definition and exhaustive analysis. Music and\ndramatization for all should be added to this strand, which aims at appreciation.\nAnother constant, a close second to the one already named, is a general\nsocial-science course, the core of which may be American history and\ncitizenship. George E. Vincent calls these the \"New Humanities,\" and\nsays that in the education of the future \"effort will be made to develop in\nevery mind some sense of the vast, ongoing collective life men call the\nnation, a panorama of the past with its great figures, its story and song,\nits struggles and victories, its mistakes and failures.\"\nA third constant gaining favor in this new organization is the general\nscience course, including physical and biological phenomena. This should\nbe \"extensive and popular, rather than intensive and narrowly scholarly,\"\nthus harmonizing completely with the natural impulse of those entering the\nperiod of adolescence, which demands change, variety, and human interest\nrather than completeness and logical arrangement. By thus passing before\nthe pupil the saUent features of several important departments of knowledge, he is able to discover inherent likings and aptitudes, and thus gain\nassistance in making choices that may fundamentally and completely modify\nhis future individual development. If the pupil cannot go beyond the ninth\ngrade, he has been afforded a glimpse of what the world of knowledge contains; and, if he can continue, he has had a good introduction to the more\nintensive work which the advanst course expects of him. This generalscience course should include that hygiene which is necessary for the conservation ofphysical and moral life. In some localities it may also take\non the form of elementary agriculture.\nA fourth constant, at least for two years, is mathematics. Here, as\nwith grammar, the tenacity of the grip of traditional beUef and practice\nmust be reckoned with. Generally speaking, the mathematics needed at\nthis stage should aim in one direction, that is, to give children a working\nknowledge of money from the viewpoint of the home and common business,\nincidentally impressing lessons of thrift. Another line should place\nemphasis upon measurements, and this may merge into geometry in its\nAlgebra, which is now commonly studied in the\nconstructive phases.\n\nI:\n\n"}
{"page": 422, "printed_page": "410", "text": "4IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\neighth grade, will probably continue as a part of the mathematics\ngroup, altho it has heard the challenge to make an affirmative case for\nitself.\nA fifth constant, at least for one year, as most course-makers think, is\nsome form of constructive work by all pupils, \"occupational efficiency\" of\nsome sort and to some degree being the aim. It is generally conceded that\nno matter what a boy's future may be, he should acquire some expertness\nin the use of tools; and that girls should be taught the fundamentals of\nwoman's work in the home, always with the much-needed accompanying\nthought of sensible frugaUty. This course should include drawing, put to\nservice in the other subjects. Physical training for all and also athletics\nare important factors at this stage of educational progress.\nIt is, however, in its provision for variable elements in the curriculum\nthat the new school is chiefly differentiated from the old. There is an\nopportunity for electives, so that boys and girls may further try out their\ndifferent powers and begin to form their life-purposes. There are subjects\nand activities which start the child along the line of a chosen vocation, but\nthe choice is understood to be provisional, with ample opportunity for\nreadjustment.\nThe prevocational courses now being tried give a larger proportion of\ntime to the industrial activities, such as manual training, domestic science,\nand commercial subjects than the general course requires. It is the\nteaching of this occupational group from the trade standpoint that constitutes, as we know, the sensitive spot in discussions of this question.\nAnother important elective is a foreign language, this being sometimes\noffered in the seventh 'grade. Very enthusiastic reports have been received\nabout the success of this work where it is being tried. Spanish seems to\nbe in the ascendant.\nAll the changes of subject-matter and content felt to be best cannot\nbe realized at once. You remember, perhaps, that the first automobiles\nhad dashboards. Custom did it. And custom will cause to persist for\nawhile, even in newly devised and carefully planned courses, topics, and\nmethods that are ancestral traces of needs no longer existing and beliefs\ndisproved and discarded. But lovers of the truth following the light\nafforded us by the new conception of education can do much. We must\nremember that many of the ills we suffer from are teaching ills. For one\nthing, we can cease those teaching practices that are based on the belief that\nthe chief purpose of education is the accumulation of knowledge for use\nat some future time, thus putting the premium upon memory. We can\nthink more of development and training and trust that knowledge will take\ncare of itself. We can discard the old, formal studies, drills, and topics\nadhered to solely on account of their reputed value for ''mental discipline.\"\nWe can act in the light of the new idea of discipline — ability to do things\nindependently, and not submission to restraint.\n\n"}
{"page": 423, "printed_page": "411", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nINTENSIVE\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF LARGE\n\nTOPICS\n\n411\n\nA recent article entitled \"Education in the Next Generation,\" by President George E. Vincent, appearing in The Independent of June 26, 19 16,\ngives us a vision of the school toward which this program points, and puts\nme under obligations for the closing paragraph of my paper. He says:\nIn the eleventh or twelfth year, tested by the varied experiences of the earUer grades\nchildren begin to display special aptitudes and interests. These will influence the activities\nand studies suggested to the pupils. The persons assigned to the work of vocational\nguidance will begin to discuss with boys and giris their future plans. Courses will be\nadapted to individual needs. Out of the elementary school, pupils will be guided according to aptitudes, ambitions, and circumstances to schools of different types which give\nspecial training in mechanical pursuits, commercial subjects, fine and industrial arts,\nagriculture and rural life, general education, preparation for technical and professional\nschools or colleges. Many pupils will be directed to special occupational courses which\nthey will pursue until they are of legal age to enter upon wage-earning.\n\nDr. Vincent predicts that the purposeful system of education which he\ndescribes will keep in mind: (i) training for occupational efficiency, (2) the\nencouragement of spontaneity and initiative, and (3) the fostering of\ncapacity for civic life. While placing occupational skill first, he would\nprotect children from the danger of having the second and third aims\nignored, not only for the children's sake, but for the sake of the nation whose\nwelfare demands an education that transcends material efficiency and\ntouches it \"with ideahstic aims and loyalties.\"\n\nTHE INTENSIVE\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF LARGE\n\nTOPICS\n\nCHARLES A. McMURRY, PROFESSOR OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, GEORGE\nPEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENN.\n\ni\nj\n^_\n^B\n\nHow to put the right spirit and energy into grammar-grade studies is a\ndeep and vital question concerning the welfare of the children. There has\nbeen much complaint because of a lack of rich content and of productive,\nstimulating thought in these studies. Too many mere unordered facts\nare offered and too much routine drill on previous studies. It is profoundly\nimportant to get hold of the best study material suitable to adolescents and\nto learn how to bring them under the influence of such stimulating thought.\nAn enricht and well-organized course of study which they can appreciate\nand enjoy is the first essential. In order to get a fair start toward the solution of this problem, one important change from our present course of\nstudy is necessary. We should shift from the present plan of scattering\nover broad fields of miscellaneous facts and numerous small topics to the\nopposite plan of selecting a few important topics for each year. In other\nwords, we should centralize our study upon a far more intensive and enricht\ntreatment of a few big topics.\nWe are convinst that adolescent children, according to their abilities\n\n—\n\n"}
{"page": 424, "printed_page": "412", "text": "412\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nand world- topics which constitute the central units of instruction; (2) wellinformed, large-minded, versatile teachers who have learned how to deal\nwith those growing, fruitful ideas which organize the world of knowledge\non an imposing scale. This presupposes inclinations and abilities in\ngrammar-grade children equal to the thought-mastery of these comprehensive and many-sided topics, such as: in history — the Puritans in England and in America, the cavaliers and the southern-plantation system,\nBurgoyne's invasion, the slavery agitation; in geography — a continental\nrailway system like the Pennsylvania Central, irrigation plans in the West,\nthe growth and the problems of New York City, the Rocky Mountains,\netc.; in literature — the Robin Hood stories, Evangeline, The Great Stone\nFace, Ivanhoey Treasure Island, Merchant of Venice, Story of Ulysses; in\napplied science — the water-supply of cities, the growth and influence of the\nsteam-engine, state and national forestry, electric power plants in rivers,\nwireless telegraphy, the flying machine, selection and cultivation of corn\nfertilizers, Burbank's experiments on plants.\nThese grammar-grade topics should be important types, based upon\nunderlying ideas extending thru the whole course of study. Every chief\ntopic thus elaborately workt out should remain in the memory as a permanent landmark, a center of organization, not only at the time of treatment, but for future accumulations thruout school and life. Any topic that\ndoes not gather together and unify enough material to produce a strong a^nd\ndistinct impression that also remains as a standard for judging future problems isnot worth studying at all. On the basis of this argument we could\ncertainly omit a great many small topics and at the same time concentrate\nour effort upon these larger units of study. The full, satisfactory, intensive\nhandling of such dominant topics carries the student into some source\nmaterials, into fuller descriptions, and into the extended and varied relations of the topic to other studies. In this way important habits of thinking\nand of organizing facts and collected data are formed.\nA proper study, for example, of irrigation in the West would presuppose\na careful examination of one important government project like that on the\nSalt River in Arizona or that on the Snake River in Idaho. Full government reports are studied, including the work of engineers in laying out the\nproject, the building of a big dam, various materials, labors, difficulties,\nand expenses; the manner of constructing the diversion dam for catching\nthe water saved up in the lake and distributing it thru ditches to the irrigated lands in the valley lower down the stream. Maps and structural\ndiagrams and photographs of the working operations contribute much.\nThe climatic and physiographic conditions surrounding the whole project\nare fully lookt into. The government follows a well-devised scheme for\nattracting settlers and for distributing the lands to them on a plan of\nmoderate payments which will return to the state the money invested, for\nlater use in other similar projects.\nA brief comparison follows of the vari-\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 425, "printed_page": "413", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nINTENSIVE\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF LARGE\n\nTOPICS\n\n413\n\nous projects already carried out in the western states with the results\nachieved in developing population and agriculture. These public schemes\nof irrigation are compared also with the more numerous private schemes\nthat have been workt out in the West. At this point a study of statistical\ndata will show what a vast wealth has been produced by these means in\nmany of the western states. It far surpasses the output of the gold and\nsilver and copper mines.\nThe arid belt, in which irrigation is the chief means of developing agriculture, isfound by a study of maps to extend over more than a third of\nthe territory of the United States. It may even be worth while to compare\nagriculture in irrigated regions with that in regions of rainfall in order to\ndiscover which is more advantageous and productive. Note also the variety\nof products raised in irrigated lands, as wheat and grains, potatoes and\nvegetables, peaches, apples, etc., alfalfa, clover, and hay, strawberries and\nother berries, even trees and forests; also cattle and stock-raising therewith.\nLater, in a comparison with similar irrigation projects in Mexico, in\nEgypt along the Nile, in the valleys of India, even in Italy and in the Sahara,\nwe shall discover that the extension of irrigation on arid lands in various\nparts of the world is one of man's chief means of making a living and of\nadapting himself to physical and climatic conditions the world over.\nThis topic workt out properly displays a growing, expanding idea, collecting and organizing into one definite line of good thinking a rich and\ncopious variety of knowledge. It interprets the facts and processes of one\nof the basal human occupations. It brings to the front and explains a\nlarge number of most important facts usually presented in geography, but\nit surpasses the method of the older study by giving unity, connectedness,\nand meaning to this collection of facts.\nSuch a large unit of study which gathers up and absorbs into itself an\nabundant and varied knowledge on the strong basis of a controlling, developing idea may require two weeks or a month or possibly six weeks to give it\na full and appropriate elaboration. Such a treatment brings about a real\norganization of knowledge that means something, a strong sequence and\nrelationship between the facts which associate them more firmly in the\nmemory and develop well-defined highways of thought — what may well be\ncalled habits of thinking.\nSuch thinking-out of important topics produces strong and permanent\nimpressions. In the future the mind will revert to these series and groupings\nof thought and will further strengthen and develop them. They become\nthe powerful apperceptive masses that enter into much of one's later think■ ing as interpretative agencies.\nMiscellaneous facts and data of knowledge appropriated by a mere\nact of memory have no such value. They lack organization and meaning,\n^ and in many cases drop out of the mind almost as quickly as they enter it.\n\n"}
{"page": 426, "printed_page": "414", "text": "414\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\ninterpret other facts and thus continue the process of organization. The\nmiscellaneous knowledge which some of our textbooks furnish children in\nscattered profusion is lacking in these two essentials of good learning and\nthinking: (i) the sense of relationship or meaning, and (2) the power to\ninterpret new situations. What a dead weight such knowledge is! It\nscarcely deserves to be called knowledge. It is a make-believe sort of\nknowledge, not the real thing.\nAt this age children should penetrate into a few big, masterly problems\nof study, so as to feel their value and richness. The big world should\ndisclose itself to the children thru these main channels in a way to surprise\nand awaken their sleeping thought energies. The mental enlargement\nand exhilaration which come with a clear insight into big organizing ideas\nproduce the appropriate mental attitude for adolescents. Just as they are\npreparing to step out into the practical world of trade and business, or it\nmay be into the fields of higher scholarship, they should strike some of these\nbig, expanding topics which will give them respect for knowledge, which\nwill teach them how to think, and lead them to the conviction that this\nworld is strongly organized, and that there is a binding sequence between\nits parts.\n. *\nThere is no reason why the studies of grammar grades should consist\nmainly of a mere review, rehash, and repetition of previous studies — a dry\nsumming-up and drilling of earlier studies in language, arithmetic, spelling,\nand geography. They should indeed result in greater thoroness, simpHcity,\nand clear insight into all elementary studies, but, as Lowell says: \" We don't\nneed to go about to make the world duller than it is.\" There are big doings\nin the world outside, and it may be well to give the boys and girls a glimpse\nof them. Why not grant them a chance at open-eyed wonder.\nThe adolescent mind will respond to large stimuli, to the enthusiasm\ninvolved in the big life-problems, whether individual or social or national,\nsuch as the achievements of inventors like Whitney and Field, and Fulton\nand Edison; of scientists like Pasteur and Franklin; or of travelers like\nLivingston, Peary, Captain Cook, and Magellan. We are waking up to the\nfact that grammar-grade boys and girls will respond to situations demanding strong individuals and hearts fearless and energetic. Big, stimulating\ntopics and big-hearted, well-informed enthusiastic teachers who can lead\nthe youth strongly into these simple but vigorous and energetic problems\nare in demand. We all need this infusion of spiritual energy which is\nnourisht upon large enriching topics of study. Spiritual life and energy\ndo not spring out of the empty and formal treatment of school topics. We\nmust get at real source material, at genuine life-problems, at engrossiag,\nabsorbing, national, social, and world interests. These things grow and\norganize themselves on the basis of abundant facts and out of pressing\nsituations under the stress of life-conditions. We should set children to\nthinking on big subjects and keep them thinking and moving along these\n\n"}
{"page": 427, "printed_page": "415", "text": "Department]\n\nTEE\n\nCORPORATION\n\nAND\n\nCONTINUATION\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n415\n\nsame lines till they begin to realize definitely what some of the main forces\nthat are operating in the world are.\nThe big problem, after all, is how to find qualified teachers. Only\na few, even good teachers, have learned the art of handling big, interesting\ntopics; of organizing and developing these engrossing problems and series\nof problems. The fault is not so much with the teachers as with the whole\nmethod of their bringing-up, for which they are not responsible. Shifting\nover to big topics and big problems demands a reorganization of our subjectmatter and of our methods of treatment. Our normal schools and colleges\nshould take the lead, as they are doing to some extent, in this selection and\nelaboration of large units of study. This is the effort to simplify and\norganize our course of study on a few basal ideas in each study. This simple\nelaboration of big topics requires a superior kind of thinking, a close sequence\nof developing thought, and a full background of descriptive and illustrative\ndetail. It requires a higher art of instruction, a capacity to control and\ncombine more complex thought m.aterials which involve wider relations and\nlonger sequences. These processes of teaching have to be demonstrated\non definite school topics. Much has been done already in the way of the\nfull and elaborate treatment of these large units, and much more remains\nto be done. In short, this emphasis of large topics proposfes a plan for the\nhigher education of teachers, a practical scheme for selecting and working\ninto shape by fruitful scholarly study groups and series of first-class topics\nwhich will form the basis of a better course of study and a richer, more\nthoughtful method of teaching.\n\nTHE PLACE\n\nOF THE CORPORATION AND THE CONTINUATION SCHOOLS\n\nCLIFFORD B. CONNELLEY,\nINSTITUTE\n\nDEAN, SCHOOL OF APPLIED INDUSTRIES, CARNEGIE\nOF TECHNOLOGY, PITTSBURGH, PA.\n\nThe corporation and the continuation schools are here to stay. They\nhave come into being in this country as a result of the demand for industrial\ntraining. The continuation school may or may not be a corporation school;\na corporation school is always a continuation school. In other words, there\nare two types of continuation schools, one controlled largely by the\nboard of education as a part of a public-school system, and the other controlled bymanufacturers or employers of labor as a part of the industrial\nplant. One gives rise to the expression \"school shop\" and the other to\n\"shop school.\"\nWhat relation do these schools have to the thirteen- and fourteen-yearold pupils in our public schools ? It is generally conceded that real industrial training should never be given to a child who is not at least fourteen\nyears of age, and preferably sixteen.\n\n"}
{"page": 428, "printed_page": "416", "text": "4l6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nMaking due allowance for the time element in connection with various\ninnovations, it is a well-known fact that there are still between 70 and 75\nper cent of the children of high-school age who do not attend school. How\nwould the transfer of the upper two grades of the elementary school to the\nhigh school benefit the 2,000,000 children between fourteen and fifteen\nyears of age who are out of school and who have never gone beyond the\nsixth grade in their schooling? Surely these should have a voice or a\nchampion when it comes to a question of continuity and adaptability of the\nchild to the schooling which is at the basis of all school reforms. Nor can\nthe large group of youth who do not and never will attend high school be\nignored. If both groups could be ruled out arbitrarily, the matter of\nadjusting the elementary school to the high school would be simple indeed.\nBut they are in the majority, and an educational scheme that leaves them\nout falls short of being really democratic.\nThis brings us to the consideration of the continuation school and its\nplace in an educational system. Its function is to take the youth who has\nleft school for whatever reason can be given, remove him from the environment of the shop and factory for an allotted period, and bring him into the\natmosphere of the school again in order better to adjust him to the demands\nof his job. In our country, unfortunately, this phase of the continuation\nplan of education has not as yet been very fully developt. Up to this time\nonly three states — Massachusetts, Wisconsin, and Pennsylvania — have\npast laws which at least outline a program which seems adequate. They\nhave made the continuation school compulsory, but the action has been so\nrecent that there is little that can be cited in the terms of concrete results.\nThe following, however, coming from W. Stanwood Field, director of the\nevening and continuation schools of Boston, is of interest, because of the\nfact that it represents the pupils' attitude to the continuation school as\ngleaned from answers to questions by over one thousand pupils:\nOver 90 per cent replied that the continuation schools helpt them in English, and over\n85 per cent that the school helpt them in arithmetic; replies showed that nearly 80 per\ncent were spending their leisure in a way that could be approved. Over 30 per cent\nreplie'd that the school had helpt them on their present jobs and a like number had received\npromotions on their present jobs. Over 80 per cent had been with the same employer\nsince entering the school; over 95 per cent liked the continuation school better than\nthe regular day school, and nearly 55 per cent preferred the continuation school to the\nevening school. Of those employed on a weekly wage, over 90 per cent reported no\ndeductions because of continuation-school attendance. More than two-thirds declared\nthat they had a more definite idea of what they would like to be in the future than they\nhad before entering school.\n\nIn Massachusetts the law requires every child between fourteen and\nsixteen years of age, not attending school, to attend continuation school four\nhours during working time. For three years Wisconsin had had a similar\nlaw in operation, and thirty cities of the state have continuation schools.\nIt is declared that little difficulty was experienst in getting every working\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 429, "printed_page": "417", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCORPORATION\n\nAND\n\nCONTINUA TION\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n417\n\nchild under sixteen years of age into such schools. The new law now\nrequires attendance to the seventeenth year. Milwaukee furnishes an\ninteresting example of the continuation work in that state. It is a city of\nover 400,000 inhabitants. According to Robert L. Cooley, the director\nof its continuation schools, \"in one year, 5000 young people who had left\nschool under sixteen years of age, averaging about the sixth-grade education\nand entered into juvenile jobs, were brought back to school.\" The school\nsession is held during the day for four hours each week for thirty-two\nweeks in the year as the minimum. The attendance averaged about 91\nper cent of the total number enroled. All pupils attend the same school,\nwhich is centrally located and is fitted up with suitable shops, laboratories,\ndraftingrooms, and classrooms. The pupils must take the required work\nper week in one attendance. Mr. Cooley stated last year, \"under this\narrangement, within just a few months, 715 employers have sent 3349\nemployes to our school. Of these employers, 483 employ but one boy or\ngirl.\" Instruction is offered in at least nineteen occupations, and the object,\nfrom the vocational guidance standpoint, is \" to make the boys familiar with\nthe use of tools and to aid them in selecting a trade or other skilled work that\nwill help them to earn substantial wages when they become men.\"\nPerhaps the state of Pennsylvania can lay claim to the most advanst\nlegislation in this country on this subject. When it is remembered that\nuntil last January the state allowed a working permit to be issued to a\nfourteen-year-old child on the strength only of his being able to read and\nwrite intelligibly, the new law must be considered a vast improvement.\nNow children must have the equivalent of the sixth grade and must leave\nemployment during working hours for attendance upon continuation school\nfor not less than eight hours per week. With this in mind, the following\nshort report of the continuation classes in connection with the public-school\nsystem of the city of Pittsburgh will throw a sidelight on the work of the\ncontinuation school in general:\nWhole number of boys and girls enroled, 1507, of whom 119 did not live in Pittsburgh. About 20 per cent of this number will be sixteen years of age on or before September 1, 1 9 16. Ninety- two per cent attended the public schools, or parochial or priv-ate\nschools previous to employment; and 20 per cent were found to be attending night\nschools since entering employment. Three reasons were assigned for leaving school,\nnamely, necessity, dislike, and desire to earn money. Thirty-three per cent have chosen\nvocations since enrolment; 6 per cent of this number are apparently unfit, either physically or mentally, for the employment in which they are now engaged.\n1. At the center of the continuation school must be placed the actual trade or occupation of the boy or the girl.\n2. The continuation-school building ought to be a separate one from the regular\nschool building and should have the equipment of the workshop. In starting such\na school the less costly equipment could be secured first and the remainder added\ngradually.\n3. Such a school must be a means of character-training and not a mere trade or\nindustrial school.\n\n"}
{"page": 430, "printed_page": "418", "text": "4l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Elementary\n\nAs it is true that the most progressive movements in our modern public\neducation can be attributed to the leadership of wise philanthropy and\nprivate initiative, so the ideal continuation school has its forerunner, in this\ncountry, in the corporation school. Some forty years ago a New York\nprinting firm undertook to train its employes in \" establish t classes,\" and\nsince that time corporations have conducted their own schools. There are\nover I CO different corporations giving from two to four hours instruction\nweekly to employes, bearing the entire expense and continuing the wages\nof the employes while in school. With the characteristic zeal for the\nhighest efficiency which has ever distinguisht our industrial organizations,\nfive years ago a movement was started to get together on education, and the\nresult is the National Association of Corporation Schools, which held its\nFourth Annual Convention at the Carnegie Institute of Technology just a\nfew weeks ago. The personnel of the convention included representatives\nof the greater number of large corporations of the country as well as many\nindividual educators and prominent men who have-interested themselves in\nthis system of education.\nThe functions of the National Association are given as follows: (i) to\ndevelop the efficiency of the individual employe; (2) to increase efficiency\nin industry; and (3) to influence courses of establisht educational institutions more favorably toward industry. The Association itself acts only\nas a clearing-house for data that have been collected under its jurisdiction,\nand for the interchange of ideas. Each affiliated corporation trains its\nemployes according to its own plans. As to the scope of the work, a hint\nmay be had by the mere mention of the following committees: TradeApprenticeship Schools; Special Training Schools; Retail Salesmanship,\nAdvertising, Selling and Distribution Schools; Office- Work Schools;\nEmployment Plans; Public Education; Safety and Health; Vocational\nGuidance. Much valuable educational material may be found in the\nreports which have been issued by the Association.\nA recent report contains a statement which is the latest word on\ncorporation-school organization.\nCorporation schools are most efl&ciently operated when they are conducted within the\nshop or manufacturing plant of the corporation and under its immediate control. Instruction should be given during regular working hours, with the apprentices or students under\nregular pay for the time spent in instruction. The average length of a trade course is\nfour years, with an average amount of instruction of four hours per week, best given on\nnon-consecutive days, and divided approximately equally between the subject of trade\nmathematics and the allied subjects of mechanics and shop drawing. The best practice\nprescribed both physical and mental entrance examinations for apprentices and a trial\nperiod in the trade averaging six months.\n\nThe report of the Committee on Public Education, presented at its\nlast meeting, is an unusually interesting document and, altho the Committee\nhesitates to assert the finality of its findings, there is again in evidence\n\n"}
{"page": 431, "printed_page": "419", "text": "r\n\nDepartment!\n\nTHE\n\nCORPORATION\n\nAND\n\nCONTINUATION\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n419\n\nthat grappling with an educational problem which gives the report the tone\nof certainty to one familiar with the \"school-industrial\" situation.\nThe report is accompanied by a chart showing fifty elementary subjects\nincluding their various subdivisions and, by means of a graphic representation, pointing out in terms of percentages the demands of industry on the\nvarious subjects of public education.\nThat business is not unwilling to cooperate with schools is a fact that is\nvery evident to one who is interested in industrial education. But we\nshould not expect our business men to do the work which falls to the\nschool. An evidence of the type of cooperation of special interest in these\ndays is that which arises from the necessity of training salesmen. Just\nrecently a number of firms interested in this problem set aside a fund of\n$7 5, 000 and askt the Carnegie Institute of Technology to organize a\nresearch bureau with the specific purpose in view of ascertaining how\nbest to choose and train salesmen. It is this spirit on the part of industry\nthat has brought about much of the change in our present curriculum in\nalmost every type of school. It is a thing, moreover, that ought to be\ncultivated, and if it were, many of our so-called school problems would no\nlonger exist.\nWe do right in lauding and applauding the work of the corporation\nschools, but we need to beware lest this but serve to arouse the finger of\nscorn. The 'corporation school is showing the way to tackle the other side\nof the educational problem. Take away the direct backing of the corporation and leave the school with all its essential details as organized by the\ncorporation, supply the backing of the public, as interpreted in the terms of\neducation, and we have the school which best befits modem conditions.\nThis would really be the continuation school, taking the youth who has left\nthe elementary school and continuing his education for the work he has\nentered, surrounded by working conditions, in a sense, but under the direct\nsupervision of the public-school system and in a school building. Any continuation school short of this is, from the standpoint of industry, a makeshift\nand at the best a temporary expedient. There are many details, of course,\nto be workt out, but the high-school system was not built in a day, nor have\nthe efforts of two score years spent in reorganization completed it.\nFrom the experience of other countries where the continuation school\nhas been given an adequate and honest trial, it has been found that this\nschool helps to solve the problems of both the lower and the higher schools,\nin addition to the service it renders to the large group of youth of the schoolgoing age.\nThe function of the elementary school is to take the child from the\nenvironment of the home for a part of the day and place him in the\nnew environment of the school with its corps of trained teachers and\nadministrators for a broader training for future usefulness than the\nhome can give.\n\n"}
{"page": 432, "printed_page": "420", "text": "420\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nThe function of the high school is to take the finisht product of the elementary school and continue the training for future usefulness, pointing to\nthe college, university, or technical school as the next step in training, or\nleading directly to a commercial or industrial career.\nThe function of the continuation school is to take the product of the\nelementary school, both the finisht and the unfinisht, principally the latter,\nfrom the environment of the shop and factory, where he is still inexperienst,\nand for an allotted period each week bring him under the direct training of\nthe school, with a view properly to adjust him to life, as well as to conditions\nunder which he must earn a living.\nThe function of the corporation school is not unlike that of the continuation school, except that the youth is put under the shop-management of a\nspecific corporation, with the idea primarily of training him for the highest\nefficiency within that organization. In this country the value of the corporation school, from the standpoint of public education, is that it leads\nthe way for the establishment of continuation schools. It is here to stay, it\nis true, but its work is highly specialized. It will occupy something of the\nposition in elementary and secondary education that the denominational\ncollege does in the higher circles of education.\n\nDISCUSSION\nTOPIC : IS THERE\n\nA NEED FOR MORE REALITY\nSCHOOL CURRICULUM?\n\nIN THE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nGeorgia Alexander, supervising principal of schools, Indianapolis, Ind. — Constructive criticism is rightly demanded of each speaker who takes your time. I should\nsay first that our greatest source of loss is thru making improvement everybody's business\nand nobody's responsibility. What we need, in my opinion, is the establishment in every\ncommunity of experimental or laboratory schools that should set themselves to the serious\nproblem of raising standards rather than standardizing what has already been achieved\nby our hit-and-miss methods. One pertinent question regarding arithmetic would be,\n\"Why do our pupils add so poorly?\" Column addition involves two elements, both\nautomatic: first, forty-five combinations; secondly, \"carrying\" according to the decimal\nsystem. All over the land these forty-five combinations are taught in the second grade.\nI am sure that every second-grade teacher will say that her class learned them all. I am\njust as sure that every eighth-grade teacher will testify that she never received a class\nthat stood loo per cent accuracy nor anything like it in column addition. Indeed, in my\nopinion, the signal service that Mr. Courtis has rendered is to show us the futility of the\nfive years of drill intervening between the second grade and the eighth. We now know\nthat the children of Indiana, poor a& they are, are quite as adept in figures as are the\nchildren in Kansas, and we long ago learned that there was nothing the matter with\nKansas, That is, relatively speaking, we are all right. But why do we find that less\nthan one-tenth of our eighth-grade pupils make an average of loo per cent accuracy in\nthe problems they attempt ?\nWith the fear of becoming didactic, I venture to make some concrete suggestions as\nto lines along which these suggested laboratory schools should work. To begin with,\ninduction based on social experience should be made the basis of instruction. Number is\n\n"}
{"page": 433, "printed_page": "421", "text": "Department]\n\nI\n\nREALITY\n\nIN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\na rational process, not a sense fact. The child should live thru so many concrete experiences that the inevitable law of two and two is his by virtue of his own reason. This is\nthe theory we preach in our normal schools. Why do we not practice it? Because it\nis so incomparably easier to hold up the figures and drill than it is to invent concrete\n421\nsituations that will stimulate the child's own activity. We are learning slowly that\nonly\nthru play, the serious natural occupation of the child, can we engage his every faculty\nand make him creative and resourceful. Thru drill, drill, drill, we train our pupils into\nautomatons. It is a superficial judgment of the public demand when we make of them\nmere adding-machines. The public very discriminately places the bookkeeper among\nthe low-salaried people. What it really pays for are integrity, judgment, creative imagination, initiative. There is no surer single proof of worth than the money it will command.\nMr. Courtis has found that above twelve hundred dollars there is practically no correlation between salary and ability in computation. I would say, then, that the great aim\nof the public school, so far as its mathematics is concerned, should be to turn out pupils\nwho can invent adding-machines rather than be them. And in such invention we have\nthe highest type of socialized mathematics.\nA social individual has red blood, has life. In like manner, true mathematics has\nlife and will enter into other life thru its own propulsion. So long as the pupil's arithmetic isan isolated thing, is a thing of the schoolroom only, it is artificial. The problem\nof the teachers is how to give the arithmetic of the schoolroom a life so impelling that\nour pupil voluntarily \"gets his heart in learning figures and making sums for himself.\"\nI wish to question the almost universal practise of teaching all the forty-five combinations inaddition in the second grade. There is not time to do the work rationally.\nWhy not introduce them more gradually and, as we go along, apply them to the upper\ndecades ? In this way the decades are reduced to a unit, in system.\nIn our efiforts to shorten our courses, cube root with trapeziums seems rightly to have\nbeen eliminated. But I question the glee with which we announce that we no longer\nteach factoring, while our pupils fall down before the simplest problems in ratio. In other\nwords, the pupil who does not have the ratio sense has not the life-sense in mathematics\nand, lacking that, cannot have the social sense. Then, again, the eighth-grade teachers\nwill agree with me that one of our greatest weaknesses is in the teaching of common\nfractions. Haste in introduction and the consequent mechanical drill are the chief\ncharacteristics of our usual practice. For example, 2 X I is not only f but it is J. Why do\nwe not take our fractions a little more slowly and a little more rationally ? The introduction ofdecimals and percentage need not be delayed, for the work would go along in\nparallel fashion. We would accomplish as much by the end of the sixth grade as is now\nlaid out in our courses of study. What is far more important, we should have a pupil\nwho knew what he was about. Many of you doubtless know the Buckingham tests in\narithmetic which were given in eight New York schools and in ten other cities. The results\nwere publishtin the Fifteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education.\nTwo sLxth-grade classes in Indianapolis which had workt along the rational lines just\nindicated exceeded over 60 per cent the grades made by the eighth-year pupils in the\nschools reported by Dr. Buckingham. What can be done by two classes, and doubtless\nhas been done by many more, but without profit to the country at large, can be done by\nall classes. We need special laboratory schools where the results of such special methods\ncan be demonstrated for the benefit of all.\nThe most sweeping attempt at enriching the course has been thru the introduction\nof manual training. As introduced, it is now voted a failure, and a shift forward has been\nmade to vocational training. But the end is not come, because we have not yet learned\nhow to spiritualize into life the material which the pupil handles. Under the dictation\nof the teacher, wood and nails remain dead matter. But suppose our pupil turns farmer.\nHe buys a new automobile and must needs have a garage. With what interest will he\nfashion a play garage on the scale of a quarter-inch to a foot. Thirty-two quarter-inches\n\n"}
{"page": 434, "printed_page": "422", "text": "422\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nmeasure naturally into 8 inches for the width of the garage, and ^ inches into 4^ inches\nfor the depth. What was the real lesson ? A garage ? No. It was the induction of\nthe law governing the reduction of improper fractions to whole or mixt numbers. Further,\nthe by-product is the valuable thing. The teaching of fractions must be transferred to the\nshop and to the kitchen. In a few prevocational schools it is widely heralded that\nan attempt is being made to correlate the work of the teacher in mathematics and the\nteacher in manual arts. There is no correlation. The mental development of the pupil\nis the one thing to be accomplisht, and the making of biscuits and shirt boards but the\nmeans to the end.\nAnd what opportunity we have for teaching mathematics thru the government!\nUnder Commissioner Wood, policeman spells social service, not graft. What would\nyou think of asking your class some day to make original problems on \"the policeman\"? When the postman, in his weary rounds, walks not so many miles in the\nmorning, which is so many more miles than he walkt in the afternoon, but is translated\ninto a great Uncle Sam who, with seven-league boots, out-Santas Santa, the United\nStates government becomes the child's government and the seeds of citizenship are\nsprouted.\nBut, after all, the bankers are the men who hold us in their power, who make international war, and who dictate the time and terms of peace. Ultimately the schools will\nsolve the problem of the dollar, which means democracy and equal opportunity, and the\nmoney trust shall be no more. In the meantime the schools are a great promissory note\nwhich, day by day, grows nearer to payment in full.\nJohn W. Slaughter, recent lecturer on sociology, London, England; Philadelphia,\nPa. — While most subjects of the curriculum had become definite in matter and fixt in\nmethod of presentation before the discovery of the child, geography has in recent years\ncome happUy into a fluid state. This makes it possible to give it a new and useful place\nin pedagogical procedure. It is not like one of the natural sciences, finding it necessary\nto proceed painfully from the known to the unknown, and formulating a corresponding\nmethod of teaching; its problem is rather to find its way thru a great and complex storehouse of materials. From that ancient combination of topography and study of political\ndivisions which curst the childhood of most of us with names of capes and capitals,\ngeography has become a sort of assembling plant of materials drawn from mathematics,\nphysics, geology, topography, botany, meteorology, ethnology, economics, and history.\nThis diversity of source has been a constant pitfall to the teacher. Too much interest in\nrocks and he becomes a geologist; too much interest in climate and he falls into meteorology; too much interest in industry and he becomes an economist. His foothold on the\nspecifically geographical plane is precarious and slippery. Another danger arising from\nall this wealth is that interest may center in geography wholly as a university subject. It\nis not easy to see from Ratzel or Reclus back to the beginnings of the subject in early\nchildhood. Yet, without doubt, this can be made, from its very nature, the most central\nand radiating subject of the whole curriculum.\nAs the problem of the geographer was one of selection and coordination, he found it\nnecessary to follow some definite formula as a clue in the maze. The one adopted is that\nof the economic determinist which postulates the effects upon a people derived from their\noccupation which, in turn, is made necessary by their peculiar type of natural environment. In other words, reference to the human factor has been the selective agent. The\nearth's surface has been rediscovered in terms of human work. Those aspects that are\nunavailable for man's use, or to which he has been unable to adapt himself, are regarded\nas negligible. Significance has therefore intensified in proportion as the study has dealt\nwith regions where man has accomplisht most. The science has therefore become primarily a study of regions, and the most important section of geography is known as regional\ngeography.\n\n"}
{"page": 435, "printed_page": "423", "text": "Department]\n\nREALITY\n\nIN\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n423\n\nThe formula stated in its simplest terms is place, work, people, implying, as already\nstated, that the environment of any group necessitates specific kinds of work, and that\nthis work determines the cultural character which makes the group into a people. In\norder to make this great modern development available for school purposes, let us take a\nstill greater simplification of the formula. It may be stated as environment, function,\norganism. This makes the principle involved in the geographical formula capable of a\nmore elementary, and at the same time more individual, application. The development\nof individual experience is a coordination of functions carried on in adaptation to an\nenvironment which is in large part natural. A biological interpretation of education would\ngive a novel and interesting grouping of subjects. There would be primarily the humanistic group which proceeds from the story of early childhood, to literature, religion, and\nhistory, as giving the most specific account of man as such. At the other pole are topics\nconcerned with the environment, known at their fullest as the natural sciences. The connecting link, just as function joins organism and environment, and just as work joins\npeople with place, is the practice and theory of human occupation. This biological\narrangement provides a test and criticism of the whole curriculum.\nThere is not much hope for true progress until the school is regarded as a place in\nwhich children may live as well as learn. Even in the practical manual activities found\nin the school there is little conception of occupation. In most places manual training\nstill consists of courses in carpentry, metal work, cardboard-modeling, and all the rest, as\nif a highly specialized division of work organized in terms of the material used could serve\nthe purpose of educational occupation.\nThese considerations show the place that geography may hold in the school system\nIt is a study of that ensemble of natural conditions under which any one of the generic\noccupations is practist. It is a practical introduction to the study of environment; it is\nan intermediate term between real experience of natural conditions and the abstract\nsubjects of natural science. Instead of building geography out of the results of the other\nsciences, let it stand to them as an introduction, in close touch with occupational reality.\nIt provides mathematics its two primary sources, mensuration and proportion. To\nmeasure a space and reduce it to a scale drawing is difficult in arithmetic, but easy in\ngeography. The humanly important facts of light, heat, wind, and rain give a first\nexperimental introduction to physics. Hills, rocks, and soils open the way to geology,\njust as trees and domestic vegetation provide a starting-point for botany. The later\nstudy of population, industry, and communication gives a reality to political economy\nthat it does not possess on its own account; and even history has greater meaning when\nstudied against the background of its geographical determinants.\nThere is no lack of natural interest during childhood to which geographical facts\ncan be related. With very young children the story interest provides a point of departure.\nThe events recounted in any story must transpire in some environment. In this way distinctness can be given to elementary geographical ideas, as of town, country, hill, valley,\ntrees, forests, flowers, rocks, caves, sea, shore, island, storm, sunshine, rain, animal,\nindustry, savage. There quickly supervenes an interest in travel and exploration which\nprovides the great opportunity for geography-teaching. Indeed most people are arrested\nat that stage of development. Not only the means of communication and travel but\ntopography, climate, vegetation, and the salient facts of ethnography are learned. And\nthis is done by picturing the natural conditions as coordinated to form a concrete region.\nThe acquisition of geographical technique should be accomplisht gradually and\nthru use. Probably the best training in the reading of maps comes thru map-making.\nEven a clumsily made map of the schoolyard or district puts more reality into the process\nthan the most extensive study of county or state maps. Similarly, the making and use\nof simple meteorological instruments and the keeping of weather records, if only for a short\ntime, gives a basis for the understanding of weather reports and the general facts of climate.\nThe ultimate object m the acquisition of technique is to work out and compare the climatic\n\n"}
{"page": 436, "printed_page": "424", "text": "424\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nand vegetation areas of the world and proceed from them to understand population and\nindustrial areas and their interrelation thrii communication and exchange.\nFinally, as already suggested, geography is not without its use as a groundwork for the\nstudy of human culture. One is better able to understand the history of Egyptians,\nJews, Saracens, Germanic and Mediterranean peoples by seeing them in their peculiar\nenvironment and carrying on their part in human industry.\nH. B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Topeka, Kans. — The essence of our discussion today in its application to the various elementary-school subjects under consideration evidently depends upon the meaning or content of the word \"real.\" What sort\nor type of subject-matter is real to elementary-school pupils ? What kind of course-ofstudy material possesses reality for pupils in the elementary schools? Fundamental\nanswers to these questions are indispensable to our discussion.\nShall we say that all subject-matter which can be objectively illustrated and demonstrated isreal ? I recall that in the lower grades of the elementary schools my teachers\nwere at great pains to demonstrate objectively with an elaborate tellurian the movements\nof the earth in relation to the sun and moon and in the solar system. It was beautifully\nobjective, but I am absolutely certain I had no worth-while appreciation of the significance\nof the demonstration. All of us have seen very learned teachers with access to a great\nmuseum give very extensively illustrated nature-study lessons, without leading the\nchildren ever to realize that the birds or other animal forms which were being illustrated\nin the class exercise were the same as those about the homes and gardens where they\nlived.\nShall we say that those topics and subjects which pupils can discuss fluently and\ntechnically are real to them ? All of us have heard children recite technical definitions\nin geography and point to the pictures in the book illustrating the geographic forms under\ndiscussion, and yet we have seen these same children wholly incapable of recognizing the\nsame forms when out on a geography excursion. We have also heard children discussing\nEnglish grammar with great fluency in the technical language of the subject, reeling off\ntechnical definitions a yard in length, without feeling the least discomfort in the presence\nof their ungrammatical language as they talk, and without much capability of illustrating,\noutside of the examples printed in the textbook, the points under discussion.\nShall carefully prepared outlines and notebooks be taken as evidence that the subjectmatter thus organized possesses reality for the pupils? Deliver us from such a conclusion. No thoughtful teacher questions the value of objective illustration in giving\nvital content to all sorts of subject-matter. Ability to employ the technical language of\na subject is one of the real evidences a child should possess, showing his comfortable\nintimacy with what he has been studying. Notebooks and outlines which are mainly\nthe result of the pupil's own efforts to organize and summarize a body of subject-matter\nwhich he has just completed should constitute some evidence that the topics thus treated\nare really understood by the pupil and possess a worth-while degree of personal significance\nfor him. Neither of these tests alone, nor all of them combined, however, should constitute the criteria for determining what subject-matter is or may be made real to children,\nfor by such selective standards long lists of meaningless words may stiU constitute the\nbulk of the spelling required of children.\nThe needs of successful, mature persons engaged in the ordinary work of the world\nshould determine the total content of each subject in the elementary curriculum, while the\norder in which pupils master this content should be determined by the order in which\nthey have needs, questions, or problems which can be satisfactorily answered by the\ncourse-of-study materials.\nEven common-sense observation enables us to eliminate large quantities of material\nfrom the language course of study under the guidance of this selective standard. It is\nperfectly easy, for example, to distinguish between the abstract and concrete noun, between\n\n"}
{"page": 437, "printed_page": "425", "text": "Department]\n\nREALITY\n\nIN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCURRICULUM\n\n425\n\ndescriptive, limiting, and limiting descriptive adjectives, between the adverbial ideas\nof\ntime, place, manner, degree, condition; but the distinctions, when made, add nothing\nto\nthe equipment of any man to talk or write with greater accuracy or clearness. This list\nof non-functional material • with which the teaching of language and grammar\nis\nencumbered might be indefinitely extended.\nFortunately we are not compelled to rely upon the data gathered from ordinary\nobservation nor upon the judgments of mere common-sense, because already one careful,\nscientific mvestigation mto the functional material m the course of study in English composition and grammar has been made, and its results have been verified by three careful\nadditional studies in Columbia, Mo.; Bonham, Tex., and Detroit, Mich. In November,\n19 14, W. W. Charters, of the University of Missouri, with the assistance of Edith Miller,\nof the Soldan High School, St. Louis, began an mvestigation m the schools of Kansas\nCity to determme upon the basis of the errors in the children's oral speech and in their\nwritten papers the total errors which those children committed from the standpoint of\naccuracy in the use of language.\nAs a basis for the study of the oral errors made by children the teachers thruout the\nschools, during one week in November, were alert to note every inaccurate expression\nused by any pupil, that the same might be reported to those conductmg the investigation.\nA tabulation of these mistakes revealed a total of twenty-one types of error.\nAgain, as a basis for the study of the written errors made by children, all the written\nwork which was not revised and corrected, done by the children in twelve schools during\none school month, was submitted to critical examination for errors. A tabulation of these\nreturns revealed all the errors which had been found in the oral speech of the children and\nsix additional ones. Some of these errors could not have been detected except in the\nwritten papers, while the others would be difficult to detect in the oral speech of the\nchildren.\nUpon the basis of the errors discovered and carefully tabulated in the oral and written\nwork of the children the investigators proceeded to a discussion of the items and topics\nwhich should be included in the course of study in order that each child, if he mastered\neverything prescribed by the course of study and used it, might be able, not only to rid\nhis speech and writing of errors, but to understand the rationale of his procedure. The\ncontent prescribed upon this basis is very simple and limited in comparison with the large\nmass of material presented for teaching in the ordinary advanst text used in elementary\nschools in teaching English. Those technical terms and distinctions, the mastery of\nwhich affords interesting \"gymnastics,\" but which cannot be shown to add to the pupil's\nability to talk and write accurately, have been omitted.\nThat such omissions are necessary in order that the attention of the pupils may be\nfocust upon functional matter is somewhat evidenst by the fact that when the oral errors\nmade by the children in all the grades from two to seven, inclusive, were compared on a\npercentage basis with those made by the children in the sixth and seventh grades, in which\ngrades technical grammar is taught, it was found that the percentages were just as high,\nor higher, in the case of each type of error, save one. These data, while quite differently\nderived, corroborate the conclusion of Hoyt in 1906 that the extended study of technical\ngrammar does not enable one to use better English either in talking or in writing.\nFrom our present knowledge it seems perfectly clear that in developing a content for\nEnglish composition and grammar which shall possess reality for the pupils of the public\nschools the necessary procedure is merely to extend our investigations until every type\nof error in talking and writing made by pupils in school and persons in the successful discharge oftheir tasks in the practical work of the world has been discovered. It will be\nnecessary to supplement present findings by further investigations and also to conduct\ninvestigations with reference to the errors in the speech and writing of persons outside\nof the schools. When the results of such studies are fully known, it will be perfectly easy\nto state the topics, principles, standards, and practices governing correct English speaking\n\n"}
{"page": 438, "printed_page": "426", "text": "426\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nand writing which must be taught in English composition and grammar. Dean Charters\nhas already done an excellent piece of pioneer work in formulating such a statement on\npp. 36-43 of the monograph reporting his Kansas City investigation. It should certainly\nserve as an excellent model for other efforts along similar lines.\nHow shall we proceed to establish such real work as is herein advocated in the schools ?\nIn the first place, courses of study must be drafted so that they shall specify only such\nsubject-matter as is included by the selective standards of reality defined above; secondly,\ntextbooks must be chosen, after they become available, which are organized to assist\nin the most economical and helpful ways the teaching of those essentials specified by\nthe course of study, and which are not therefore encumbered and padded with obsolete,\nuseless materials.\nAs a third essential, a new attitude with reference to the teaching of English in the\nelementary schools must direct and inspire the work of the teaching and supervisory staff.\nThese officers must one and all see that English cannot be most satisfactorily taught by\nrequiring the slavish mastery of textbooks. Rather, the practice of using textbooks in\nlanguage merely as sources of information and help must become dominant. In such an\nattack the teacher's first large problem in helping her pupils to talk and write good English\nis in finding things they really need to talk and write about. These exist on every hand,\nof course. The important thing is for the teacher to take such a view of the social situation in the school as will enable her, together with the children, to discover actual needs\nfor talking and writing, as real as those with which we find the children concerned outside\nthe school in their simple play, and in social and business experiences. At home and in\nplay the child Jisks for things he really wants. He applies for a job that he is anxious to\nsecure. He states his reasons for asking a favor of his playmates or his parents.\nHe writes to a business firm ordering something he needs. He exchanges notes\nor letters with his friends and replies to invitations he receives from them. The need\nwhich the child feels for talking and writing motivates fundamentally all of his efforts in\nthat connection, and therefore makes them definitely real. A child soon realizes that\nunless his efforts at expression are reasonably accurate and in keeping with good standards,\nhe is not so likely to make clear his meaning, and therefore not so likely to succeed in his\nefforts. The desire to talk and write effectively leads him to seek help in improving his\nexpression. This renders very real and actual all the subject-matter which must be\ntaught during the process of teaching him proper letter form or composition form, correct\npunctuation, accurate sentence structure, and proper grammatical usage. Whether this\ninformation is gained from a textbook on language or from other sources, the child possesses\na reason which is actual to him for desiring to master it.\n\nWILL STANDARD TESTS ECONOMIZE TIME, LEAD TO A\nBROADENING OF THE SUBJECT-MATTER, AND MAKE\nFOR EFFICIENCY OF BOTH TEACHER AND PUPIL?\nLIDA\n\nLEE\n\nTALL,\n\nSUPERVISOR\nOF GRAMMAR\nSCHOOLS, TOWSON,\n\nGRADES,\nMD.\n\nBALTIMORE\n\nCOUNTY\n\nMeasuring the achievement of individual pupils in classes or in schools\nin common subject-matter is a movement of recent growth in education.\nJ. M. Rice, in the \"nineties,\" blazed the way, but only since about 1908,\nwhen the Stone arithmetic-test was standardized for time and unit values,\nhave the tests been in usable form to determine the weaknesses in the child's\nhierarchy of habits for the various subject-matter processes, and to check\n\n"}
{"page": 439, "printed_page": "427", "text": "Department]\n\nWILL\n\nSTANDARD\n\nTESTS\n\nECONOMIZE\n\nTIME?\n\n427\n\nup the subjective opinion of the teacher. Following fast on the Stone test\ncame the Courtis arithmetic, Series A, the Thorndike writing scale, and\nthe Hillegas English-composition scale, until now we have bureaus of educational research starting up all over the country, definitely committed to\nthis scientific side of school work. At the Cincinnati meeting of the Department of Superintendence, February, 191 5, a discussion of these tests sounded\nthe chief note. Further developt and defined, they again became the main\nnote of the Detroit meeting, together with educational surveys which are\nthe real propaganda channels for spreading the knowledge of the testing\namong the educational laity, the teachers.\nOn the way back from Cincinnati, train talk such as this was heard:\n\"They will never do\"; *' Already teachers are overworkt\"; \"This testing\nmeans further hardship for them.\" I maintain this is not the case, for,\ngiven an efficient superintendent and a patient supervisory corps, the tests\ncan be introduced so gradually, the teachers themselves being instructed\nand trained in the knowledge of graphic and statistical methods, that there\nneed be no reaction against them. This has been done in the school system\nin which I now work — a school system of about 600 teachers and 28,000\nchildren. All — superintendent, supervisors, and teachers, under the capable guidance of professors of education from the best teachers colleges in the\ncountry, have been working together for the last six years, studying and\ngiving tests. In 1913 the Buckingham spelling- test, given to about 10,000\nchildren in our larger schools, set the entire school system thinking about\nspelling. We have tried, since then, to find the answer to many such\nquestions as the following: What is spelling ability? How do words\nbehave ? How much should one grade surpass another in spelling ? What\neffects spelling ability ? What tells one how to spell a word ? We have\nfound spelling a good subject for home study, and our methods in spelling\nhave been changed more radically than we thought possible, our main\neffort now being directed to studying spelUng with the children in order to\ndetermine how different words function with different individuals. Thorndike says no spelling-book has yet appeared based on the study of how\nfrequently children misspell the words of which it is composed; and every\nspeUing-book contains numerous words that many children know how to\nspeU. Probably the teacher's greatest gain has been in reducing the time\ncost of the subject thru her improved methods.\nFrom the Stone and Courtis tests in arithmetic, we have seen for ourselves the bad arithmetic habits school children have: counting by ones,\ninefficient adding, poor division due to bad subtraction habits, no correlation between ability in abstract work and in reasoning problems, etc.\nThru the discussion of these vital matters at group meetings and in individual conferences, we have been led to evaluate speed and accuracy in their\nschool and\njust proportion; to rationaUze numbers and fractions in use in\nions,\nsign-solut\nto\ntion,\nhome Ufej and to pay more attention to approxima\n\n"}
{"page": 440, "printed_page": "428", "text": "428\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nlElementary\n\nto oral arithmetic, and to original problem-making by the pupil. At a\nconference in June, with about forty of our grade teachers, at which we\ndiscust the value of the standard test to economize time and make for\ngreater efficiency of the work of both teacher and pupil, some of the points\nbrought out by the teachers were: (i) There is less overteaching now;\n(2) seeing the distribution of ability in the class leads to individual treatment; for the upper, 25 per cent; for the lower, 25 per cent; for the middle,\n50 per cent; (3) only one-quarter of the class presents a real problem in the\nslow children; (4) children vary in ability from day to day; (5) children\nare made to know the value of time; (6) the median as a rating is more\nscientific than the average; (7) the teacher ceases to blame the very slow\nchild for keeping back the class; (8) the child works to excel himself;\n(9) tests alone do not make a textbook; (10) the brighter children, relieved\nfrom drill work, are given opportunities to do more difficult work and to\nmake original situations and solve them.\nOftentimes the tests disclose ignorance of subject-matter on the part\nof the teacher, consequently on the part of the children who have been\ntaught incorrect facts. For instance, Dr. Ballou's geography-test was\ngiven to about 500 of our sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade children last\nspring. The Boston median for the eighth grade was 27.9; our median\nfor the sixth grade was 28; for the seventh, 25.5; for the eighth, 27.5.\nWe found our pupils could not locate the city of Lynn in relation to Boston,\nthe question being a good one for Boston children but a rather poor one\nfor Maryland children. Our teachers had failed regarding the question,\n\"Why do the states just east of the Rocky Mountains receive less rain\nthan Massachusetts ? \" because many of them did not know that when wind\nblows against mountains it is cooled by expansion; they confused expansion\nand condensation, therefore the pupils' answers were markt down.\nThru the Thorndike and Courtis reading scales, we have begun to\nanalyze what a home-study assignment really means; take a fourth-grade\nchild, for example; to know that he can have the ability to read 160 words\nin one minute and reproduce 50 per cent of the meaning, means that in a\nhistory-assignmeut of, say 800 words, if he is up to the ability for his grade,\nit will take him five minutes to read the printed matter alone. Now, if,\nin addition, he is definitely required to make a map to show the scene for\nthe historical setting, to make a list of the characters, to locate places named\non the map, to discuss the vital point in the history lesson, to jot down the\nquestions he should want to ask because he has been stimulated by the\nreading, we begin to see that twenty minutes will barely suffice to cover his\nhome-study period for this lesson, even if he works up to the limit of his\nability every minute of the time.\nThe criticism comes: Do not tests tend to make children alike ? Not at\nall. Tests are only a means of diagnosis. They show individual differences\nand group-distribution, at the same time serving as a check to the teacher's\n\n"}
{"page": 441, "printed_page": "429", "text": "429\n\nDepartment]\n\nEDUCA TIONAL\n\nVALUES\n\nOF THE KINDERGARTEN\n\nsubjective opinion which, tho oftentimes correct, also is often faulty.\nTests can also be used as a defense against groundless charges made by\nparents against teachers and even made by school officials against classroom\nmethods.\nIn conclusion I would say: (i) Standard tests, if rightly introduced into\na school system, place no burden upon the teacher, but serve to help her\nin making more intelligent diagnoses; (2) individual differences stand out;\n(3) homogeneous groups are formed and teaching difficulties are lessened\nthereby; (4) the hierarchy of habits involved in any one process is made\napparent to the teacher; (5) time cost of overteaching is greatly reduced;\n(6) the child works to his utmost capacity; (7) with driU placed upon a\nrational basis the proper emphasis can be put upon the improvement of\nclassroom method; (8) graphic methods are understood; (9) an improvement in the course of study will be the inevitable result; and (10) an\nimprovement in textbooks is bound to follow.\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATIONAL VALUES WHICH THE CHILD CARRIES\nOVER FROM THE KINDERGARTEN INTO THE\nPRIMARY GRADES\nMARY\n\nD. HILL,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF KINDERGARTENS,\n\nLOUISVILLE, KY.\n\nLife-experiences gained in the freedom of the kindergarten are the\ngreat educational values the kindergarten child carries into the grades as\nan essential foundation for the interpretation of the more mature experiences\nof later education. As the need for more formal means of expression arises\nin the child's development this kindergarten experience fills these forms\nwith their true meaning and significance. They may thus become Uving\nforms or symbols.\nWhat are some of the experiences of the kindergarten child ?\n1. The home experiences, human relationships and service, family\nneeds, comforts, pleasures, and joys.\n2. The ways in which the workman, the tradesman, the artisan, and\nthe artist help to meet the family needs and pleasures.\n3. The simpler community needs and how they are met, such as the\nplayground, parks, and mail service. The sharing of these benefits with\nother families and homes.\n4. The nature conditions that are a background for, and form a necessary means of, furnishing forces and materials to meet human necessities\nand pleasures.\n5. In the kindergarten itself the big opportunity is for social and moral\ndevelopment thru individual play and freely formed group play as well as\nthru the teacher-formed groups and directed play and work. Individual\nself-direction, social leading and following, and cooperation are developt\n\n"}
{"page": 442, "printed_page": "430", "text": "430\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nwhere children are given some freedom in what they do, how they do it,\nand with whom they do it. The social adjustments made under such\nconditions are many and varied and are real life-situations which should\ncarry over into their home life and play. These habits, formed spontaneously, are invaluable, but they must be carried on thru the school life, if\nthey are to survive. This is the problem that is the most pressing in both\nthe kindergarten and primary; how to plan for self -direction and free\ngroup play that is at the same time genuinely developing and educative.\nIn the kindergarten the children have much time for their own selection\nof materials and for the free use made of them. In doing this they either\nstumble upon or consciously feel their own little problems. Consequently\nimagination, judgment, experiment, reasoning, and self-reliance are used\ncontinually in the effort to work them out.\nOur chairman gave me permission to tell you some of the more definite\nplans for unifying the training of children in the kindergarten and the first\ngrade which we have been using in our own school system in Louisville.\nIn the beginning, however, I should like to say that the only fundamentally\neffective way to unify is to give the same training to all teachers of children\nfrom four to seven or eight years of age. The methods of unification of\nwhich I shall tell you are only a makeshift till we can get the right normal\ntraining for our teachers of young children. In our city we are simply\ntrying to deal with a present condition as best we can. Our primary\nsupervisor felt it necessary to take several kindergarten courses in further\npreparation for her own field. Because she knows the contribution of the\nkindergarten, she and her strongest teachers give, not only cooperation,\nbut active leadership in the plans for utilizing the educational values which\nthe kindergarten child brings to his later education. Our other special\nsupervisors, such as those of music and of manual training, are active in\nthe scheme also. We have many meetings of kindergarten and first-grade\nteachers, and the kindergarten and first-grade teachers in the same building\nfrequently plan their work together, each suggesting to the other.\nIn the last few years we kindergarten teachers have tried to give the\nfirst-grade teachers something specific that they can actually use in the\nearly work of the kindergarten child in the first grade. This has given\nthem a basis of work for immediate use, but it also has done something\nmuch better. It has changed their attitude from that of general friendliness and interest to a positive and definite planning to use the contributions,\nabilities, interests, and knowledge of the kindergarten child. The following plan was used: Every kindergarten teacher in the system brought in a\nlist of ten stories, songs, games, rhymes, poems, pieces of handwork, and\nother specific habits which she felt were good for her group of children.\nA committee then chose about fifteen of each from these lists. This\nselection was made from two standpoints: (i) those stories, etc., which\nwere the most frequently found in the Usts; (2) with the help of the primary\n\n"}
{"page": 443, "printed_page": "431", "text": "Department!\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nVALUES\n\nOF THE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\n431\n\nsupervisor and first-grade teachers, from this smaller list ten were selected\nbecause of their utiHty in the first grade as a basis for more advanst\nwork. For instance, all the ten stories finally selected are in our firstgrade supplementary readers. Most of the poems and songs are in various\nbooks furnisht to the first-grade teachers. These lists were sent out as\na\nkindergarten first-grade bulletin to all these teachers, having been accepte\nas a minimum course which every kindergarten teacher gives her childrend\nat some time during their kindergarten training. In this way the firstgrade teacher can count on the kindergarten child's familiarity and skill\nin these specific things, so she plans to use them as a basis for their first\nwork in her room.\nThe bulletin goes on to give suggestions of simple plans for using this\nkindergarten course, particularly in the so-called \"seat-work period.\"\nWe selected this period for two reasons: (i) because it seemed the best\nopportunity for free handwork, and (2) because it seems the most difficult\nperiod for the first-grade teacher. We are now calling this \"the period of\nindependent expression,\" where both individuals and groups are selfdirected in their work.\nIn order to make the work still more definite to the first-grade teacher\nand to give the kindergarten child a realization that what he knows and\ncan do will be useful to him in the primary grades, we send m with the\nchildren two kinds of their own handwork. One kind is represented by a\nbooklet containing four or more leaves, among other things the workingout of some simple problem such as the following: \"Cut as many stockings\nto paste on this mantel as are needed for the children of your family on\nChristmas Eve.\" The problem is written on the other side of the leaf so\nthe first-grade teacher can see how the children can do their own thinking.\nEach kindergarten keeps what we call a first-grade box for the best pieces\nof free handwork of any kind that the children do the last few months\nthey are in kindergarten. With the teacher's help they select the best\nand most characteristic forms in free cutting, painting, modeUng, construction, drawing, or any other forms that are so good that both children\nand teacher cannot fail to recognize them. For instance, some child\npaints a very good robin. The kindergarten teacher and children select\nit because it is unmistakably a robin. They mount it on the inside page\nof a folded leaflet of mounting paper. When the children enter the first\ngrade, they take a boxful of such work with them. As the first-grade\nteacher sees fit, she prints the name on the outside of these folders and\nlets the children see the word in connection with the picture in her teaching\nperiod. Afterward this group can select their own little teacher, who\nthen holds up the leaflet, asks someone to read the word, and opens it to\nlet the group decide whether or not it was read correctly.\nAnother simple scheme is to allow the children to bring to the kindergarten good pictures of single forms, such as animals, boys, girls, birds.\n\n"}
{"page": 444, "printed_page": "432", "text": "432\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\ntrains, and toys. They cut them out and mount them on uniform cards,\nleaving ample space for the first-grade teacher to print the name below.\nShe prints the name also on a small card. Several of these mounted pictures and cards are put into an envelope made by a fourth-grade class.\nThen a child can take the envelope and match the card word to the word\nprinted on the mounted picture. This plan was workt out entirely by a\nfirst-grade teacher in a slightly different way.\nAnother plan for closer unification is one that we have been trying for\nsix months. All of our elementary schools have only one session, closing\nat one-thirty. Consequently, we have only one session in our kindergartens.\nOur children begin work at eight-thirty and are dismist at eleven-forty.\nThe kindergarten teachers spend from one to two hours a week in visiting\nthe homes. On the other days they have from twelve-thirty to one-thirty\nfor preparation of materials. The period from twelve to twelve-thirty is\ngiven to teaching the slowest group of beginners in the first grade. This\nwork is confined strictly to play situations where the play is directed thru\nreading what to do.\nIn addition to the benefit to that distressing number of six-year-olds\nwho are not ready for the usual first-grade work, this plan gives the kindergarten teacher an insight into the difficulties that beset the child just\nbeyond the kindergarten period, and it necessitates many conferences\nwith the regular teacher of these slow pupils.\nI believe I can say that without exception our kindergarten teachers\nhave greatly enjoyed this connecting step between kindergarten work, pure\nand simple, and first-grade teaching. In no case are they askt to do any\ndrill work except that naturally involved in the plan they work out themselves for this slow group.\nThese simple, concrete means of basing the early, first-grade work\ndirectly on the previous training and experience of the child in the kindergarten would apply only in the situation out of which they were developt,\nas you can readily see. They are the outcome of an effort to meet an actual\ncondition. They are useful and possible only because of the common\nideals and principles held by all concerned, by kindergarten and primary\nteachers and their leaders. They are possible only because all feel that\ncontinuity of growth can be secured only when all who train our children\nset themselves steadily to the problem of fostering genuine growth thru\nan environment and method of using it that calls out free selection of\nproblems and materials and freedom in ways of solving them. We work\nfor this in order that our children may grow in self-direction, self-control,\nleadership, and subordination of self to efficient leading, cooperation, and\ninitiative, and in imagination, open-minded experimentation, critical judgment, and abiUty in and out of school.\n\n"}
{"page": 445, "printed_page": "433", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPRIMARY\n\nGRADES\n\n433\n\nPRACTICAL MEANS OF UNIFYING THE WORK OF THE\nKINDERGARTEN AND THE PRIMARY GRADES\nI.\n\nJ. L. MERIAM, PROFESSOR OF SCHOOL SUPERVISION, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI, COLUMBIA, MO.\n\nThe topic which is before us implies that a closer union of these two\nparts of school work is wanted. It seems to be assumed that such an\norganization is needed for greater efficiency; that organization itself insures\ngreater efficiency. But one must ask at once, efficiency for what ? It seems\nto be implied that there is a desire to carry over into the first grade greater\nresults from the kindergarten work than have prevailed in the past. I am\nin full sympathy with the earnest effort for greater efficiency in these early\nstages of work. I cannot but feel, however, that there is danger of more\nharm than good in the organization which seems to be in the minds of those\nwho plan for this discussion. Let me express my view very briefly in two\n•\nstatements:\n1. The best relation between the kindergarten and the first grade is\nno organic relation at all. I mean by this to emphasize the idea that the\nkindergarten has its own function to fulfil, as also has the first grade, and\neach has its function without reference to the other. The first grade should,\nof course, take advantage of any work done in the kindergarten; also in\nany step of experience. Previous experience, if at all related to what one is\nendeavoring to do at present, is a real contribution. But the kindergarten\nshould not be lookt upon as in any way a prerequisite for the first grade.\nMoreover, the kindergarten should be regarded by those conducting it as\nvery much more than a preparatory school. Closer organization would\ndoubtless have the effect of leading teachers and directors of kindergartens\nto conduct their work more with a view to preparing the little children for\na more successful undertaking of the work in the first grade. This would\nseem to be most injurious to the work of the kindergarten.\n2. There is serious danger that organization works to the advantage of\nsystem, but at the sacrifice of the boy and the girl. Adults seem to take a\ngreat deal of delight in organization of schools and other enterprises; system\nseems to be an object of admiration and worship for the adult. And this\nis quite right for the adult. After having considerable experience, the\nadult takes delight in putting that experience together in a very systematic\nway. The case is quite otherwise with the boy and the girl. There is\naltogether too much originality and individuality in the real boy and girl\nto be favorable toward any such organization as seems to be proposed. Little boys and girls delight in playing, without reference to the\npossible relation of that play to a certain bit of number work or reading\nome later.\nhet mmaey, inc the next place, state what seems to me to be the real practical\nc\ni\nh\nw\nI L\n\nlb\n\n"}
{"page": 446, "printed_page": "434", "text": "434\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Elementary\n\nto do, altho the two may clearly be stated by the adult as one purpose.\nThat purpose seems to me to be nothing else than to help boys and girls\nto do better in all those wholesome activities in which they normally engage.\nAnd we must expect children from the age of four to six to have quite\ndifferent normal activities from children from six to eight years of age. If\nthe education of the four- to six-year-old child is to be determined by what\nhe needs when he is six or seven, I am very confident he will not live the\nfullest life that belongs to the child of four to six. I am more and more\nconvinst of the idea that the best preparation for somewhat later years is\nefficiency in the immediate present.\nTwo reasons for the position which I am taking are these:\n1. Preparatory work in the elementary stages of child life robs that\nlife of its beautiful simplicity. Children live in the present; their motives\nare concerned with the present. Interests have to do with what concerns\nthem in the immediate present. Parents and teachers are too liable to\nforecast the future for the child. For example, a fond father announst to\nme that his boy of two years had already decided to be a foreign missionary.\nTwo years later he was obliged to admit that a change had taken place and\nthe child was occasioning the parents a great deal of trouble — in his words,\n*' acting like the devil.\" It was clearly not the child who made the decision\nat the age of two, but the father. Teachers are doing the same for their\npupils, planning work for the future, whereas the children themselves are\ninterested only in the present.\n2. Teachers who teach pupils for the purpose of preparation work more\nfor the promotion than for the development of children. The lower-grade\nteacher is not in any sense on a lower stage than the upper-grade teacher\nbut somehow both teachers and pupils too early emphasize the notion of\npromotion as synonymous with advancement. If the kindergarten teacher\nwere to keep in mind the preparation of her children for the first grade, the\nwork in the kindergarten would be robbed of much of that which now makes\nthat institution so valuable to the little people.\nIn conclusion, my practical advice is this: Let the kindergarten teacher\nfeel that she is second to none, and let the first-grade teacher also feel that she\nis second to none. Each has her own work to do — that of helping her own\npupils do better than they have ever done before. The first-grade teacher\nshould, however, not be unmindful of what her pupils did as kindergarten\npupils. Take all the advantage possible of their experience, but in no\ncase request or insinuate that the kindergarten teacher is to work for the\ngood of the first-grade pupil.\n\n"}
{"page": 447, "printed_page": "435", "text": "Department]\nII.\n\nTEE\nLUELLA\n\nKINDERGARTEN\nA.\n\nPALMER,\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPRIMARY\n\nASSISTANT DIRECTOR\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nOF\n\nGRADES\n\n435\n\nKINDERGARTENS,\n\nAltho the practical means of unifying the work of kindergarten and\nprimary grades must be undertaken by two sets of people— the elementary\nteachers and the kindergartners— yet there should be but one point of\nview from which this unification is to be regarded, that which gives a vista\nof education as continuous development. A kindergartner should be first\nof all an educator surveying the whole field of education. She should see\nends as well as beginnings and also the steps in the process of growth. Only\nafter taking this broad view may she confine her attention to the first steps\nin the process. Any suggestions for unifying the work of kindergarten and\nprimary grades should consider the function of the whole school and then its\nrelation to children between four and eight years of age. Lastly, what\nseem ideal aims and methods for these years can be compared with the\nactual practice of the early grades.\nIf the school realizes that part of its duty is to develop ideals of morality,\nto encourage initiative, and to give knowledge which can be applied, then\nit must alter its methods. It must provide for the children the conditions\nwhich developt these traits in the race. Morality was learned in contact\nwith actual situations, in performing manual labor, in working with one's\nfellows. Initiative and ability to apply knowledge were developt in the\nsame situations.\nTo use tools, to move from one kind of work to another, to exercise outdoors, and to\nlearn to supply one's daily needs are educating influences which develop skill, initiative,\nindependence, and bodily strength — in short, character and knowledge\nThe\nessential thing to be brought about thru the change in education is, not massing more\ninformation, but the formation of certain attitudes and interests — ways of looking at things\nand dealing with them\nWhat is wanted is that pupils shall form the habit of\nconnecting the limited information they acquire with the activities of life, and gain abiUty\nto connect a limited sphere of human activity with scientific principles upon which its\nsuccessful conduct depends.\n\nAccording to the above quotations taken from Dr. Dewey's writings,\nschool methods must relate directly to instincts, impulses, interests, motives,\npurposes, habits, attitudes.\nThe school grades for the child between four and eight years of age\nmust provide an environment with much first-hand experience, where the\nsenses can be trained, and knowledge tested thru experiment. Results\nshould be watcht, but we must enlist a child's \"participating disposition in\ngetting the result desired, and thereby develop within him an intrinsic and\npersisting direction in the right way.\" Educational influence should be\nexerted along the lines of changing tendencies. Unless the. right education is provided for reasoning, effort, and cooperation when rudimentary\nit will be\nhabits are forming, the child's tendencies may be so warpt that\nL\n\n"}
{"page": 448, "printed_page": "436", "text": "436\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Elementary\n\nfunction of the school in the first years, the following suggestions might be\nmade for unifying the work of kindergarten and primary grades.\nThe purpose of a program or course of study is to suggest an outline of\nthose topics or facts which can be given in such a way that the life of the\nchild will be enricht and the different aspects of his world will take on a\nmore organized relation. The fact content for both kindergarten and the\nfirst grade should be drawn almost entirely from living experiences, such as\ngardening, care of pets, and play with toys, such as dolls and kites. These\nexperiences can be amplified by visits to the park and shore, to the blacksmith, banker, and fireman. Instead of talk or study *' about\" things,\nchildren should live among things that provoke study. More opportunity\nshould be given in the kindergarten for vivid first-hand experiences. The\nadult selection of experiences which can only be presented to the children\nthru pictures and which are arranged in logical sequence do not have as\neducational a value and do not make as lasting an impression as those\nwhich require the child's activity in actual situations. In the grades also,\nthere should be more of living in real situations. The error encountered\nhere is of a different character from that in the kindergarten. Instead of\norganizing the child's thought by adding daily to some experience which\ninterests him, attention is concentrated on details, on the learning of reading\nand number symbols. More vivid first-hand experiences similar to those\nin the kindergarten should be given, but these should be considered in greater\ndetail, and interpretations should be sought outside of daily experience.\nThe child loves to handle and to make things. While nothing which is\nof value in an adult's eyes may result, the child is learning in the only vital\nway the uses and possibilities of material. The child of four to eight\nyears is also learning to reason and to hold a purpose in mind long enough\nto carry it over into a course of action. If the result is one strongly\ndesired, he will train himself in concentration and in the putting-forth\nof effort. At this period of a child's life, manual training is one of\nthe most important means of mental and moral training. The kindergarten can improve its practice along several lines. It can work\nmore consciously for the development of initiative, of judgment, and\nthe sustaining of effort. Kindergartners are often afraid of crudeness\nand of failure. They lead the children step by step in constructing an\nobject and so make infinitesimal the educational value of a result. A\nchild should be helpt to develop along the line of the selection of the end\nfor which he plans to work. If he enjoys the fruit of his activity, that is,\nif the result for him is either useful or beautiful, he will learn the value of\nsustaining effort until the longed-for end is reacht. If children are to express\ntheir thought and to learn to reason thru handwork, then suggestions as to\nsuitability of material and amounts required should be welcomed. In many\nkindergartens the children are hampered by the traditional way of supplying kindergarten materials, or by limits arbitrarily set by the kindergartner.\n\n"}
{"page": 449, "printed_page": "437", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE KINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nTHE PRIMARY\n\nGRADES\n\n437\n\nIt is as uneducational to ask a child to build a house of eight cubes, when\nhis idea of a house requires an extra cube for a chimney or an extra halfcube for a slanting roof, as it is to compel an older child to write a description ofa house which shall contain eight words and no adjectives. In the\nprimary grade the child is most terribly sinned against because so little\ntime is devoted to handwork. Just at the age when, if rightly used,\nit energizes the whole personality, develops the reasoning power, and\nteaches the value of effort, handwork becomes incidental in the school\nprogram. It should take its place alongside of real experiences as one of\nthe most necessary educational agencies. The objects made should be\nsuch as the child desires in his endeavor to live out further experience.\nA usable vocabulary registers a certain number of ideas which have\nbecome formulated and is a working capital for further ideas. Language\ndevelops most vitally in contact with real things in real situations. It is in\ncommunicating with his plajrfellows that a child strives to convey thought\nas accurately as possible. In the kindergarten the best language-training\nperiods are when the children gather freely around the newly discovered\nsprouting leaf or around Mary as she enthusiastically talks about baby's\nnew tooth. In the grades there is little time for real conversation because\nreading seems so much more important. Contact experiences and practical,\nusable handwork will lead to many interesting moments of free give-andtake-in ideas. Good language training will result, as conversation will be\nrelevant to the topic under consideration. The train of thought will\nbe sustained by the contributions from many minds, and the subject will\nbe presented in different aspects.\nThru the period from four to eight years the child is gaining control over\nthe larger trunk muscles. This has a markt effect upon the growth and\ndevelopment of the vital organs. It also stimulates the growth and development of the fundamental nerve centers in the brain. Most kindergartens\nand primary classes neglect to give the child opportunities for big muscle\nactivity, for running, sliding, climbing. A few pieces of playground apparatus should be convenient to every classroom. There should be more\nfreedom to stand or to sit, as the nervous system requires. Movable\nchairs and tables should be in every primary room, so that space can be\ncleared for the games. \"Physical exercises\" will not take the place of this\nfreer activity.\nThe new type of education must concern itself with developing ideas\nand ideals of cooperation. Many of these come thru shared experiences\nand thru handwork, but very important in this direction at this period are\nthe games. The activity games lead the child to find his skill in relation\nto that of his companions; the dramatic games help him to take his particular part in order to carry out an idea which is larger than he could\nexpress alone. In the kindergarten the games should be much simpler,\nnearer the child's level of thought. There should be more spontaneous\n\n"}
{"page": 450, "printed_page": "438", "text": "438\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Kindergarten\n\ndramatizations, crude perhaps from the adult standpoint, but expressions of\nthe child's own imagination. Often the kindergartner supplies a game\nformula thru which the children move and which is really as non-educational\nas the dictated handwork. In the grades much more time should be\ndevoted to the physical and social education which is given thru games.\nThese games should be developt from the children and continually improved\nby them.\n\"What does the six-year-old child care for print? His fingers are\nitching for contact with things and his legs are set for chasing butterflies.\"\nReading cannot be presented to the child in an educational way until he is\ncapable of developing the right attitude toward the printed page, of scanning\nit eagerly for enjoyment, or to add to his knowledge. To gain control over\nreading symbols is an individual problem. If a child is \"exposed\" to opportunities for learning to read, he will learn the symbols in his play. The school\nmust direct group attention toward reading only after the child's life has been\nenricht by many actual experiences and he seeks to enlarge experience from\nthe printed page. In the first grade too much time and energy are devoted to\nthe learning of word symbols. If the time were spent in giving children richer\nexperiences, they would soon find their need for more information and would\nteach themselves to read. Also number work has been too much emphasized\nin both kindergarten and grades. The geometrical ideas found in the blocks\nand other materials of the kindergarten can safely be left for the child to\nlearn at a later date. Children will also teach themselves the number\nsymbols. A little experience in measuring for handwork, in making\nchange with toy money, in keeping score in games, etc., will give more\nusable knowledge of number relations than the child can possibly get in the\nhours devoted to mathematics in the early grades.\nThe means suggested for the unification of the kindergarten and primary\ngrades have indicated a necessity for adjustment on the part of both. This\nadjustment is solely for the purpose of conserving the best growth of the\ndeveloping child. To organize education so that natural active tendencies\nshall be fully enlisted in doing something, while seeing to it that the doing\nrequires observation, the acquisition of information, and the use of a constructive imagination, is what most needs to be done to improve social\nconditions,\n,\nin.\n\nTHOMAS\n\nM. BALLIET, DEAN, SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY,\nUNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nThe primary-school curriculum is too formal. Many of us have\nbecome convinst that formal arithmetic should be taken out of the first\nthree years. At that age children have need of arithmetic only in so far\nas it comes up in their play. They will know just as much arithmetic at\nthe end of the fifth year of school if it be begun in the fourth year as they\nwill if it be begun in the first.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 451, "printed_page": "439", "text": "IP\n\nDepartment]\n\nTHE\n\nKINDERGARTEN\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPRIMARY\n\nGRADES\n\n439\n\nMoreover, the children, during the first three years of school, have\nabsolutely no need of writing; hence penmanship should be taken out of the\nfirst three years. This necessarily takes out spelling also. Children have\nabsolutely no use for the expression of thought in written form in these\nearly years. The first four years of school, at least, should be devoted in\nlanguage training to practice in oral speech. Fluency in writing turns upon\nfluency in thinking, and we think in oral language when we write. Fluency\nin thinking is acquired thru drill in oral language; therefore thoro drill in\noral speech in the first four years of school is the very best basis for training\nin written language during the last four years. Experiments have been\nmade which clearly indicate this.\nI should retain reading in the first three years, for the reason that if\npeople learn to read at a late age they are invariably condemned to be slow\nsilent readers. To an educated person who has to read a great deal, speed\nin reading is an immense advantage. I have found that all persons who are\nrapid silent readers, of whom I have made inquiries, learned to read before\nthey entered school. Some of them tell me that they do not remember the\ntime when they could not read. There seems, therefore, to be a close connection between learning to read young and the abihty to read rapidly.\nIt has been found that rapid readers, in case of light reading, grasp the\nthought better than slow readers. There is therefore no advantage in\nreading slowly when the thought can be taken in rapidly. The difference\nbetween slow readers and fast readers, in the case of people of equal abiUty\nand education, has been found, in some cases, to be about 400 per cent.\nBut it is not the negative aspect of this problem which is the most vital.\nIt is not so much what we take out of the curriculum as what we put into\nit that is important. For arithmetic, writing, and spelling, I would substitute a great deal of handwork. Children do their best thinking when they\nare planning something to do with their hands. Their attention is much\nmore easily focust upon something which they are doing with their hands\nthan upon something which they hear or read. Then, I would devote at\nleast half an hour each half-day to the telHng of stories and to the reading\nof the best childrens' literature to them, so that by the time they finisht\nthe primary grades their minds would be saturated with the best of the rich\nHterature for children in our language. We must, however, not look upon\nthis merely as an exercise in language and question it all out of the children\nin detail. To have children tell the stories which they have been told is the\nthe very best language work, but they must tell tl\\em of their own accord,\nand not in answer to specific, detailed questions. The story creates beautiful pictures in the child's imagination, and these pictures react upon the\nemotions. When they are questioned too closely on the details of the story,\nthese beautiful images are torn to pieces in their minds, and thereafter no\nlonger touch their emotions. Literature is art and must appeal to the\nemotions thru the imagination. Too much analysis destroys it as art\nboth for adults and for children.\n\nlb\n\n"}
{"page": 452, "printed_page": "440", "text": ""}
{"page": 453, "printed_page": "441", "text": "DEPARTMENT OFJ^RMAL SCHOOLS\nSECRETARY'S\nDETROIT\n\nMINUTES\n\nMEETING\n\nOFFICERS\n\nPresident— LiviNGSTOiJ C. Lord, president, State Normal School\nCharleston, 111\nVice-President— GzoRGE H. Black, president. State Normal School\nLewiston, Idaho\nSecretary— Bmojn H. Roberts, superintendent of training department. State Normal\nCollie\nYpsilanti, Mich.\n\nTuesday Afternoon, February 22, 1916\n\nA conference was held in the BaUroom of the Hotel Statler at 2:00 p.m.\nThe following program was given:\n\n\"Extension Work in Normal Schools\"— Carl W. Salser, director of extension, State\nNormal School, Emporia,\nKans.\nJohn A. H. Keith, president. State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis., led in the discussion.\n\"The Common Ground of City and State Normal Schools \"—William B. Owen,\nprincipal, Chicago Normal College,\nChicago, 111.\nDmoN H. Roberts, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nEXTENSION\nCARL\n\nW. SALSER,\n\nAND DISCUSSIONS\nWORK\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nDIRECTOR OF EXTENSION, KANSAS\nSCHOOL,\nEMPORIA, KANS.\n\nSTATE\n\nNORMAL\n\nBegun in Cambridge, England, in 1872, and introduced into America\nin the eighties in connection with library work, extension teaching has had\na remarkable development. Its most markt advances, however, have been\nmade in the last fifteen years. Extension work is no longer to be viewed\nas of doubtful standing in the educational world. It has come to stay.\nWhatever examination is made of it, then, must be made with open mind, in\nfull recognition of the valuable work now being done, and the still more\nvaluable adaptations that promise much for the future of extension.\nThe universities have long since recognized the value of extension work,\nand for the last two or three years the directors of university extension\nhave maintained a national organization. Now, it is a significant thing\nthat thousands of teachers have enroled with the universities for extension\ncourses, while many normal schools have lookt on somewhat helplessly\nat a time when they should have been actively participating. If any\n\n"}
{"page": 454, "printed_page": "442", "text": "442\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Normal\n\ninstitution should be active in the training of teachers in service, surely the\nnormal school should be. This is in no way finding fault with the universities for offering their help, but it is chiding the normal schools somewhat\nfor being rather slow in offering their help as well. It is recognized, of\ncourse, that some normal schools have seized the opportunity, but the\nnumber is comparatively small.\nLet it be understood at the outset that normal-school extension is not\nuniversity-extension. Normal-school extension has to do with those who\nare teaching and those who expect to teach. It has to do with those young\nmen and young women who promise much in ability and personality and\nwho may be induced to elect teaching as their life-work — the kind so much\nneeded in our schools today. It has to do with those who are serving as\nschool officers and with those who are actively interested in the problems\nof the public schools. Surely this is a definite field. It is a field in which\nthe normal school may do much for itself as well as for those whom it serves.\nThe definite limitations of this field for normal-school extension make it\neasy for the normal schools to reach out and demonstrate conclusively that\nthey are something more than mere certificate factories and sources of pure\ntheory. For when all the possibilities in connection with extension work\nwith teachers have been considered, it will be seen to be an excellent outlet\nfor the most practical of service.\nAs indicated above, a number of normal schools are now doing extension work, but it seems that each one has pickt out one or two phases of\nextension and has carried them on without much attention to other parts\nof the field of extension. Some discussion of these various phases of extension may be of interest here.\nCorrespondence study, being the most fully establisht, perhaps, should\nclaim first consideration. It is an effective form of extension. It is costly\nto carry on, but is worth the effort. Studying by mail accomplishes several\nthings for the normal school which provides it effectively. It reaches out\nand interests prospective students. It provides a connecting link between\nthe school and the student who must leave for a year and who is more\nlikely to return because of its influence. It provides a means of saving\ntime and money both for the school and for the student who must drop\nout suddenly in the. midst of a semester's work. Correspondence study\nis not an easy means of grace or, at least, it should not be. It is the experience at the Kansas State Normal School that those who take courses by\nmail are strong students. It is understood that the completions in the\ncommercial correspondence schools amount to about $ per cent, the mortality to about 95 per cent. Twenty-five to 35 per cent is a good record of\ncompletions in correspondence-study departments of colleges and universities. The percentage of such completions in the Kansas State Normal\nSchool is about 60. The normal schools have the very best field in which to\ncarry on work by mail. Teachers know more about studying; they have a\n\n"}
{"page": 455, "printed_page": "443", "text": "Department]\n\n,\n\nEXTENSION\n\nWORK\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n443\n\ncertificate or some other definite end in view, and they are more likely to see\nthe thing thru when they make a beginning.\nCourses offered by correspondence should be identical with those given\nin residence so far as this is possible. These courses should be workt out\ncarefully in every detail so that the amount of work done by the student\nwill equal, if not exceed, what he would do in the course in residence.\nCourses should be kept up to date, and for this reason it seems a little\ndoubtful whether they should be duplicated in too permanent form. The\ninstruction may be in the hands of regular members of the faculty or those\nemployed especially for correspondence work, or it may be so arranged\nthat the classroom work may be reduced for certain members of the faculty\nto permit them more time for correspondence instruction. The plan by\nwhich a teacher does both kinds of teaching seems sound for normal schools.\nThe courses should not be too cheap to students. Instructors should be\nwell paid for their work in this field; they ought not to be permitted to do\nit at a sacrifice. The work should be self-supporting or nearly so. If the\nwork is offered too cheap, it will be likely to be slighted somewhat, or it\nis Hkely to be thought \"cheap,\" which is about as detrimental for the\nstanding of the institution offering it. The amount charged for the handUng\nof this work should be based on the amount of credit given for the course.\nExtension lectures offer a means of large service to the state. Probably most normal schools have more calls for such addresses than they can\ntake care of. Local, county, and district meetings, and associations are\nalways in need of both inspirational and technical talks in the pedagogical\nfield, and it is clearly the business of normal-school faculties to help take\ncare of such demand. This work, of course, needs to be centralized in the\nextension organization. It ought not, however, to be considered sufficient\nfor a representative to go out, fill his speaking engagement, and return\nwithout an effort to look about him. His talk ought to be beneficial to his\naudience; but beyond that it has been fully demonstrated that a half-hour's\npersonal conference with those whom he may arrange to meet afterward\ndoes more for them and for the institution he represents. On his return\nfrom each extension trip the faculty member should make to the extension\noffice a full report, including number addrest, place of meeting, schools\nvisited, newspapers visited, school officials visited, and particularly the\nnames of strong, prospective students. Thus one of the features of a\nsystematic, effective extension organization is the proper soHcitation of\nhigh-class students. Normal schools ought not to be satisfied to take\nmerely what comes, in the way of students.\nIn connection with extension lectures, local classes for credit may be\norganized in accessible towns. These classes are best conducted in person\nby a faculty representative, but in some cases may well be conducted by\nthe local superintendent under the direction of some department head who\nfurnishes the outline of the course and visits the class often enough to keep\n\n"}
{"page": 456, "printed_page": "444", "text": "444\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nfully in touch with the grade of work being done. Instructors both willing\nand quaKfied to do this work of extension teaching with local classes of\nteachers are not easy to find. They must be on the road almost constantly\nduring the school year, classes being scheduled in neighboring towns so\nthat one or two classes may be met each day by the instructor. It is not\neasy work; but the fact that it pays well ought to be fully brought out in\ndetailed discussions of extension work. This work may, of course, be\ndivided among regular faculty members. This serves as a superior plan to\nkeep the faculty in close touch with practical problems out in the teaching\nfield. Ten or twelve night classes under the auspices of the extension division are oflFered by regular instructor^ at Emporia. The students are mostly\ntownspeople and pay a fee of from $5 to $7 for a two-hour course.\nIt has been pointed out that effective extension work ought to get hold\nof and bring into the institution the most promising students to be found.\nOn the other hand, extension work may well concern itseK with the placing\nof these students after they have completed their training. The appointment bureau is an important phase or department of the extension division\nin the Emporia plan. The work of placing teachers can be done more\neffectively, more persistently, and more satisfactorily in connection with\nthe extension department than in any other way. It is not possible to go\ninto this matter in detail. The strongest argument is the fact that it works.\nNo one in an institution can build up as wide a personal acquaintance over\nthe state as those actively a part of the extension work. Such acquaintance\nis absolutely necessary to any effective appointment organization. Here\nthe work is handled in a disinterested, business-like manner. The student's\nmajor, his personal acquaintance, and school relationships have little to do\nwith the positions to which he is recommended. Sympathy with his need\nof a position does not land him in a place where he will fail, and, of course,\nit ought never do so. Any policy that does not follow a student longer than\nto see him in his first position is ruinous. No normal school can afford it.\nEvery normal school should carefully follow the work of its graduates year\nafter year, and if the approval of such an institution is placed on the\nwork of a teacher, it ought to be respected in every corner of the state and\noutside as far as the influence of the school extends. Most normal schools\nand other institutions recommending teachers could profitably tighten up\nconsiderably in this respect. A well-organized appointment board is\nessential, with a secretary able to secure and hold the confidence of superintendents and school boards, to enlist the cooperation of department heads\nin the matter of recommendations, and to judge impartially the qualities\nand abihties of prospective teachers and supervisors. Upon his tact and\njudgment rests the school's success in the placing of its product. No other\nphase of the normal-school's field work is more important than this one.\nMany normal schools seem not yet to have reahzed that this is a day\nof publicity. No extension organization is complete without its pubUcity\n\n"}
{"page": 457, "printed_page": "445", "text": "Department]\n\nEXTENSION\n\nWORK\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n445\n\ndepartment. The real news of the school is of interest to the state. It\nshould be furnisht, and newspapers are glad to get it. Real news about a\nschool, never of the framed-up or sensational variety, should not be allowed\nto go to waste. The people of a state furnish money to their institutions\nin proportion to the service rendered; at least that is the theory. There is\nno other means than the newspapers by which all the people of the state\nmay learn what their normal school is doing. Such a school ought to be\ndoing something everyday and the people ought to know about it. Normal\nschools should advertise more. Newspapers and other publications would\nnaturally be more interested in them and in their news if they were active\nadvertisers. A reasonable financial outlay for advertising by any normal\nschool is more than justified. The daily and weekly press of the state may\neasily be furnisht with the news of the school which has been collected and\nedited by some one especially appointed to that work. Much of the collecting and writing of news of the school may well be done by students.\nThe final release and distribution must, of course, be in the hands of someone in authority. Do what you will in normal schools, but do not forget to\ncooperate with the newspapers in every possible and legitimate way.\nThey are the friends of every good move in education, and you cannot for\none moment afford to neglect or evade or disregard them.\nIt is hardly necessary to point out that glee clubs, concert companies,\nlyceum courses, public-school weeks, and other special activities of this\nnature are not only means of service, but also give the school a very valuable\nkind of publicity, as well as personal touch with the various communities\nof the state. These activities, like the lectures, give opportunity for faculty\nand students to widen the acquaintance of the school. A normal school\ncannot possibly overdo the matter of sending its representatives out into\nthe schools and communities of the state. There is nothing more valuable\nthan personal touch in keeping a school up to the place it ought to occupy\n[in its field. Any extension department worthy the name will see to it that\nmany such opportunities are offered and taken advantage of. The Kansas\nState Normal School provided 150 lectures last year, reaching more than\n10,000 persons and all parts of the state.\nBelieving that too much has been said and not enough done in connection with rural schools, the Emporia Extension Division has this year added\na new department known as the Rural School Bureau. The bureau is in\ncharge of a board of eight members, each of whom is intimately acquainted\nwith some phase of the work in rural schools. Its chairman is the professor\nof rural-school administration. The board makes plans in the interest of\nrural schools, and the clerical force of the extension division sees that they\nare carried out. Special helps of various kinds are being furnisht to\nrural schools, and thru cooperation with county superintendents and two\nhundred rural teachers several plans for bettering the programs and methods\nof teaching various subjects are being tried out.\n\n"}
{"page": 458, "printed_page": "446", "text": "446\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\niNormal\n\nThe alumni organizations offer another activity that may very profitably\nbe hitcht up with the other extension work. Alumni interests are rather\nhard to organize effectively in normal schools because teachers change\nresidence so frequently. It was the experience of the Kansas State Normal\nSchool that alumni work moved by fits and starts until it was organized\non a business basis, and it then became a part of the extension work. Now\nit is lookt after continuously, just like the other lines of work. The alumni\nassociation shares in the management of the appointment bureau, and the\ninterest and support of the alumni is growing better continually. The\nbureau often receives two or three notifications of a vacancy because of\nactive alumni. The loyal alumni can do much also toward sending in the\nmost promising high-school graduates. Many do this of their own accord,\nbut it is not a bad plan at all to have a special alumni organization or club\nwhose chief aim is to reach out and bring in promising students. Any\norganization that amounts to anything at all must have a definite piece of\nwork to do, and it must then have somebody whose business it is to see\nthat the membership of the organization does the work laid out for it.\nAlumni organizations are no exception to this rule, and the only way to get\nreal results is by persistent, unrelenting, systematic effort.\nThe last few years have seen a most remarkable interest develop in\nthe definite measurement of results in education. Again, realizing the\nadvantage of practical application, the Kansas State Normal School last\nyear establisht the Bureau of Educational Measurements and Standards.\nTests with full directions for their use are now being furnisht at cost by\nthe bureau in reading, handwriting, arithmetic, drawing, English composition, and spelling for the elementary school; algebra, reading, and English\ncomposition for the high school. The bureau has devised the Kelly silentreading-test and the Monroe algebra- test. Practically every city of the\nfirst and second class in the state has given one or more of these tests and\nhas reported the scores to the bureau. These scores are compiled and\ncharted by the bureau and the results reported to the superintendents.\nThe bureau has just issued a 200-page report of the survey of the city of\nLeavenworth, which goes exhaustively into every phase of the city's school\nsystem. As a result, Leavenworth is enabled to plan wisely for the next\nfew years in the development of its schools. You may hold what opinion\nyou choose in regard to the value of scales and measurements in education,\nbut the superintendents and teachers of Kansas are rapidly coming to the\nconclusion that such tests are of great value. No phase of our extension\nwork has grown more rapidly during the last year. Orders are received\nfor these tests from every part of the country; 119,000 copies of the Kelly\nreading- test, 2000 of the Ayres spelling- tests, 1500 of the Ayres and Freeman\nhandwriting scales, and 48,000 of the Courtis tests in arithmetic have been\nfurnisht by the bureau. This is a phase of extension work which ought not\nto be neglected a moment longer by any normal school. This work is\n\n"}
{"page": 459, "printed_page": "447", "text": "Department]\n\nEXTENSION\n\nWORK\n\nIN NORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n447\n\nclearly in the field of the normal school. Why neglect it and lose the stimulating reaction on classroom-work and practice teaching which it is certain\nto bring about ?\nA live, progressive library and music school are great assets in extension\nwork. Thru the cooperation of the library and music school, the Emporia\nplan includes the loaning of books, pamphlets, lantern slides, victrolas,\nand records. Reference books are loaned to extension students. Packages\nare sent to high schools and individuals, and lantern sHdes on various subjects are loaned without charge except for the postage. Questions on\nlibrary-management are answered, and the library functions actively and\nmost effectively in the city and school libraries thruout the whole state.\nSpecially selected high-priced records and machines are sent to every\npart of the state in an effort to cultivate a taste for, and interest in, good\nmusic. Most of the high schools now have their own machines, and the\nrecords alone are now askt for in a majority of cases. One machine has\nbeen on the road for three years, has traveled thousands of miles into every\nsection of the state, and is not yet entirely worn out.\nIt will be seen from this enumeration of the phases of the work that\nextension may be rather inclusive. A normal school may do many things\nin the name of extension that might be difficult in any other way. Extension isstrategic.\nIn organization and administration extension work is not difficult.\nNo act of the legislature is required. The way to begin extension work\nis to begin. The personnel of a faculty is likely to determine at the start\nthe kinds or phases of extension in which a normal school will engage.\nThe needs of the state or district served ought to determine largely what\nlines the work will follow. One school will need to emphasize correspondence study, another lectures, another extension classes, and so on.\nThe Emporia plan provides a fully centralized extension division consisting of several different departments, each department in charge of a\nboard of five to eight members, the most competent on the faculty in that\nparticular line. These boards determine policies and make plans which\nare carried out by the clerical force of the division. In this way 25 or 30\nof the most able members of a faculty of 100 contribute to the thinking\nof the extension division. Whatever plans these boards mature may be\nconsidered safe for adoption. This plan provides that the things workt\nout by the extension force in connection with other field work will carry\nover and function in the classrooms of all departments. Such a reaction\ncannot avoid being wholesome.\nAll equipment and expenditure of money in every way are coordinated\nso that there is a minimum of waste, and material purchast or workt out\nin one department may often be made use of in another. Clerical help is\nshifted to the place of greatest need, and every plan is kept in motion until\nfully completed.\n\n"}
{"page": 460, "printed_page": "448", "text": "448\n\n^\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nsEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Normal\n\nSo far this plan has workt admirably at Emporia. Doubtless other\nschools have developt plans just as good. The key to success in this plan\nis a combination of centralization and cooperation.\nA large appropriation is not necessary to make a start in extension\nwork. If a working organization is provided and the cooperation of the\nfaculty secured, any normal school ought to be able to start the work on\na few hundred dollars the first year. In correspondence study, appointment, alumni, measurements, and faculty lectures and classes fees may be\ncharged; in fact, the soundest policy seems to indicate that reasonable\nfees should be charged. The Kansas State Normal School spent about\n$8000 last year in extension, half of which it collected in fees. The division\nis now in its third year. A normal school can no more afford to neglect\nextension work because of lack of money than a business house can afford\nto devote none of its income to advertising. Both are in the process of\nbeing slowly exterminated by their competitors.\nIt would seem to be a sound poUcy in extension that every plan be\ncarefully examined, and its results, if carried out, compared with the cost.\nIf the comparison is not unmistakably favorable, then the plan ought to be\nabandoned for one that stands this test. Fads and fancies have no place\nin real extension work. No plan should be undertaken until its cost can be\nfigured thru to the end. If sufficient fees are charged to meet half or more\nof the expense, extension work is in less danger from attack and from the\neconomical fits that seize on legislatures every now and then in even the bestregulated states. In this connection it should be borne in mind that it is\neasy to cut down a fee schedule, but not so easy to put it up. It should be\nplaced high enough at the start.\nStandards should be high in all forms of extension work. No student\nshould be permitted to get a credit easier thru an extension course than\nthru a residence course. Any other policy is dishonest and short-sighted.\nOnly a part — ^possibly one-half — of a college course should be done by\nextension. No student should be allowed to do more than twelve college\nhours in a year by this method. Extension classes should be conducted\non the semester-hour basis and the same requirements made for credit that\nare made in the residence courses. There is no reason why college standards\ncannot be maintained in extension work as well as in the classroom. This is\na good place for normal schools to apply more business principles and less\ntheory and sentiment. Either high standards must be maintained or\nextension work had best not be done. Any other policy is demoralizing.\nTo sum up, extension work in normal schools is comparatively new,\nstandards are rather difficult to maintain, it may bring in more students than\nthe school can properly care for, it has a tendency to cheapen education unless\ncarefully guarded, and it is difficult to justify tangibly every dollar's expenditure in this field. On the other hand, extension work operates to hitch a\nschool up closely with those whom it serves. It widens the acquaintance\n\n"}
{"page": 461, "printed_page": "449", "text": "449\nDepartment]\n\nSECRETARTS\n\nMINUTES\n\nof the school. It carries training right out to the teacher in service and, in\nconnection with the summer session, shortens the time required to complete\nthe college course. It advertises the school most effectively. It enables\nthe school to feel the educational pulse and to know what to do next. It\nenables a school to be alive and quickly responsive to every educational need\nand every institutional opportunity. The advantages outweigh the disadvantages fully two to one.\nThis paper has toucht a few spots in the broad field of extension. There\nare many things in connection with extension work which cannot be mentioned here. By its attitude toward extension work a normal school determines largely whether it is merely traditional in its policies or whether it is\nbroad-gauged and aggressive. The Kansas State Normal School believes\nin extension for normal schools. It considers such work extremely practical. Itbelieves that all normal schools should cooperate to the end that\nthe right sort of extension work may be effectively planned and carried out\nin normal schools the country over. If any normal school or any other\ninstitution has something good in the way of extension plans or precautions,\nit is needed out in Kansas. That is the Kansas idea, and is, it is hoped, the\nsentiment of all those who are laboring to bring the normal schools to their\nhighest possible point of achievement and usefulness in the American scheme\nof education.\n\nSECRETARY'S\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nMINUTES\nMEETING\n\nOFFICERS\nPf«j<fen/— Livingston C. Lord, president, State Normal School\nCharleston, 111.\nVice-President — George H. Black, president. State Normal School\nLewiston, Idaho\nSecretary — Dimon H. Roberts, superintendent of training department. State Normal\nCollege. . . .Ypsilanti, Mich.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 4, 1916\nThe department met in the Horace Mann Auditorium at 9:30 a.m., President Lord\nin the chair.\nThe following addresses were given:\n\"A Differentiated Course of Study for Normal Schools\"— J. Asbury Pitman, principal, State Normal School, Salem, Mass.\n\"Normal School Curricula— A Critique \"—Thomas M. Balliet, dean. School of\nPedagogy, New York University, New York, N.Y.\nA general discussion in which many took part followed the presentation of the two\naddresses.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, July 4, 1916\n\nThe president called the meeting to order m the Horace Mann Auditorium at 2 : 30 p.m.\nThe following program was given:\n\n\"Normal Schools and the New Movement in Education\"— Thomas H. Briggs,\nassociate professor of education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y.\n\n"}
{"page": 462, "printed_page": "450", "text": "450\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\n\"The Teaching of History\" — Henry Johnson, professor of history, Teachers College,\nColumbia University, New York, N.Y.\nA general discussion followed the two addresses.\nThe following oflScers were elected for the ensuing year:\nPresident — J. Asbury Pitman, principal, State Normal School, Salem, Mass.\nVice-President — Natalie Thornton, dean of women. State Normal School, Moorehead,\nMinn.\nSecretary — ^John Sims, president. State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis.\nDiMON H. Roberts, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nA\n\nDIFFERENTIATED\nJ. ASBURY\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nCOURSE OF STUDY\nSCHOOLS\n\nPITMAN, PRINCIPAL, STATE NORMAL\n\nFOR\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL, SALEM, MASS.\n\nMore than three-quarters of a century has past since provision was\nfirst made for the professional training of teachers at public expense. The\ncommon school was then the only school open to a very large proportion\nof the people of America. Since those early days great changes have\ntaken place in our educational system. When the first normal school was\nestablisht in Massachusetts, the conditions were essentially rural, and agriculture was the principal industry; today 62 per cent of her total population ismost in cities, and 22 per cent is contained in towns having not less\nthan five thousand inhabitants and largely engaged in the manufacture and\ndistribution of a great variety of products. This condition is typical of\nlarge portions of the country. The simple program of the early rural school\nhas necessarily given place to the complex, comprehensive curriculum of the\ncity school, the influence of which is apparent in the course of study in\nevery school in the land, quite regardless of size or environment.\nThe public high school has evolved from the common school and, in\nmany states, is making a demand upon the normal schools for teachers of the\nacademic subjects required for admission to the college and the technological\nschool and of those other subjects offered in the various elective courses.\nSpecial departments of music and drawing; of manual training, agriculture,\nhousehold and industrial arts; of business education; of vocational guidance; of general science; of physical education, have been establisht in\nboth secondary and elementary schools. The teaching in some of these\nnumerous departments may be done by specialists, or the instruction may\nbe given under the direction of supervisors. Be that as it may, the regular\nteacher, whether in the secondary or the elementary school, requires a\nbroader general education and a richer scholarship than formerly. For\nmost students the normal school must provide this, in addition to a detailed\nstudy of the specific subjects they are to teach, special method, and general\n\n"}
{"page": 463, "printed_page": "451", "text": "Department]\n\nDIFFERENTIATED\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n451\n\ncourses in education. It must also supply the demand for supervisors and\nspecial teachers in a wide range of departments and subjects.\nChanging conditions call for a new type of normal school, one which is\nslowly evolving from the original institution which was created solely to\nminister to the simple needs of the elementary school of two or three gen-^\nerations ago. The modern normal school must meet the requirements of\nan extremely complex public-school system, whose function is to train for\nintelligent citizenship, furnish some measure of vocational guidance, and\nat least lay the foundations of industrial education. Its courses of study,\ntherefore, must be so organized as to include many special departments\nand to carry on its work with the highest possible degree of efficiency and\neconomy.\nIt is an obvious and an accepted duty of society to require all future\ncitizens to acquire, during the period of childhood, such a minimum of education as shall prepare them for an intelligent participation in those affairs\nof life which are of common concern, and which shall also enable them to\nbecome self-sustaining members of the society of which they are part. It\nincludes the arts of expression — English, both oral and written, music, and\ndrawing; the fundamental facts of arithmetic and their application to the\nexperiences of everyday life; some knowledge of the material world as disclosed bythe study of geography and general science, and some conception\nof their social relations as revealed thru the study of history and of civics.\nExperience seems to have demonstrated that this may be accomplisht by\nthe child of ordinary intelligence in the first six years of school life. This\ncorresponds approximately to the age of compulsory school attendance as\nfixt by the laws of most states, and to the preadolescent period.\nThe function of the elementary school then is to lay the broad foundation of education by putting the individual into possession of the fundamental tools of knowledge. The next duty of society is to seek to adjust\nhim to the position which he is best qualified to fill, and so to prepare him\nthat he shall attain to a maximum of productive efficiency. This calls for\ndifferentiated programs of study for the next six years of the school course.\nA complete reorganization of the work of these later years is well in progress.\nThe movement had its beginning, a quarter of a century ago, in the enrichment of the curriculum of the grammar school, a prominent motive being\nto hasten preparation for college; but its influence was felt by all classes\nof pupils without regard to their probable future careers. Departmental\nteaching was extended to the grammar school. This was the contribution\nof the Committee of Ten.\n\nAn impossible program for the later years of the grammar schools, in\nconsequence of the multiplicity of subjects offered and the insistent demands\nfor vocational guidance and prevocational courses, has brought the elective\nsystem into the intermediate grades, and they have been organized into the\ngroup now generally known as the junior high school. This new departure\n\n"}
{"page": 464, "printed_page": "452", "text": "452\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nin secondary education has swept over the country with a rapidity unequaled\nin the history of American education. The junior high school has evidently\nmade its way as an integral part of the school system; and the discussion\nof the merits of the plan has changed to a consideration of ways and means\nof adoption and adaptation to local conditions.\nThis reorganization of education is of the utmost importance. Present\nneeds can be met only by offering differentiated courses of instruction\nwhich, in matter and method as well as in position, are intermediate between\nthe elementary school and the more highly specialized work of the high\nschool.\nAltho the chief objects of this movement are to appeal to individual\ninterests, to discover native capacities, and to minister to vocational\nneeds, this intermediate period should still be devoted largely to general\neducation — physical, cultural, and social. But altho vocational guidance\nshould be one of the dominant motives, neither the study of occupations nor practical experience in any form of industry should be allowed\nto take the place of education; they should be made means and not\nends in themselves. If this is true, the art of teaching should be in\ngreater demand in these schools than high academic attainment or superior\nvocational skill; for, after all, the greatest argument in favor of the intermediate school is the opportunity afforded for improvement in the quality\nof the instruction.\nThe particular form which the intermediate school will take in a given\ncommunity must be largely determined by administrative necessity. Size\nof town, distribution of population, capacity and location of existing school\nbuildings, need of new buildings to accommodate growth of school membership, financial resources — all are factors which enter into and complicate\nthe problem. But, whatever the conditions, the principle of differentiated\ncourses for pupils from tyv^elve to fourteen years of age seems sure to have\nan almost universal application. It is evident that the history of the\nelective system in the college and the secondary school is to be repeated in\nthe organization of the curriculum of the intermediate school; and even if\nsome form of the six-and-six plan is not generally adopted, there are many\nindications of a revival and an extension of departmental teaching in the\nseventh, eighth, and ninth grades.\nAt the present time there are at least three types of these schools,\nvariously known as the junior high school, the intermediate school, and the\ndepartmental grammar school:\n1. A separate school, usually including three grades, and with clearly\ndifferentiated courses conducted on a strictly departmental basis by a\ncorps of special teachers.\n2. Two or three grades, organized as a part of the high school, with\nsome measure of differentiation and specialization, and taught by both\ngrammar-school and high-school teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 465, "printed_page": "453", "text": "Department]\n\nDIFFERENTIATED\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n453\n\n3. Two or three grades, continued as a part of the grammar school, and\ninstructed, on a departmental basis, by grammar-school teachers and some\nspecialists.\nInstead of a uniform curriculum for all children in the school, at least\nthree different courses — each containing a common core of instruction —\nare usually offered. These are variously styled (i) the general, literary, or\nacademic; (2) the business, commercial, or commercial arts; (3) the industrial or practical arts. The latter is differentiated into the manual-training\nor practical arts for boys and the home economics or household arts for\ngirls.\nThe design of the first, or academic course, primarily, is to begin the\npreparation for college, altho it will doubtless continue to attract students\nwho cannot enter college, but who have a desire for a general education and\nwhose vocational aim has not been determined. The purpose of the second,\nor commercial, course is to prepare for the corresponding course in the high\nschool proper; it is also intended to train pupils to go directly from the\neighth or ninth grades into positions in stores and offices. And the third,\nor practical-arts, course helps boys to determine their vocational aim\nand to make an intelligent choice of a vocation, to prepare for vocational\ncourses in the high school, and to be of service to those boys who must leave\nschool at the end of the seventh or eighth grade and enter the industrial life.\nThe household-arts course is founded upon the assumption that all women\nare destined, ultimately, to become home-makers. In its place and its\nmethods it corresponds to the course in the practical arts.\nHere, then, is a new field with its novel and peculiar needs suddenly\nopened to us; and the demand for properly prepared teachers is already\nlarge and insistent and steadily increasing. By what agency are these\nteachers for the junior high school to be trained ? In most states normal\nschools have not extended the scope of their work beyond the original\nfunction of preparing teachers for the elementary school; an increasing\nnumber, all over the country, are maintaining special departments; a few\nin the states of the Middle West and Far West have developt into teachers\ncolleges, and these are already training teachers for the secondary schools.\nIt is evident that there will be a keen rivalry between the colleges and\nthe normal schools in an attempt to meet the demand for teachers for the\njunior high school. The opportunity seems to be ours, but we cannot afford\nto delay our preparations for meeting it. Theoretically, at least, the normal\nschools should prepare teachers of all subjects taught in any division of the\npublic-school system; practically, conditions are such in most states that\nthey cannot, either profitably or successfully, compete with the college in\nthe preparation of teachers for the regular high school. In some cities the\ndominant motive for the establishment of the junior high school seems to be\nto give the pupils an opportunity to begin the study of foreign languages and\nhigher mathematics one or two years earlier. It is a revival of the old idea\n\n"}
{"page": 466, "printed_page": "454", "text": "454\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nof an enricht curriculum for the grammar school. The above applies, of\ncourse, to preparatory and general courses only — chiefly the former. Under\nexisting conditions, at present and probably for a good many years, in\nmany of the states we shall continue to look to the colleges for departmental\nteachers of these subjects. Only in those normal schools where four-year\ncourses are maintained will it be possible to enter into active competition\nwith the colleges in the training of teachers for these departments; but in\nall other departments the preparation of teachers for the junior high school\npresents to the normal school a most promising field for future development.\nThe evolution of the normal school has resulted in the adoption of the\ngeneral policy of specialization in the training of teachers to meet the\nvarious needs of a complex system of education as the surest and the most\neconomical means of securing efficiency. In a state maintaining a single\nlarge normal school with adequate resources, the problem of differentiation\nis comparatively simple. The prganization of a state system in which\nseveral schools are involved is more difficult.\nAs a result of the recent survey of the normal-school system of Wisconsin, a new policy has been adopted. Separate departments for the training\nof teachers of the primary, the grammar, and the high schools have been\nestablisht. These are common to all the eight normal schools of the state.\nIn addition to these there are not less than twelve different special departments distributed among the normal schools of the state, two or three\nusually being authorized in a single school.\nIn Massachusetts there is a normal art school devoted to the preparation of special teachers and supervisors of drawing and the fine arts and,\nincidentally, to specific training for \"competent leaders in industrial art.\"\nThis school is both a professional and a vocational institution. There are,\nbesides, nine normal schools engaged primarily in the preparation of teachers for the elementary schools. Four of these are also engaged in training\nteachers for the intermediate school. There are also, in certain schools,\nspecial departments for preparing teachers of the household arts, the\npractical arts, and the commerical arts; special teachers and supervisors\nof music; kindergartners; and rural-school teachers.\nTeachers are now generally selected for particular grades and for\nparticular departments. In response to these demands a new type of\nnormal school is being evolved, and it is nowhere better illustrated than in\nthese states. From the standpoint of organization these systems are\nprobably among the best in the country, and they may fairly be considered\nas models deserving careful study.\nThe great diversity of conditions and practices in the normal schools\nindicates that there is serious need of standardization. This does not,\nhowever, mean that they shall be conducted upon tlie dead level of uniformity. We are recognizing the fact that there is no essential reason why\nthere should be such wide differences in organization, in courses of study.\n\n"}
{"page": 467, "printed_page": "455", "text": "Department]\n\nDIFFERENTIATED\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n455\n\nin methods of instruction, and in standards of preparation for admission,\nand of academic and professional training. Organization should no longer\nbe a matter of chance; training should be differentiated accordiHg to die\nprobable kind of service to be performed by the prospective teacher; vague\nand general purposes should be replaced by definite and specific aims.\nThe normal school should continue to stand for general education, but it\nmust not be forgotten that it is a vocational school, and there should\nbe a sharp distinction drawn between the cultural and the professional\ncourses.\nIn a typical state-normal-school system maintaining several comparatively small schools, like that of Wisconsin or Massachusetts, the following\norganization would probably be in the interest of both economy and professional efficiency: Let each school consider the training of teachers for\nthe first six elementary grades its chief function; this would seem preferable\nto the Wisconsin plan, in which four grades are included in the group. For\nthe present this would be accomplisht in two years. A reasonable proportion of typical normal schools, based upon the extent of the demand, might\nmaintain an advanst course of at least three years for the preparation of\nteachers for the junior high school. This work would naturally be more\nor less highly specialized. In addition to this, each school might maintain\none, or possibly two or three, departments for the preparation of special\nteachers and supervisors. Some of these departments would offer courses\nfour years in length; others would require less time.\nThe United States Commissioner of Education has endorst this principle\nof organization and has advised the selection of one normal school in each\nstate to prepare special teachers of the household arts for both the junior\nand the senior high schools. Such a course should not be less than three\nyears in length, in order that it may include sufficient instruction in science\nand in other academic work and the requisite amount of professional\npreparation.\nSimilarly, another school should prepare teachers of manual training\nand of the practical arts. This course, also, should cover a period of at\nleast three years. Much of the training should consist of practical experience inthe industries under actual conditions of labor.\nThere should be another department for preparing teachers of the\ncommercial subjects. For many years there has been a strong demand\nfrom the high schools for such training, and the junior high school has a\nsimilar need. This course should offer to high-school graduates two years\nof training which shall be largely vocational in character. This should be\nfollowed by a year of business experience under the general supervision of\nthe school. The fourth year of the course should include advanst study,\npedagogical training, and teaching experience under guidance.\nSpecial teachers and supervisors of music and of drawing, kindergartners, and rural-school teachers might also be prepared in schools\n\n"}
{"page": 468, "printed_page": "456", "text": "4S6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nespecially designated to do this work; and, should the demand seem to\nwarrant, others might be charged with the training of special teachers of\ngeneral .science. A department of physical education and related hygiene,\nwhich should have for its chief object the preparation of school nurses, might\nbe establisht. This department would be conducted in cooperation with\none or more hospitals.\nIn many states it would be of unquestionable value both to the normalschool and to the public-school system if the directors of such departments\nas the household arts, practical arts, commercial arts, and general science\nshould be made special agents of the board of education for the purpose of\ninfluencing education in their respective fields.\nThe courses for the preparation of teachers of the junior high school\nwould be differentiated by groups to meet the needs of departmental\nteachers. It is probable that both financial saving and eflSiciency might be\nsecured by allowing certain schools to enjoy a monopoly of specializing in\ncertain subjects or groups of subjects for which each might be best fitted\nby reason of environment, equipment, or professional ability. Thus the\nemphasis might be placed by different schools on English, social science,\ngeography, mathematics, general science, etc. Obviously, teachers of all\nthese subjects require a considerable amount of preparation in common.\nWe may assume that, as a prerequisite for normal training, each has had the\nequivalent of a four years' course in a good high school. In addition to this\nacademic training each should acquire, during the period of specific preparation in the normal school, a thoro mastery of the subject-matter to be\ntaught, together with a careful study of special methods. All should have\ngeneral courses in personal and school hygiene and in educational psychology, including principles and general methods. All should have some\nvocal training, including singing and the cultivation of the speaking voice.\nAll should have some training in literature for appreciation entirely apart\nfrom the professional study of the literature of childhood; some training\nin history and social science beyond the requirements of the grades, and\na reasonable knowledge of general science.\nThe six-three-and-three plan seems likely to find most general acceptance. The first six grades are being regarded as the elementary group,\nthe next three as the junior high school, and the remaining three as. the\nhigh school proper. Differentiation in the normal school should therefore\nbe based upon this division. Students should be groupt in differentiated\ncourses according to natural processes of selection. The work of the first\nyear should be common to all. This would at the same time afford a\nnecessary foundation for later work and a basis for judgment as to fitness\nfor a particular field. Differentiation should begin in the second year.\nThe organization should be flexible enough to admit of frequent readjustments during the course, and particularly as the necessity for changes is\nmade apparent by experience in the training school.\n\n"}
{"page": 469, "printed_page": "457", "text": "Department]\n\nDIFFERENTIATED\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n457\n\nTeachers for the junior high school should be more thoroly trained than\nthose for the elementary school, and they require hardly less knowledge of\nthe subject-matter of such branches as they are to teach or less general\neducation than those employed in the high school proper. The course of\nstudy should be not less than three years in length. The curriculum should\nprovide for a more thoro mastery of subject-matter. Electives, usually by\ngroups of related subjects, should be offered. There should be a common\ncore of studies running thruout the course. This should include courses\nin education, physical training, personal and school hygiene, music and\ndrawing. English in some form should be a prescribed subject for each\nyear of the course. Those students who show special aptitude in any subject should have the opportunity of equipping themselves for departmental\nwork. This should probably be accomplisht by offering elective courses\nin groups of subjects. This more advanst instruction would usually be\ngiven in the third year of the course.\nEnglish expression, literature, history, and social science might form\none group. In English the work might consist in further training in oral\nand written composition, the selection and organization of material suitable for use in the intermediate school, and a careful study of typical\ncourses of study for these grades.\nThe study of literature might have for its chief aim, on one hand, the\ndevelopment of the power of appreciation in the student; on the other, the\npurpose of discovering methods and means of developing similar power in\nthe pupils. If history and social science should be included in the group,\nthe study would be given largely for cultural purposes, altho community\ncivics should form an important part of the course. In addition to the\npedagogy of history for the intermediate school, a more intensive study of\nearly American history and government with their European background\nshould be made in the third year to give the students a better grasp of\npresent-day social, economic, and political problems.\nGeography, general science, physical education, and hygiene might\nconstitute another group, which might also include arithmetic. In geography, in the second year of the course, there might be an advanst study of\nmethods, and in the last year of the course an intensive study of some of the\nproblems of political and economic geography.\nThe instruction in physical education might include, in addition to\npersonal and school hygiene, a study of such folk dances and games as are\nsuitable for the intermediate school; this should include organized play\nand its supervision. In the last part of the course emphasis should be\nplaced upon problems affecting public health, such as milk and watersupply, housing, sewage disposal, and the treatment of infectious diseases.\nThe work in arithmetic should probably deal chiefly with the business\nand industrial applications to the experiences of life in the home, in the\noffice, and in industry; for the teacher of this subject in the junior high\n\n"}
{"page": 470, "printed_page": "458", "text": "458\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nschool must cooperate with the instructors in the commercial, practicalarts, and household-arts departments.\nOne of the results of differentiation should be the attraction of more\nmen to the teaching profession. In schools large enough to make it practicable, itis quite possible that the grouping of electives open to them\nmight be somewhat different from those for women. History and community civics, practical science, and arithmetic are subjects which usually\nmake a strong appeal to men.\nAll students in this course should have advanst work in education.\nThe study of the psychology of the adolescent period and of contemporaneous problems in education, particularly those affecting the intermediate\nschool, should have a prominent place. Courses in administration should\nbe provided for those students who expect to become superintendents,\nprincipals, and directors of special departments. Naturally these will be\nelected chiefly by men.\nSuitable provision also should be made for practical experience in teaching in a carefully organized junior high school as a part of the trainingschool system and in other school systems with which the normal school is\naffiliated. This should include not less than twenty weeks of actual\nexperience about equally divided between the last two years of the course.\n\nNORMAL\nTHOMAS\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCURRICULA— A CRITIQUE\n\nM. BALLIET, DEAN, SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nNormal schools are training teachers for the elementary schools more\nefficiently than colleges and universities are training high-school teachers.\nWhile some of our universities are doing important research work,\nnone of them give the practical training they should give. None of them\ndo effective work in method, and only a few of them furnish adequate\nfacilities for observation and practice.\nOn the other hand, our best normal schools are giving very practical\ntraining, and their graduates do good teaching from the very beginning.\nBut, efficient as they are, they seem to me to have several weak spots in their\ncurricula, and it is these which I shall try to point out in a spirit of friendly\ncriticism.\nI. Normal schools, as a rule, lay too much emphasis on the history of\neducation. I know some of them do not, but they are exceptional and are\nnot always the best. The history of ancient and mediaeval education has\nno value for a teacher in the elementary schools. It never \"functions\" in\nthe schoolroom. Even the history of modern education has, for the most\npart, no practical value for ^ch teachers. A sketch of modern educational\ntheories, as represented by the educational reformers from Comenius down,\n\n"}
{"page": 471, "printed_page": "459", "text": "459\nDepartment]\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCURRICULA\n\nhas some value in that it gives the student the background of current educational thought. A short history of methods of teaching the elementary\nschool branches would also have considerable value. But this is never\ngiven.\nThe history of education, moreover, is beyond the comprehension of\nimmature students in nprmal schools. It is a very large subject and is\ninextricably interwoven with the history of philosophy, political and social\nhistory, and with the history of religion, of the church, and of dogma.\nStudents in normal schools and, for the most part, undergraduates in college\nas well, do not have the necessary preparation in these allied fields to study\nthe history of education with intelligence and profit.\nThe hikory of education is a part of the history of civilization, and is a\nsubject for advanst students only. It should be relegated to the graduate\nschool of the university. It is of practical value only to persons who have\nto formulate educational policies.\n2. It seems to me that many of our strongest normal schools attempt\ntoo much in psychology and often lay emphasis on aspects of the subject\nwhich have no vital connection with problems of education. We have no\ngood texts yet on educational psychology; most of them are written by\npsychologists who do not know the problems of the schoolroom. We need\na text which will discuss, from a genetic point of view, the facts of child\nlife; and then treat with fulness the psychic processes involved in the\nacquisition of the elementary school studies. In short, what is most needed\nis a psychological basis of methods of teaching.\nAs a preliminary to the study of specific problems of method, the student\nmust, of course, be familiar with such fundamental topics as attention,\napperception, memory, imagination, emotions, instincts, adolescence, etc.\nThese topics should be freely illustrated by the facts in the student's own\npsychic life. Psychology in the normal school and in the college as well\nshould be applied psychology; the technical training of the laboratory and\nthe discussion of psychological theory should be left for the graduate school.\n3. Normal schools make a mistake in repeating the academic work of\nthe high school. Under the elective system pupils in high schools may skip\ncertain studies, especially in the sciences, which are essential to elementaryschool teachers. Such studies must, of course, be taught in the normal\nschool; all others should be excluded from the curriculum. I assume that\nnormal-school students are graduates of high schools.\n4. Instead of repeating high-school work, normal schools should give\ntheir students a much more thoro grounding in geography, American history, and arithmetic. Normal-school graduates seldom know enough of\nthese three elementary-school studies to teach them effectively.\nThere should be a course in geography, extending over at least one year,\nwith a daily lesson. Such a course should not consist of a review of a textbook used in the elementary schools, but of a scholarly study of the subject\n\n"}
{"page": 472, "printed_page": "460", "text": "46o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Normal\n\nas a science, from a higher point of view. The class should be taken over\na modern physical geography. The course should include the study of a\nbrief treatise on meteorology; should include certain phases of astronomy\nwhich have a bearing on mathematical geography; and it should include\nthe study of a brief modern treatise on commercial geography.\nThe course in American history should likewise not consist of a mere\nreview. It should extend over a year, with a daily lesson, and include the\nstudy, say, of Fisk's two volumes, The Revolution and Critical Period^ portions of several volumes of Parkman, and several volumes of Rhodes,\ntogether with supplementary reading on special points. It should include\nalso the study of some good book, like Brigham's or Semple's, on the relation\nof geography to history.\nIn arithmetic, the emphasis should be placed on commercial arithmetic,\nof which elementary-school teachers know least. A daily lesson for half a\nyear might ordinarily be sufficient. Teachers generally know how to make\nthe calculations and can ''solve\" problems; but they are usually unacquainted with the nature of the business transaction to which the problems relate. I have frequently found that teachers who had been teaching,\nfor example, \" stocks and bonds\" as a topic in arithmetic, had no knowledge\nat all of the difference between stocks and bonds as securities, and of their\nrelative safety as investments. They would invest their own money, in\nchildlike simplicity, in fake stocks in copper mines, rubber plantations,\nand the like, which promist them 20 per cent dividends.\n5. Normal schools should provide a course in principles and methods.\nNo normal school today meets this need at all adequately. Such a course\nshould include sex morality and social hygiene.\nAs above stated, normal schools give admirable practical training in\nmethods, far better than colleges and universities; they could strengthen\ntheir work, however, even here, by emphasizing, in addition, the more\nscientific study of method. Psychology and experimental pedagogy now\nmake this possible. Huey's \"Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading\" is a\nsample of the type of books needed for this purpose. The available literature must still, unfortunately, be sought for the most part in scientific\njournals.\n\n"}
{"page": 473, "printed_page": "461", "text": "DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION\nAND PRACTICAL ARTS\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\n\nPresident— FB.Ai<K Alvah Parsons, president, New York City School of Fine and AppUed Arts, New York, N.V.\nVice-President— A. H. Chamberlain, secretary, California CouncU of Education\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nVice-President— Leohakd W. Wahlstrohm, head of Manual Training Department,\nParker School, Chicago, 111.\nCorresponding Secretary— Fzorz^ce E. Ellis, art durector, American Crayon Company Sandusky, Ohio\n\nFIRST SESSION— Monday\n\nForenoon, July 3, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in the theater, Madison Square Garden\nand was held jointly with the American Home Economics Association, Benjamin R. Andrews, presiding.\nThe following program was given:\n\"The Home as a Social Institution\" — Mrs. John M. Glenn, counsel, New York\nCharity Organization Society, New York, N.Y.\n,\n\"The Home from the Standpoint of Health\" — Maurice A. Bigelow, director, School\nof Practical Arts, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.\n\"ArtMass.\nin Home Environment\" — Henry Turner Bailey, editor. School Arts Magazine^\nBoston,\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 4, 19 16\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m., Arthur H. Chamberlain presiding.\nThe following program was given:\n\"Art in Advertising Education\" — William H. Ingersoll, marketing manager, Robert\nH. Ingersoll Co., New York, N.Y.\n\"The Influence of Architectural and Decorative Art\" — ^Lloyd Warren, ex-president,\nSociety of Beaux Art Architects, New York, N.Y.\n\"Education for an Age of Service\" — Joseph H. Appel, vice-president, Board of\nTrustees, American University of Trade and Applied Science, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\"Vocational Education and Government Aid\" — Alvin E. Dodd secretary, National\nSociety for the Promotion of Industrial Education, New York, N.Y.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 5, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m., Clifford B. Connelley presiding.\nThe following program was given:\n\"Art Education and Industrial Results\" — David Snedden, commissioner of education, Boston, Mass.\n\"Art A Vitalizing Force in Education\"— Annette J. Warner, Department of\nHome Economics, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.\n\"Practical Esthetics in Preparation for the Trades\"— James P. Haney, director\nof art instruction, high schools, New York, N.Y.\n\n"}
{"page": 474, "printed_page": "462", "text": "462\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Vocational\n\nA discussion of Mr. Snedden's paper was called for by the chair. — Florence E. Ellis\nled the discussion; Arthur D. Dean and Ellsworth Woodward followed.\nThe following nominating committee was appointed:\nArthur L. Williston, William C. Smith, Anna L. Cobb.\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 6, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m., William C. Smith presiding.\nThe following program was given:\n\"The Essentials in Vocational Education\" — P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner ofeducation, Washington, D.C.\n\"Art Education for House Furnishing\" — William Sloane CoflSn, director at W. &. J.\nSloane's, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Domain of Art Education\" — Thomas M. Balliet, dean. School of Pedagogy,\nNew York University, New York, N.Y.\n\"Art Teaching Versus Practical Life\" — Arthur H. Chamberlain, secretary, California\nCouncil of Education, San Francisco, Cal.\nThe report of the nominating committee was read and unanimously adopted:\nPresident — WiUiam J. Bogan, principal, Lane Technical School, Chicago, 111.\nVice-President — Ellsworth Woodward, director. Art Department, Tulane University, New Orleans, La.\nVice-President — Isabel Bevier, professor of household economics, University of\nIllinois, Urbana, 111.\nSecretary — Anna Hedges Talbot, State Department of Education, Albany, N.Y.\nAt the same time, but in the Lecture Hall of the Metropolitan Museum of Art,\nanother meeting was held, presided over by H. W. Kent, secretary, Metropolitan Museum\nof Art.\nThe following program was given:\nTopic: The Relationship between Museums and Schools\n\"Its Value\" — ^John H. Finley, commissioner of education of the state of New York.\n\"Its History\" — Paul M. Rea, secretary, American Association of Museums.\n\"As It Exists in Museums of Art, and in Particular in the Metropolitan Museum of\nArt\" — Robert W. de Forest, president, Metropolitan Museum of Art.\n\"As It Exists in the American Museum of Natural History\" — Henry Fairfield\nOsbom, president, American Museum of Natural History, New York.\n\"As It Exists in the Children's Museums\" — Anna B. Gallup, curator, Children's\nMuseum, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nFIFTH\n\nSESSION— FRroAY Forenoon, July 7, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 10:00 a.m., Leila Mechlin presiding.\nThe following program was given:\n\"The Ohio.\nArt Instinct Universal\" — Florence E. Ellis, formerly supervisor of art,\nCleveland,\n\"The Essentials in Making Art Practical\" — Ellsworth Woodward, director of\nSchool of Art, Tulane University, New Orleans, La.\n\"Differentiation in Art Training to Suit Individual Pupil's Needs\"— Royal B.\nFamum, state specialist in art education, New York, N.Y.\nFlorence E. Ellis, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 475, "printed_page": "463", "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nTHE HOME\nMAURICE\n\nOF\n\nFROM\n\nA. BIGELOW,\n\nPRACTICAL\n\nHEALTH\n\n463\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTHE STANDPOINT\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nARTS,\n\nAND\n\nOF BIOLOGY\n\nTEACHERS\nCOLLEGE,\nNEW\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nAND\n\nOF HEALTH\n\nDIRECTOR\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nOF THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nIt has long been the interesting custom to name epoch-marking ages\nor periods of human existence in honor of their dominating characteristics.\nThus we designate such great periods as the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, the\nElizabethan Age, the Dark Ages, and many other great periods that have\nmade a profound impression on human life and history. For about fifty\nyears the world has been entering the greatest of all the ages of human\nexistence, the golden age of applied science. It is the most significant\nbecause in many times ten thousand ways it affects the well-being of\nhumanity, and it is an age which is sure to remain permanently and coextensively with human life.\nNow, among the many important lines of progress in this golden age\nof applied science not one has surpast hygiene, the science of human health.\nThe great discoveries of physiology and bacteriology in the last two decades\nof the nineteenth century laid the foundation for a real science of healthful\nliving, and within this twentieth century hygiene in every one of its manysided aspects has progrest so rapidly in its discoveries, and especially in its\nfirm grip on human interest, that it is no exaggeration to declare that we\nare now living in the age of hygiene. Truly, the ancient goddess Hygeia\nhas now returned to earth, not as a mythical nor mystical divinity presiding\nover the health of men, but in the form of definite, organized, and practical\nscience that is leading mankind toward healthier, happier, and more\nefficient lives. It is indeed fitting that in honor of the goddess Hygeia\nwe should name the modern scientific realization of the old Greek grasping\nafter some force or divinity in control of health. It is suggestive to note\nthat Hygeia, the goddess of health, was the daughter of Aesculapius, the\ngod of the healing art, for in this era of applied science the cure of incipient\ndisease by medical treatment and the prevention of disease by hygienic\npractice are very intimately related.\nNaturally, this age of hygiene is the most important of all ages, for\nour supreme interest in the world is in living; and hence, whether we are\nspecialists in hygiene or not, we feel in close sympathy with the science that\naims to increase the length, efficiency, and joy of the average human life.\nHaving indicated the general outlook of hygiene, I come now to the\nin the home, for to a very large\nkproblem of applying sthe science of nhealth e\nextent the final result of our moder hygien will depend upon our success\nin the attempt to apply its principles in everyday home life. Physicians and\nsanitarians may make laws and rules and recommendations; but without\n\n"}
{"page": 476, "printed_page": "464", "text": "464\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nthe hearty cooperation within the households of each community there\ncan be at least only incomplete and unsatisfactory improvement in the\nhealth conditions.\nNow, in looking at the domestic hygiene problem more intimately, we\nneed to bear in mind the fact that all the prominent phases of hygiene —\npersonal, sanitary, and social — concern homes directly. Personal hygiene\nin the home is fundamental and of primary importance, because upon\nmaintaining the healthful physiological activity of each individual life\ndepends, in large measure, the ability to resist transmissible germ diseases.\nPersonal hygiene is simply the common-sense application of the physiological\nlaws concerning the functions of the organs of the human body. For\nexample, the physiology of nutrition teaches us certain truths regarding\nthe amount and nature of foods needed for various periods and conditions\nof life; also it teaches how the complicated machinery of our nutritive\norgans deals with the foods. Personal hygiene of nutrition aims to lead the\nindividual to apply in a rational way the establisht laws regarding both the\ndietetic and the digestive aspects of nutrition. Similarly, the physiology\nof the nervous system gives us a basis for the hygienic rules relating to work\nand to play and to rest. We might go oh to consider the physiology of any\nsystem of organs in the human mechanism whose complexity fails to excite\nour wonder because familiarity has led us to take it as a matter-of-fact.\nThe truth is that each group or system of organs is an intricate mechanism\nwhich deserves more expert care and attention than the mechanician gives\nto a watch or to any other man-made machine; but proper care or personal\nhygiene of the human machine requires an understanding of its actions or\nfunctions. We come, then, to the conclusion that those who are the leaders\nin home life — and, naturally, these are usually the parents — should be\nprepared to apply personal hygiene to themselves and to their children\nand to teach the children to care for themselves.\nPreparation for such personal hygiene in the home requires, not only a\nknowledge of the rules of personal hygiene, but also of the essentials of the\nphysiology on which the rules of personal health are based. Only to a verylimited extent can mere rules be helpful as health guides in the home, for\nthe reason that individuals, and especially children, are highly variable.\nThe old saying that \"what is sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander\"\ndoes not apply in human personal hygiene. A particular food combination may be good for one person and decidedly harmful to another; a cold\nbath is beneficial to some individuals, while it paves the way to bronchitis\nand pneumonia in many others; and there are hundreds of such idiosyncrasies which are known in physiological science, and which must be taken\ninto account by one who intelligently and scientifically applies rules of\npersonal hygiene, especially to children. One only who has graspt the first\nprinciples of the underlying science of physiology can safely and surely direct\nhimself and others regarding many rules of personal health. Especially\n\n"}
{"page": 477, "printed_page": "465", "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nHOME\n\nAND\n\nHEALTH\n\n465\n\nis this SO, because the printed literature of personal hygiene is so full of\npersonal fads and fancies. One author feeds himself on soft-boiled eggs\nand concludes that this prevents rheumatism or tuberculosis; another\nbites his food fifty-seven times and, having survived the experiment\nrecommends unlimited mastication as a panacea; another sleeps in an icecold atmosphere and recommends it as a sure cure for everything, from\ntoothache to tuberculosis. These are scarcely exaggerations, for there are\nmany such absurd suggestions masquerading in the guise of personal\nhygiene. Those only who are familiar with the healthy working of organs\nas taught in physiology are able to reject or to try cautiously hygienic\nadvice which seems to be out of line with the principles of physiological\nscience. There should be applied in homes only such personal hygiene\nas has been tested and approved by many authorities in physiology and\nmedicine. The unscientific conclusions based on the personal experience\nof one or a few individuals is not advisable for home practice.\nSanitation is the second aspect of hygiene that applies to the home.\nBy sanitation we understand the problem of conserving health by scientific control of such unhealthful conditions as are caused by microorganisms\nand by unfavorable physical environment, such as drainage, ventilation,\nlighting, heating, and external factors that influence health. At present\nit is the most practicable line of hygiene, for one or more individuals\nmay dictate and enforce rules that will lead to the health of many\npeople. For example, the hygienic regulations of boards of health, or of\nmilitary medical officers, or of a family physician, or of a leader in a\nhome, may control unhealthful environment and protect the health of all\nwho come within the regulated conditions. In the very isolated farm\nhouse, sanitation is entirely a problem of the home; but in the vast\nmajority of American homes, and still more under the village system\nof Europe, there is more or less communication and interdependence upon\npeople from other homes; and hence public regulation of healthful\nenvironment becomes necessary and is being rapidly provided under our\nlegal sanitary organization.\nFor our present purposes we may assume that public officials may do all\nthat is at present practicable in protecting our homes by guarding us\nagainst impure water, tainted foods, and contagious diseases. Still there is\na place for the sanitary side of hygiene in the home. In the first place,\npublic sanitation can never be absolutely perfect. For example, the milksupply of New York City comes from many thousand farms. It is obvious\nthat no possible sanitary inspection and regulation can make this milk\nabsolutely safe. The New York water-supply is the safest found in any\ngreat world-city, and rarely indeed is it accused of carrying the germs\nof intestinal disease; but it cannot be absolutely safe. Evidently the\nhome must cooperate with the public sanitation system and pasteurize\nor sterilize its milk and water from the uncertain sources. These are\n\n"}
{"page": 478, "printed_page": "466", "text": "466\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nillustrations, but practically every phase of public sanitation needs intelligent and scientific home cooperation.\nThe third phase of hygiene that definitely concerns the home is social\nhygiene which, in this country, has come to include much that is better\nclassified as sex education. Only in part are the problems of sex concerned\nwith health and therefore a part of hygiene. Especially is this true in dealing with children in the home. A very limited amount of hygienic instruction of children of preadolescent years and in the early years of adolescence\nshould be part of the best home training. Also parents should be on the\nalert and ready to give any needed hygienic guidance. On the whole,\nhowever, the problem of sex instruction for the home is more concerned\nwith developing wholesome attitudes and ethical standards than with\nteaching children facts of sex that concern health.\nThe problem of applying any phase of hygiene in the home is simply one\nof teaching the present parents and the pupils who will be the parents of the\nnext generation. The hygienic standards of the majority of homes are low\nsimply because the establisht laws of health have not been properly emphasized in the education of the parents. A little physiology and a little\nhygiene have been taught in the public schools under legal restrictions\nwhich have prevented the satisfactory selection of subject-matter and\nmethods of teaching. Until recently the colleges have done but little in this\ndirection. Even now the majority of college students do not study physiology and hygiene while in college. The popular magazines have helpt\nsomewhat in spreading the gospel of hygiene, but, on the whole, they have\nconfused their readers by sensational and faddist articles. The householdarts departments of various schools and colleges have woven some hygiene\ninto their scheme of instruction with results that are useful but far from\nsatisfactory.\nOn the whole, then, we are not educationally prepared to attack efficiently the problem of extending hygiene to the majority of homes that are\ngreatly in need of the methods of healthful living. We are not prepared\nbecause the teachers are not prepared. Even household-arts teachers, who\nought to be most interested, are, in the great majority of cases, weak in their\nknowledge of the principles of physiology and hygiene, except in the dietetic\naspect of nutrition. They are weak because no school for the training of\nteachers of household arts is giving to applied physiology and hygiene even\none-half of the attention it deserves.\nThe solution of the problem of introducing the needed hygiene into the\nhome is to be found by improving hygienic teaching in our educational\nsystem, and this means specially trained teachers, beginning in colleges\nand normal schools. This does not refer to the education of girls only,\nas many people think. All real homes include both sexes, and both must\ncooperate if home hygiene is to be efficient. It follows, then, that improving the hygiene in girls' schools and colleges, or in household-arts courses.\n\n"}
{"page": 479, "printed_page": "467", "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF DECORATIVE\n\nART\n\n467\n\nis inadequate. It is not a subject for sex-diiferentiated education. Already\nwe have too many schools in which the girls are getting fair instruction in\nthe name of household arts that relates to health in homes, but the boys\nthey will some day marry are not taught household arts, and hence are\nleft fearfully ignorant of the great problems of healthful living. I protest\nagainst any such plan for sex-limited teaching of knowledge so important\nas that of physiology, bacteriology, hygiene, nutrition, and other applications of science concerned with household arts, and which we are tending\nto limit to the special education of girls. I assure you that we shall never\nget efficient application of either science or art in the home until the men as\nwell as the women understand the fundamental principles. And we cannot\nteach the principles to men if we set them aside as reserved for household\narts. The only possible way of getting both sexes to understand the great\nunderlying principles of science and art as applicable to home life is by\nteaching the fundamentals to both sexes in courses of science, and then\nteaching girls the special application to the fundamentals of household arts.\nIn conclusion, I see good reasons for the belief tliat the importance of\nall phases of hygiene in the home is gaining recognition rapidly; and a\npopular interest in, and a demand for, hygienic knowledge will surely lead\nto the much-needed improvements in our educational dealing with the\nscience of healthful living.\nTHE INFLUENCE\nLLOYD WARREN,\n\nOF ARCHITECTURAL\n\nAND DECORATIVE\n\nEX-PRESIDENT, SOCIETY OF BEAUX\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nART\n\nARTS ARCHITECTS,\n\nWe apply the term \"art\" nowadays to those thousand and one things\nwhich are dependent for their proper execution more on the personal equation of the worker than on the known laws of science. The criterion by\nwhich we judge this execution, however, varies in each art and is dependent\non a host of circumstances, as we approach it from different points of\nview.\nIn the arts dependent on esthetic qualities, the world has found it\nnecessary to establish certain standards of criticism by which relative merits\nare decided. This has produced another art, that of criticism which, in\nturn, is divided into various schools which differ in rendering verdicts on\nthe same subject; and we are constrained then helplessly to ask ourselves\nwho shall decide when these doctors disagree.\nWe hear very much about taste of every kind— good, bad, pure, classic,\nvulgar, or what you will — not realizing that it may not be taste at all which\nenters into popular discriminations. Esthetic taste, probably is a sense,\nenvironment, education,\nIrather like our conscience, influenst by heredity,\ng degrees in various\nvaryin\nin\nexists\nwhich\nand\nss\nthings,\nother\nand countle\n\n"}
{"page": 480, "printed_page": "468", "text": "468\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nsense, who obtain no greater pleasurable reaction from one object than from\nanother, tho these may affect others keenly in opposite ways. Now, where\nthis sense is absent or where it exists only in a minor degree, other faculties or tendencies will be brought in to decide where taste should have\ndecided; so we see people surrounding themselves with accessories of life\nwhich we call \"in bad taste.\" Yet this is a misstatement, because it is\nnot the sense of taste which prompted their choice or their fabrication,\nbut considerations entirely foreign to it.\nWhen we speak of esthetic taste, it does not mean simply the reaction, pleasurable or otherwise, which is received thru the eye, but it\ninvolves a number of other considerations. We know that when people\nsay they exercise their own taste in a matter, they are often doing much\nmore than that. Their taste is not always sufficiently strong to impose a\nchoice, and they therefore invoke other faculties, which may be of the most\nvaried kinds to assist them. Then, when we see an apartment filled with\natrocious gilt furniture, we must know that the owner's sense of taste is\nlacking, that the unsightliness of his surroundings does not disturb him,\nbut that he has been prompted to his choice by perhaps a desire for ostentation and display which tickles a mental and not an esthetic sensibility,\nor by a desire to imitate a setting which he has observed about others of\nhis own kind.\nIt seems proper, however, for the purposes of this discusson that we\nadmit only a certain sense to the word \"taste\"; that we consider it to\nmean a sort of esthetic conscience which tells us instinctively that things\nare fitting and beautiful or otherwise, just as our moral conscience tells us\nthat actions are good or evil. Now, we must admit that this esthetic conscience exists in a greater or lesser degree among different individuals, and\nthat it varies according to environment, heredity, and many other circumstances, and that, therefore, peoples existing under widely different influences\nwill have in art as divergent sentiments as they have in morals. Hence, this\nesthetical conscience must be created where it does not exist, as the dumb\nare taught to speak; it must be aroused where it lies dormant; it must be\ndevelopt where it is embryonic, for its possession is an added endowment\nto a race for the greater enjoyment and the fuller ownership of the universe\nof which man's understanding is so small.\nIn following out this trend of thought, it has seemed to me that the title\nof this paper may be misleading, inasmuch as architecture and the decorative\narts are the results of influences rather than the active powers creating them.\nWhat could be more personal than the surroundings in which men live,\nthe utensils of their daily life, and the houses in which they dwell ? The\narts which govern the design of these must then be directed by and reflect,\neven unconsciously, any taste which may exist in the individual; they must\nhave their origin in esthetic desire, primarily, and only in a second stage\nof development can they stimulate it.\n\n"}
{"page": 481, "printed_page": "469", "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF DECORATIVE\n\nART\n\n469\n\nThe sense of beauty has no doubt been born in man, engendered by the\nnature which has surrounded him in the earliest stages of his development.\nThe lakes of Italy, the Isles of Greece, the borders of the Inland Sea, must\nhave been the inspirers of the taste which later produced the Renaissance,\nthe age of Pericles, and the art of Japan. It was long contact with this\nbeautiful scenery, in periods of peace and ease, which planted the seeds of\ntaste to grow, age by age, until an instinctive consciousness of beauty,\nan added sense to the five which man already possest, was formed perhaps\nby processes of natural selection, to be exprest later in the volition which\nproduced the works of art.\nIn this country it has been different. The beauties of nature no doubt\nexisted, tho to a rather less extent than in the world's centers of great\nartistic expression. The pioneer was not himself an artistic type, and so\narduous were the labors which awaited him, so terrible the struggle for\nexistence, that no chance was given to the growth of the art sense. Whatever expressions of the softer side of life came to the surface were directly\nimported from Europe and showed no sign of national growth. A few of\nthe Colonial planters of the South brought their traditions from England\nand constructed for themselves mansions reminiscent of those which they\nhad left behind, and English pattern books taught our early artisans the\nforms which fashion imposed on their kinsmen across the seas. In\nthe sleepy farming communities of New England, never disturbed by the\nrush of immigration, nor overwrought by business cares, the subconscious\ndesire for beauty produced quaint houses with columned porticos and\nelegantly spindled staircases, and today their wide streets bordered with\nweeping elms attest that leisure is the parent of beauty. But elsewhere,\nbusiness, commerce, manufacture, and hurry were great weeds which chokt\nthe growth of the flower. In cities,. long straight streets of cheerless brick\nor brownstone houses arose, and, wherever the railroad takes us, there\nwe find squalor beyond anything outside of China. The consciousness of\nbeauty seems indeed to be utterly absent from these dwellers in communities,\nand we often have a hopeless feeling that it is perhaps better to leave them\nso than to awaken in some of them a sense that will be shockt at every\nmoment of their lives.\nThis, however, would be a mistaken conclusion to reach. Squalor\nis a thing speedily rectified when the intention is there to rectify it,\nand the frame shacks of hideous aspect are fortunately as ephemeral\nas the conditions which caused their erection. Day by day we see\nthe disappearance of buildings in our large cities which we thought with\na groan were there to . stay, and as each splendid edifice takes its place,\nas every bowered bungalow or stately mansion arises in our country\nside, the awakening of the sense of beauty in each one -of us becomes\nstronger. And here we see the influence of the arts of architecture and\nof decoration.\n\n"}
{"page": 482, "printed_page": "470", "text": "470\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nIn our American life we are too much inclined to act vicariously. We\npush buttons and everything is done for us. We wish to live in a delightful\ninterior, and we push an architect and a decorator. But it is not in this\nway that great works are produced in any art. A lawyer once told me that\nit was the great client who created the great lawyer. It is also true of\nartists. The employer must work with the employed, inspire him with\nsomething of himself, so that the finisht work may have something that is\npersonal and be not merely a hand-me-down, fitted for any man's needs\nand for no man's taste. The influence of architecture and of the decorative\narts, then, is this: They awaken, as nothing else can, the dormant sense of\ntaste which exists in an apparently tasteless population. They show it a\nfield for the joy of living which it had never guest before. Think for a\nmoment what it is to be gifted with a new sense! Do not our hearts go\nout with pity to those among us who lack one of our common senses; but\nthis is a sense also! It is brought to us by means of one of the others, it\nis true; it is subtle and not easily understood, but to him who has it, it\nbrings as much as sight, or taste, or touch.\nArchitecture and the decorative arts serve this purpose much more\nkeenly than do the purer arts, for they are so closely connected with our\nintimate life, so much more easily understood, form so much more our\natmosphere. Music, or painting, or sculpture, are fragmentary, occasional,\nin our lives; then, they are almost esoteric, they belong so much to the\nadepts, to the virtuosi. But your house, your easy chair, the inkstand that\nyou use daily, the library which holds the books you like so well, or the\nstudy where dwell your lares and penates! These things are permeated\nwith your thoughts, your atmosphere, and everything which is sacred to\nyour own ideals. The influence of these things is very, very great:\ninfluence for a larger, happier life, for patriotism, for ambition to work\nand have a part in the beauty and grace of life, to help others so that\nthey too may join in the ennobling of the commonplace, and the lesson\nthat, in your own work, tho it be not art, the element of beauty may\nenter too.\nNow, we are all here, I suppose, to consider how we may advance the\ninterests of art education in this country. For the accomplishment of this\nthing there are two classes of people necessary — those who desire and appreciate the artistic quality in their environment and those who create it. The\nincrease in the first class will naturally lead to an increase in the second\nfollowing the law of supply and demand, provided that opportunities for\ntechnical artistic education be at hand.\nIn the educational system it seems more difficult and subtle to produce\nan appreciative class than to produce an executive one. The latter follows\nnaturally, having a very definite stimulus in the demands put upon it.\nBut appreciation is dependent on the existence of taste, on the awakening\nof a large mass of the people to the fact that they are missing something\n\n"}
{"page": 483, "printed_page": "471", "text": "Department]\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nOF DECORATIVE\n\nART\n\n471\n\nwhich is worth while having— something vague, of which many have never\nheard before, and which they must be made to understand first thru their\nreasoning before they will be persuaded to lend their sensibUities. To do\nthis is no easy problem to solve, and I think we shall all agree that it has\nnot been done. If it is a fact that the origin of taste for the beautiful\nis to be found in the influence of nature in its more lovely forms over primitive man for many centuries, and if its growth in this way has been as slow\nas the birth of art within recent historical times would point it to be, then\nthe problem of bringing it into being by artificial means, which is before\nus, would seem a difficult one indeed. How is nature ever to act upon\nthese people who live in towns and never see it unless they are whiskt about\nin a motor car; who are never steept in it long enough to be imbued in its\ncharm ? To our average fellow-countryman, nature is a place of dust and\nof mosquitoes, of heat, of stony paths, and of poor food. Life is really too\nshort to spend one's hours of leisure in trying to discover the beautiful\nunder such disadvantages. Let us have a compromise and build on a\nsuburban lot where a magnolia bush in spring and a privet hedge in summer,\nwith some window boxes as an added luxur}^, will, with the aid of art, take\nthe place of the beauties of nature. It is a desirable thing to graft a sense\nof beauty on the whole population of our country; and we must set about\nour work and not wait till the cows come home. In short, it is up to us,\nwith as brief a delay possible, now that we know the need of good architecture and its accessories, to educate the people so that they shall produce\nthem, substituting artificial stimuli for those in other ages supplied by\nnature.\nThe steps necessary seem to be these: First of all, we must show the\npeople thru their reason, and not yet thru their senses, that fine architecture and decoration exist for others which they too might have, and\nthey must be made to understand the advantage which this means so\nthat they will wish for it. In other words, since the school authorities are\nhanding over to us their pupils, our first task is to show them what the\nworld has produced which is better than what we have, explaining to them\nthe meaning and the message and the desirability of this wealth which\nothers have, making them understand that they will not reach it until they\ndevelop their esthetic sense, any more than they can profit by the science\nof the world before they can learn to read the volumes in which it is stored.\nShow the child the goal first! and let him come down to the details later.\nSuppose the goal is the splendid building: inflame his mind with the porticos\nof the Acropolis, the towers of Notre Dame, and the sculptured and frescoed\ninteriors of Italian palaces, and do not set before him those uncouth casts\nof noses and fingers and toes which, suggestive as they are to finisht\nartists, are to the unawakened imaginations nothing but amputated monstrosities. Taste is a sense to enable us to enjoy things; therefore exercise\nit on things beautiful, lest it be hopelessly perverted. In the first place\n\n"}
{"page": 484, "printed_page": "472", "text": "472\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\n(I am speaking now of the cultural education for the generality of students\nand not of the technical instruction for the artist or artisan), stimulate their\nimaginations by lectures — lectures not high-flown and sentimental about\nart with the capital \"A,\" lest they be deceived, but sensible and true; show\nthem in lantern slide the monuments of the world and tell them their\nstories; explain to them the life which they house and ennoble. So much\nfor his reason but, the next step — the cultivation of taste — is a far more\ndifficult thing to teach, and there is only one way in which we cannot go\nwrong. It is in the study of nature, both in line, color, and form. After\nthat must come the observation of masterpieces of art. But where can\nwe find them ? In photographs, perhaps, but rarely in those dead white\ncasts made from second-rate copies and taken from worn-out molds, which,\nalone, our schools possess. And then the cromolithographic plates of preposterous German conventionalized ornament, and those detestable Arundel\nprints which perhaps still are carefully framed and hung in the schoolrooms, presumably to persuade the unsuspecting that Ghirlandajo's frescoes\nwere entirely painted in tones of dirty red and overbrilliant blue! Let us\nshun these things. They are all very well in a reference library, but surely\nit is destructive to the taste to tell a child that the Sistine Chapel is the\napogee of mural painting and that he must therefore admire a hideous\ncolored print of it which he is shown.\nTo replace these false gods let us then go back to nature, always nature,\nin its details and in its ensemble; the study of the flower, of the leaf, and of\nthe grass; of the landscape, of the lake, and of the beating surf.\nOf course, this matter of arousing a national desire for beauty in our\ncities is a difficult one. It will not be settled by a few lantern-slide lectures,\nnor by a few classes in nature-study in our public schools. We have been\nat it long already, and indeed some progress has been made, but much\nmore than this is needed. I feel that, very largely, you who are here are\nthe guardians of it. You have the power to multiply lectures, to form\nsocieties for its propaganda among your students, to introduce it into the\nmany social events which form the most interesting experiences of the school\nyear to the students. The ideas and ideals inculcated in early youth will\nnever altogether be obliterated thru years of work and strife, perhaps\noften times sordid, thru which many of them will pass. And when the\nhours of rest and leisure will come (if they ever do, in this our country)\nthey will remember, and the seed will bear its fruit.\nBut it is the creation of taste in the nation which primes all other things\nin importance, as far as the production of the beautiful home, the dignffied\ncity, and the representative public edffice is concerned. The artist will\nalways appear when there is need for, and appreciation of, his art. Every\ncountry gets its deserts, as well in art as in government; and I think that\nthis one has its fully merited share of good architects. The schools for\ntheir training have only recently, and not all of them, arrived at a certain\n\n"}
{"page": 485, "printed_page": "473", "text": "473\nDepartment]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nAN\n\nAGE\n\nOF SERVICE\n\ndegree of excellence, but those of France have ever been opened to architects and thronged with them. From thence they have brought back the\nideas of art which France has ever given to the world: her pure logic of\nreasoning; her love for the fundamental principles of right in art, as well as in\nthe state; her respect for the liberty of the individual, according to his\nconscience, and her ever-ready welcome to hina who contributes something\nnew to carry on the tide of civilization in which our art of architecture is\nsuch an important factor. These architects, returning home, have planted\nhere the artistic standard of France which waved first from our beautiful\neighteenth century City Hall, and now unmistakably presides over countless buildings of well-considered utility and studied grace in every part of\nthe land.\n^\nEDUCATION\nJOSEPH\n\nH.\n\nFOR AN AGE OF SERVICE\n\nAPPEL,\nVICE-PRESIDENT\nOF THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES\nAMERICAN UNIVERSITY OF TRADE AND APPLIED SCIENCE,\nPHILADELPHIA, PA.\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nThe youth of the United States, boys and girls of fourteen to eighteen\nyears of age, leave school and go to work at the rate of one miUion\nevery year. Forty per cent leave at fourteen years; 85 per cent at\nsixteen years.\nAt all times more than two million children of the ages of ten to fifteen\nare at work — one-fifth of all the children of this age in the United States,\nand one-tenth as many as those who attend our common schools.\nWith a population of a hundred millions, approximately only half are\nover ten years of age — fifty-one and one-half millions — and of these, fortytwo millions are engaged in gainful occupations.\nOf these forty-two millions, a third, or about fourteen millions, are\nengaged in the field — in farming, forestry, or mining. A larger approximate\nthird, or more than fifteen millions, are engaged in workshop or in store.\nThe remaining lesser third are engaged as follows: in transportation, 6.9\nper cent; in public service, 1.2 per cent; in professions, 4.4 per cent; in\ndomestic and personal service, 9.9 per cent; and in clerical occupations,\n4.5 per cent.\nChildren attending school number twenty-one millions. Adults attending school, college or university, exclusive of schools of reform or for defectives, number less than a million— only 334,97^ being enroled in the 567\nuniversities, colleges, and technological schools of the United States, of\nwhom 217,683 are men and 117,295 are women.\nIt is a situation which presents these fundamental conditions:\nOne-eleventh of our children of school age are at work without technical\ntraining or adequate general education. Less than one-fortieth of our adults\nare receiving education in our higher schools, colleges, and universities.\n\n"}
{"page": 486, "printed_page": "474", "text": "474\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nTo determine the kind of education which will best fit an age of Service,\nwe must first determine what is meant by Service. True human service\nis the living and working together of all individuals for the good of all.\nIt involves mutual cooperation between man and man. It requires the\ndevelopment of the individual to his utmost capacity together with the\ndevelopment of all society to the utmost degree of human welfare — material,\nmental, and spiritual. True human service demands that every product of\nnature and of man, physical, mental, and moral, be put to practical use —\nto the use of humanity; that all our wealth, all our strength, all our intellect,\nall our spirituality become merely a means to an end — that end being service.\nFrom this point of view we develop reHgion, not for religion's sake, but for\nservice. We develop law and medicine, not for their sake, but for service.\nWe develop education, not for education's sake, but for service. We\ndevelop business, not for business' sake, but for service; the almighty\ndollar is not the end, but the means.\nTrue service recognizes that the first requisite to Uving is working; that\nefficient living comes only from efficient working. The first demand of this\nage of service, therefore, is that our boys and girls going into life be fitted for\nuseful, efficient employment. This demand is for what is called \"vocational training,\" and its need, considered from the point of view of the\nworker, of the educator, and of society, is shown in the report of the United\nStates Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education made to\nCongress, June i, I9i4«\nRecommendation of this Commission that the United States as a nation\nmake grants of money for the estabUshment of vocational instruction in our\ncommon schools has not yet been acted upon by Congress. But some\nindividual cities, on their own initiative and out of their own school funds,\nare making efforts to provide such instruction. The larger part of our common schools however, are still teaching only the purely academic branches.\nBut what of our colleges and universities — how are they meeting the new\nconditions of the age of service ? To answer this question requires a brief\nview into the evolution of our higher seats of learning.\nGrowing out of the new fresh soil of our country, and at the same time\nout of the traditions of the older countries of Europe, it is quite natural that\ncolleges and universities in the United States should be of a widely diverse\ncharacter. It is only since about 1880 that an effort has seriously been\nmade to distinguish between collegiate and university education.\nIn our older universities, especially Harvard, Yale, and William and\nMary, three pioneers of Colonial times, the underlying principle was discipline— mental, moral, and religious. Today the disciplinary stage in education isrelegated to the school and college and is the requisite introduction\nto the higher and freer work of the university.\nAmong the American universities, those of the East still hold closely to\nthe original idea of training the individual as a citizen. Newer universities\n\n"}
{"page": 487, "printed_page": "475", "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nAN\n\nAGE\n\nOF SERVICE\n\n475\n\nof the West aim to be of benefit, not only to the individual and to society\nthru that individual as a good citizen, but as well to the community as a\nsocial unit and to all members of society whether or not they are enroled in\nthe institution. The Wisconsin idea, for instance, growing out of the University ofWisconsin, is that an educational institution, with facilities for\nresearch, should be useful to, and used by, the community in which it is\nestablisht. Thus, a farmer in Wisconsin, who finds some ailment among his\ncattle, among his crops, or in his own business-management, applies at the\nuniversity for a diagnosis and procures a remedy.\nWith the evidence of what is going on in the field of education, it is fair\nto say that in our higher, as well as in our lower schools, the trend in the\nUnited States is toward practicalizing education, not alone for material\nends, and not alone for the general welfare of the individual, but for the good\nof the people as a social unit, for the prosperity of the state and nation, and\nfor the general welfare of humanity.\nSumming up, it may be said that all opportunities now offered in the\nUnited States for school preparation for a business career are included in\nthese four educational classes:\n1. Vocational courses in common schools, which so far are few and far\nbetween.\n2. Commercial or business colleges of the type exemplified by the\nPeirce School in Philadelphia.\n3. Private endowed schools more or less technical in character, such as\nthe Drexel Institute of Philadelphia, and including correspondence schools\nof which a great number have grown out of the demand of the public.\n4. Business courses in colleges and universities.\nAnd now, giving due credit and honor to these educational institutions\nwhich are pioneering in the field of business training, and to common schools\nfor seeking to meet the practical needs of the day, the question may still be\naskt: Does the educational system in the United States, so far provided\nin the wisdom of our educators, meet the demand of this age of service in\nwhich the cry is: \"Let me work and live to my full capacity in cooperation\nand in harmony with my fellow-men \" ?\nFurthermore, is it possible for educational institutions, removed from the\npractices of life, to give competent instruction in those practices? Can\nbusiness practically be taught outside of business ? Can service practically\nbe taught outside of service ? Or will the education of the future, beyond\nthe primary and secondary grades, be developt hand in hand with the\nworkful life of the individual? Shalt we have students in one field and\nworkers in another, or shall we have the student worker ? To help people\nto work and to live together for their common and individual good, is it not\nnecessary to unite labor and education in everything we do ?\nTo all these questions we will find answers in examining the aims and\nideals of the American University of Trade and Applied Commerce.\nThis\n\n"}
{"page": 488, "printed_page": "476", "text": "476\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nkind of university aims to fit people to work and to live with one another\nfor mutual service. All human beings are born with certain rights, among\nthem being: (i) The right to a living thru work; (2) the right to education\nthru personal effort.\nThe proper mixture of natural living, eflScient work, and useful education will bring to the individual health, wealth, and happiness.\nLabor, for the purpose of making one's living, is supposed to belong\nexclusively to the adult period of life. Education is supposed to be acquired during the period of youth.\nModern conditions of society, however, (i) force girls and boys into the\nnecessity of earning their own livelihood, or of assisting in the maintenance\nof their homes, before the age of maturity, and even before their common\nschool education is complete; (2) demand steadily increasing productivity,\nefficiency, and earning power in the worker, that there may be means for\nhigher standards of living, shorter working hours, and the use of new leisure.\nTo meet the first of these conditions, existing for some time, the John\nWanamaker Commercial Institute, a body of the store's younger employes\norganized for educational purposes, was establisht twenty-five years ago,\nand is now upon a thoroly organized basis, offering free instruction in common school branches together with elementary business, musical, social,\nphysical, and military training.\nHaving thus succeeded in merging labor and education into happy\nliving and citizenship for its younger business people, to meet the second condition the John Wanamaker Store establisht, as part of its obligation to\nsociety, the American University of Trade and Applied Commerce, offering\nto its adult employes the opportunity of continuing their education while\nearning their own livelihood, so that they may become better individuals,\nbetter members of society, and better citizens of the nation.\nThis advanst step recognizes these fundamental facts: (i) That education belongs not merely to youth, but sh®uld continue thruout Hfe.\n(2) That purely educational institutions do not offer a business course\ncommensurable with the needs of business — ^perhaps cannot offer such a\ncourse because of inability properly to apply in actual practice and Hfe whatever theories and principles of business may be taught in the classroom.\nTrue, universities are doing highly important work in research and\ninvestigation, with the aid of science and well-fitted-out laboratories, but is\nthis scientific knowledge being practically applied in the lives and work of\nthe people ?\nThey have courses in agriculture, but how many students go back to the\nfarm and actually apply, in the soil, the knowledge and training they have\nsecured ?\nThey have courses in chemistry, but when the European war cut off\ncertain basic-manufactured products, how quickly and how well did the\nUnited States supply the deficiency ?\n\n"}
{"page": 489, "printed_page": "477", "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nAN\n\nAGE\n\nOF SERVICE\n\n477\n\nThey have courses in business, but how many graduates go into\nbusiness able to take up the work along with the man trained in business\nalone ?\nAgain, in matters of trade and commerce, so vital to society, can research\nwork be done best in a university, apart from life, or in places of busmess,\nwhich is life itself?\nAbstract science may be studied best in the seclusion of the classroom\nand laboratory, but where shall we study and formulate the proper appUcation of science to business, if not in business itself ?\nAnd where can be taught best such important subjects as production and\ndistribution, upon whose efliciency largely depends the actual cost of Hving\nof our people? Business theory may be taught in school, but business\npractice must be taught in workshop and in mart; only out of living practice istrue theory discovered.\nThe Wanamaker Store is a huge world-wide laboratory of service. Here\nis merchandise from all parts of the world. Here is art, in the form of merchandise, and science in its manufacture. Here is trade. And here is\nlife, the human element, in the people who sell and the people who buy,\npresenting problems of economics, of psychology, of ethics, even of civics.\nEvery necessary condition is present for the study and the appUcation of\nprinciples and methods of actual living. Here principles are discovered.\nHere methods are tested and formulated and given to the world. Here\nthey are appUed in the daily life of the store.\nThe higher work of the American University of Trade and Applied\nCommerce aims to supplement the primary and secondary education of the\nInstitute with such useful and cultural education as will make the man or\nwoman a better individual, a better member of society, a better citizen.\nIt will provide education technical to the job; education for health, for\nvigor of body and mind; education for thrift and good personal financing;\neducation for higher ethical and social standards of living; and education\nfor culture and wise use of leisure. In four plain words we divide all stages\nof growth into doing, knowing, growing, living.\nRight or wrong, the boy or girl in this age of service is tumbled helterskelter into life and told to \"do the thing that is to be done.\"\nLater comes knowledge of How to do the thing and Why it is being done\nand in what Way to do it better. Then follows growing in our work. And\nall the time we are forst to live with one another as members of society\nand citizens of the state.\nNo classical degrees are awarded. Advancement of the student worker\nis markt, not by book learning, but by living work, and is rewarded by\nincrease in salary based on increasing earning power, which, in turn is based\non increasing service value to society.\n\nExaminations are mainly the daily examination'of one's usefulness in\nactual practical service.\n\n"}
{"page": 490, "printed_page": "478", "text": "478\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nNo scholarships are provided. There is no need of them in a university\nwhere the students are also producing workers; while receiving an education, they are at the same time maintaining themselves or family by means\nof a fixt and growing wage.\nThere will be no qualifications for admission other than good health,\ngood character, a willingness and capacity to work, and the requirements of\nthe business.\nWomen as well as men are welcome; equal opportunity prevails.\nFrom this resume of the work now being done and planned to be done,\nit is evident that to understand this new university, educators must revise\nsomewhat their views of the purpose of education and of estabUsht methods\nof imparting instruction. They must rid their minds of traditions and\nconsider this new educational procedure from the point of view of service\nalone. If this be done, we are confident that the American University of\nTrade and Applied Commerce will be accorded its proper place in the field\nof work and education.\nThe name \"University\" is chosen not out of conceit nor from a misappiiehension of its meaning. Primarily the word applied to any community or corporation regarded under its collective aspect, and in its earliest\nstages a university was merely a scholastic gild formed probably in the\nanalogy of the early trades gilds. So that a trade body organized for\neducational purposes has perhaps a prior right to use the name \" university \"\nfor its educational work. And where is there to be found so large a collection of activities that touch the universe as a whole, as in a great center of\nwork and life, such as is found in this store ?\nIf Herbert Spencer is right in saying that \"the great aim of education\nis to fit men and women to live completely — to teach in what way to treat\nthe body, in what way to treat the mind, in what way to manage our affairs,\nin what way to bring up a family, in what way to behave as citizens, in what\nway to utilize all sources of happiness which nature suppUes — how to use all\nof our faculties to the greatest advantage of ourselves and others,\" then we\nare right in undertaking this work as part of business, for business embraces\nall of these activities.\nWork is the real basis of health, of wealth, of happiness, of 'growth, of\nwelfare of the world in general.\nEducation makes work more efficient, more productive, more ennobling,\nmore satisfying, more spiritual — rendering more service to humanity.\nSociety establishes modes, manners, habits, and laws of life, based on\nwork and education, and is itself the direct composite beneficiary of improved work and education of its individual members. Society as a whole\nadvances only as the individual advances. The individual advances only\nas his work and education advance.\nTo Society will come a higher development of individuals and a closer\ncooperation, one with another, resulting in a higher average level. Waste —\n\n"}
{"page": 491, "printed_page": "479", "text": "Department]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nGOVERNMENT\n\nAID\n\n479\n\nin natural resources and in labor— will largely be eliminated. Involuntary\nunemployment will decrease and eventually cease. Idleness of any kind will\nbe recognized as a tax on society— and perhaps be actually taxt. Poverty\nand crime, the children of idleness, will lessen. Fundamental principles\nof living and working together will be formulated into practices and made\nstandard for the benefit of all. Production of wealth and its distribution\nwill become more efficient, thus lowering the cost of living. Citizenship\nwill improve. Character will improve. Life in general will become nobler,\nhappier, godlier.\nVOCATIONAL\nALVIN\n\nE.\n\nDODD,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY,\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nAND\n\nGOVERNMENT\n\nAID\n\nNATIONAL SOCIETY\nFOR THE PROMOTION\nEDUCATION, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nOF\n\nThere is a tremendous wastage of youth in the United States. With\nvery few exceptions it may be said that American boys and girls leave\nschool at fourteen years of age or earlier and go to work. At least 2,000,000\nboys and girls between the ages of fourteen and sixteen are working for\nwages in this country. They are unskilled at that age and unfit for responsibility. Each year 1,000,000 young people are required simply to maintain the ranks of our working population. There are 25,000,000 persons,\neighteen years of age and over, in this country engaged in farming, mining,\nmanufacturing and mechanical pursuits, trade and transportation. Of the\n14,250,000 engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits, not i per cent\nhave had, or at the present time have, any chance to secure adequate\nindustrial training. These figures are brought out by the report of a commission created in January, 19 14, by Congress to consider the subject of\nnational aid for vocational education.\nThe report, which is an exhaustive one, presents unusually interesting\ndata and arguments in support of its recommendations, stating that \"an\noverwhelming public sentiment shows the need for vocational education\nin this country. The testimony in this behalf comes from every class of\ncitizenship — from the educator, the manufacturer, the trades-unionist,\nthe business man, the social Worker, and the philanthropist.\"\nSummarizing its provisions, the bill extends to the states the help of the\ngovernment in establishing vocational education and in training persons to\nteach. This is to be done by grants of money and by the establishment of a\nfederal board for vocational education to work with and thru the states in\nstarting this form of education. The purpose of the proposed law is not to\nenable the federal government to enter the educational field and establish\nschools, but to extend such aid as will stimulate the different states of the\nUnion to develop the work themselves.\nFor agricultural teaching the money is to be allotted to the states in the\nproportion that the rural population of each state bears to the rural popula-\n\n"}
{"page": 492, "printed_page": "480", "text": "48o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\ntion of the United States. In the same way the allotments for trade and\nindustrial teaching will be in the proportion which the urban population of\neach state bears to the total urban population of the United States.\nIt is clear from the \"conditions\" laid down that the commission which\nprepared the bill had no intention of presenting a ''pork barrel\" measure.\nFor each dollar received from the government the state must expend an\nequal amount for the same purpose besides meeting all costs of plant-equipment and maintenance. \"The controlling purpose of all such education\"\nmust be to \"fit for useful employment.\" It must be for less than college\ngrade and designed to meet the needs of persons over fourteen years of\nage who have entered upon trade, industrial, farming, or home-making\npursuits. The schools aided in part by the national government must be\nsupported and controlled by the public. Before money for training teachers\ncan be received, each state must show that such training will be given to\npersons only who have had adequate vocational experience in the line of\nwork which they are preparing to teach. To administer these funds in the\nstates, each legislature is required to designate or create a state board of not\nfewer than three members. The existing state board of education may be\nso designated. Thus each state will have its own board and study its local\nneeds, being free to develop its own plans and always taking the initiative\nin the movement.\nTo administer the act for the entire country, the bill creates a permanent board for vocational education. This board is to act as a central\ninvestigating and publicity agent in the field of vocational education, as well\nas an administrative body.\nThe new board is to be a clearing-house for the various governmental\ndepartments and bureaus on making studies and publishing data. This\nwork will include studies, investigations, and reports on agriculture and\nagricultural processes, and requirements upon agricultural workers; trades,\nindustries and apprenticeships, trade and industrial requirements upon\nindustrial workers, and classification of industrial processes and pursuits;\ncommerce and commercial workers; home processes and problems, and\nrequirements upon home workers; and problems of administration of\nvocational schools and courses in vocational subjects.\nThe creation of the commission which framed this bill came as the\nresult of six years' effort to secure federal aid for vocational education.\nUnder the leadership, first, of Representative Davis, of Minnesota, and\nlater of Senators Dolliver, of Iowa, and Page, of Vermont, the struggle\nprogrest. Senator Page has been particularly active in urging consideration of the subject and has, in fact, given more time, thought, and hard work\nto the measure than any other man in Congress.\nAltho the Page bill past the Senate at the last Congress, it failed in the\nHouse. Meanwhile the Lever bill, which granted federal aid to extension\nwork in agricultural education among farmers, past, and the committee\n\n"}
{"page": 493, "printed_page": "481", "text": "Department]\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nGOVERNMENT\n\nAID\n\n481\n\nalready referred to was created. The American Federation of Labor has\nalready indicated a deep interest in the measure.\nAn ingenuous computation is presented by the commission to show\nthe value in dollars and cents which vocational training could have been to\nthe 25,000 persons over eighteen years of age now engaged in farming,\ntrade, and industry. If we assume that a system of vocational education\npursued thru years of the past, would have increast the wage-earning\ncapacity of each of these to the extent of ten cents a day, this would have\nmade an increase of wages for the group of $2,500,000 a day, or $75,000,000\na year, with all that this would mean to the wealth and life of the nation.\nThis is a very moderate estimate; and the facts would probably show a difference between the earning power of the vocationally trained and the\nvocationally untrained of 25 cents a day. This would indicate a waste\nof wages, thru lack of training, amounting to $6,250,000 everyday, or\n$1,875,000,000 for the year.\nIn this whole country, according to the investigations made by the\ncommission, are fewer trade schools than exist in the now unfortunate little\nGerman kingdom of Bavaria, with a population but little greater than that\nof New York City.\nUntil the outbreak of the European war more workers were being\ntrained at public expense in the city of Munich, than in all the larger cities\nof the United States put together, altho these American cities have a total\npopulation of 12,000,000 souls. The increast demand for trained workers\nis an irresistible urge toward vocational training. The supply is relatively\ndiminishing with the constantly increasing demand upon our industries for\nmore and better goods. The European war and its disastrous results will be\ncertain to emphasize this situation.\nThe opening of new foreign sources of supply, the depletion of our own\nstock of virgin raw material, and the deterioration of the quaUty of cheap\nlabor coming to us from Europe tend to make action imperative to our\nwelfare. In proportion as our resource factor fails, we must increase the\nefficiency of human labor in the shop as well as on the farm, says the commission.\nTrained intelligence only can conserve our forests and our water\npowers; restore to our depleted land its old fertiUty; and make it\npossible for us to maintain our higher standard of living for workers, and\nyet successfully compete with workshops in lands where lower standards\nprevail.\nMore than ten million persons of both sexes over ten years of age are\nengaged in productive industry. Three and a half millions follow occupations, such as those of the baker, the fireman, the stationary engineer, and\nthe laborer, where the very nature of the work is such as to make the use\nof art in production either of no consequence or impossible. Another group\nof about four millions are engaged in some skilled and unskilled occupations,\n\n"}
{"page": 494, "printed_page": "482", "text": "482\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nwhere usually as operatives they tend machines, turning out a product\nover whose form and finish the worker has absotulely no control.\nYou ask, therefore, what relation the passage of the Smith-Hughes bill\nhas to this or these workers. It is simply this : they need to be trained in the\nappreciation of arts, as intelligent consumers of it, because they everyday\ndo consume it; but no amount of art, however, from the producer's standpoint, isgoing especially to benefit these particular workers, because they\nare caught in the grip of the machine.\nWhile modern industry has supplanted the old handcrafts and changed\nthe demands on the worker, it has increast a thousand fold the productiveness of the country, put comforts and luxuries undreamed of within the\nreach of the purse of the common man, supplied the growing and diversified\ndemands of a rising standard of living, and broadened, and deepened, and\nenricht the life of all. We cannot, and would not if we could, set back the\nhands of progress by a return to a more primitive industry. Our task is,\nwhile holding on to all the benefits of this industrial age, to give it better\nstandards in production, so that it may make things that are more pleasing\nto the esthetic sense, as well as useful. In this way we will even make its\nproducts more useful, since in the last analysis, \"beauty is the right adaptation of things to their use.\"\nTraining in the practical arts thru drawing, manual training, prevocational training, and household-arts training should uncover the latent\ninterest and talent of the few who have real ability to do original and creative work in the designing and fashioning of material of one kind or another\nin industry. These have a precious asset which his country not only lacks\nbut has taken particularly no steps to develop. The lack of any plan to\ntrain the tastes of our talented boys and girls is the thing which causes us\nto ship crude raw material, such as wheat and iron ore, to France in order\nto pay an annual bill of one hundred million dollars for the clothing models\nshe sends us whose value lies in the initiative and the esthetic touch which\nthe French designers and workers have given them.\nTherefore the passage of the Smith-Hughes bill will have a far-reaching\neffect in the enhancement of art's teaching: (i) because all of our workers\nneed to be trained as consumers and users; and any training which increases\ntheir earning power makes possible a wider range of consuming; (2) training\nin the practical arts will have as one of its important means the uncovering\nof latent talent in the arts as well as in the industries. Vocational training\nin the arts is bound to spread, as is vocational training in the industries,\nagriculture, and commerce. Any system of vocational education will\nbe most effective when it rests upon a solid foundation of efficient teaching\nin the practical arts as elements of a liberal education. The greatest\nresource of any nation is the undevelopt skill and vocational possibilities\nof its population. We must work this as industriously as we have workt\nour water power, our mines, our fields, and our forests; but with less waste\n\n"}
{"page": 495, "printed_page": "483", "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nA VITALIZING\n\nFORCE\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n483\n\nand more intelligence. Vocational training is especially needed to prevent\nwaste of human labor, which is the most destructive form of extravagance of\nwhich a nation can be guilty.\nWith exceptions, excellent indeed, but all too rare, we are letting the\ncity boy and the mechanic's son go it alone. Hence it has come to be that\nyears of a young mechanic's life are wasted in learning how to earn his\nliving, after he has reacht the time of life when it is his desire and duty to\nearn that living. Here is a weakness and a waste that may well alter the\nplace of the United States in the commercial and industrial world.\nThis is a day when we are talking a great deal about preparedness.\nModern military preparedness is not so much a matter of men as of materials. Guns and equipment are more vital. What has made Germany\nformidable is not so much the size of her armies as the fact that she had\n13,000,000 rifles and 56,000 machine guns in her arsenals when the war\nbegan. Men to operate the machines and to instruct other men in their\noperation are essential. This Germany realized.\nThe Smith-Hughes bill proposes the true preparedness for both war and\npeace, as it proposes to extend to the boy and girl of less than college grade,\nopportunities for training in the vocations into which our young people are\ngoing at the rate of more than one million a year.\nSo here we have the United States coming forward with what, at least,\nis the most ambitious plan for educational advance likely to be carried out\nanywhere in the world during the immediate future. While Europe is\nkilling off its trained workers, we are preparing to train ours.\n\nANNETTE\n\nART A VITALIZING\n\nFORCE\n\nJ. WARNER,\n\nOF HOME\nECONOMICS,\nVERSITY, ITHACA, N.Y.\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nIN EDUCATION\nCORNELL\n\nUNI-\n\nArt is still regarded by too many as something superfluous — the ornamental fringe of education, a sort of antefix to the temple of civilization that\nmay or may not be added at the will of educators or citizens after the\nstructure is complete. Yet the historian who has delved deepest into the\nrecords of the past has not found a time when Art was not. The anthropologist, going still farther back to the time when the shaggy mammoth\nroamed over the plains, finds the cave-dwellers of Western Europe recording\ntheir need of something beyond food, shelter, and clothing by scratching\nornaments on the walls of their caves, carving their dagger hilts, and decorating their rude utensils. In the evolution of mankind, every step of the long\nstruggle upward has been recorded in some form of art, and the only\nauthentic history of civilization is that written in the language of art. No\nnation has ever risen higher than its art. The Egyptians, Greeks, Romans,\nMoors, and all those other vanisht peoples of the North and East, are\n\nII\nIL\n\n"}
{"page": 496, "printed_page": "484", "text": "484\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nresurrected and measured only thru that which they imprest unconsciously\nupon the structures in which they lived and worshipt and were buried, in the\ngarments they wore, the things they made and used everyday.\nNo one who has visited Greece can ever forget the thrill he experienst\nin approaching Athens, unrivalled in its situation, crowned by the Acropolis,\noutlined against amethyst mountains, and facing the Aegean. In walking\nthru its streets one is surprised at almost every turn with the remains\nof buildings constructed with a wonderful perfection of artistic conception that has never been surpast. The number of statues in the\nstreets in the glorious old days is said to have equaled the population.\nEvery four years occurred the great Pan-Athenaic procession, a pageant,\nwhich for its beauty has probably never been equaled. Athletic contests\nin which men displayed perfection of development in form, dancing contests which attained an equal standard in rhythmic movement, rhetorical\ncontests exhibiting the possibilities of the language in vocal expression, were\na constant source of enjoyment and inspiration. Poetry and the drama\nhad an intimate relation to the life of the people. All the common things\nof daily life — dress, utensils, every item in the Greek citizen's environment —\nevidenst what art as the vital breath of a whole people might mean. The\nmediaeval city is hardly less instructive.\nOur age and country will in time be subjected to the historical test. It\nis well to pause a moment to inquire how we will measure up with the\nbuilders of the Parthenon, the men who created the cathedrals, and those\nwho in the time of the Renaissance re-created all Italy. The American\ncity is characterized by the pall of smoke from its factory chimneys, by the\nhuddling together of the hundreds of little dry-goods-box houses in its\n**soul destroying suburbs.\" The entrance to the city is often made thru\nacres of freight yards, rows and racks of tenement houses, where \"the wash\nhangs out all day a-drying.\" Walk down a street and the unattractive\nsign-boards which leer at the passer-by by day and blink at him by night;\nthe pretentious and disorderly flaunting of wares in shop windows; the\ndirty streets flankt by rows of garbage barrels; the monotonous form and\ndiscordant coloring of the dwelling houses — all conspire to furnish a measure\nof our taste as a people. Go inside the houses and they are not much better.\nConsider the carpets, the wall hangings, the furniture, the pictures, the\ndishes, the mantel ornaments, the \"fancy work,\" and even the clothing of\nthe occupants, and then ask whether something vital is not lacking in\nour own standards.\nThis state of affairs may be due in part, as has often been affirmed, to the\ntraditions inherited from our Puritan forefathers, whose stern belief discounted allbeautiful and pleasant things; partly to the rapid material development of the country; and to the necessity for working the water power,\nthe mines, the fields, and the forests to their greatest possibiUties in order\nto satisfy the needs of the rapidly increasing population. But we must also\n\n"}
{"page": 497, "printed_page": "485", "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nA VITALIZING\n\nFORCE\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n485\n\nrecall the fact that in our day a race of monsters, more powerful than any\nwhich responded to the rubbing of Aladdin's lamp or appeared in the\ndreams of Prospero, has been called into being — a race as much a feature\nand expression of this era as were the mammoth and the icthyosaurus of\nprehistoric ages. These monsters — the steam engine and the other allconquering machinery — have substituted for the products of hands and\nbrains things made at terrific speed for every conceivable purpose^ in this\nall-demanding age. Building material, furniture, the objects of daily use,\ntools, everything made in wool, or cotton, or silk, or metal, or glass, or clay,\nor stone, assume innumerable forms almost without the intervention of a\nthinking brain, the touch of a skilful hand, or the wooing of a loving spirit.\nThis multiplicity of mechanical devices and processes makes it possible\nto produce things in such numbers and complexity that quantity has\nbecome the end rather than quality. The power that lays hold of, and is\nsatisfied with, such beauty as that manifested in a single rose, is lost.\nPleasure is found in abundance rather than in the finer attributes of proportion and line.\nNo previous civilization has been embarrast and bewildered by so\ncumbersome a heritage. A walk down Fifth Avenue will reveal scraps of\narchitectural legacies bequeathed by Greece, Rome, Europe, and the Far\nEast. The new architectural style so eagerly expected of America has\nbeen retarded, because the architectural resources of previous periods furnish\nso many \"ready made\" styles which we may imitate without loss of time —\na qualification greatly appealing to a people who \"wants what it wants,\nand wants it quick.\" The bewildering background of the arts and crafts\nproduced by all people and all ages, the infinite variety of materials into\nwhich these can be translated with fatal facility by machinery which gives\na semblance of the form but without any of the spirit of art in which they\nwere conceived, have placed originality and sincerity at a discount. Superabundance ofways and means and materials has had a deadening effect\nupon individual and public taste. Never did such complex conditions confront the groping human spirit. The struggle for existence, the mad rush\nfor \"places in the sun,\" ease and speed in transportation, sensational\namusements, the unrest in politics, religion, and the social world, bewilder\nand confuse.\nLincoln Colcord writes in \"Vision of War\":\nAmerica, I think you have not shown yourself;\nI think you are stronger than you know and weaker than you know;\nA people supremely material, I think you are at heart a\npeople supremely spiritual;\nI think the best of you lies latent waiting the word.\n\nL\n\nNever, I believe, was a country more responsive when that word is\nspoken. Tho it is the custom to say that the United States is the least\nartistic nation that ever grew to so great power and wealth, there is much\n\n"}
{"page": 498, "printed_page": "486", "text": "486\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nto evidence an awakening consciousness of the need for that spiritual element\nof life furnisht by art. The growth of this country in that inward and\nspiritual grace manifested in the outward and visible sign of art is best\nmarkt by our world's fairs. The first, the Centennial in 1876, found it\nwithout so much as the smell upon its garments of any fires kindled by the\ntorch of art. It was the first time that the crude products of our manufactories had been brought into direct comparison with those of other nations.\nThe experience was humiliating. That it was salutary was proved in 1 893 —\nless than twenty years after, when, out of the mud of the flat prairie, the\nmiracle of the White City rose by the shore of Lake Michigan. Every\nbuilding down to the smallest, and those intended for the humblest utilities,\ncontributed something to the perfection of the whole. The part art may\nplay as the unifying medium of the ideal and practical in city-planning\nthus demonstrated was without doubt the incentive to the remarkable\ngrowth in civic improvement during the last twenty years. Each world's\nfair since has brought a quickening impulse.\nBeside the improvement in our cities manifested and promist by the\ncivic centers, the park systems, the better housing laws, there comes from\ncountry places also a demand to know how its people may make an attractive environment in which to live their lives. One state, Minnesota, has\nanswered by supplying plans made by its best architects for attractive and\nconvenient farm homes, by stimulating production in the arts and crafts,\nand by conserving the skill brought to the state by immigration.\nThere are many other indications of a growing \"love of the beautiful\nthat brings to order the world of the gods.\" Art museums are being\nfounded everywhere. There are art associations, art clubs, art departments of women's clubs, village-improvement associations in every wideawake town. There are art commissions and art committees and \"boards\nof beauty\" in connection with all sorts of enterprises in city and state.\nBetter still, there is a great and growing desire in the trades to know what\nto do and how to do it. Dressmakers, milliners, shopkeepers of various\nkinds, herald every opportunity offered to learn what is right in form and\nin line as applied in their business. A band of printers was organized to\nform the North End Union in Boston and procured instructors and lecturers\nto teach their workmen and other young men the art of printing. Yale\nUniversity has conferred a degree upon D. B. Updike for his skill in producing beautiful printing. For many years large classes of salesmen in\nthe New York stores have attended evening courses in the principles of art\nfor the furtherance of their business. From the trade has come the demand\nwhich has led just now to the establishment of a course in Columbia University leading to a degree in the line of interior decoration.\nThe economic value of art for the industries of a nation is perhaps\nbest demonstrated by the examples given by France and Germany. France\nhas for 275 years led the world as a producer of articles combining esthetic\n\n"}
{"page": 499, "printed_page": "487", "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nA VITALIZING\n\nFORCE\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n4S7\n\nand utilitarian value. She has been able to defy the tariff walls of other\nnations thru her possession of the rarest and surest of all industrial assets,\nthe esthetic taste which multiplies ten, twenty, or a hundred times the value\nof raw materials.\nIt is natural that the economic value of art should provide the most\nforceful appeal for art education in a country having so high a regard for\nmaterial things, and one that is confronted by such economic conditions\nas the United States will be called upon to meet at the end of the wars.\nWe are \"coming alive\" to this necessity for art, and the plea for art education for the sake of our industries goes up in every assembly of educators.\nSuch phrases as the \" dollars-and-cents value of art,\" the \"cash value of an\nart education,\" are popular. The trend of the day is in the direction of\nvocational schools, which shall train pupils in the business of making a\nliving.\nBut besides education for the sake of our industries as necessitated both\nin production and consumption, and education in the business of making\na living, we need education in the art of living a life. \"A dollar when\nheld too near the eye will shut out the sun.\" Too much money was to\nthe Greek mind an excess that rankt with too much food or too much\ndrink.\nIt would be as undesirable as it would be impossible to repeat the\ncivilization of Greece, complete as it was in its day. Even for the sake of\nthe extraordinary attainment in beauty and skill of work, we would not go\nback to the middle ages when intellectual activities were crampt and starved,\nand education really did not touch the upper classes nor the masses of the\npeople. The Renaissance, with its ostentation, worldly display, oversensuousness, and moral corruption, teaches the danger of looking backward for inspiration and of grafting upon a new age the civilization of a\nformer. All human evolution is from within, and real progress, while\nnot oblivious of the past, must find its stimulus in the present, looking\ntoward the future for its full fruition. Such being the state of affairs, what\nis to be done about it ?\nWhen the word \"art\" is mentioned, the mind of the average person\nreverts to painting or statuary, just as everybody in Italy before Dante\nsupposed that literature could only be written in Latin, tho Latin was unintel igible to the common people. Many art schools today teach only\nthose phases of art which have to do with the so-called fine arts, sculpture,\npicture-making, and ornament. It is only recently that the art museums,\nthe natural conservators of art, have given room to other more numerous\nand perhaps more universal forms of art. In the great days there was no\ndistinction between fine and industrial art. The painter of the Sistine\nMadonna did not scorn to design a jewel box. The painter of the Mona\nLisa invented the wheelbarrow. Nothing is common, nor mean, in art.\nArt may appear in a clay bowl fashioned by the untutored Indian as well\n\n"}
{"page": 500, "printed_page": "488", "text": "488\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nas in the form of the Parthenon, the crowning achievement of the highest\ncivilization the world has seen. It is much more vitally embodied in\npeasant pottery where clay is loved into form, than in royal Worcester\nvases made to sell. Art, really great art, springs from the people.\nNational equipment in art cannot come to the United States thru\nart schools. There are 109 schools of academic art in the United States,\nwith a total enrolment of 6252 students of whom about i per cent become\nprofessional artists. This is too little leaven to leaven the whole lump.\nArt cannot become a feature in the life of the nation thru the higher schools\nof learning. Less than 2 per cent of those who enter the high school go to\ncollege. So with any of the technical or secondary schools. They all\nreach such a pitifully small percentage of the people. The one agency that\ncan reach the mass of the people is the public school. For this reason the\nsolution of the problem is in the hands of the teachers of the public schools.\nTeachers have the power to bring every child within the influence of art in\nhis environment, and to furnish an opportunity for him to habitually\nexpress it in his work. In this way only can art be made an integral element in the life of the nation.\nTeachers should insist upon schoolrooms that are of such character that\nthey help in the process of education. The part environment plays in\ndevelopment of character has not been measured, but we know that little\ncan be expected in the way of manners and morals of people born and\nbrought up in the slums of our cities, and in the neglected byways of the\ncountry. The schoolroom should furnish the example of that order which\nis Heaven's first law, and, according to Dr. Ross, the first and all-inclusive\nprinciple of art. \"Art cannot be taught, it must be caught,\" is a favorite\nquotation among art teachers. Each teacher and each room should therefore be a center of power, like a grain of radium throwing off illuminating\nenergy forevermore.\nIt is the deliberate intent of this paper not to enter into a discussion of\ncourses, but rather to penetrate to the essential element behind all courses.\nCourses are constantly being publisht, and will continue to be publisht,\nbecause local conditions must forever be reflected in them. But whatever\nthese courses may be, they are bound to be past thru the alembic of the\nteacher. Their effect upon the children will be only as rich and influential\nas the teacher's own personality can make them. The teacher's chief aim,\ntherefore, should be to keep herself responsive and receptive to the finest\nthings life has to offer. She should not allow herself to become indifferent\nto the significance of constantly recurring details which make up the routine\nof daily life. She should feel it incumbent upon herself to wear becoming\nclothing, to use excellent English, to be gracious in manner, to be finely\nhuman in her attitude to whatever occurs in the schoolroom, so that, tho the\nchildren may forget all her formal instruction, they shall never escape\nthe influence of her convincing personality.\n\n"}
{"page": 501, "printed_page": "489", "text": "Department!\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nHOUSE\n\nFURNISHING\n\n489\n\nTeachers of the manual arts, teachers of domestic science, and of home\neconomics have an exceptional opportunity. Securing esthetic expression\nby means of the commonplace objects which circulate in daily life is like\nachieving health thru vitalizing the blood. It means reaching the fountain\nat its source and charging it with a potency which makes it overflow into\nunforeseen channels of blessing day after day and thruout life. We are\nsometimes inclined to plead our limitations in equipment and time as an\nexcuse for our inefficiency. But we forget that our real limitations are\nwithin, that, having the vision, every commonplace thing and occasion\nmay become the vehicle for artistic expression — the seeming trivial projects\nof the elementary courses in manual training and domestic art not excepted.\nThe laws of order, unity, harmony, and balance are universally applicable,\nfrom the making of a flower stick to the building of a sideboard, and from\nthe making of a washcloth to the completion of a trousseau or the furnishing of a whole house. In the light of history, philosophy, and the stubborn\nfacts of modern life, we cannot escape the conclusion that art will become\na vitalizing force in education only when it becomes a vitalizing force in\nlife. And that means, in the last analysis, that it will become a vitalizing\nforce in the schoolroom only when it is that in the life of the teacher.\n\nART EDUCATION\nWILLIAM\n\nSLOANE\n\nFOR HOUSE\n\nCOFFIN, DIRECTOR\n\nFURNISHING\n\nAT W. & J. SLOANE^S, NEW\n\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nEducation for any profession may be roughly divided into two parts —\ngeneral instruction in fundamentals and special training in advanst studies\nand in the practical details of one's life-work. Special training was formerly\nconsidered essential only in such professions as the ministry, law, and\nmedicine. Today vocational instruction is recognized to be a necessary\nelement of practically every business. In fact, the present danger is often\nthat the specialized work will be begun too early, to the detriment of the\nbasic training in fundamentals. It is a crime to start school children\nspecializing in their life-work; it is unfortunate to narrow the courses in\nhigh schools; and even in the universities it is undesirable to specialize exclusively on subjects which are to monopolize one's attention in\nafter life.\n\nI^V\n\nThis is especially true in education for house-furnishing, which must be\nbegun upon a solid foundation of general knowledge. A certain amount\nof mathematics is necessary to quickly sense dimensions; languages,\nincluding the classic, are invaluable to the understanding of the literature\nthat has so constantly inspired art; history must be deeply studied to\nunderstand the influences and personalities that have found expression in\nthe art objects of the past; and psychology is an essential study in preparaUUIl tion for expressing character in the house-furnishing of today.\nKnowledge\n\n"}
{"page": 502, "printed_page": "490", "text": "490\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nof tools and the acquisition of a certain amount of manual dexterity should\nalso be a required part of every pupil's education.\nBesides these other basic studies, every child should be trained in the\nfundamental principles of art, such as balance, movement, emphasis, spacedivision, and the mixing and meaning of color. Every boy knows how\na seesaw works. It is therefore simple to teach him the application of the\nsame principle to the balanst arrangement of a pattern or the proper placing\nof furniture in a room. Then go a step farther and show him that colors to\nbalance in harmony must be similar in intensity and area. If dissimilar, the\nintensity must vary in inverse proportion to the area.\nMovement is that principle of arrangement thru which the eye is led\nfrom one point to another. This destroys rest. A child can easily learn\nwhat makes a pattern or a room restful or restless. He should also be\ntaught emphasis and how attention can be called to such things as are\nimportant in each composition, and to these in the order of their importance.\nAnd every child's eye should be trained to an instant appreciation of\nproper space-division and sequence. He should be taught that adjoining\nspaces of the same size, or those one-half or one-third the size of their\nneighbors, are not pleasing; that the happy mean lies between the half and\nthe third; that spaces successively increasing or diminishing in size are not\nas interesting an arrangement as a more varied distribution; in short, that\nin art as elsewhere the obvious is uninteresting and the subtle attractive.\nSo far I have spoken only of the fundamental principles of art which\nevery man and woman should know, whether they are entering the profession ofhouse-furnishing or not. I do not maintain that they are generally known today, even by the members of this profession. We have lived\ntoo Jong under the theory that art instruction is proper for just three\nclasses: (i) wealthy possible patrons and especially patronesses of the fine\narts; (2) aspiring painters and sculptors; and (3) the poor children of the\nslums. It is an absurd theory of course. The first class are very few in\nnumber, and they establish an extravagant idea of art beyond the possibilities of the third group. Meanwhile the middle group of near-artists\nhave no clientele for their products.\nAs a matter-of-fact, the people who have most to do with the distribution\nof art objects and the furnishing of homes are the salesmen in the stores,\nyet there is scarcely an art school in this country which condescends to\nconduct a practical course in art for salesmen. Across the entrance to the\nRoyal Academy in London was written these words: \"Art and Commerce\nPromoted.\" But the Royal Academy never dreamed of inaugurating\npractical art instruction for those engaged in ordinary art trades. I plead\nmost earnestly that this great National Education Association will make it\npossible for every man and every woman behind the counters in the stores\nto obtain, preferably in the evenings, a practical education in the principles\nof art which underlie their business. Art is art just as truly in the covering\n\n"}
{"page": 503, "printed_page": "491", "text": "Department!\n\nART\n\nEDUCATION\n\nFOR\n\nHOUSE\n\nFURNISHING\n\n491\n\nof a chair and in the lighting of a room as it is in a painting by Rembrandt\nor in the lines of a Greek vase. The art may differ in degree, but the basic\nprinciples are the same. And these basic principles must be taught at\nonce to those who guide the buying public. The manufacturer produces\nwhat the buyers order, and the buyers in turn order what the salesmen can\nsell. The salesmen cannot intelligently push the sale of the really artistic\nunless they themselves understand why it is the best. Educate the salesmen in the why of art, and the future will immediately become much\nbrighter.\nUpon the broad and strong foundation of a liberal education a specialized knowledge of house-furnishing may be built up. This specialized\nknowledge consists of three things: practical experience in the technical\ndetails of the profession; advanst instruction in lines and color; and the\nlifelong study of character-environing. Please note that the first requisite\nis practical experience. This can only be acquired in an apprenticeship\nin everyday chores, an occupation most distasteful to the average American.\nWe all desire to skip over the scales and five-finger exercises and to start\nat once playing pieces. This natural tendency has been greatly encouraged\nby art schools, which far too often say to prospective pupils: \"Come to us\nand learn about lines and colors, and how to paint pretty pictures of rooms\nand furniture; then in a year or two you can go forth experts, fully qualified\nto advise in all matters of house-furnishing.\" This is a most pernicious\nfallacy, misleading the pupils, and ruinous to an unsuspecting public. If\nthe salesman does not know the why of art, the art-school graduate certainly\nis equally ignorant of the how of house-furnishing.\nYou may have remarkt that nothing has been said about \"period\nfurnishing.\" So much buncombe has been spread abroad under this title\nthat it would be well to forget it altogether and start all over again. It is\nnot that I do not revere historic masterpieces; it is not that I fail to appreciate the skill of the great cabinet-makers of the eighteenth century. I\nsimply urge that the work of the past be intelligently used for the inspiration\nof the present and not blindly worshipt as a fetish.\nConsider for a few minutes the so-called French periods. They are the\nbest known examples of the expression in house-furnishing of dominant\npersonalities. Louis XIV sought to impress the nation with the grandeur\nof the Court. \"Let them look\" was his motto. Louis XV was under the\nsway of mistresses. The Boudoir became more important than the Grand\nSalon. Irregular curves and occult balance were significant features of the\ndecoration. Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were luxurious children;\nand expensive simplicity and delicate flowers became the vogue. Of course\nsuch characters were powerless against the French Revolution, so they were\nquickly replaced by Napoleon, the set figure.\nNow, what is the significance of these periods today? We cannot\nreproduce these rooms exactly in this country with its different cHmate\n\n"}
{"page": 504, "printed_page": "492", "text": "492\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nrVocational\n\nand manner of life, introducing in them electric light, radiators, and other\nmodern conveniences or inconveniences.\nConsider the great English cabinet-makjers of the eighteenth century —\nChippendale, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton — who are now held responsible\nfor so many models of furniture of varying artistic merit. These master\ncraftsmen very rarely, if ever, designed and furnisht rooms and all that\nwent therein. Almost all their work consisted of individual pieces to be\nused along with the other furniture. In exactly the same way we can use\nthese models in our homes today, if they are in harmony with the other\npieces. If they are not, they are most undesirable, no matter how historically accurate the reproduction may be.\nThere is an interesting significance in the craze for the Chinese thru\nwhich we are now passing. During the boom times of 1905 and 1906 rich\nreds and the glories of French palaces were the fashion. Then came the\nfinancial crisis of 1907 and 1908 and dull browns were called for. As times\nbecame better more joyful hues were desired, and blues and gold became\npopular. The loot of Pekin brought a lot of Chinese materials to this\ncountry and at the same time the Georgian styles of furniture became the\nvogue, and the Georgian styles were strongly influenced by the opening of\nintercourse with China. All these facts — the demand for blues and golds\nfound best in Chinese rugs and hangings, their harmony with the Georgian\nstyles, and the perennial interest in the novel — made the Chinese craze\ninevitable. We are very grateful for the introduction of this marvelous\nart, with its beautiful blue and yellow color harmonies, its sense of movement similar to that of the French, and its symbolism as significant as the\nGothic.\nThe art of all nations and of all time is full of inspiration for the art of\ntoday. It is an unfailing library for the trained mind. That is the reason\nfor despising the narrow worship of a very restricted group of historic\nexamples. The present fetish of period rooms and historic furniture is\nworse than a blunder. It is a great moral and social danger. A man is\nsuccessful in business and accumulates a fortune rapidly. A natural result\nis the building of a large new house. He is told that the rooms must be\nexact copies of historic examples and must be filled with so-called antique\nfurniture or accurate reproductions thereof, no matter how uncomfortable\nor inconvenient. In such an environment the family can never feel at\nhome, and consequently they keep away as much as possible. The result\nis the destruction of home ties and the breaking-up of the family life.\nThe whole trouble comes from a false conception of the profession of\nhouse-furnishing. As Browning puts it: \"The common problem, yours,\nmine, everybody's, is not to fancy what were fair, providing it could be,\nbut finding first what may be, make that fair according to our means.'*\nThe interior decorator who merely fancies what he himself considers fair,\nand makes another pay for it and live in it, no matter how uncomfortable\n\n"}
{"page": 505, "printed_page": "493", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nDOMAIN\n\nOF ART\n\nEDUCATION\n\n493\n\nor ill-adapted to modern use it may be, commits a crime against society.\nThe real task is to environ character. First find what kind of a home the\nfamily enjoys, what colorings show them at their best, what conveniences\nare desirable, and how much the budget can fairly stand, then make the\nmost artistic environment possible for that family's life. It is a tremendous task requiring lifelong study. This is the reason for the emphasis\nlaid on the necessity for a broad and sound fundamental education. You\nmust be able to comprehend the life of the family, and when you are creating\nan environment you must know from the experience of the past how proportions and motives and colors have been used to express character.\nYou must know the practical means and materials available for the construction ofthis environment, the mathematical solution of its problems,\nnot least of all the accurate addition of the cost.\nI have emphasized the artistic furnishing of individual homes by\nthoroly trained specialists, for we must begin with the home in creating\na higher artistic standard, and then there will inevitably follow an insistent\ndemand for better public buildings.\nI realize that I have merely suggested a few lines of thought. I have\nnot attempted, by any means, to cover the subject assigned to me, but\nI trust that enough has been said so that you will agree with me that expert\nhouse-furnishing is a learned profession, and the art education for it a lifelong study. It has all the dreams of the poet, the research of the scientist,\nthe skill of the artisan, and the practical common-sense that is divine.\n\nTHE DOMAIN\nTHOMAS\n\nOF ART EDUCATION\n\nM. BALLIET, DEAN, SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nIn popular speech \"art\" means painting and \"artist\" a painter.\nThis narrowmg of the term would be harmless, like the expression \"rising\"\nand \"setting\" of the sun, if it were consciously recognized; but unrecognized, as it generally is, it has narrowed our conception of art and vitiated\nour thinking on art education. The domain of art education must be as\nbroad as the domain of art; ideally it ought to cover, even in the public\nschools, the whole field of art; in fact, however, only a portion of the field\nis now available.\nArt, like science, is an interpretation and expression of the meaning of\nthmgs and of life. Science interprets life in terms of abstract ideas and\nexpresses them in abstract propositions addrest to the reason, while art\ninterprets it in the form of concrete ideals aglow with feeling and expresses\nthem in forms perceivable by the senses and addrest to the imagination and\nthe emotions. In science the mode of conception and of expression is\nabstract; in art it is concrete.\n\n"}
{"page": 506, "printed_page": "494", "text": "494\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nAs expression, the domain of art covers the entire field of expression.\nWe may express our ideals or conceptions in material forms like stone and\nbronze, and this gives us the arts of architecture and of sculpture; we may\nexpress them in material forms which also serve the purposes of practical\nuse, and this gives us industrial art; we may express them in color, in light\nand shade and in perspective, and this gives us painting and related arts;\nwe may express them in tone and rhythm, and this gives us the art of music;\nwe may express them in oral language in artistic form, and this gives us\noratory and the histrionic art; we may express them in artistic form in\nwritten language, and this gives us the art of literature.\nOf these arts, four are now available in all good public schools. These\nfour are: music, literature, drawing, and the manual arts. Architecture,\nsculpture, and oratory are available only in part thru their relation to\ndrawing, modeling, and literature.\nThis limited field of art education, now available in schools, is, after\nall, much broader than is at present recognized by the teachers of drawing\nin the schools. Art means even today to most of them design and\ncolor work, but nothing more. This is all that the *'art department\"\nin public schools means; drawing teachers are \"art teachers\"; supervisors ofdrawing are \" directors of art education \" ; and when they assemble\nin convention they call it a meeting of the \"Art Teachers' Association.\"\nEven this very \"Art Department\" of the National Education Association\nembraces today only two groups of art teachers — drawing teachers and\nmanual-training teachers. All this shows how the popular use of the words\n\"art\" and \"artist\" respectively as painting and painter have, as above\nstated, limited our conception of art and vitiated our thinking on art\neducation as a pedagogical problem.\nMusic appeals to a stronger and more universal art instinct than\npainting. Here in New York there are many people who avoid the two\npay-days a week when admission to the Metropolitan Art Museum costs\ntwenty-five cents who do not hesitate to pay from three to five dollars for\na seat at the Metropolitan Opera House to hear a favorite opera. And yet\nwe have never taken account of this in our discussions of the general\nproblem of art education.\nLiterature, in the restricted sense, is art, and should always be taught\nas art. That it is not so conceived by teachers, and not so taught in most\nschools, only proves how far we have gone astray in our thinking on art\neducation. Literature as art, must be made to appeal to the emotions thru\nthe imagination. The teaching, at least, in elementary and secondary\nschools must stay in the concrete. The work of literary art, be it prose\nor poetry, must be presented to the minds of the pupils in large sections,\neach forming a unity, so that the total impression may not be lost because\nof excessive dwelling upon details. Moreover, the most effective interpretation ofa work of literary art is not minute analysis nor the study of\n\n"}
{"page": 507, "printed_page": "495", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nDOMAIN\n\nOF ART\n\nEDUCATION\n\n495\n\nfootnotes, but the artistic oral reading of it to the class, and by the class,\nwith a minimum of comment.\nNow, the teaching in most schools, especially in high schools, is ahnost\nthe direct opposite of this. Literature is taught more by the method of\nscience- teaching than by the method of art instruction; it is analyzed\nalmost to shreds; it is presented in short sections, often devoid of unity,\nand a total impression is never gained. We never examine teachers of\nliterature in oral reading when we engage them, and yet to such a teacher\nthe ability to read effectively is quite as essential as the degree of doctor\nof philosophy. Analysis and literary criticism belong to the upper years\nof the college and to the university, after the ability to appreciate art has\nbeen developt, and not to the high school. For purposes of appreciation\nsuch analysis is ineffective. We can not get the meaning of \"sorrow\"\nby a chemical analysis of tears and a study of the physiological mechanism\nof the sigh. Marble does not differ chemically from common limestone,\nand tears are chiefly salt and water.\nIt is obvious from the foregoing that while all specific problems in the\nteaching of drawing can be settled by drawing teachers, the broader aspects\nof art education as a whole can be intelligently understood only when viewed\nfrom the standpoint of the four arts now available in schools; and that for\nthe purpose of such discussion we need a convention composed, not merely\nof drawing teachers, but of teachers of music, of literature, and of the manual\nand industrial arts as well. Such a meeting has never been held; I am not\nat all sure that it has ever been thought of; but until we discuss art education in this broad way we shall be groping in the dark as to some of its\nfundamental problems.\nSeveral practical corollaries may be briefly deduced from the foregoing:\n1. Children's esthetic nature may be cultivated by any one or by\nseveral of the arts now taught in public schools. Drawing is not the only\nart-study which accomplishes this. The child's esthetic nature is best\ndevelopt by a study of the art in which he is most gifted.\n2. While the elementary stages of all four arts may be profitably studied\nby all pupils of the elementary schools, in secondary schools, art, as a serious\nstudy, must be elective, as here the purpose is not solely appreciation but\nproduction as well.\n3. We have made music, drawing, and industrial arts elective, but it\nseems to me it naturally follows that literature as art, should also be made\nelective. This has never been done; and I find it always shocks my classes\nin education in the university when I suggest it. But when you look at it\nin an unbiast way, literature should be treated in education like the other\ngreat arts. It should be seriously studied by those only whose art instinct\nbelongs to the literary type. The taste for poetry and for literary prose is\nnot as general as the taste for music, and hardly as general as the taste for\npainting and industrial art. In fact, many well-educated persons who had\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 508, "printed_page": "496", "text": "496\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nstudied literature in school do not care for it. To demand such a taste of\nall seems as unreasonable as to demand of all a taste for music or for painting. The present compulsory study of literature in all schools is the result\nof tradition and convention, and illustrates to what an extent our thinking,\nnot only on art education, but on education in general, is still fettered\nby custom and tradition.\nTo say that literature should not be made compulsory in secondary\nschools is not to say that the taste for books and reading for information\nshould not be cultivated in all. The taste for literature is cultivated by the\nstudy of literature; the love of reading for information is cultivated by\nthe whole curriculum.\nART\nARTHUR\n\nTEACHING\n\nVS, PRACTICAL\n\nLIFE\n\nH. CHAMBERLAIN, EXECUTIVE SECRETARY, CALIFORNIA\nEDUCATION, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL.\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nOF\n\nThere is such a difference of opinion in the minds of our experts in art\nas to what constitutes real art; and, as we are still so far from an accepted\ndefinition of the practical in liffe, a satisfactory discussion of our topic is\nwell-nigh impossible. ''Art for art's sake,\" whatever that may mean, is still\nas rigidly adhered to by many artists and critics, as is the idea of formal\ndiscipline by our ''old-timers.\" And it is, of course, true that many\npeople who chatter about the art instinct, and esthetic feeling, and the\nfiner sensibilities, and balance, and harmony, and rhythm, would be as out\nof place in an atinosphere of taste and refinement as a bull in a china shop.\nThese people talk art because their neighbor talks art; and why should\nthey be less progressive than their neighbor, to be sure ?\nEverything freakish, and some things that were good, were brought\ntogether at the Panama-Pacific Exposition in the annex to the Fine Arts\nPalace. Here, the Futurists displayed their wares. The Cubists kept here\nperpetual holiday. Among the good things there was a wealth of daubs and\nsplashes, the like of which was never before seen in the heavens above nor\nin the earth beneath. Near-artists would gather in groups and point out\ncertain bits of line or color that, with a mighty stretch of the imagination\nand the closing of one eye, could be taken or mistaken for a face, or nude\nfigure, or a coalshed, or a tree growing upside down in a desert land, or a\nriver of water running up hill.\nOn one occasion a group of these enthusiastic moderns in firt-criticism\nwere going into raptures before a canvas which meant absolutely nothing\nto any one save the originator, and there is some doubt as to just how much\nit meant to him. Not to be outdone, each member of the group was in turn\ngoing his associates \"one better.\" A lady with more than the average\nappreciation for the beautiful and no little knowledge of both art-teaching\nand practical life came by and heard the outbursts. Being something of a\n\n"}
{"page": 509, "printed_page": "497", "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nTEACHING\n\nVS. PRACTICAL\n\nLIFE\n\n497\n\nhumorist, she turned to her companions and said as she directed their attention to the art object, ** Really, these things are not so bad. You see the\npeople who do them are not at all dangerous. They are not kept in solitary\nconfinement, but are allowed their freedom and do this work as a diversion.\nIt keeps their minds occupied and off their troubles.\" Needless to say, the\nnear-artists nearly fainted.\nThe popular conception of art is that of an intangible something attaching to painting and sculpture. In the minds of some, the fields of music and\nof letters are of the arts. We also hear of the vaudeville artist, the baseball\nartist, the tonsorial artist. There is bound up in the more restricted meaning of art the idea of great cost, of luxury — something that can be acquired\nonly by the wealthy, or selected and appreciated by the specially gifted.\nThe \" higher criticism \" in art is largely a matter of bluff. Mr. Cortissoz\nin his essay on ''Art and Common Sense\" characterizes much of the talk of\nartists and critics alike as \"oracular jargon,\" and the \"expert\" attempt to\n\"detach their subject from common understanding\" as bigotry and superstition. Art is a natural expression and ceases to be art when affectation\nsets in. The art quality may be applied in practically every phase of human\nlife and experience. We must get away from the idea that art is drawing,\nor sculpture, or painting, or decoration, or jewelry, or woodwork. The art\nquality may be cultivated in all, and the real art quality is of practical use\nin our everyday life. In this connection note a sentence or two from\nDe Garmo's Esthetic Education:\nOur present esthetic teaching is defective in several particulars: (i) in that it is left\nto specialists alone; (2) because, in consequence of this fact, it covers only a part of the\nworld that is beautiful; and (3) because it tends to lead the pupil to look for beauty only\nat second-hand, as in pictures of things rather than in the things themselves.\n\nWhile, therefore, we must have special teachers of art, as we have special\nteachers of English, we shall find art-teaching narrow and restricted indeed,\nunless all teachers teach art as all should teach English. And, unless those\nin the grip of the school do learn to look for beauty in things themselves\nrather than in the pictures of things simply, we cannot hope to hitch art to\npractical life.\nTo begin with, the best art-teaching in the world, so far as projecting\nitself with the pupil into the channels of practical life is concerned, is that\nunconscious instruction that soaks in from contact with daily surroundings.\nNot one schoolroom in a score makes any pretence toward the artistic; not\none in a hundred succeeds in the attempt. In the majority of instances no\nattention has been given to the color of the walls. There are no pictures\nwhatever; or, those that repose upon the walls are as likely to detract as\nthey are to add to the beauty of the surroundings. There may be an\nimmense portrait of Lincoln or Longfellow, with a border of white as\nbroad as an opened spelling book. A Perry Picture or two may be pinned\nto the wall, or fastened with a gummed label or a drop of paste. Crowning\n\ni:\n\n"}
{"page": 510, "printed_page": "498", "text": "498\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nthe whole may be a reproduction of the Roman Forum, of Balboa discovering the Pacific Ocean, or of Washington crossing the Delaware, strung\nup so high above the teacher's desk that only those on the last row of seats\ncan see it without straining neck muscles or distorting the eyes. And the\nframes are probably in no manner fitted to the pictures, either as to material, width, or form.\nWhat is needed is a little forethought on the part of the superintendent\nor principal, less politics dominating the actions of a school-board member,\nsome common-sense blended with iraagination in the make-up of the architect, a willingness to cooperate and do an honest job as the determining\nfactor in the contractor's creed; and tact, judgment, and determination —\nthe actuating motives in the teacher. This combination would bring\nus schoolrooms not box-shaped, with once-white walls blackened and crackt\nwith age, alternating with slices of greasy blackboard, and with windows\non three sides. We should have instead rooms with acceptable color\nschemes, with a few pictures, selected in conformity to the age and development of the pupils, a bit of statuary, a vase of flowers, a potted plant or fern,\nor other greenery, a window box, perhaps, and furniture in keeping with the\npurpose of the place, namely, that of a livable schoolroom where boys and\ngirls are passing some of their beginning years of a practical life. And so\nfar as cost is concerned, the dear public will feel no extra drain upon its\npocketbook.\nA delicate subject is that of the personal appearance of the teacher.\nA man of my acquaintance spent considerable time moralizing to his class\non the value of controlling the temper, and followed this shortly by throwing\na convenient piece of timber across the shop at the head of a boy whose\nactions displeased him. Actions, attitude, and appearance are the best\nteachers. The best art-teaching cannot be done by one who sports a\ncolor scheme that comes into collision with itself and with everything else\nin the surrounding landscape. There is no excuse for display of lack of\ntaste in the dress of a teacher, and it is worse than useless to ask children to\nbe neat and tidy under such conditions. The first and most telling impression made by the teacher upon superintendent or board member while seeking a position is that of appearance. A teacher — man or woman — should\ndress in conformity to the duties of teacher. Color schemes that clash,\nsoiled or spotted garments, untidy shoes, ill-fitting coats, stripes that\nspeak eloquently of the ward politician, do not lend themselves to the inculcating of the art instinct. It not unfrequently is the case that those who\nspend most money on elaborate dress show results the least satisfactory.\nTaste in dress and in the arrangement of the schoolroom may readily\nspread so as to transform an entire community. The home must take its\ncue from the school. Art-teaching must have a relation to practical life.\nWith proper art-teaching we shall have fewer men wearing loud garments,\nwatch fobs as large as the watch itself, and coat and vest as inartistically\n\n"}
{"page": 511, "printed_page": "499", "text": "499\nDepartment!\n\nART\n\nTEACHING\n\nVS. PRACTICAL\n\nLIFE\n\ndecorated with lodge and fraternity emblems as is the uniform of a European\ncourt official with braid and buttons. We shall have fewer women displaying as many expensive but vulgar rings as their fingers of both hands can\npossibly hold. The home will discard garish, spindle-legged furniture;\nuseless bric-a-brac, fit only to collect dust; what-nots and shelves whereon\nrepose all sorts of useless and antiquated objects; pictures and chromos\nthat have come down from parlor to living room, from dining-room to\nbedroom; and we shall have some harmony in the lay-out of flower beds\nand in the colors used inside and outside of houses.\nAnd cost! These things spoken of as desirable need cost no more\nthan the ugly ones. It is largely a question of teaching, of training, of\nchoosing the right thing rather than the wrong thing. Art-teaching from\nthis point of view must have its effect upon practical life. A practical life is\nan effective and an efficient life. Any life is made more effective and efficient\nthat sees the beauty in bird and brook, forest and field; in the delicate flower\nand in the restless ocean; in the rainbow tint and in the desert waste.\nBoxes, and pictures, and furniture, and dishes for the table, and linens and\ndraperies, and lawns and gardens and tools, and houses and railroad cars,\nand hats and gloves and shoes, and jewelry — these and all else that enter\ninto practical life may be influenst by art-teaching.\nLet it be said therefore that no particular thing — ^picture, sculpture,\njewelry — has a corner on art. Art is something very different from these\nthings. The art quality, the esthetic sense, as we have discust it, can be\nseen in the arrangement of the books upon the table, the type page and\nmargins, the design in the ends of the table cover, the finish, the form, the\nconstruction, the material of the table itself. It can be seen in the selection,\nthe framing, the hanging of the pictures, the pattern and form of the rugs\nupon the floor, the tree-bordered walk, the shop-window display, the garments worn upon the street and in the home.\nWe are then not primarily to produce artists thru art-teaching in\nschool. We are not to single out a few delicate, high-strung, sentimental\nyouths and maidens, and make them the beneficiaries in a cut-and-dried\nplan of art instruction. We are rather to expose everyone to this art influence, with the thoro knowledge that the results will be according to individual tastes, abilities, desires, capacities, efforts. This kind of art-teaching\nmust become general.\nBut to become operative in practical life it must be possest by those\nwho are of the practical life, who are doing things in practical life. The art\nquality in the individual must mean more than the ability to produce a\nmasterpiece, or to appreciate a work of art. It must result in the selection\nof good and substantial things; it must find its application to all phases\nof life by all people all the time; it must be lived.\n\n"}
{"page": 512, "printed_page": "500", "text": "500\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nRELATIONSHIP\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBETWEEN\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMUSEUMS\n\nAND\n\n[Vocational\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nAs will be noted from the minutes, the session held in the lecture hall of\nthe Metropolitan Museum of Art was given over to a discussion of the relationship existing between museums and schools and its possibility for\nfuture development. The following extracts are taken from the papers\nwhich were presented.\nPaul M. Rea, secretary, American Association of Museums. — The\nlesson of history with regard to this problem is especially concerned with an\nexplanation of the curious condition in which we find museums today.\nThis condition may best be illustrated by thinking of the replies you would\nreceive if you stopt a score of people on the avenue and askt them to tell\nyou what they think of museums. I am afraid their replies would show\nlittle interest and less knowledge, for it is undoubtedly true that there is a\ngreat popular lethargy with regard to museums and a failure to appreciate\ntheir significance as vital institutions. They are thought of as rather cold\nand dreary places. In contrast, however, to this widely prevalent opinion\nthere is to be found in a limited number of cities and towns where active\nmuseums have been at work a great popular enthusiam over museums, and\nit is to find the explanation for these two opposite points of view that I am\ngoing to ask you to look back into the history of museums. Why is it\nthat so. many of our people entirely misconceive the nature of museums,\nwhile the relatively few who do understand them are filled with enthusiasm\nover their possibilities of educational and social service ?\nThere are nominally about 600 museums in the United States. Of\nthese, 35 per cent look to societies and associations for financial support.\nA large proportion of these museums are devoted to history and are owned\nby small historical societies, which are numerous thruout the country,\naltho they usually have very limited activity. These museums as a class\nhave hardly advanst beyond the stage of curio collections. This is the\nlowest plane of museum-organization, and it is museums of this type that\nare largely responsible for giving to the word \" museum '* the sinister\nsignificance which it has in the minds of so many people.\nThe possibilities of historical museums have been little appreciated,\nyet their field is almost boundless. What can be done is indicated by the\nexcellent work already accomplisht in a few museums. Reproductions of\nColonial rooms, representing accurately in every detail the homes of our\nancestors, make museum exhibits interesting to every visitor. Such\nexhibits preserve a permanent record of past conditions and lend to the\nstudy of history a fascination that can be obtained in no other way. Such\nrooms can be found in the Essex Institute at Salem, Massachusetts, in\nthe Milwaukee Public Museum, and in the Oakland Public Museum. Even\nwhen the money necessary for the construction of period rooms is not available, much may be accomplisht by careful arrangement of objects which\n\n"}
{"page": 513, "printed_page": "501", "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nRELATIONSHIP\n\nBETWEEN\n\nMUSEUMS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n501\n\nillustrate the life of past times. Thus the small historical museum in Nantucket succeeds, at very small expense, in telling a vivid and fascinating\nstory of the life of Nantucket in the old whaling days.\nI am confident that within a comparatively few years we shall see a\ngreat development of museum work in history. Boston is now planning a\ngreat celebration in commemoration of the tri-centennial of the landing of\nthe Pilgrims at Plymouth. There will be special features of a temporary\ncharacter, but all Boston is trying to find the best permanent memorial of\nthis occasion.\nPicture groups, however, fulfil only a part of the function of the museum.\nThere should be another division in which larger series of objects illustrate\nthe development of furniture, of transportation, of manufactures, etc.\nArranged in chronological series, with carefully prepared labels, these\nexhibits would have not only historical significance but immediate application in suggesting designs for present-day industries.\nStill another section of this museum might to advantage be devoted\nto photographs illustrating every conceivable phase of New England's\nhistory, all of standard size, and cataloged with such full cross-references\nthat any subject could be found immediately. Duplicate photographs,\nand in many cases lantern slides, could be lent to churches, schools,\nclubs, and other organizations, and printed lectures telling the story of\nNew England's history might be circulated thruout Massachusetts and\nneighboring states. The most interesting subjects could be put on postcards and offered for sale.\nThirty-eight per cent of our museums are supported by colleges and\nuniversities. A large proportion of college museums are devoted to natural\nscience. Their collections, while usually free from curios, tend to systematic\nseries of considerable value to specialists, but of rather a dreary character\nfor the general public.\nAbout 7 per cent of our museums are maintained by private individuals or by endowment from single individuals. Some of these are the\npet hobbies of wealthy men. When such a man dies he often endows the\nmuseum, with a provision that it shall be kept as nearly as possible just as\nhe left it. These museums are in the nature of tombstones and are of little\nuse to the public.\nFour per cent of our museums derive their support from state governments. All museums of this type have considerable difficulty in performing\nsignificant public service from the fact that state capitals are frequently\nnot the largest cities in the state and because it is difficult for the museum to\nreach the people outside the capital. State museums, therefore, have not\n- yet become a large factor in educational work.\n\nAbout 15 per cent of our museums are what may be best termed \"public\nmuseums. ' ' They afford a markt contrast in every particular to those which\nhave been reviewed above, and to them is due that enthusiasm for museums\n\n"}
{"page": 514, "printed_page": "502", "text": "502\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nwhich has been noted in a limited number of cities and towns. That these\nmuseums are rendering productive service in proportion to the investments\nthey represent is shown by their steady increase in numbers and in wealth.\nIndeed, public museums are the leaven of the whole situation and are our\nfirst truly democratic museums.\nThe Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences since 1872 has carried on an\nincreasingly extensive, work with the public school of Buffalo, and this\nhas been a regular part of the curriculum since 1905.\nThe Davenport Academy of Sciences undertook intensive work with the\npublic schools as early as 1877 and continued it very successfully until\n1889, when the removal of the curator caused a temporary suspension.\nThe work was resumed in 1902 and is still carried on.\nThe Commercial Museum in Philadelphia has done a remarkable work\nthruout the state of Pennsylvania. Since 1904 it has received state appropriations which have enabled it to place over 1200 exhibits in the schools\nof the state, reaching annually over 75,000 pupils. Lectures have also been\nprepared on various subjects supplementing the work of the public schools\nand these, with lanterns and illustrative lantern slides, are circulated thruout\nthe state.\nIn St. Louis the exposition of 1904 led to the establishment of an educational museum which is unique because of the fact that it is maintained\ndirectly by the school board. The great service which this museum is\nrendering to the schools of St. Louis might well be the subject of discussion\nfor a whole morning.\nThe Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, is the first museum to\nreceive a large endowment especially for extension work with the public\nschools. In December, 191 1, N. W. Harris gave to the Field Museum\nan endowment of $250,000 for this purpose. The work has been organized\non an elaborate scale and is gradually being correlated with the curriculum\nof the schools.\nThe Toledo Museum of Art is a comparatively new museum whicli\nhas made up for its lack of great collections of priceless objects by using\neverything it has to serve the largest possible number of people in Toledo.\nThe work of this institution is an inspiration to any educator or to anyone\ninterested in social service.\nThe Milwaukee Public Museum is the largest of the strictly municipal\nmuseums supported entirely by city appropriations, and maintains very\nactive and successful work with the public schools.\nIn addition to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Museum of Fine\nArts in Boston and the Worcester Art Museum are showing the wonderful\npossibilities of making history and geography living subjects to pubhcschool students thru the aid of museum collections. Many teachers in these\ncities say that without the museum they could not begin to teach history\nas they wish to. If time permitted this list could be greatly extended.\n\n"}
{"page": 515, "printed_page": "503", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nRELATIONSHIP\n\nBETWEEN\n\nMUSEUMS\n\nAND\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n503\n\nIn all of the educational activities of museums indicated above the\nfundamental idea is visual instruction. You have only to glance at one\nof the traveling exhibits sent out by any of these museums to get a story\nso vivid that it will stay in mind the rest of your life. The value of object\nteaching is only beginning to be fully appreciated. The vast resources of\nmuseums both in material and in knowledge need to be mobilized as a part\nof our educational system. What is now needed is a nation-wide appreciation of the value of visual instruction as afforded by museums. This\nappreciation should begin with those professionally interested in education.\nI would therefore leave with you in closing but two suggestions: first,\nthat educators should acquaint themselves more intimately with the educational work already accomplisht by museums, and secondly, that closer\nadministrative relations between school and museums will be of mutual\nadvantage.\nAnna B. Gallup, curator. Children's Museum, Brooklyn. — I think\nthere is no formal relation existing between children's museums and the\nschools, but there has developt between these institutions a more vital\nrelation than can ever be put on paper by school or museum officials — a\nrelation that the children have establisht by visiting the museums and by\nshowing their principals and teachers how much information they have\ngained thru their museum experiences.\nTeachers who prepared nature lessons with great care found that the\nfacts they had intended to present were already in the possession of their\neager pupils who, fresh from the experiences of the museum, were not disposed to listen to the statements of teachers without also contributing from\ntheir own respective funds of information.\nToday the Children's Museum in Brooklyn ministers to nearly 200,000\nvisitors annually, about 20,000 of whom regularly attend the museum\nlectures. Everyday the ringing telephone conveys some teacher's request\nfor the privilege of bringing a class to the museum to see the collections\nand to hear a lecture. This attendance is wholly voluntary on the part of\nthe public.\nI think the children are attracted to the museum and interested in its\nactivities largely because of its homelike character. It is indeed a second\nhome to many children — a home where they receive much attention, where\nthey have access to the treasures of the museum, and where there is a\nlibrary in which they can read about every object that arouses their\ninterest.\nThe museum helps the teachers in a variety of ways. As many teachers\nhave said, ''It is the one institution that awakens the mind§ of our pupils\nto an interest in new subjects of thought.\" Many children who live near\nthe corner grocery or delicatessen store would never see anything beyond\nthese places were it not for their trips to the Children's Museum. Very\noften teachers who experience difficulty in arousing the enthusiasm of the\n\n"}
{"page": 516, "printed_page": "504", "text": "504\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\npupils for school studies find that after a visit to the museum the children\nbegin to show a decided, persistent interest in natural history, geography,\nand history.\nThe Children's Museum also recognizes the individuality of the child\nand, in offering him the special assistance adapted to his needs, supplements\nthe work of the teachers who are forst by circumstances to deal with large\nnumbers of children.\nThru the Children's Museum boys and girls have become interested in\nlines of study which they have subsequently followed for long periods of\ntime. One youngster, who practically lived in the museum during his spare\ntime, devoting his attention to natural history, was given a year's credit in\nbiology at Columbia University in recognition of what he had absorbed in\nthe Children's Museum without any conscious effort. Other children have\nbeen helpt over those critical periods in their lives when, tired of school, at\nodds with their teachers, and otherwise disaffected, they wish to leave school\nand go to work.\nChildren's museums at present are small institutions. The Brooklyn\nChildren's Museum was the first and, with the exception of the Children's\nMuseum in Boston, is the only museum maintained for children. But\neducators from various countries have become interested in the principles\nof education that children's museums are trying to work out. One investigator from Russia, after making two separate visits to the Brooklyn institution at an interval of two years, publisht his observations of its activities\nin a book which was printed in five different languages of Europe. Since\nthat time investigators from nine European countries, Japan, Java, Australia,\nand South America have returned to their homes with reports of the work\nof the children's museum.\nTHE ART INSTINCT\nFLORENCE\n\nE. ELLIS, FORMERLY\n\nUNIVERSAL\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF ART, CLEVELAND,\n\nOHIO\n\nThe impression that art instinct is possest by only the talented few is\ndisappearing. That it was universal among primitive people and the older\nnations is understood. It is just as universal in America today. Let me\nillustrate:\nAt the recent Panama-Pacific International Exposition, I was six\nmonths in the school-art exhibits in the Palace of Education, and daily\nheard the comments of the throngs as they viewed the art display. The\nmothers invariably exclaimed, \"I did not have this in school, but how\ndelightful that my children can have it!\" The attitude of the men as to\nthe need of art was a revelation. Those in shops, offices, and newspaper\nestablishments particularly would fairly insist on information as to where\nthey could get help in art. Great artists may be rare, but art instinct —\nthe love of beauty and the desire to express it— ^is the possession of all.\n\n"}
{"page": 517, "printed_page": "505", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nART\n\nINSTINCT\n\nUNIVERSAL\n\n505\n\nArt must be used, in order to grow, and there must be art environment\nfor its fullest development. As we know, in the early history of our country\nthere was little time for esthetic training; utensils and house-furnishings\ncame from Europe, and later could be purchast from cheap manufactories\nat home, consequently art and the handicrafts were rarely practist.\nNotwithstanding neglect, there is no soul so dead but in it is a spark, at\nleast, of art feeling. The wish to see beauty, to create, or own it, is manifested in many and diverse ways. It may be in the enjoyment of good\npictures, a well-planned garden, fine furniture, dress, a beautiful home, or\nin myriads of other ways.\nI was told by one who often visits the juvenile courts of Chicago that\nmost of the young girls there are brought thru taking something they\nthink beautiful. A girl who had taken a little doll, when questioned, said\nshe had always so longed for a pretty doll and could not have one that she\ndecided her little sister should have one even if she had to steal it for her.\nShe had stolen the doll that the little sister might be made happy. Another\ngirl was there for taking a few saiAples of lace two or three inches in length.\nThey were of no practical use, but were so attractive she felt she must have\nthem. A lady I knew always had flowers on the table and less food, when\nshe could not afford both. In the poorest shanty there is a geranium in the\nwindow, a few plants at the front door.\nA man who was buying a home was choosing between two places.\nThere was no appreciable difference in the houses, nor in the grounds, otherwise than that on one was a beautiful tree. He paid one thousand dollars\nmore for the place with the tree, remarking it was so much more homelike and\nattractive.\nUnconsciously he gave a thousand dollars for a beautiful tree.\nA real estate dealer states that he plants shrubs about three years\nbefore he wishes to sell a place and that he realizes 25 per cent profit by\nso doing; besides, the attractive effect decides the sale. Similar examples\ncould be cited indefinitely.\nThe art instinct is placed in the soul of everyone by an all-wise Creator. Why is this ? There must be a purpose. Is it not for enjoyment and\nuplift; a stimulus for greater effort and excellence ? It brings an awakening to undiscovered powers in one's nature. It brings hope and satisfaction. It grips the heart with a great purpose, and gives ardor and\nendurance for its accomplishment.\nA few educators have recently been advocating the teaching of art in the\nschools for apppreciation only, to the end that people may buy judiciously.\nIn contrast, consider the schools of Germany and other European countries.\nThere, pupils showing ability in the arts are taken under the special care\nof the government and carefully educated along the lines Of their greatest\nability, and that at the government's expense, when necessary. In every\nlarge city is a government industrial-arts school Those countries are\neducating producers; we are buying their products.\n\n"}
{"page": 518, "printed_page": "506", "text": "5o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nWe devote a few minutes a day in the elementary schools to art; and\nwhen finances are low, or for other reasons, it is often dropt. I have heard\nteachers say, *' You will be deprived of art until your grade in the essential\nsubjects is made.\" Recently, I visited two high schools where drawing had\nbeen dropt because of lack of room. Is this partly, I wonder, because the\nwork we give does not sufficiently meet life's needs ?\nOh, what a waste is there of ability of incomparable value to the individual and to the nation! But, since the time when a child was reprimanded ifound drawing; and, again, when art having gained a place in the\ncurriculum counted nothing toward promotion; and yet, again, when it\nfirst received credits, and teachers cried it would disorganize the schools\nbecause pupils poor in arithmetic were thus promoted, a great change has\ncome. Wreckage of happiness, of aspirations, of ambition, revealed that\narithmetic as a basis of promotion was not justice to all children. Now,\nwith the newer systems of education, departmental work, and other improvements there is a possibihty of work in different grades as the make-up of\nthe child may demand — fifth-grade arithmetic, seventh-grade language,\nsixth-grade drawing, or otherwise, as the case may be. Children need not\nmuch longer be forst into the same mold and consigned to mediocrity.\nLet us hope that no longer will they be humiliated and kept back in all\nsubjects, and discouraged until they leave school, because poor in a few\nstudies. How much better to crystallize markt tendencies than to emphasize that which a child can never do only in the most indifferent manner!\nMay the schools equip for the ends the child's spirit craves, and not dwarf\nhis best instincts and embitter his life !\nA teacher on the Pacific Coast told me of a boy in her classes who had\nbeen forst from the public schools because deficient in his general work.\nHis parents then sent him to a private school and the same was about to\nhappen, when, having notist his drawing, she begged that he be placed in\nan art school. Today he is one of the most noted cartoonists of the country.\nSimilar cases are not at all uncommon.\nSecretary Lane of the Department of the Interior states in a recent\nbulletin that on the 600,000 teachers who are training the 21,000,000\nchildren in the schools of the United States depends every phase of production from art to industry; that on them depends the making of the nation\nof the morrow. He makes an appeal on behalf of the National Bureau of\nEducation that it be made \"a national clearing-house on which all the\nschools could draw for knowledge now owned and utilized by the few.\"\nNothing could improve more rapidly and effectively the teaching of the\narts. Art teachers in the schools need this help, and some need it tremendously and are asking for it.\nThe school and likewise the home, and the store, and the library, and\nthe museum, and the art commission are educational factors, all of which\nmust be utihzed if we become an art-discerning people.\nFor the accomplish-\n\n"}
{"page": 519, "printed_page": "507", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nART\n\nINSTINCT\n\nUNIVERSAL\n\n507\n\nment of such a result art must be a part of the life of the people and of every\npart of it even to the maid's room. I know a home where the maid has as\npleasant a room and as daintily furnisht as any in the house. Do you\ndoubt that she has better taste, that the table is better set, that the whole\nhouse is more pleasingly kept in consequence ?\nIn the commercial world art is especially important in cultivating public\ntaste. The commercial world is becoming a great educational power.\nThe clerk in the store advises how the home shall be decorated and furnisht,\nand with what the people shall be clothed. He decides the choice in the\nmajority of cases, in wall paper, rugs, curtains, and so on. The largest\nstores, in increasing numbers, have educational supervisors and this educational phase of commercial work as it grows will compel the manufacturer\nto have art quality in his products or they cannot gain entrance to the store,\nand consequently not to the home. Encouraging, also is the increase in\nart commissions. Supervisors of the arts in furthering the formation of\nsuch commissions can do most constructive work. Art commissions are\nneeded everywhere, however large or small the city. At the Arts Convention held recently in Springfield, Massachusetts, all were imprest with the\nmunicipal buildings. I recall a high-school building of unusual charm\nwithin and without. It brought to mind images of other buildings where\nthe business-manager of the Board of Education decided such matters\nlargely and defaced (you could not call it decorated) the walls with the\nbrightest colors imaginable, explaining that it was economy; that bright\ncolors did not become dull and dirty-looking so quickly. May the time\ncome, and quickly, when there will be art training sufficient to prevent such\nruthless destroying of the art sensibilities of children, to say nothing of\ntheir nervous systems! How often is the practical person, the most\nimpractical!\nThere is a business house in London, employing fifteen hundred people,\nwhich is doing a remarkable work. Scarcely a day passes that a superintendent does not say to an employe, \"You have gotten out of this work\nall you can get out of it; there is nothing more ahead for you in it and we\nwant to find a place for you where you can grow as you have been growing\nthis last year.\" They then give him another part of the work where he\ncan learn further. One might think a business thus conducted would not\nsucceed — keeping a person doing one kind of work only until he can do it\nperfectly — but it has proved otherwise. Imagine how alive and alert those\nemployes are! The ambitious boys and girls of the whole of London are\neager to get into that shop, and even try to get in for nothing.\nIf such a spirit of continual growth were general everysvhere, if there\nwere a striving to be always improving and progressing,|the work of the\nworld would be better done, and there would be joyful living and contentment instead of a daily grind of drudgery. Is it not possible to get more of\nthis ambition and hope into work and especially into vocational training ?\n\n"}
{"page": 520, "printed_page": "508", "text": "508\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nMay not those boys and girls, also, have a little vision of beauty, have a\na vocation to grow in, and be happy in, as well as to gain a living by ?\nIn conclusion, all I have said is summed up in one sentence, namely:\nThe art instinct is universal, and its development is necessary to the individual, for the highest aspiration, achievement, and satisfaction; and to\nthe nation, for its commerce and continued prosperity.\n\nTHE ESSENTIALS\nELLSWORTH\n\nWOODWARD,\n\nIN MAKING\n\nART PRACTICAL\n\nDIRECTOR OF SCHOOL OF ART, NEWCOMB\nNEW ORLEANS,\nLA.\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nI surmise that much the larger part of this audience is made up of\nteachers of art, whose lives and work are related to great industrial communities. For such an audience and in this year of grace the \" old unhappy\nfar-off things and battles long ago\" have almost, if not entirely, been forgotten. The need of argument for art in education with which the older\nteachers began their service has, in this fortunate and busy part of the world,\ngiven place to eager discussion as to more direct and better teaching. I\nhope that you realize that you are fortunate.\nArt, as a subject of practical appeal, can scarcely be said to exist outside\ngreat manufacturing cities and intensive civilization. The isolation of\nsmall cities like that of individuals in rural communities reduces to the vanishing point interest in world-standards of beauty, since the forces which\nstimulate such ideals touch rural life so remotely. The friction of mind on\nmind, competition, the contact of shoulders in the press, the investment of\nmoney in the venture of producing beautiful wares, all these are needed\nspurs in the life of successful art-production.\nThe country has advantages as a place of residence, but it has its dangers\nas well for those who cannot take the world with them in the form of experience and mental equipment. The trolley and the rural delivery have more\nto do with successful art-teaching than at first appears. Let your mind's\neye traverse for a moment the immense section we call the South. You\nwill see it as a land of agricultural interests, without great cities. There\nare, as a matter of fact, a few cities which approach greatness, but in all this\ntremendous area there is little manufacture which calls for art. Some here\npresent may have to do with art- teaching in rural communities; if so, they\nhave felt the pressure of this problem which faces all teachers in the South\nand Southwest.\nBut look for a moment at the other side. Intensive civilization tends\nto destroy individuality and fosters self-repression. The psychologist\n''views with alarm\" the approach of apathy and waning enthusiasm. The\ndweller in great cities may be in as much danger as the countryman. For\nboth, a means must be found, thru which emotion may find expression, free\n\n"}
{"page": 521, "printed_page": "509", "text": "Department]\n\nESSENTIALS\n\nIN MAKING\n\nART\n\nPRACTICAL\n\n'\n\n509\n\nand unashamed. To make art a practical subject in any large sense, the\nfirst step must be towards freeing the spirit. Where loneliness has thrown\nthe individual much upon himself, a first aid to ingrowing emotions has been\nsuggested in music with dancing, the drama, and pageantry. Anything\nseems promising which will break down sluggish apathy and materiaHsm;\nThe ancient Greeks introduced music to soften the natures of the hill\ntribes. The tea ceremonial brought refinement to the rude Japanese of\nearlier days.\nWhen I was a boy, the New England town in which I lived had laid the\ndead hand of Puritanism on all natural emotions and their equally natural\nexpression. No more formidable obstacle to art could have been devised.\nI suppose that the Puritan's dread of the \"natural Adam\" has been modified\nin forty years, but there may be a trace of it still lingering in the back\ndistricts. I recall that in the art school of that day there was no class\nexercise which called for spontaneous expression of feeling, no sympathetic\nencouragement towards the unfolding of the inner life. In consequence,\nto this day I am unable to paint a picture unless I have before me chapter\nand verse from life and nature.\nThe class which grew out of my discovery, and which I guided with the\nelation felt, I am sure, by Orville Wright in guiding his first flying machine, is\nthe most vital work of the art school, for it is the exercise of those faculties\nin the young which unlock the spirit and gives it power to discern and\nexpress vital things. The essential thing in art-teaching, as it seems to me,\nis to find out the man where he lives; discover the seat of his emotions;\nteach him that painstaking and definite scholarship is not at variance with\nimagination and feeling; on the contrary, that swift and comprehensive\nsympathy is the intangible guide which finds the motive in art to which the\ncommunity responds and in its recognition gives the cachet of success to\nhis endeavor. I am the more imprest with the importance of this idea for\nthe art-teacher when I reflect on the magnitude of this land, its climatic and\ngeographical divisions, and the life which each section must, mainly, live\nto itself.\nI am coming presently to that aspect of art-teaching which is obviously\npractical and for that reason arouses very pleasant discussion, but I hope\nfor your forgiveness if I seem to dwell on this phase of the artistic problem,\nfor, in truth, I believe it to be of primary, of deepest, and of most pressing\nimportance. I have recently studied great masses of art-school productions\nand while my admiration went out to the high level of skill — really impressive skill in many departments — I was deprest to see so large a part of it\nconcerned with the superficial and mechanical and so little apparent concern as to what it was all about.\nI know that I seem to be wandering from the subject to which I was\nappointed to speak, which is the practical aspect of art-teaching, but I\nprotest that no more practical question comes before the manufacturer\n\nI\n\nII\n\n"}
{"page": 522, "printed_page": "510", "text": "5IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nfor answer than how to secure originaHty in his wares. His need is urgent.\nExamine the stock of \"art goods\" in any commercial estabHshment and\nwe shall all agree that the rarest thing to find is the happy touch which\nillumines the dismal waste of commonplace. Is it not true that the way\nto freshness of vision is by nature's paths ? And is not the national temperament and point of view, which we all share, the guide we ought to follow ?\nI see American children encouraged to compose Dutch motives in which\nfigure windmills, and children in wooden shoes and quaint headdresses.\nThese same children know nothing of the working of a windmill of the Dutch\ntype; have never worn wooden shoes, etc. What purpose then do these\nDutch inventions serve but to divorce art from life ? I venture to believe\nthat they hinder rather than help.\nAlso, I see designs in the exhibitions of many schools, for example,\ncarpet-weaving. On examination it will be found that the school contains\nno loom and that the passage of the shuttle forward and back in its relation\nto the warp has not been considered. I see designs for stained glass, in\nwhich the possibilities of the material with reference to the diamond\nscratch and fracture have no part, and I ask to what end ? If I follow\nup the inquiry I find there is no end. It merely fades away. The pupil\nspends some years in investment, only to find that general taste and\nunrelated skill have small place in the practical world. Specific, related,\ndefinite application of art to the purpose of the idea or craft in hand is\nthe type of instruction that will effectively help American industries or\nAmerican art.\nThe essentials by which a practical form of art may be developt seem\nto me to consist, (i) in a well establisht viewpoint that shall direct what\nfollows, as the mariner's compass directs the vessel; (2) the harnessing\nof the energies of the art school to the nearest job that offers. The art\nschool must connect its teaching with practise, or it will be politely ignored,\nand properly so. The ideal school of art was the studio shop of the fifteenthcentury Renaissance. There the apprentice learned as he did the work.\nWhen his apprenticeship was over he was qualified to have a shop of his\nown. Failing the exact parallel in modern opportunity, we will come as\nnear it as possible by soliciting commissions that can be carried out by\nstudents, and by requiring them to meet every specification in a workmanlike way. The cash return is a stimulus to care and industry beyond\ncomputation.\nIn my own class of advanst designers there are often three or four new\ncommissions at each sitting written on the blackboard with full specifications, and the price agreed upon. The first half-hour will be spent in thinking out and projecting an idea. The teacher criticizes the ideas, and each\nproceeds to work. The teacher is in constant touch with the class, giving\ntechnical advice and help. If more than one are trying the same project,\nthe most successful finisht work is awarded the commission.\nBy this simple\n\n"}
{"page": 523, "printed_page": "511", "text": "I\nDepartment!\n\nESSENTIALS\n\nIN MAKING\n\nART\n\nPRACTICAL\n\n511\n\nmeans a wide variety of experience comes to the class — designs for book\ncovers, book decorations, book plates, society pins, electric signs, advertising posters, designs for decorating rooms, iron gates, china, etc.\nIt is astonishing what numbers of commissions come by mail and by\ntelephone, but the final value lies in the fact that it is apprentice practise\nin real work, for which real money is ready to be paid over. The drudgery\nand perfunctory routine of class problems is entirely eliminated. Moreover,\nif the instructor is not informed as to the latest technical usage, the matter\ndoes not stop there as a formal problem might, but it is taken by the student\nto some workshop where the latest thing is learned, and the design based\nupon it.\nThe art school which earnestly seeks to be genuinely useful to the comunity which supports it soon grows into a place of consideration; probems are brought to it too delicate and important for the artisan; gradually\nts staff of students and teachers are held in respect as being able to do a\n;eeded work. In this way the educational idea is also served, for it becomes\npparent that art and manufacture must be friends. When a young artist\ntands on a staging, carrying out a mural decoration; paints a lunette of\nitles over the entrance of a theater; bends over her bench in a jewelry\ntabUshment as I have seen them do, in the eyes of a community which\nbeing educated without its knowledge or consent, it is an object lesson\nf great potency.\nThere are times and places where the school may go further. If a\nurvey of the local possibilities for absorbing the trained art-students' work\nows little or no promise, then I should say, start something and stay with\nit until it meets with public support.\nIn my experience a silversmith shop is able to support students thru their\nears of study, and gives them a vocation thereafter, with comfortable\nlivelihood. This is true of bookbinding, pottery, and embroidery.\nThere\nis, of course, nothing new in all this. Schools are doing it everywhere,\nowever, in the Newcomb School of Art, one further step has been taken,\nhich\nmight be undesirable in a great industrial city, but which appeared\nPPwl\nlogical and necessary under the very unfavorable conditions which surrounded this school. A sale department evolved, which now presents\nmuch of the character of a full-fledged business enterprise. It has the\nadvantage of bringing patron and worker together. This promotes\nacquaintanceship, and gradually establishes relations which ripen into\nregular patronage. This necessary publicity and favorable relations with\npatrons are the hardest things for a young artist to win. Ordinarily it\ntakes years, or is not accomplisht at all.\nI believe this to be an important service to the young artist, worth\nsome trouble. The idea is closely related to that of the arts and crafts\nshops, maintained in so many places, but it differs in that it handles only\nthe work of its own people.\n\nII\n\n"}
{"page": 524, "printed_page": "512", "text": "512\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nThe shops are adjacent to the sale room and visitors are freely welcome\nto go where they please. Thus, contact with the worker and interest in the\nprocess develops appreciation and sympathy with the purpose behind it all.\nWhen I recall the school of art, forty years ago, with its myopic absorption\nin drawing and painting from life, and the condition of American art in\ngeneral that was its corollary, and contrast it with the art school of today\nand with the really remarkable improvement that has transformed art in\ngeneral, I can easily persuade myself that we are at least facing in the right\ndirection in our school-management.\n\nDIFFERENTIATION\nROYAL\n\nB. FARNUM,\n\nIN ART TRAINING TO SUIT INDIVIDUAL\nFUPirS NEEDS\n\nSTATE SPECIALIST IN ART EDUCATION,\n\nALBANY, N.Y.\n\nPresent methods in education fall far short of the ideal. In fact, they\nare so antiquated that many educators would scrap them entirely and\nbegin anew. The truth of the first statement is apparent, but just where\nand how the extremist would begin has yet to be explained. Meanwhile\nmany forms of pedagogical training have been instituted to relieve the situation. The general method of procedure, however, has remained practically the same, with one striking exception: the kindergarten has cut loose\nfrom traditional methods and is solving the educational problem in its own\nway. At this end of the school line, differentiation to meet the needs of the\npupil is actually practist. One may hear such suggestions as these:\n\"Barbara leads beautifully, therefore, let us have her for our leader in this\ngame \" ; \" Betty dances gracefully, see if you can't follow her steps \" ; \"Paul\ncan tell stories so well, let us all listen.\" Thus the individual is led to take\nconscious pride in his ability, and his peculiar talent is carefully nurtured.\nThe early methods of teaching had for their purpose the storing of information and knowledge gained from books. As contrasted with this aim,\nwe have the ideal purpose of so organizing both mind and body that initia- ,\ntive, independent thinking, and mastery of the individual, his acts and his\nenvironment, shall result. Examples of these types of education are found\ntoday at the extreme ends of the so-called school training, namely, the\ncollege on one hand and the kindergarten on the other. The college still\nseeks to fill the brain of the individual with specific information; the\nkindergarten provides every opportunity for the right training of the senses,\nindividual aid, and the practical application of the reasoning powers.\nBetween these two extremes — the college and the kindergarten — we have\nthe primary grades, the grammar grades, the junior high school, and the\nsenior high school. And as progress is made away from the kindergarten\ntoward the college, less attention is devoted to the individual and more to the\n\n"}
{"page": 525, "printed_page": "513", "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nTRAINING\n\nTO SUIT\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nNEEDS\n\n513\n\ncourse of study. This is contrary to the natural growth of the child whose\npersonal and individual characteristics and traits crystallize as he gains in\nyears. If ever attention is to be paid to the individual, if ever a differentiation intraining is to be recognized, it certainly should come in the more\nadvanst schools. As a matter of fact, it should never be lost sight of.\nIt is strange that the enlightened work of the kindergarten has had no\ninfluence higher up. Instead, it has been the college which has changed\nconditions below it to meet its own spirit and thought. Consequently\ninformation-getting, book knowledge, memory-training, are still the backbone of the upper grades and high schools. To quote Ernesto Nelson,\n\"The curriculum, the textbook, the examination paper are the most\nimportant pieces of the educational machinery.\"\nThe thread-bare statement that \"education is a preparation for life\"\nundoubtedly means that this preparation is for each individual. Unfortunately, actual practise has dealt only with groups, and there has been\npractically no individual preparation. In reality, every pupil should\nbe given the opportunity to develop within the limit of his individual\ncapacity. Mere book learning and a fine memory will not do. Various\nforms of activity which will develop such qualities (as yet in the category\nof the unrated) as love of work, quickness of perception, ability to plan,\nability to observe, power to record, ability to discriminate, power to invent,\noriginality of procedure, and independence and initiative must become the\nmajor plan of the child's education, and with such power, the book information and much more will become his by his own directed will. Successful\naccomplishment along these lines only should be the test of the child's\nability and should, moreover, be the only factor considered for promotion,\nor for duration in school.\nAt present the free action of a conscientious teacher is blockt by dogma,\noutlines, schedules, and examinations. A man or woman of insight and\ndiscernment noting certain characteristics of an individual must avoid their\ndevelopment if such a course does not fall within the prescribed outline.\nThe opportunity is lost and the precious element of greater possibilities,\neven of greatness, is forever lost. There are many, many such flames\nseeking expression and recognition which are snuft out by so-called education. Some teachers, of course, break the rules and recognize the pupils.\nThe frightful waste indicated by the fact that from 80 to 95 per cent\nof the pupils entering the primary grades never graduate from the high\nschool clearly shows that at presesjit our schools are not adapted to the\nneeds of the individual.\nWhat is true of education in general is true also of special subjects.\nFor many years the art and manual- training teachers have be'en so eager in\ntheir efforts to present a series of studies in various mediums and tool\nprocesses, looking toward a development of unapplied knowledge, that they\nhave completely lost sight of the pupil.\n\n"}
{"page": 526, "printed_page": "514", "text": "514\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\nTurning back but a few years in the history of our art and manual education, we find lessons, exercises, and outlines seeking to fulfil the requirements\nof a course of study based upon a series of models. Borders, historic ornament, perspective and object-drawing, planed blocks of wood, joints,\nsleeve boards, and coat-hangers have been given to all with utter disregard\nfor the character of the community or the individual. New things had\nbeen introduced because someone had offered them with some degree of\nsuccess. But the new things were adopted bodily and transplanted without\nregard for the new conditions.\nThe common procedure of the community or the individual is first to\ndo the thing which someone else did, in just the same way. And, in turn,\nwhen that community or individual discovers or evolves a new thing, the\nsame tendency leads others to copy both the idea and its operation. Thus\nyou may find in Ohio a strictly New England town, but lacking the New\nEngland environment; so we brought sloyd from Naas and estabhsht\nit in a foreign soil without consideration for a different people; and so we\nfind in the art field so many institutions which are stampt \"Teachers\nCollege,\" ''Art Institute,\" or \"School of Fine Arts.\"\nThe wise physician never prescribes without first understanding the\ncondition of the patient. But our earnest supervisor will offer wherever\nshe lands, the same story she learned at school. I recall vividly the answer\nreturned to me when I questioned the advisability of offering a certain kind\nof work in a certain way to a normal high school. \"But how can one do\notherwise,\" the teacher answered, with a tone of finahty, \"after having\nstudied with Mrs. Green?\" Here, she impHed, was the panacea for all\npupils wherever they may be, for that was what Mrs. Green and the school\ntaught.\nFor many years art education in the state of New York had been forst\ninto the pupils in just this way. State syllabuses in drawing for elementary\nand secondary schools were publish t at intervals of five years. Based upon\nthese outlines, state examination papers were issued twice a year, and the\nsuffering individual, no matter what the -ache or pain, was tested, not on his\nnative abilities but on his knowledge of the syllabus as interpreted by his\nteacher. When great numbers gave the same answer in the same way, the\nsyllabus was acclaimed a success. When individuals showed real intelligence and treated the question in a distinctive way, they were failed and\nwere given the prescribed dose for another term.\nContinued results under this wholesale treatment failed to record\nprogress. Changes made in the syllabuses introduced new problems added\nin exactly the same way that outside supervisors were teaching them.\nThis brought even more retarded progress, for it meant more information\nto remember in order to pass the dreaded test.\nIt was imperative that steps should be taken to relieve the situation.\nWhy, in the first place, should a school in an industrial community be com-\n\n"}
{"page": 527, "printed_page": "515", "text": "Department]\n\nART\n\nTRAINING\n\nTO SUIT\n\nINDIVIDUAL\n\nNEEDS\n\n515\n\npelled to pass the same examination as a school in a farming district?\nHere was the crux of the whole problem. No differentiation of work had\nbeen permitted to suit the communities' needs.\nThe situation just cited is, no doubt, peculiar to the Empire State, but\nit is indicative of what happens in cities themselves where there are many\ngrade schools and two or more high schools. Too often allowance is not made\nfor each school's environment and its own peculiar conditions. The same\nset of problems will never do in our cosmopoUtan municipaHties. The\nPoHsh district presents very different conditions from the Hebrew, the\nItalian, the Negro, and the Yankee districts. As the conditions are\ndifferent, so the demands for art training are correspondingly different, and\nevery effort should be made to meet these demands.\nReference again to the state of New York may serve as an illustration\nin point. To alleviate the plight in which art education found itself it was\nnecessary to take heroic measures. The number of examinations was therefore reduced from nine to three. Schools were now permitted to offer\nadvanst courses to suit their local needs, subject to state approval. Each\nof the one thousand or more high schools might offer any one of a number of\ncourses according to the demand of the community, and the facilities\nfor handling the subjects. The syllabus was again revised and the so-called\nelementary design in the high school was groupt under four centers; the\ncommercial center, the industrial center, the home center, and the personal\ncenter. Thus a school had a much wider latitude in which to work, and\nmight adapt its art-teaching to an apparent need.\nThis solution of a state's problem where state credits are earned is\nagain similar to the cities' problem where the school credit only is required.\nDifferentiated courses for the different schools in a city is no less essential\nthan differentiated courses for the schools of a state. In two years markt\nprogress in the state work is apparent. In place of nine different courses,\nincluding mechanical drawing, previously offered, there are now twentysix different courses, including such subjects as charcoal dramng, watercolor painting, sketching, costume design, metal and jewelry design,\nlandscape design, ceramics, bookbinding, history of art, etc., with practical\napplications in the different mediums.\nWhat is true with regard to art education in states and cities is no less\ntrue with regard to schools and pupils. The individual pupils have their\nown environments, and more, they are growing personalities with distinctive characteristics and with native abilities. How much more imperative it is, then, that we should differentiate their training to suit their\nspecial needs.\nThe present system is like that old state syllabus. All pupils get the\nsame thing topt off with the same test. One may go into almost any schoolroom and find, if it be the month for that work, forty pumpkin borders from\nforty different children, each border having the ?ame number of silhouette\n\n"}
{"page": 528, "printed_page": "516", "text": "51 6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Vocational\n\npumpkins drawn, the same size, in the same way, upon panels of the same\nkind of paper; and each paper measuring exactly three by nine inches.\nNext weel£, of course, we may find autumn leaves or black cats, but the\nsameness is there. Some teachers, it is true, can make drudgery a delight,\nwhich often saves the child. But that outline must be followed, at any\ncost, and in spite of what the youngsters actually need. One may say\nthat the picture is overdrawn, but an analysis of the course of study itself\nwill show how the individual is left out. The average outline for the elementary grades is divided for each year, into the same number of parts,\nunder similar heads. It is a four ring circus. Simultaneously in each grade\nthere is the fall nature-drawing, then the holiday construction, followed\nby the winter illustration and object-drawing, and ending in spring nature\nand design. Each autumn Tommy is brought back to his fall nature with\na surprised jolt. Where had he seen these things before! Years ago,\nsurely. It is so with each of the other topics. There is no continuity of\nwork. Between each jolt it is one long, long intermission. Meantime,\nif Tommy shows abihty in construction, even originality, his enthusiasm is\nquencht when the outline demands that he play in the next ring. Is it little\nwonder that some Tommies rebel, that they are real terrors, and that\nothers are called dull ?\nEvery art teacher has the opportunity for making some individual\ngreat. Differentiation in the training is all that is required. To accomplish this, every art course should be elastic. Principles and elements of\nbeauty will remain the same, but the outlet for their expression may vary\nwith the individual. It is necessary, then, that a teacher be familiar with\nmany mediums and their applications. Pupils should be studied, and their\nnative characteristics encouraged.\nIn the grades a departmental teacher should foster the early tendencies\nof the individual. As he progresses, one of two courses should be pursued:\nif he shows technical ability, this side should receive emphasis; if he lacks\nspecial talent, a good eye- and hand-training should be followed by emphasis on the side of appreciation.\nThe talented one should be carefully watcht for creative tendencies.\nIs his interest in drawing, designing, painting, modeling, or other constuctive work? Again his special aptitudes and interests should be\nencouraged, without neglect, of course, to proper execution, and as he proceeds full sway should be allowed his greatest gift. His high-school course\nthus becomes prevocational, and he is readily able to choose his future\ncourse in the normal or professional art school.\nI realize that there are physical drawbacks to these ideal statements, not\nthe least of which is the problem of the large class. But schools are not\nfactories (or they should not be) and factory methods should not predominate. Itis by striving for the ideal that we approach it. And differentiated\nart training to suit the individual pupil's needs is an ideal to be striven for.\n\n"}
{"page": 529, "printed_page": "517", "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SECONDARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nEDUCATION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident— Edward Rynearson, principal, Fifth Avenue High School\nPittsburgh, Pa.\nVice-President— EuuA J. Breck, head of English department, The University School,\nOakland, Cal.\nSecretary— Walter J. Beggs, teacher of Latin, Johnson High School\n\nSt. Paul, Minn.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 4, 19 16\nThe meeting was called to order in the auditorium of the Washington Irving High\nSchool at 9:30 A.M. by President Edward Rynearson.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"Socialization of the High School\" — Edward Rynearson, principal, Fifth Avenue\nHigh School, Pittsburgh, Pa.\n\"Making the High School Democratic\" — ^Thomas W. Churchill, former president,\nBoard of Education, New York, N.Y.\n\"Our Old Friend, the Examination\" — William McAndrew, associate superintendent\nof schools. New York, N.Y.\nDiscussion: John C. Hildt, associate professor of history. Smith College, Northampton, Mass.; W. D. Lewis, principal, William Penn High School, Philadelphia, Pa.;\nCharles F. Wheelock, assistant commissioner for secondary education, Albany, N.Y.\n\"What High-School Subjects Are of Most Worth ? \" — Cheesman A. Herrick, president,\nGirard College, Philadelphia, Pa.\nA Summary of the Program — ^J. Stanley Bro^vn, superintendent, Township High\nSchool, Joliet, 111.\nThe president appointed the following Committee on Nominations:\nMilo H. Stewart, principal, Technical High School, Indianapolis, Ind.\nSophia Ellis, Girls' High School, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nC. P. Briggs, principal of High School, Rockford, 111.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 5, 1916\n\nThe department met in joint session with the Library Department, Emma J. Breck,\nvice-president, presiding.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"The Library in the Modem High School\" — William M. Davidson, superintendent\nof schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.\n\"The Need for an Aggressive Campaign for Better High-School Libraries\"- Charles\nHughes Johnston, professor of secondary education. University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.\n\"The Relation of the High-School Library to Vocational and Technical Courses\" —\nWalter D. Hood, principal. The Gilbert School, Winsted, Conn.\n\"Library Administration\" — Mary Sullivan, department of English, Fifth Avenue\nHigh School, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nFollowing the program, in five-minute talks, it was explained \"How Teachers Use\nthe Library in Different Departments and Its Value in Their Work\":\n\"English\" — ^James F. Hosic, secretary, National Council of Teachers of English,\nChicago Normal College, Chicago, 111.\nS17\n\n"}
{"page": 530, "printed_page": "518", "text": "5l8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\n\"German\" — Lydia M. Schmidt, German department, University High School,\nUniversity of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\n\"French\" — William L. Milwetzky, French department, Barringer High School,\nNewark, N.J.\n\"Commercial Subjects\" — x\\rthur M. Wolfson, principal, Julia Richman High School,\nNew York, N.Y.\nC. C. Certain, chairman. Committee on Problems of High-School Libraries, presented\nthe report of the committee, following which the department placed itself on record as\nindorsing :\n1. Larger and better-equipt library reading-rooms within high school.\n2. A better selection of books.\n3. Annual and adequate appropriations for maintenance.\n4. Trained librarians in charge of high-school libraries.\n5. Libraries kept open all the school day.\nC. C. Certain presented his resignation as chairman and Charles Hughes Johnston,\nprofessor of secondary education. University of Illinois, Urbana, 111., was appointed\nchairman for the ensuing year.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 6, 1916\n\nThe department met in joint session with the National Council of Teachers of English, President Rynearson presiding.\nThe following program was presented:\nTopic: The Report of the Committee of Thirty on the Reorganization of High-School English\n\"The Purpose, Scope, and Main Features of the Report\" — ^James F. Hosic, head\nof the department of English, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, 111.\n\"Literature in the Junior and Senior High School\" — Emma J. Breck, head of the\ndepartment of English, University High School, Oakland, Cal.\n\"Composition in the Junior and Senior High School\" — Benjamin A. Heydrick,\nhead of the department of English, High School of Commerce, New York, N.Y.\nA brief summary of the forthcoming report is printed. The papers read will appear\nin the full report.\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 7, 19 16\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9: 30 a.m. by President Rynearson, who appointed\nM. R. McDaniel, principal. Oak Park Township High School, Oak Park, 111., secretary.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"Report from Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education\" —\nClarence D. Kingsley, state high-school inspector, Boston, Mass., chairman.\n\"High-School Administration in Its Relation to Vocational Education\" — M. H.\nStuart, principal. Technical High School, Indianapohs, Ind.\nUtah.\"The Reorganized High School\" — ^John M. Mills, superintendent of schools, Ogden,\n\"Military Trainmg in the High School: Why and How?\"— W. S. Small, principal,\nEastern High School, Washington, D.C.\nMr. Kingsley's report was in the form of a statement concerning the \"Main Objectives of Secondary Education\" and will appear in the report of the Commission on Secondary Education.\nThe Committee on Nominations recommended the following officers and they were\nunanimously elected:\nPresident — Emma J. Breck, head of English Department, University High School,\nOakland, Cal.\nVice-President — M. R. McDaniel, principal. Oak Park Township High School, Oak\nPark, III.\nSecretary — ^Jeanette Taylor, teacher. Girls' High School, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nWalter J. Beggs, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 531, "printed_page": "519", "text": "Department!\n\nSOCIALIZATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nRYNE ARSON,\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n519\n\nAND DISCUSSIONS\n\nSOCIALIZATION\nEDWARD\n\nOF THE\n\nOF THE HIGH SCHOOL\n\nPRINCIPAL, FIFTH AVENUE\nPITTSBURGH, PA.\n\nHIGH SCHOOL,\n\nBy this subject I mean adjusting the high school to the needs of society\nand of the community; making the subjects of a high-school course such as\nopen a direct approach to life. I do not mean by the term that the high\nschools should be cocoons and bee cells from which will emerge the butterflies and drones of society. Schools have arisen because of the needs of\nsociety. This is true, not only of pubHc schools, but also of our commercial\ncolleges (so called), special schools, and technical and classical colleges.\nThe Latin-grammar school, which prepared for college in an age when\nLatin was the language in which many nations recorded their legal, scientific, theological, and literary contributions, past out of existence because\nlaws and treatises are no longer written in Latin; the academy, which was\na finishing school for boys and which offered a wider range of subjects than\nthe Latin-grammar school, either merged into free public high schools or\nbecame distinguisht as schools preparatory for colleges.\nThe public high school came into existence because there was a need\nfor education in addition to that offered in the elementary school. The\nLatin-grammar school was not free, its curriculum was not practical, and\nit did not articulate closely with the elementary schools. The academy\nwas controlled by a corporation and was expensive. In 1870 there were\nonly 160 free high schools in this country; ten years ago there were 8000;\ntoday there are more than 14,000. Does not this indicate clearly that the\n[ public high school is an institution arising out of the increasing needs of\nsociety ?\nThe high school is supported by the taxes of the whole people; it educates the children of the whole people; it must therefore provide for an\nadequate and proper education of the children of the whole people — of\nthose who enter the industrial pursuits as well as of those who enter the\nso-called learned professions.\nTo arouse and develop the worthy potentiaHties of each pupil until\nhe becomes an actuality is one of the problems of the high school that has\nonly recently received its share of attention from educators. The elementary school has been more or less successful in making the three R's\nmore practical, and in adding some subjects that will connect with the home\nor with industrial pursuits, such as domestic science, art, manual training,\netc. Colleges and technical schools have specialized to meet the needs\nof men and women.\nAfter the readjustment below and above the high\n\n"}
{"page": 532, "printed_page": "520", "text": "520\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIndustrial and financial conditions have changed greatly; professional\nrequirements have increast many fold; society interests and relations are\nbecoming more and more complex and exacting; the government, which\nformerly protected the individual in the exercise of his legal rights, has\nchanged its function to protecting him in the exercise of his human rights.\nWith these rapidly changing conditions on every side, can we satisfy our\nconsciences by offering courses of study suitable to mediaeval times ?\nWhen you consider that the adolescent period is the time when the\nmen-to-be are trying out their different powers, forming their habits of\nthinking and doing and assuming their attitudes toward social, political,\nethical, and religious questions, you will agree with Wellington and Gladstone that the high school is the strategic stronghold in the endeavor to\nmake efl&cient men and women. Every student of secondary education\nwho appreciates his opportunity for contributing his mite toward making\nthe high school fulfil its great mission can hear the words of Mordecai to\nEsther, \"Who knoweth whether thou art come to the kingdom for such a\ntime as this?\"\nThe high school must not neglect the 5 per cent who are preparing for\ncollege, as those furnish a high percentage of the leaders of the \"masses\"\nin public and private life. On the other hand, we must not forget that the\neducational standard of the community or state in a democracy is based\nupon mass-education, and not upon class-education, as is found in a monarchy. The stability of a republic rests on the level of the moraUty and\nintelligence of all its people.\nThe colleges should soon recognize that they have a duty to society\nas well as to the individual. They should appreciate that the requirements\nfor admission to college are no higher than those for citizenship in the best\nsense; that is, when it is possible for a boy to choose from the high-school\ncourse those subjects which will enable him to do a man's work in the shop\nor store, and thereby be incapacitated for admission to college, there is\nsomething radically wrong with the college-entrance requirements. The\ncollege owes recognition and inspiration to the high schools that seek to\nserve community needs. Davis says:\nIf mental discipline be the desideratum for admission to college, may not subjectmatter that has a rich content for practical life also be made to furnish as desirable and\nas satisfactory mental discipline as do the traditional subjects, the social utilities of which\nhave been largely lost ?\n\nThe course of study has always been, and will always be, the battle\nground in every progressive school. What subjects shall be required,\nwhat kind of electives and how many shall be offered, and how they shall\nbe selected are some of the many questions that are ever present. That\nthe course of study must be changed to meet changing conditions is evident to everyone who in this day of electric light has discarded the tallow\ncandle. What a high school should offer depends on so many factors that\n\n"}
{"page": 533, "printed_page": "521", "text": "Department!\n\nSOCIALIZATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n521\n\nits place in the great system of education is constantly in process of evolution. Hence no program of studies in time, nor in character, can be fixt\nwith any degree of permanency. Certain subjects include, according to\nBagley, \"the priceless elements of the heritage of race experience.\" These\nshould be found in every course of study because they afford a community\nof ideas that are necessary in a democracy.\nStout, in the preface of his recent book, says:\nReorganization is demanded and it should result in both progress and stability.\nTraditions should not be allowed to stand in the way of necessary readjustments, nor\nshould the glamour of things new lead us to engage in hasty and ill-advised experiments.\n\nThe course of study should assist a great majority of pupils in selfdiscovery. This is the great advantage of the cosmopolitan high school.\nFrequently some pupil's course is changed during the semester, and at\nthe end many changes are made. Some time ago the teacher of mechanical\ndrawing and shop work told me that one of the boys would waste his time\nif he continued to prepare for engineering. The boy is now taking another\ncourse and is doing good work. Two girls who failed to get shorthand\nafter trying it twice were transferred to another course. All the senses,\nseeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and feeUng, must be developt to the capacity of each. Memory-training only does not develop the whole child. As\nDr. Eliot has recently pointed out:\nMental action and reaction is strongest when eyes, ears, and hands, and the whole\nnervous system, the memory, and the discriminating judgment are at work together.\nThe changes which ought to be made immediately in the programs of American secondary\nschools, in order to correct the glaring deficiencies of the present programs, are chiefly:\nthe introduction of more hand, ear, and eye work — such as drawing, carpentry, turning,\nmusic, sewing, and cooking, and the giving of much more time to the sciences of observation— chemistry, physics, biology, and geography — not political, but geographical and\nethnographical geography.\n\nThe curricula should be planned for the whole boy and girl and should\nbe taught by all-round, vitalized, and vitalizing teachers. The subject\noffered to each pupil should \"provide two sorts of education — one to fit him\nto work, and the other to fit him to live.\" When the pupil has completed\nhis course, his certificate should give prominence to the physical attainments as well as to the intellectual. Hence, the course must be well\nbalanst. \"The body is not one member, but many. The eye cannot\nsay unto the hand, I have no need of thee; nor again the head to the feet,\nI have no need of you. Nay, much more those members of the body\nwhich seem to be more feeble, are necessary.\" Doesn't this sound as tho\nPaul would have approved liberal and vocational education, if he were\nwriting to the Corinthians today?\nThe curricula for the early years of the high school which,- according to\nthe six-six plan are the seventh and eighth grades, should not only contain\nthe worthy traditional subjects, but should also offer subjects that appeal\n\n"}
{"page": 534, "printed_page": "522", "text": "522\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nto the motor and constructive interests and powers of the pupils, and that\nmay be more or less vocational in character. The course should be flexible\nenough to meet the reasonable choices of the pupils and yet this flexibility\nshould not lead to \"elective chaos,\" since immature pupils may confuse\nliberty and license. One valid objection to elective studies is that pupils\nin our high schools specialize too early or scatter their efforts by picking\nout the easy subjects or the lenient teachers. Most pupils are not qualified to select the best curricula.\nThe wise school administrator recognizes the great changes that are\ntaking place in the industrial and business world, and stresses the education that has developt many of the higher nerve centers and organized\nmany groups of ideas which will enable the man to adapt himself to changing conditions. One great objection to over-specialization before seventeen\nyears of age is that only a few of the nerve centers are called into action;\nthe pupil is trained or skilled for so few operations that when changes come\nin the factory or business he loses his position because he has no power of\nadapting himself. Dean Leete, of the Carnegie Institute of Technology,\nsaid in faculty meeting: \"You can't build an intensive knowledge of one\nthing upon extensive ignorance of all things.\"\nThe cosmopolitan high school may be the great melting-pot of our\ncities. To segregate those who are going to college from those who are\npreparing for the industrial or commercial life may engender snobbishness\nand may lead to social division on a false basis of education or vocation.\nWe should not transplant the stratified society of Europe into democratic\nUnited States. Pupfls of high-school age should develop sympathy and\nrespect for phases and conditions of life other than their own. This is\nmore easily accomplisht where all classes meet on a common basis in the\nrecitation rooms and on the playground. The tolerance of the viewpoints\nof the college preparatory and industrial pupils on the part of the commercial\npupil better prepares him to enter the business world where he must respect\nthe views of his various patrons. The cosmopolitan high school has greater\npossibilities of generating power that will make for higher manhood than\nhas the special school.\nAll the so-called outside activities of the high school, when properly\nguided and guarded, are tributaries to the great, broad current of culture\nand knowledge. These activities should be made the basis of organizations\nwhere the relations of the individual to society and of society to the individual may be learned at first hand. These organizations should be selfdirected as far as the pupil is concerned, but at the same time guided by\nthe wise teacher both to control any individual who may be a menace to\nthe organization and to give such aid as may be given by a master hand.\nThe social needs of the high-school pupil are so important that they\nshould be included, not only in the subject-matter of the studies and in the\nselection of teachers for the course, but also in the plans of the schoolhouse.\n\n"}
{"page": 535, "printed_page": "523", "text": "Departmentl\n\nSOCIALIZATION\n\nOP\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n523\n\nWhile the social life of the school may not be concerned primarily with\nevening parties in the school building or elsewhere, yet these will not be\nignored by those teachers and principals who appreciate the tremendous\ndynamic force of the social impulses of the high-school boy and girl.\nNeglected, the social life may ruin body and soul; controlled and guided,\nits possibilities for the good of the individual and the community are\nimmeasurable. This means that the social life is only a part of the school\nand that it must never detract from the serious business of study.\nThe hours outside of school, the leisure of men and women, demand\nmore than passing notice. To assume a negative attitude on the question\nof one's avocation is often to destroy one's eflSciency in his vocation. To\nshorten the hours of labor without enriching the life of the laborer is to give\nhim more hours in which to lower his vitality and morals. The hours of\nleisure cause more criminals and loafers than do the hours of labor. Shall\nthe hours of leisure promote enlightenment, culture, and progress, or promote degeneracy, depravity, and decay ? The one encourages the beautiful\nin music, art, and literature; the other seeks satisfaction in prize fights\nand the common vices. The cultural subjects become extremely utilitarian for the leisure hours. The great need in our changing social life is\nan equipment for the right use of leisure.\nSocial activities are recognized factors in character-development.\nCharacter is to the individual what muscle is to the athlete. Neither is\nmade by lectures or sermonettes. They are made by action, by struggle.\nAs teachers and administrators we must plan activities that will develop\nand strengthen the character as well as the body.\nShould the high school be socialized? Yes; schools that trained only\nfor individual ends have long since failed and have been succeeded by schools\nthat educate the individual for social service. Conditions and customs have\nchanged and the schools must change their methods and equipment so\nthat their pupils will be able to do their work. The adolescent must be\ntaken as he is and not as we wish him to be. To meet the new obligations,\nsome reorganization may be necessary; many of our courses of study and\ntextbooks must be rewrittep in order that the needs and capacities of the\nlargest number of pupils may be met. Cooperative courses will assist many\nboys and girls to find themselves. The school must widen its field and\nprovide for the entire child by requiring, if necessary, that all pupils take\nsome industrial work thruout the course; each building must be provided\nwith a library, clubrooms, dancing rooms, a gymnasium, a dining-room, an\nassembly room, etc., and should be open thruout the afternoon and evening\nto serve as a clubhouse and recreation center (under proper arrangements\nand supervision) for the students and their friends. The wider use of the\nschool plant for evening classes has made many enthusiastic friends for the\nhigh school, and caused them to realize that the high school as an institution istrying to meet the needs of the entire community.\nTeachers training\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 536, "printed_page": "524", "text": "524\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nschools and colleges must give more practical work in these broader\nfields. The teachers in our high schools must realize that the social and\nmoral welfare of each pupil largely depends upon their attitude and activity;\nthat they must look beyond the daily or yearly work and get a new vision\nof the responsibility of high-school teachers in training their pupils to be\nuseful members of society with all that that implies; and that they should\ncooperate freely and steadily with one another and with the teachers of\nthe elementary schools.\n\nMAKING\n\nTHE HIGH SCHOOL\n\nDEMOCRATIC\n\nTHOMAS W. CHURCHILL, FORMER PRESIDENT, BOARD OF EDUCATION,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nMr. Taft, in a speech in New Jersey last month, voiced a fear that the\nhigh schools may dominate the universities. Many worse things than that\nmight happen. When one considers the very long subservience of this\npart of our educational service to ideas fostered in select and antiquated\nfoundations proudly remote from public responsibihty and control, the\ninjection of an independent or even of a dominating influence into the relation is hardly disconcerting to anyone other than those dependent upon\nthe universities for life and sustenance. If control is to be settled by majorities, the high schools have some claim both in the number of institutions\nand in the multitudes they serve. If control is to be settled by excellence\nof service, there will be found those who believe it can be establisht; that\nin methods of discipline and teaching the high schools are today less subject to the drag of repudiated tradition than those institutions which claim\na higher rank. That so eminent an observer should find a danger in the\ncourse the influence of our high schools is taking signifies the extent of\nchange that they are undergoing.\nEducation has so often, in speech and pamphlet during modern times,\nbeen linkt with democracy that it is easy to forget how very recent such\nassociation is. The nations of antiquity perfected their special kind of\neducation to a point that perhaps present efforts have not surpast; but\nit was a training of the elect. The rank and file of mankind were as remote\nfrom it as the toilers of China are from the taste of meat. Books were\nchained to altars. Fortunate possessors of leisure were intrusted with the\npower to read them. \"Scholar\" was a word to be associated with the rare\nand exclusive title of \"gentleman.\" Along came Gutenberg and made the\nbook so cheap that the crofter's cottage can possess a library. French\nencyclopedists spread the astounding doctrine of the rights of the common\nman. Equality, freedom, humanity, enter into thinking, discussion, and\nbelief. They blossom into fruitage on this western soil; a nation springs\ninto existence with these ideas as watchwords.\nFrom the lips of Franklin,\n\n"}
{"page": 537, "printed_page": "525", "text": "Department!\n\nMAKING\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDEMOCRATIC\n\n525\n\nWashington, and Jefferson come a succession of positive and practical\nformulations of the new thought, establishing the fact that free and universal education is a fundamental principle of democratic government.\nThis is revolution, so pronounst as to declare that the star-and-garter shall\nbe worn by every farmer, and that every humble digger and ditcher shall\nbe known as \"Sir.\"\nOne cannot say that the possessors of education have been completely\nand enthusiastically successful in the realization of this ideal. Within the\nsound of my voice are those who can recall when education was considered\nby the schoolmaster as a privilege to be withdrawn from the lazy or the\ndisrespectful; when suspension and expulsion were common weapons to\nenforce what the managers of schools were pleased to require. The higher\nne rises in the system, or the deeper one goes into college and university\neory, the greater persistence of old education's exclusive prerogative\ne finds, whether it be distinctive dress, secret coteries, or selective methods\nf excluding applicants from the privilege of an education.\nWhether because they are nearer to the universities and have been\nominated by them, or because in numbers they are fewer than the elemenry schools, and humanly desire to preserve that distinction, it is certain\nt the high schools of America have not, until the last very few years,\nxtensively and enthusiastically endeavored to extend universal free educaon. It is to them that we have owed up to recent times on this side of\ne ocean the perpetuation of ideas which our American Revolution sought\no overturn. One of these ideas related to caste. Ten years ago the highchool man declared his function to be the training of leaders. Thus have\n1 aristocracies justified their existence. Now the high-school man asks,\nWho selected me to train leaders ? No one. Who is to train the rank\nd file ? Let me, the high-school man.\"\nTen years ago the high sch6ol\nould maintain a netting at its door thru which only the finer grade of\numanity might sift. Now, as I read in the latest book upon the high\nool — Professor Parker's survey of the purposes of secondary education —\ne hope and prayer of the schoolman is that he may be able to serve all\ne youth of his neighborhood, bright, dull, college-seekers, coming\nmechanics, lawyers, laborers, all the children of all the people, old enough\nfor high school, whether fit or not. The revolution is here, delayed a hundred and forty years after the epochal date of seventy-six's great July.\nBut here it comes, a rolling tide, surging eastward from Los Angeles to\nBoise, southward from Newton and Iron Mountain.\nFor years we heard\nthe mission of the high school formulated by its chief pensioners, the\nteachers, exprest as an appointment to maintain a high standard of scholarship for those who could achieve it. But only recently I heard' the following observation from a high-school man: \"Our mission is not scholarship\nut service, not books but boys, not culture but citizens, and, in America,\nIways was, tho we who should have known it best were ignorant of it.\n\n»\n\n"}
{"page": 538, "printed_page": "526", "text": "526\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nNo city collects its taxes and supports us for the care of anything but its\nchildren. We are no skimmers of the community's cream but the caretakers ofthe youth. We are not perpetuators of a classic culture and no\none hires us to be, but we are in the business of helping boys to grow to\nmen, girls to women, all able and disposed to advance the general good.\"\nIn New York City within ten years high-school enrolment has jumpt\nfrom 30,000 to 80,000. Shall this increase be discouraged lest money be\nwasted upon children diagnosed in advance as mentally unequipt to shine\nin scholarship and leadership, or shall such increase be encouraged and\nprovided for on the ground that every child is entitled to \"keep traveling\"\non toward power to use his resources and the world's resources? New\nYork City has answered this question for high-school democracy and against\nhigh-school aristocracy. As a public asset this city counts the desire of the\nyoung to go on to high school, even if the child is unable to finish the course.\nConsider the activities for pupils and for the whole community within\nthis very building, the Washington Irving High School; exhibits from the\nzoological gardens and the museum of art; public entertainments; neighborhood gatherings for discussion of public questions; courses in library\nwork, designing, home-making, including care of babies, and domestic\nscience in its many forms, all ranking with Latin, or German, or physics,\nall in the only aristocracy that the high school recognizes — the aristocracy\nof desire to grow, the aristocracy of efifort and of service.\nIn other high schools boys and girls are giving half-time to education\nin shops and stores and half-time to continuation of that education in high\nschools. Something is happening which is making it progressively difficult\nto tell from conversing with young men and young women whether they\nhave graduated from college or whether they are only high-school graduates\nalready endowed with the vision and determination that formerly characterized college products only.\nThis high-school awakening to a larger duty is an inspiring event of\nour day. To change from the conception of conservers of culture to the\nideal of a common public service is to broaden the view in the direction in\nwhich the Fathers lookt when they predicated a newer, finer race on this\nvirgin soil. The high school, suckled by a mother all of whose antecedents\nclaimed nobility, exclusiveness, and selection, has grown up. Like another\nLafayette, it has thrown away its mummeries and baubles to ally itself\nwith the new humanity. This means an end to a dishonesty which would\naccept bounty from many while serving a few. It means an end to an isolation which widened the unnatural breach between the education of a boy of\nthirteen and of the same boy's education at foiurteen. It means a truer\nfraternity among teachers as our secondary instructors discover that they\nare part of the public-school system.\nInspired by such desires as these, the high schools' domination of the\nuniversity is a situation not to be feared but greatly to be desired. Who\n\n"}
{"page": 539, "printed_page": "527", "text": "Department!\n\nOUR\n\nOLD\n\nFRIEND,\n\nTHE\n\nEXAMINATION\n\n527\n\ntouches more closely the homes of the nation? The high school or the\ncollege ? Who is more truly cognizant of the needs of his city or town ?\nThe pubHc-school teacher or the college professor ? Your faces have been\nturned too long toward the peaceful elm-Uned campus of the abode of a\nchosen few. Direct your minds and hearts to the back streets and the\nfactories of your own town. Go out like consecrated missionaries and\nminister to the ignorant and uninformed who are called to meet the problems of an adult with the meager training of a child.\nIf in you — the awaking defenders of a basic principle of American\nbelief — there remains a trace of the old selfish, snobbish high-school desire\nto draw the highest public-school pay and to perform the cleanest, easiest\nhighest- toned office, expel it; exorcise it; put it away. The world has Httle\nneed of you. But if with eyes opened and hearts expanded you see that\nhigh school is nothing and young men and women are everything; that\ni fitness for high school is artificial and fitness of high school is imperative;\nithat high standards of scholarship which drive children out are criminal,\n[and high standards of the number of children secured and educated for\nwork in the world are glorious, then we want you with all the fervor of the\nhart panting for the cooling streams. Speed your changing views. Continue to find service greater than subjects, boys than books, girls than\nigrammar, and take the place a hundred years ago prepared for you, that of\n[pastors of the people, preparers of patriotism, parentes puhlici puerorum\niuellarumque.\n\nOUR OLD FRIEND,\nWILLIAM\n\nTHE EXAMINATION\n\nMcANDREW, ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT\nSCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nOF\n\nWithin the time of most of those here present there died in Port Huron,\nMich., a lady whose test of the ability of one of her school children years\nbefore reacht a conclusion wide of the mark. She sent for the mother of one\n\nf\n\nof her boys and said to her, \" There is no use sending Tommy to school. He\nain't right; he can't learn anything; he hasn't got the apparatus.\" Hence\nThomas A. Edison, having invariably failed in his examinations, never\nwent to public school after that. In mature life, when he was questioned in\nHtigation by expert examiners, lawyers, both on his own side and on the\nopposition, every idea went out of his head and left him a failure. Booker\nT. Washington made the statement many times that he never succeeded in\npassing an examination. Charles W. EHot declared that, while president\nof that university, he could not pass the Harvard-entrance examinations.\nHenry Ward Beecher stood sixty-fourth in an examination in grammar.\nThe boy who rankt first grew up to be a barber in Atlanta, Ga. Herbert\n\nIK\n\nSpencer said in reviewmg his long life: \"I never could pass any prescribed\n\n"}
{"page": 540, "printed_page": "528", "text": "5 28\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Secondary\n\nexaminations. They are fundamentally vicious. They encourage submissive receptivity instead of independent action.\" Pliny tells how Diodorus, unable to answer an examination question, suffered such extreme\ndistress that he died upon the spot. Each of these persons stood preeminent in his sphere.\nThe Japanese government, after sending many boys to be educated\nin foreign institutions, decided to ask for an examination by which they\ncould select the youth of promise who were worth the expense of this training. Inquiry was sent to each university which had received the young\nJapanese. \"What examination can we give our youth so as to select those\nof greatest promise for future service ? \" AH the universities but one\nreturned rephes to the effect that they did not know of any such examination. One university, with characteristic German system, appointed a\ncommittee of the faculty to investigate and make a report. They sent to\nthe library for all the biographies of eminent men. In each volume they\nturned back to the man's school days. When they made their report they\nsaid: \"The one most prevalent characteristic of men of mark in their school\ndays is that they couldn't pass their examinations.\"\nWhat do these examples lead us to conclude ? The corrective superintendent will say that from these instances we may learn that the teachers\nof Edison, Booker T. Washington, EUot, Beecher, Spencer, Diodorus, and\nof the eminent men studied by the German faculty should have taught\nthem better how to pass examinations.\nMost of the examination arguments are efforts to prove that several\nbenefits arise from the examination;\nI. The examination is a test of the student's ability; it is therefore the\nproper basis for ratings, for promotion, and for graduation. Let us see how\nthis works out. I heard a teacher giving a lesson upon the reasons for the\nlocation and prosperity of cities. It seemed to me obscure, confused, and\nlacking in sufficient illustration. When she had finisht, I examined the class.\nI rated the pupils. The average was i6 per cent — a very poor result — a\nfailure. To hold them responsible was to put the shoe on the wrong foot.\nThe other day I heard a teacher berating a class because, on her written\nexamination, not one had past. Her mind was twisted. She needed a\nlooking-glass. And when the examination is set by outside parties they\ndo not know what the teacher has done. If you say they should know\nwhat the teacher should have taught, we shall agree, but you will not say\nthat a child who knows what the teacher has taught him should be held\nback because he cannot write what the teacher should have taught him but\ndid not. Herein is the main cause of failures of pupils in the written\nexaminations for promotion. It is this that leads Dean Russell, of Teachers\nCollege, Columbia University, to say that outside examinations should\nnot be used for promotion. It is this that impels James Seth, of Cornell,\nto conclude that outside examinations are almost an unmitigated evil.\n\n"}
{"page": 541, "printed_page": "529", "text": "Department)\n\nOUR\n\nOLD\n\nFRIEND,\n\nTHE\n\nEXAMINATION\n\n529\n\nJohn C. Shaw quotes the opinion of teachers of Germany, \"They are almost\nuniversally against the practice of using the state examinations to determine\npromotion or graduation. It is a waste.\" Dr. Gunnison, of our Erasmus\nHall High School, calls the use of the outside examination for this purpose:\nA relic of educational barbarism; a handy means for the principal or teacher to\navoid responsibility of expressing the judgment which a long familiarity with the boy\nshould give. It is a gambling scheme. Desire to learn and willingness to work should\ndetermine promotion.\nThe examination does not test these qualities at all.\n\nI took the examination records of ninety pupils writing for entrance to a\nprivate high school and divided them into ten groups according to standing.\nAlso at the end of the first year and each succeeding year I divided them\ninto groups according to their standings in school. I drew Hues from each\nname in the column graded according to examination records, the line\nrunning to the same name in the first year where the grouping was according\nto school work, then to the same name in the second-, third-, and fourth-year\ncolumns. Theoretically the lines should have run horizontally across,\nor with very slight elevation or depression. Actually they did no such\nthing. Lowest-group pupils rose to highest group or to next to highest.\nHighest fell to medium or low. The entrance-examination test was not\nworth the labor it had cost to mark the papers. Elliot and Thorndike have\ndone the same thing with the examination and class records of college\nstudents. The examination admits failures and excludes successes. As a\ntest for promotion or graduation it is too unreliable to command respect.\nWe have state examinations in New York high schools. The highest\nstate authorities have exprest the view that \"success in these examinations\nshall not be necessary for promotion nor graduation.\" But the New York\nCity high schools use them in deciding graduation and promotion to the\ntraining school for teachers. We have every year good students whom their\nteachers have complimented regularly, but who fail of graduation because\nof a three hours' test which nullifies the work of four years. That seems to\nme very absurd. I cannot see how a pupil writing for three hours can be\ntested for what has been done for a year or more mostly in other ways than\nin writing. It seems to me a serious injustice to punish a student for the\nschool system's own fault. We have teachers who cannot bring a large\nmajority of their classes to the point of passing one of these examinations.\nTo punish pupils for this failure is a practice that is as absurd as it is cruel.\nI conclude that the use of outside\nHence from all these considerations\nI\nexaminations to determine the fitness of the pupil is dishonest, unfair,\nimmoral, and wicked.\n2. The examination is a test of elective teaching. This is the view of the\nNew York State Department of Education. The official circular declares,\n\"The examinations are to test the schools rather than the pupils.\" The\n\n"}
{"page": 542, "printed_page": "530", "text": "S30\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nreforms says, \"The examinations are not to decide promotion and graduation, but to test the efficiency of the teaching force.\" Here is a point on\nwhich the doctors differ. Professor Seth, of Cornell, says, ''Unless the\nteacher is the examiner, his teaching is ruined by the examination.\" President Hadley's view seems to be the same, for he says, \"The cramming\nprocess brings the best results in examination.\" From this it follows that\nthe class showing the best results in examination is the class for which the\ncramming process has been substituted for good teaching.\nAs opposed to the theory stated above, we read in the life of Thring:\n•'The examiner is death to original teaching. There is no dead hand so\ndead as this power thrust in from the outside. Where examinations reign,\nnew methods are impossible.\" Clyde Furst, secretary of the Carnegie\nFoundation, says that an extended study shows that answer papers bear little\nor no relation to whether the teaching has been good or bad. The Hanus\nCommission, which surveyed our schools, reported that it could find no\nproof that the written examinations test achievement of the schools nor of\nthe teachers.\nYou can determine that for yourselves by working out the standings\nof our various New York schools in the state examinations. Taking DeWitt\nClinton High School, for instance, you find in January 42 per cent failing\nin EngHsh grammar, and six months later only 10 per cent faihng, with the\nsame course and the same teachers. It goes from a place lower than\nManual, Wadleigh, Erasmus, and Boys' to a place above them, while\nin algebra it goes from a place near the top with 5 per cent failure to the\nbottom of the list with 30 per cent failure — all in six months. You will see\nthe Washington Irving High School in French in the highest group in\nFebruary going to the foot of the list in June. In Enghsh grammar you\nobserve that the Washington Irving High School heads the list with no\nfailure and conclude that in mastery of English from this knowledge of its\nlaws the school is a good school; but turn to the results of the examinations\nfor the four years' EngHsh taken by the same pupils taught by the same\nteachers and you'll find that this is a poor school, for 66 per cent of the\npupils failed. In Stuyvesant the same startling variation occurs, only\nreverst.\n3. The examination is a stimulus to industry, exact learning, attention\nto essentials, abandonment of erratic tendencies. It promotes mental\nvirility and is the most potent influence in maintaining a high standard of\nscholarship in our secondary schools. The great majority of teachers\nand students work better because of them. All this argument was for\ncenturies used to strengthen the abundant use of the rod in the schools.\nObjections that have been raised to this use of the examination are that it\nsupplants what many regard as higher incentives to training. It is easy for\na lazy and inefficient teacher to rely upon the examination to hold children\nto their tasks. In our New York schools it accumulates the effort un-\n\n"}
{"page": 543, "printed_page": "531", "text": "Department]\n\nOUR\n\nOLD\n\nFRIEND,\n\nTHE\n\nEXAMINATION\n\n531\n\nhealthily toward the close of terms. We have intense periods of review\nclasses after school and on Saturdays. We have quiz clubs meeting in the\nstudents' homes until late hours of the night. We have neglect of unexamined subjects. We have assignment of the strongest teachers to\nexamination classes, thus distributing the load of a school very unevenly,\npunishing the able teachers and rewarding the less efficient.\nExamination means a finding out. So long as any constructive work\nis done, the human mind requires that the work shall be investigated,\nscrutinized to see whether it was done or not. With examination as a part\nof the teaching process we shall have to do so long as we continue in this\nbusiness. It is to mitigate the damage done to teaching by examinations\nthat such cities as New York need to address themselves. It seems to\nme that the sane procedure would be first to locate definitely the authority\nfor the examination system, then, if possible, to get from that authority a\ncomplete statement of the purposes of it, and then, by the collection of\nfacts and figures, to show which of these purposes can be advantageously\nsecured for the benefit of the children, and which are based on unproved\nhypotheses and may be dropt. Human reason should be able to establish\nwhich is right: Hodge, who calls the examination the backbone of a sound\neducation, or Huxley, who terms it an abomination of educational desolation.\nDISCUSSION\nJohn C. Hildt, associate professor of history, Smith College, Northampton,\nMass. — ^The four large colleges for women. Mount Holyoke, Smith, Vassar, and Wellesley,\nhave in the past admitted students by means of examinations and by certificate. During\nthe past year the faculties of these colleges have agreed to make a change in their methods\nof admission. Beginning with 1919 they are going to admit students either by the old\nfamiliar piecemeal system of examinations or by a new system of admission which is to\ntake the place of the certificate method.\nThis new method is not to be taken as a sign of disapproval of the certificate system.\nIt is rather regarded by the faculties of the four colleges as an advance, a step forward in\neducational progress. This new method of admission is not an examination system,\nnor a certificate system, but a combination of both. It is similar to that adopted five\nyears ago by Harvard and this year put into operation by Yale and Princeton. The new\nmethod seeks to answer the question which faces the college every time a student comes\nup for admission, \"Has the student the requisite scholarship and intellectual power for\ncollege work ? \" We are all aware that this question is not answered by the ability of the\nstudent to secure a certificate or pass an examination. We believe that by this new\nmethod of admission this question can be answered more effectively because it treats the\ncandidate in a more human, more personal manner.\nWhat, then, is the new method of admission from which these four colleges expect so\nmuch ? First, let me say that there is no change made in the subjects required for admission by each college. There is no diminution, no increase in the amount of each subject\nentered for admission. The requirements of entrance to each college are to stand, for\nthe present at least, exactly as they have been before. But the requirements are to be\nBy the new method of admission, then, the student's ability\nmet in a different manner.\n\n"}
{"page": 544, "printed_page": "532", "text": "532\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nto do college work will be judged by a committee of the faculty of the college, according to\ntwo kinds of evidence.\n1. Evidence submitted by the school. This consists of: (a) A school report covering\nthe entire record of subjects and grades for four years. This is not a certificate, but\nsimply a transcript of the student's record. It is to cover the entire previous four years\nwhether pursued in one school, or two, or more. It is considered desirable that this\nrecord should be furnisht by the applicant before February 15 of the year in which she\npurposes to enter college, but this is by no means obligatory, (b) A statement from the\nschool principal which is to include an estimate of the applicant's scholarly interests,\nspecial ability, and character. From this statement the committee of admission desires to\nknow something more than what the student has studied and what her grades were. It\nwants to know something of her personality, her character, her purpose in going to college.\n2. When this information has been submitted, the committee of admission of the\ncollege concerned decides from it whether the applicant should submit evidence herself\nof her own fitness for admission. If she be permitted to do so, then she will be allowed\nto take four competitive examinations, to be selected from each of the four following\ngroups:\na) Enghsh or history, selected by the applicant. This does not mean that these two\nsubjects are to be considered equal in amount. It means that for Smith College, for\nexample, the applicant has the choice of an examination in three units of English and one\nor more units of history:\nb) A foreign language, selected by the applicant.\nc) Mathematics, chemistry, or physics, selected by the applicant.\nd) A fourth subject, designated by the applicant from the subjects which may be\noffered for admission.\nThis choice must be approved by the committee of admission.\nIt is here that the great break with the past comes in. These four competitive\nexaminations must be all taken at one time. At least two of them must cover more than\ntwo admission units each. In each subject chosen the comprehensive examination covering aU the units offered for admission by the candidate must be taken by her.\nThese comprehensive examination papers are to be made out by the College-EntranceExamination Board. They will be made out by representatives of the college and the\npreparatory schools. They will be read and judged by readers appointed by this board.\nThe applicant's name is to be written on the examination book instead of a number.\nShe is to be judged as a personality, as a human being. Instead of giving her examination\nor test paper a numerical grade, the reader is to be requested to answer the following\nquestions:\nDoes the candidate show sufficient knowledge of this subject to continue it in college?\nDoes her book suggest a different kind of training from that on which the examination isbased ?\nor poor training ?\nor that she has not made full\nuse of her opportunities ?\nDoes the book suggest capacity for honor work ?\nor is it merely passable ?\n-or failure ?What does she do best ?\nIndicate by underlining words in following\nlists the characteristics of the book:\nNeatness, accuracy, correct spelling and punctuation, sense of order and arrangement, reasoning power, memory, ability to apply knowledge.\nSlovenly, inaccurate, careless in spelling and punctuation, illogical, poor memory,\nno ability to reason.\nWhen the comprehensive examinations have been read and judged by the readers,\nthey are to be sent to the committee of admission. From the three kinds of evidence,\nthat is (i) the school record, (2) the estimate of the principal, (3) the judgment of the\nreaders, the committee decides whether the applicant will be admitted to college.\nHow will the committee of admission act in regard to such evidence submitted to it ?\nIt expects to act in as human a manner as possible, and to put away all purely mechanical\n\n"}
{"page": 545, "printed_page": "533", "text": "Department)\n\nWHAT\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nSTUDIES\n\nARE\n\nOF MOST\n\nWORTH?\n\n533\n\nand automatic decisions. \"Failure to meet completely the standard in both kinds of\nevidence required will not necessarily involve rejection of the applicant; the committee\nmay accept unusual excellence in one part of the credentials submitted as offsetting\nunsatisfactory evidence or even failure in another part.\" The decision of the committee\nwill not depend upon the mechanical fulfilment of certain requirements, nor the ability\nmerely to pass satisfactorily four examinations, but upon the total impression that all\nthe evidence produces. It is entirely conceivable that a student with a good school record\nmight not get permission to take the comprehensive examinations, while a candidate who\nshowed unsatisfactory results in some of the examinations would be admitted.\nUnder the new method of admission the applicant wiU be admitted free of all conditions, or will not be admitted at all. If the candidate fails admission in June, she may\nnot take the comprehensive examinations for admission under the new plan before June\nof the following year, but she may, if she desires, take the examinations under the old\nsystem in September.\nIf she passes them, she will be admitted to college.\nWhat are some of the advantages which it is expected that this plan will have ? For\nthe student it will give her an opportunity to show what she believes she can best do,\nnot what we want her to do best. It will give her an opportunity to show her ability\nand power, and not the capacity for cramming. It will give a student a chance to enter\ncollege even tho she did not wish to do so until she had started on her last year in the preparatory school. It will enable a bright or capable student from a small preparatory\nschool, which is not in the habit of sending pupils to college, to enter college on the same\nterms as a pupil coming from a large preparatory school which has made a specialty of\npreparing pupils for college.\nAs for the preparatory school, this new method of admission relieves it of a part of\nthe responsibility of determining whether the student is capable of entering college.\nThat responsibility is now to be shared by the pupil herself and by the college; while\nit affords a relief, which must be welcome to the preparatory school, by substituting a\nuniform method of administration in place of the various certificate forms now used by the\ncolleges, and by giving the school entire freedom in the sequence of its work in making\nno requirement of certain subjects in the last years.\nx\\s for the colleges, it is believed that this method of admission will still further\nnationalize their constituencies and give them more capable and better-prepared students.\n\nWHAT\nCHEESMAN\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nSTUDIES\n\nARE OF MOST\n\nWORTH?\n\nA. HERRICK, PRESIDENT, GIRARD COLLEGE, PHILADELPHIA,\n\nPA.\n\nEducation should be based on social needs and purposes, and as these\nneeds and purposes change, education should be modified. In other words,\nin a progressive society such as ours a progressive education is a necessity.\nRightly considered, schools are only one phase of the life of society. Thus\neducation is not merely the preparation for life; it is life. The spirit or\nactivity of the community should reach the school and work itself out\nthere.\nChanges in the purposes of schools have been evident from Colonial\ntimes. Our education has been found to be in turn religious, political,\nand economic, or social. In other words, as the dominant interest in society\nchanges, and as the needs which are placed upon those who go out from\nthe school are modified, we find that the emphasis in the school is changed.\n\n"}
{"page": 546, "printed_page": "534", "text": "534\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIn the earlier period the chief business of the schools was to train men for\nthe service of the church, or to lead a moral life; in the fulness of time there\nwas the appeal to education as a preparation for political life, when the\nrallying cries were such phrases as, \"Education is the safeguard of our institutions,\" and \"Education is the bulwark of the Republic.\" While not\nneglecting the moral and the political aspects of education, in recent years\nwe have come to see that it is to serve an economic end as well, and there is\nagreement that schools, as a fundamental, should train men and women for\nthe work they are to do.\nIn 1859 Herbert Spencer publish t an essay under the title \"What\nKnowledge Is of Most Worth,\" in which he set forth at length, under the\nhead of \"How Men Live,\" that the great purpose of education is to equip\nfor complete living — living not in the material sense alone, but for the allround fulfilment of the highest purposes of life. Spencer argued that in\nreaching a conclusion as to what knowledge is of most worth it is necessary to classify in their importance the leading activities of which life is\nmade up. He held that these activities should be groupt under five heads:\n(i) those which minister directly to the preservation of the individual;\n(2) those which, thru securing the necessaries of life, contribute indirectly\nto self-preservation; (3) those which have for their purpose the rearing and\ntraining of offspring; (4) those which are involved in the maintenance of\nnecessary social and political relations; and (5) those miscellaneous activities\nwhich fill up the leisure of life and are devoted to the cultivation of the\ntastes and feelings. In a broad way the principles here enunciated were\ncarried into the detailed arguments of Spencer's revolutionary book on\nEducation. That book markt the beginning of an emphasis on the importance of recognizing in education the economic necessities for existence in a\nnarrower sense, and those indirect forces which contribute to the maintenance and education of those dependent on the individual. There is\nalso the discharge of the duties which one owes to the society of which he is\na part, and finally the larger life which he may live in gratification of proper\nmental instincts and attributes.\nAnother English scientist in the year following the first publication of\nSpencer's essay, Thomas H. Huxley, in a lecture at the South Kensington\nMuseum, said that into the modern world, which was full of artillery, society\nturned out children to do battle, equipt only with the sword and shield of\nthe ancient gladiator. A little later and in much the same figure Charles\nFrancis Adams criticized the education which was given himself and his\nclassmates by Harvard University, saying that they were sent forth into\nthe world with the arms and equipment of an ancient warfare only, and not\nprepared to wage the battles required by modern life.\nThe conception of Huxley seems truer to the purposes of education\nunder modern conditions than was that of Spencer. Spencer argued in\nregard to what knowledge is of most worth, while Huxley laid the emphasis\n\n"}
{"page": 547, "printed_page": "535", "text": "Departmentl\n\nWHAT\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nSTUDIES\n\nARE\n\nOF MOST\n\nWORTH?\n\n535\n\non skill, or facility. In one of his essays Huxley offered the hypothesis of\nwhat would be our interest in a game of chess if we knew that at some future\ntime our life and happiness and the lives and happiness of those who are\nnear and dear to us would depend on the results of a game of chess, and to\ngive reality to this supposition Huxley drew attention to a gruesome\npicture in which a man is represented as playing with the devil at a game\nof chess, the stake of the game being the man's own soul.\nA great forward movement in practical education in America was made\nwhen, in the Centennial Exposition in 1876, the results of a material civilization were brought together. This new impetus was markt by the introduction of manual training into the schools. Manual training, however,\nhas become largely conventionalized, and as a formal education it has\nceast to satisfy the needs of a new society.\nThe highest ideal which we could set for American education is that\nschools should train men to enter effectively into the purposes, and discharge\nthe responsibilities, which the present age presents. Of course, we all know\nthat the schools should train for reKgious hfe; we are just as firmly convinst that they should train for participation in political activity; but\nover and above these the school should train the individual so that he may\nproperly provide for himseff and discharge his legitimate obligations to\nthose who are dependent on him. We will agree that only the man who is\nable to provide for himself and discharge his family obligations is prepared to\nenter the larger field of service to the state and to discharge his obHgations\nto the church. This ideal is not a narrow or profane conception of education. No man can be a good Christian, nor can he be a good citizen, unless\nhe is able adequately to support himself and his family; we have it on the\nbest of authority that he who does not make provision for his own, and\nespecially those of his own house, is worse than an infidel.\nIn a larger sense high schools should train for an intelligent, economic,\nand social citizenship. We often speak of commercialism and industrialism\nas tho they were things for which we should apologize, and with the hope\nthat we may escape from the fancied train of the evils which they are\nthought to bring. But the truth from which we cannot escape is that commercialism and industrialism are basal necessities in present life and that,\nwhether we will or not, they are with us to stay. The question with which\nwe should be deeply concerned is what kind of industrial and social citizenship we are to have.\nThe schools should teach every person to believe in his calling, to\nregard it as a worthy occupation, and to be happy in it. One should feel\nthat in working at his calling he is not only providing for himself and those\nof his household, but that he is serving his government, and, if he is a good\nworkman, he is laying the foundations for a larger and better life in a religious sense. Upon such ideals as these only can we hope for the stabiHty\nof institutions and the perpetuity of government.\nIf, when we are engaged\n\n"}
{"page": 548, "printed_page": "536", "text": "536\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nin commercial and industrial occupations, we regard them as things for\nwhich we should apologize, find dissatisfaction in following them, wish we\nwere doing something else, and by our actions direct and indirect discredit\nour callings, then commercialism and industrialism are things of which we\nshould be ashamed. High-school studies of most worth to the future\nbusiness man and man of affairs are the studies which liberalize, dignify,\nand exalt the occupation he is to follow.\nOne of the best results from the introduction of industrial and commercial\neducation is the establishment of what we may call a professional attitude\non the part of those who are engaged in these callings. As soon as the man\nwho is in industry or commerce feels that his occupation is less worthy than\nis the occupation of his professional brother, then he wishes he were otherwise engaged. Education should make clear that all necessary work is\nhonorable, and that the person who discharges fully and faithfully the\ndemands of an economic career is just as much entitled to respect as are the\nphysician, the lawyer, and the clergyman. When our systems of education\nare constantly emphasizing the importance of the liberal callings and our\ntraining is in preparation for these, then, of course, the man who does not\nenter them may feel that he is not as honorable as is the one who does;\nbut when our education shall recognize the great importance of the practical callings and will train for them efficiently and liberally, then he who\nenters these occupations will have an entirely dijfferent state of mind.\nHigh-school studies of most worth should make vocational education\nmore than bread-and-butter training. Thru this practical form of education there can be given an outlook on the world, higher ideals of living, a\nsense of obligation to the state, and an all-round development which will\nmake the commercial and industrial man of the future a higher type than\nis the man who has generally entered on these callings. Thus practical\neducation cannot only serve the industries which in a narrow sense are\nconcerned, but it can effect vitally the weKare of society as a whole. We\nmay feel that our future is safe only when the men in all calhngs are trained\nto appreciate the importance of their work and to discharge with credit\nthe responsibilities to which they are called.\nUnder conditions of modern economic life, which call for a highly skilled\nvocational education, there has not disappeared the necessity for training to\nthe wise and safe use of leisure. By methods of modern production machines are speeded up, and there is the intensity of labor which gives an\nincreast amount of leisure and an increast need for leisure. The question\nof how leisure shall be spent is of supreme importance to the individual,\nand it deeply concerns social welfare. Education, therefore, should not\nonly teach men to work, but to have its largest value it must teach them\nto find wholesome recreation, and to use their free time for the upbuilding\nof their lives, else there will be a falling off in the very efficiency which\neducation seeks to promote.\n\n"}
{"page": 549, "printed_page": "537", "text": "Department]\n\nWHAT\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nSTUDIES\n\nARE\n\nOF MOST\n\nWORTH?\n\n537\n\nA regrettable condition in our present education is the belief that a\ngiven amount of knowledge of a peculiar sort makes one learned. We have\nlargely disregarded an older and more correct notion that education is\npower. Contrast for a moment our standards with those of Greek education, which produced men of the highest intellectual power — men, some\nstudents beheve, intellectually as superior to the European and American of\nthe present as the latter are superior to the African negro. Yet Greek\neducation was of marvelous simplicity. The Greeks did not study a\nforeign language; they had almost nothing of what is termed science, and\nwere limited to reasoning on a few fundamental phenomena of their own\nlife.\nWe have in the present too much of the quantitive theory of education,\nand our schools spend their time in dispensing knowledge which is of little\nuse, and becomes mere lumber to the one who gets it. Is it strange when\nstudents are stuft with a certain amount of knowledge, with no other end\nthan to be stuft, that knowledge should soon go thru their minds as water\ngoes thru a sieve or air thru a screen ? One must be struck with the lament\nof Helen Keller, that after she had begun to be \"educated\" by our present\nmethods she no longer had time to think. On the other hand, the value of a\nschool or course is not in its students having any brand of knowledge, or\npassing any set of examinations; it is rather in the temper of mind created,\nthe attitude given toward life, and the future of those educated after they\nleave school. Just now our communities are passing thru a grave moral\ncrisis, and it is incumbent on our schools to give familiarity with every\nbranch of work in society and to quicken the moral sense as well.\nToo narrow a vocational education in high schools is contrary to the\nideals of our past and against the wisest provision for our future. One\nmust sympathize with an appeal made by certain parents who recently came\nbefore a legislative committee declaring that schools are too narrow and too\nhighly speciaHzed for vocational purposes, in consequence of which their\nchildren are being robbed of an education. These parents held that their\nchildren were having their time wasted on such tasks as weaving mats and\nbuilding wobbly hat racks. While such activities are not objectionable as\nelements in an education, let us never forget that they are only elements.\nAny discussion of educational worth must come face to face with the\nfundamental question of the value of discipHnary education. The traditional and inherited idea of the school as a mental gymnasium in which\nthe pupils were to do exercises, in the doing of which they would develop\nthe power that would be taken out and appHed to the task which the world\nwould later demand of them, has been seriously questioned. Many educational leaders are urging that a curriculum should contain nothing because it\nis recommended by tradition, and that our schools should teach only those\nsubjects which can be shown to have value from considerations of present\nneeds. Tried by this test much of the algebra and geometry, no little of\n\n"}
{"page": 550, "printed_page": "538", "text": "538\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe foreign languages, and considerable of the traditional English taught in\nour high schools would probably disappear, and in their place would come\nmore practical aspects of these same subjects, forms of applied science, and\nan enlarged study of the social sciences.\nIt surely does not take much discernment to see that secondary education is at present undergoing a reconstruction. New definitions are being\nmade as to purposes and new statements formulated of the methods by\nwhich these purposes can be realized. It is easy to foresee that much of the\nold in our system of secondary education will be retained and employed\nwith new application and a more vital relation to present needs. Newer\nelements will be introduced as social conditions change. These changes\nshould, it appears to me, be made with the following as a guiding principle:\nThose high-school studies are of most worth which are worth most to the\nindividual pupil, which will best fit him for meeting the many-sided demands\nof the life which he is to live.\n\nTHE LIBRARY\nWILLIAM\n\nIN THE MODERN\n\nM. DAVIDSON, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nHIGH SCHOOL\n\nOF SCHOOLS, PITTSBURGH,\n\nPA.\n\n[Points Elaborated]\n1. The ultimate test of the process of education is its ability to stimulate\nand sustain the continuation of educational growth.\n2. The most potent single agency fostering the spirit of the continuation\nof educational work is the library.\n3. The modern high school is constantly reshaping its processes with a\nview of adapting the training given to some use.\n4. The textbook method of instruction is certainly being supplanted by\nthe many-book method of instruction.\n5. While schools are stimulating the pupil's desires for wider study,\npreparation for the satisfaction of these desires thru training for the use\nof the facilities at hand in the libraries should be provided.\n6. The question should not be one of board of education or board of\nlibrary-control — but one of cooperation.\n7. There should be a librarian on the teaching staff whose general\neducation is equivalent to the education of the regular classroom teacher\nand with additional library experience.\n8. The school librarian must know, in general, what the classroom\nteacher knows in detail, and must possess capacity for organization and\nspecial bibliographical knowledge, and a personality to interest pupils.\n9. The adolescent mind is so susceptible of impressions, memory so tenacious, interest so alert, tastes so unperverted, ideals so buoyant, that too\nmuch care cannot be devoted to guidance in the formation of reading habits.\n\n"}
{"page": 551, "printed_page": "539", "text": "Department!\n\nNEED\n\nTHE NEED\nCHARLES\n\nOF CAMPAIGN\n\nFOR\n\nBETTER\n\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR AN AGGRESSIVE CAMPAIGN\nHIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARIES\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n$39\n\nFOR BETTER\n\nHUGHES\nJOHNSTON, PROFESSOR OF SECONDARY\nUNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA, ILL.\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nThere are many evidences that the campaign for making Hbrary content\na vital force in modern life is succeeding. A sketch of the actual high-school\nlibrary work in a particular state — Illinois — will, without further comment, emphasize the need for the aggressive campaign which I am urging.\nAn accredited high school is a school whose instruction is approved by the\nstate university and whose students after receiving this instruction enter\nthe university without examination. To these high schools, some 400 in\nnumber, was sent an elaborate questionnaire. With this list of questions\nwe hoped to secure fairly complete information from the state as a whole\nregarding every phase of library activity. We received adequate repHes\nfrom 183, presumably of the better half of the total number. Some of\nthese were personally visited also. These schools enrol 60,520 pupils.\nThey appropriate $23,485 for library purposes, $8 cents per pupil. They\nown 203,947 volumes, 3.3 volumes per pupil. The meagerness of this is\napparent when we are familiar with the elaborate and luxurious scientific\nlaboratory and the kitchen and shop equipments. Even more niggardly\ndoes this policy appear when we consider the highly paid experts who make\nthe laboratory and shop vital by spending their professional time in personal\nsupervision, and contrast with this the almost total lack of professional\nexperts, whose training and enthusiasm are equally necessary to secure an\nequally vital use of books. We find only 36 acting librarians with any\ntechnical training at all, and only 71 with any college or university training.\nIt means that in the other 112 of the better half of the high-school systems\nof this state either the pupils themselves, the office girl, the needy friend\nof the principal or school-board member, or some one needing an indirect\npension, or someone bookish, but with a floating residence, is presiding over\nthe books. It often happens that it is a teacher who must do the double\n(and doubly useless), task of tending the books and acting as the tired\nmonitor of the unsupervised \"study hall.\" In 24 school libraries only can\nthere be said to be in operation moderately modern scientific methods of\nlibrary-organization and administration. In nine others an acting librarian\ngives half-time. In many others a possible two hours daily may be given.\nNot infrequently, no regular time is allotted to anyone.\nThousands of books, selected without a definite poHcy, uncataloged\nand of necessity, therefore, mostly unused, are not worth so much as a few\nhundred always easily available for immediate use. There are 92 card\ncatalogs in these 183 high schools. There should be 183. In the\nequally important matter of selection, only 80 use any kind of approved\nlist. Some do not know that \"approved lists\" exist, some use lists in\n\n"}
{"page": 552, "printed_page": "540", "text": "540\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe backs of standard dictionaries, some even use a textbook-publisher's\nlists!\nIn 43 of these cities there is no public library. Of the high schools 32\nprovide no school-hbrary room. Indeed only 87 of these 183 better high\nschools have a library room at all. In most of the other 96 the books are\nscattered from room to room and from hall to study-room or principal's\nouter office, or alcove of assembly room. With no room, of course, there\nare no tables nor chairs, no adequate reading light, no comfort, no quiet,\nno congenial surroundings. Under these conditions the supervision of a\npupil's study amounts to little, and the much-to-be-desired adventurous\nand leisurely exploitations of the world in its literature and the wholesome\nlight recreative reading amount to nothing.\nThese high schools vary in enrolment from 31 to 3000, yet there can,\nof course, be no standard scale of library appropriations for the variety\nof equipment and professional service required, based upon a per capita. In\nmany obvious respects library facilities for the small and the large high\nschool are the same. The number of duplicate copies and the degree of\ncooperation with an efficient public library are two factors which affect\nappropriation. In these particular schools, however, there are within\nthe high-school group of any equal enrolment a variation in per-pupil\nappropriation of $0 to $2. What is most interesting, however, is that the\ncirculation or use of libraries varies, not with appropriation, but with\nlibrary rooms and trained librarians. The school libraries least used have\nthe lowest percentage of library rooms and trained librarians, thus suggesting a way to allow volumes to stand unused and money and unique\neducational opportunity to be wasted. The only inference here is that,\ntherefore, appropriation for the school library is no more standardizable at\npresent than is health, but should correspond to possible library use.\nThere is no limit in sight. None should be set, except as to selection,\norganization, and administration.\nIn these schools it is pleasant to note that the open shelf has almost\nentirely replaced the lockt cases and the closed stacks. Nearly all the\nbooks are for circulation. There are, however^ few instances of free textbooks and, unfortunately, as yet the library facilities noted above are but\ninfrequently open to the community or to the upper-grade pupils, and even\nwhen they are, little use of them has been secured.\nCurrent periodicals increase in popularity, and educational use of them\nbecomes more general. The schools report in all 1448 magazines — 59\nschools not subscribing to any, however. Free government and state\nbulletins are not so generally received as they should be^ — 130 of these\nschools receiving none at all. This lost opportunity is particularly costly,\nof course, to the departments of agriculture and domestic science. Again,\nonly 5 of these high schools have availed themselves of the help of the\nIllinois State Library Commission.\nTwo have secured free loans of books,\n\n"}
{"page": 553, "printed_page": "541", "text": "I\nI\n\ni\n\nDepartment)\n\nNEED\n\nOF CAMPAIGN\n\nFOR\n\nBETTER\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n541\n\nI has had questions answered, while 2 have been helpt in organizing. Here\npossible free and expert library service goes unused.\nThe idea of attractive library rooms seems to be spreading. The\nreturns show increast use of pictures, statues, window seats, noiseless\ntables and chairs, bulletins, book-exhibits, potted plants, flowers, and other\nstandard library-furnishings and fittings. Some report piano rolls, slides,\nvictrola records, etc.\n\nThe \"library-consciousness\" of the high-school faculty is reported as\n\"low.\" The cooperation with trained librarians seems somewhat better,\ntho the interest on the whole is chiefly confined to the English and history\nteachers and to such conventional library uses as \"required reading\"\nand a similar use of current magazines for specific \"class reports.\" Some\nvery suggestive things are reported, such as \" bulletinizing clippings of historical interest,\" collecting antiques, serving reading clubs, planning for\ncompetitive readings and later \"extemporaneous\" discussions of topics\nof national interest.\nIt is surprising to note that scarcely any of these 183 high schools so\nmuch as mention the relation of the library to vocational guidance, the\npossibilities here not being realized. Perhaps this is why each movement\nprogresses so slowly. The library movement and the vocational guidance\nmovement support each other. Also a \"course in vocational guidance\" is\nwholly dependent upon library collections of the scattered bulletin literature. Indeed all free class or independent educational work, beyond\nliteralness of textbook use, depends upon a good school library.\nAs to student activities, a few dramatic and literary societies are\nreported as having originated in the high-school library. Some libraries are\nfiling past debates and past educational records, such as examination questions by departments. Many are accumulating pamphlets and clippings\nfor specific purposes. In the field of art and music likewise, sheet music and\npictures are being collected. Not much is reported regarding the possible\nvaluable collections of suitable library content bearing upon athletics,\nhealth craft, holidays, commencement, and other topics upon which legitimate interests of high-school boys and girls are from time to time focust.\nOnly a few schools offer classroom instruction in the library art (or\nscience), with the school library serving as the laboratory. Many high\nschools are cooperating with the public library, enjoying every desirable\nprivilege which could be offered pupils as well as teachers. In one instance\nthe public library adjoining is almost a part of the school, a place for study,\nwith a plan of cooperation in discipline, of reference books, and with\na system of regular observation and report on the study-assignments of\npupils in smooth operation. In several instances the high-school library is\na branch of the public library.\nPerhaps the simplest and most desirable library conditions may be found\nin three high schools of the state, with an enrolment of about five or six\n\n"}
{"page": 554, "printed_page": "542", "text": "542\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nhundred. In these the problem of attitude and discipline is not so serious\nas to becloud real library work, and almost ideal library conditions exist.\nHere are found fully equipt library rooms, excellent librarians, and serious\nstudy work being done by the pupils. One of these is in a school in which\nsupervised-study methods have been adopted and the library fills a very\nvital place in the school. The young people come to the library from the\nvarious study rooms whenever they wish to use library books, or they may\nsometimes obtain permission to come there to study their own books. The\nlibrarian knows personally almost all the pupils and is able to help them in\ntheir work. She has made an interesting survey of various study methods,\nand the reflection of these in subsequent resulting recitations. She has\nfound that almost invariably a lack of good study methods in the library is\ncorrelated with low-grade work in the classroom. Such systematic library\nwork is made possible partly by the size of the school, which enables the\nlibrarian thus to know the pupils and their needs and to do conscientious\nwork with them all. Many interesting systems have been devised to check\nattendance in the library. Such systems include the \"admit slip,\" the\n\"check lists,\" \"self-registration,\" etc. Similarly, various systems of circulation are being used to meet various needs and secure reasonable and proper\ndistribution.\nOther schools may be described which are also doing earnest library\nwork. Such library habits and appreciation are thus being developt as\nwill be of great value to the pupils after they leave school. English and\nhistory, and, I could include almost as well any school subject, can no\nmore be taught properly in our public schools without an adequate library\norganization than can botany or physics be taught without a laboratory,\nor manual training or domestic science without shop equipment, or athletics\nwithout a field. Our present educational emphasis in all grades of pubUc\neducation, admirable in some respects as it surely is, is still dangerously,\nand will eventually be disastrously, one-sided unless at least the fundamental\noversight discust above be seen and remedied without delay.\nThe school library must in every respect take its place with the school\nlaboratory, and the school shop, and the school gymnasium and playground.\nThis is the fundamental lack of our elaborate school plants today. They\nneed, and they will soon have, this laboratory of the humanities. We\nmust, and we can, without delay make it educationally bad form and bad\nbusiness to allow the present impression of a modern palatial high-school\nbuilding, perfectly appointed in most respects, housing absurdly such a\nmotley array of old and useless and dirty textbooks, out-of-date encyclopedias and reference works, and an unkept shelf, full of equally old, black,\nand forbidding volumes.\nMore than anything else we need to think the library into our everyday\nschool consciousness. We need to feel that a school library, moreover,\nis vastly more than merely a collection even of choice books. The modern\n\n"}
{"page": 555, "printed_page": "543", "text": "Department]\n\nRELATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARY\n\nTO COURSES\n\n543\n\nschool has expanded into an institution with functions reaching far beyond\nthat of merely intellectualizing the child. It cares for all that pertains to\nthe complete flowering of the pupil's individuality, hygienic, intellectual,\nesthetic, vocational, moral, religious. Hence the modern adequate school\nlibrary must also be an institution for distribution and display and for\ndemonstration of all legitimate modern educational tools.\n\nTHE\n\nRELATION\n\nWALTER\n\nOF THE HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY\nTIONAL AND TECHNICAL COURSES\n\nD. HOOD, PRINCIPAL, THE GILBERT\n\nTO VOCA-\n\nSCHOOL, WINSTED,\n\nCONN.\n\nIt is my duty to set forth very definitely at just what points the highschool library touches the work of pupils in non-academic courses in the\nschool which I represent. In general, it may be said that the Hbrary\nreaches all pupils in all courses thru the work in English which we require\nof academic and non-academic students alike, the necessary reading and\nreference work in English bringing each student to the library. The\nlibrary also reaches each student, whatever course he may be pursuing,\nthru formal instruction in library methods and the use of books as tools.\nBut if this were the extent of the library's influence on non-academic\ncourses it would fall far short of its possibilities. Our library reaches the\nnon-academic students thru the recognition on the part of the librarian\nof the special interests of these particular students. The chief points of\ncontact are as follows: In the mechanic-arts course, the library reaches\nthe students directly by means of books containing pictures and detailed\ninstructions for the construction of articles such as skis, double rippers,\ncheckerboards, and furniture of all kinds, and by books on house-planning\nand construction, on woodworking in general, and on drawing and metal\nworking. In addition, lists of books dealing with typical industries and other\nspecial phases of the work of this department are prepared by the librarian,\nand these lists, together with the books themselves, are placed on specified\nshelves in the library. For example, when the boys in the mechanic-arts\ndepartment are dealing, thru lectures, with typical industries, references\nconcerning the \"history of industry\" will be prepared and listed with whatever books we have at hand which deal with industrial history. Under\nsubdivisions, books will be found dealing with ''primitive industry,\" such\nas Biicher's Industrial Evolution, Cheney's Industrial and Social History\nof England, etc.; with the ''industry of the Middle Ages,\" such as Gibbon's\nIndustrial History of England, Joly's Man before Metals, Solzmann's English\nIndustries of the Middle Ages, etc.; also, finally, books relating to \"modern\nindustry\" will deal with the modern phases of industrial life — as its economic side, the present factory system, production and distribution on a\n\nIL\n\n"}
{"page": 556, "printed_page": "544", "text": "544\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nlarge scale, etc. — such as Seligmann's Principles of Economics, Thurston's\nEconomic and Industrial History , Warner's Landmarks in English Industrial\nHistory, and others.\nSimilarly, references are selected and noted for the work of any special\ntopic selected by the instructors for study, for instance, lives of inventors,\nsketches of the careers of master craftsmen and the ideals for which they\nlived and workt. We find that this sort of reference proves of inspirational\nvalue to our boys who are not getting the culture of the classics and the\ninspiration of the history of heroic and classic times. In connection with\nthe work on industries, the advantages and disadvantages of each occupation are considered in the light of a life-work, and here we have gathered\nall the books dealing with vocational guidance which we have been able\nto find.\nWith regard to the home-economics course general work is done as in\nthe case of the mechanic arts for boys. The girls in the home-economics\ndepartment are furnisht with references on each large subdivision of their\nwork; relating to textiles, for example, there are such general references\nas Carpenter's How We Are Clothed, Dooley's Textiles, Freeman and\nChandler's World's Commercial Raw Materials, and others. The subtopics under textiles are classified, as cotton, silk, wool, with whatever\nreference material we may have available either in bound books or in\nmagazine articles or pamphlets. Also, when home-decoration and design\nare made the subject of study by the girls in this department, the librarian\ncollects all available reference material on certain classified shelves as\nfollows — Bevier's The House — Its Plan, Decoration, and Care; Daniel's\nFurnishing of a Modest Home; Hunter's Home Furnishing, etc.\nAgain, for cooking classes, references are given relating to the preparation of food, menus, service, food values, etc. ; and so on thru the entire\nrange of courses. The same general principles apply to each topic considered inall vocational subjects.\nIn addition to the foregoing, the library also notes all articles in current\nmagazines bearing upon the work of any department of the school, calling\nattention of the instructors to them by written slips placed in the hands\nof each teacher concerned. Notices of new books upon any feature of\nthese courses are carefully considered; the books themselves are often\npurchast and placed in the hands of the head of the department. Such\nbooks and magazine articles are many times brought to the attention of the\nstudents thru references made to the class by the teacher. I have not\nmentioned pictures (of which we have thousands), lantern slides, extracts\nfrom government documents, newspaper clippings and so on, but these\nare all collected and kept on file, and placed on reference as occasion\nrequires.\nThese are some of the ways in which the high-school library serves the\nstudents in non-academic courses in this one school. How can the library\n\n"}
{"page": 557, "printed_page": "545", "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nRELATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARY\n\nTO COURSES\n\n545\n\nin every high school be made as effective as, I believe, ours is ? There can\nbe no question that the personaHty and enthusiasm of the librarian is the\none vital factor. There was a time when our library, as a school feature,\nwas dead; then came a real, live librarian, and with no great change in\nbooks or equipment except the natural year-by-year growth and expansion,\nour library has been transformed into the busiest, most useful, and most\npopular part of our entire school plant. It isn't a matter of large expenditure nor of great numbers of books; it is almost entirely a matter of the\nright librarian. I should like to see all high-school teachers and principals\ngo on record on the following proposition : that there needs to be in every\nhigh school a library in charge of a trained librarian — a librarian who is\nnot merely a teacher who has a free period or two each day, nor a wornout teacher who thinks that library work is easier than teaching, but a\nvigorous person, who understands boys and girls and the various subjects\nof the curriculum, and who is both a teacher and a librarian. . She should\nbe as highly educated as any teacher and as well trained as any city librarian; she should have a teacher's hours, and her salary should be the same\nas that of any head of a department. It is essential that the librarian\nshould have the teacher's viewpoint in order that she may have a really\ncooperative spirit and that she may know and appreciate the purpose and\nvalue of reference work and reading required by the various teachers.\nSuch a librarian will vastly increase the usefulness of the library; she will\nmake the work of every department of greater interest to the pupils; and\nshe will develop in pupils in all courses the library habit which will help\nthem, not only in specific problems, but in the better use of their leisure\ntime both during their school days and thruout their lives.\nWe find no appreciable difference in the number of pupils using our\nlibrary when considered as representing academic and non-academic\ncourses. We have kept a record covering nearly seven years which reveals\nthe fact that no such difference exists.\nEight years ago I conducted an investigation as to the number of\nstudents who made use of our library, and found that but 16 per cent had\never stept inside the library doors, in spite of the fact that it is the very\ncenter of our school plant. Last spring I made a reinvestigation, and\nfound that 100 per cent of our pupils had used the library— that 100 per\ncent had used it within four weeks, that over 85 per cent had used it within\ntwo weeks and that about 30 per cent had used it on the very day of the\ninvestigation.\nA school library, well and properly conducted, is as valuable as any\ndepartment of the school. I might almost say it is as valuable as all\nthe departments of the school, for it emphasizes and vivifies the work of\nevery department, whether it be classical, scientific, manual, domestic,\nagricultural, or whatnot, and I should feel that the abolishment of our\n■^agr\nlibrary would subtract half the efficiency of the entire institution.\n\n"}
{"page": 558, "printed_page": "546", "text": "546\n\nNATIONAL\n\nLIBRARY\nMARY\n\nSULLIVAN,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nDEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, FIFTH\nPITTSBURGH, PA.\n\nAVENUE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nYears ago teachers made requisition for a resident library in high-school\nbuildings. Their definition of a library, however, was \"a collection of\nbooks.\" Therefore books were purchast, at a considerable cost, and\nbrought to high-school buildings, where some enthusiastic teacher for a\ntime made use of them. But the effort to introduce students to books,\nadded to all the clerical trouble attendant upon the care of the books, soon\nwore out teachers already overburdened. Bit by bit school books valued\nat thousands of dollars were stored in garrets or lumber-rooms to accumulate dust and make nesting places for mice and rats. Still the conviction\nheld that students and books should be brought together. But school\nboards were beginning to have misgivings as to the waste in the matter of\nstored books. Thru circuitous means both those forces united eventually\nto insist upon a medium thru which student and book might meet. The\noverburdened classroom teacher had failed. The oflice clerk was next\ntried, and she failed, before the wiser high schools turned to the public\nlibrary for its experience. The public-Hbrary authorities advised a trained\nlibrarian whom they themselves at times supplied. But school boards\nwere unwilling to pay the salary which brought from the public library or\nelsewhere proper talent for the administration of the book matter.\nIn practically every place where the library is maintained in the highschool building this library is under school-board control, as it must of\nnecessity be, but it is administered in three different ways: (i) by the\npublic library, (2) by the school board, and (3) by a general agreement of\nthe two. Sometimes the city superintendent or the school-board members\nare members of the library board. Sometimes, as in Kansas City, the city\nlibrary is a part of the school administration and so comes within the\njurisdiction of the city superintendent and the board of education. Sometimes the public librarian or the public-library board, or both, are members\nof the school board. In all these cases a union of forces and of understanding is much more easily effected than when the two organizations exist\nindependently of each other.\nBut each of the three kinds of administration has its advantages and\nits faults. I am informed that Kansas City finds difficulty in convincing\nits patrons that taxation for the combined maintenance of school and\npublic library should be greater than it is elsewhere for the schools alone.\nHigh-school administration claims closer sympathy of librarian and faculty,\nwider use of books, closer supervision of students, a union of all departments, more sets of books, books at hand when needed, less \"red tape,\" and\nmore direct and forceful discipline. But public-library administration\nclaims greater efficiency and economy in the purchase and mechanical care\n\n"}
{"page": 559, "printed_page": "547", "text": "Department]\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n547\n\nof books, and better librarians, because \"cooperation with members of the\nsame profession gives more specialized work,\" more fiction, more specialized books, more expensive books, and a surer growth of the public-library\nattendance and habits. Joint administration, where it is efficient and\nharmonious, claims all these advantages.\nEach method has its disadvantages, as seen from a comparison of the\nabove. On one point, at least, all are agreed: nothing less than the entire\ntime of a trained librarian, with the high-school library as her one serious\nresponsibihty, will make a success in the field as it now stands. The\ncommittee still feels that, altho it has collected material from at least two\nhundred cities all over America, the discovering of an ideal means of\nadministration for every city is still to be made, if, indeed, any administration will ever satisfy all cities with their varied differences. We need\nmore material, we need more time, we need larger opportunity for investigating details, before forming any positive or definite conclusion as to which\nof the three means of administration is to be favored. At present the committee would probably be able to tell to any individual city what cities\nare situated like itself and what the experience of such cities in the matter\nof high-school Ubraries has been; but to draw any hard-and-fast Unes or\nmake any positive, unqualified statements as to absolute success or failure,\nwithout an extremely careful investigation of individual conditions, would\nbe absurd in the extreme.\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nC. C. CERTAIN,\n\nON PROBLEMS\nLIBRARIES\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nHEAD, DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, CASS\nSCHOOL, DETROIT, MICH., CHAIRMAN\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nHIGH\n\nAt the meeting of the Secondary Department in Oakland a resolution\nwas past asking for the appointment of a committee on high-school libraries.\nThe committee which was appointed has directed its efforts along the\nfollowing lines:\n1. A survey of high-school-library conditions thruout the country was\nmade in order that the present situation might be properly viewed. Reports on this survey appear as I, II, and III.\n2. Investigations were undertaken in high schools in several sections\nof the country to determine the relationship between the library and the\nvarious subjects of the curriculum.\n3. An exhibit was assembled to demonstrate the work which is being\ndone in the Ubraries of progressive schools. The materials exhibited were\nappropriate for use in all types of high schools, the cosmopoUtan, the academic, and the vocational. Library aids of all kinds were made accessible to\nthe visitors. Classroom aids were displayed which were suited to use in the\nteaching of science, art, music, manual arts, physical training, vocational\n\nIt\n\n"}
{"page": 560, "printed_page": "548", "text": "548\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nsubjects, ancient and modern languages, and English; but the exhibit contained also furniture appropriate for the Ubrary and plans and photographs\nof well-equipt modern high-school libraries. This is a loan exhibit and\nmay be secured by applying to Mary E. Hall, Girls' High School, Brooklyn, N.Y.\n4. Special reports were prepared upon certain aspects of the work\nundertaken by the committee.\nThese appear as A, B, C, and D.\n5. The program for today was arranged.\nThe members of the committee feel that only a beginning has been\nmade in the work. The big task consists in a further awakening of public\nsentiment. Public opinion must be created concerning the functions,\nservices, and needs of the high-school library. Specific problems must be\nsolved more definitely regarding the administration, the maintenance, the\norganization, and the use of the high-school library. Much work has been\ndone, not only by this committee, but by other committees, working in\nother organizations. It is recommended that the committee be continued\nfor another year.\n/.\nMARY\n\nSURVEY\n\nIN THE EAST AND\n\nE. HALL, LIBRARIAN,\n\nNORTH\n\nGIRLS ' HIGH SCHOOL, BROOKLYN,\n\nN.Y.\n\nThis report endeavors to show the progress made in different sections\nof the country in developing live high-school libraries along modern Hbrary\nlines to meet the needs of the twentieth-century high school with its new\nideals, its new methods, and new activities. The high-school library of the\npast was a poorly selected, unorganized collection of books which were\nrarely used by teachers or pupils. The modern high school demands and\nmust have for effective work a carefully selected collection of books, magazines, pamphlets, pictures, etc., organized according to the best modern\nlibrary methods and made accessible to pupils thru a well-equipt and\nattractive reading-room, open during all of the school day and in charge\nof a librarian with some training in methods of library-organization. The\nnew high-school library should be a vital factor in the work of each department of the school, in the shops, the household arts, the commercial\ncourses, and science laboratories, as well as in the departments of history\nand English.\nNew England has only just begun to reorganize its high-school libraries\nand adopt modern library standards and methods. Winsted, Conn., was\nthe first high-school library in New England to do vital work which\nattracted the attention of librarians and educational leaders. Of the 10\nhigh-school libraries in Connecticut, with librarians, 7 have libraries containing more than 3000 volumes each and 5 of the libraries are in charge\nof graduates of approved library schools. The Connecticut Library\nAssociation has a standing committee on school libraries.\n\n"}
{"page": 561, "printed_page": "549", "text": "^\n\nDepartment!\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n549\n\nThe Massachusetts Library Club has an active committee on highschool Hbraries. Largely as a result of this committee's work, plans for\nnew high-school buildings are beginning to include well-equipt readingrooms. Nine of the high schools report librarians, but only 2 are graduates\nof Ubrary schools— those at the Newton Technical High School and the\nSomerville High School.\nPawtucket High School is the only one in Rhode Island in which the\nlibrary has been organized on a modern basis. There is a joint committee\non high-school libraries appointed by the Rhode Island Institute and the\nRhode Island Library Association.\nAt present Maine has no high-school library which is up to the standard in room, equipment, organization, and administration, altho Portland\nis soon to open a well-equipt Hbrary room in its new high-school building.\nFour high schools in New Hampshire report trained librarians who\ndevote all their time to the library — Concord, Manchester, Tilton Seminary,\nand Philips Exeter Academy.\nThe high schools in Vermont are small, and little has as yet been done\nto develop the school library.\nNew York has long encouraged the maintenance of high-school libraries.\nFor many years there has been a school-library division in the state department of education and the state has offered financial aid in dupUcating up\nto $250 any sum raised by a city or town annually for its high-school Ubrary.\nWhere a high school employs a librarian, the state gives the same quota\ntoward that librarian's salary that it does for a teacher's salary provided\nthe librarian has had proper professional training. In the year 1900 the\ncity of New York appointed the first graduate of a library school to enter\nhigh-school-library work in this country, the appointment being made for\nthe Erasmus Hall High School. Today 22 of the high schools in New York\nCity have trained librarians. Rochester and Albany appointed trained\nlibrarians to their high schools in 1905. Oneida, Clean, and White Plains\nhigh schools deserve special mention, as these comparatively small cities\nall employ library-school graduates for their high-school hbraries . Eighteen\ncities in the state report librarians in their high schools.\nWithin the last five years the high schools of New Jersey have appointed\nlibrary-school graduates in six cities, the first city to have a trained librarian\nbeing Newark, where in 1909 the high-school library was made a branch of\nthe pubHc library. Within the last two years the state department of\neducation in cooperation with the state hbrary commission has appointed\nan experienst librarian with teaching experience to serve as state supervisor of schools and hbraries, and special attention is being given to the\nreorganization of high-school hbraries of all sizes in New Jersey.\nFor several years the only high-school hbrary in Pennsylvania in charge\nof a hbrary-school graduate was the William Penn High School of Philadelphia. This fall Pittsburgh opens its new Shenley High School with one of\n\niL\n\nII\nn.\n\n"}
{"page": 562, "printed_page": "550", "text": "550\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nthe largest and best-equip t reading-rooms in the country, seating over loo\npupils and in charge of a trained librarian who is a member of the faculty\nand on a teacher's salary schedule. Pittsburgh has this year adopted as\na standard of quaUfications of its high-school librarians the provision that\ncandidates must be college graduates and in addition graduates of approved\nlibrary schools. The library is under joint control of the school board\nand public library. Ten high schools of Pennsylvania report librarians.\nIn October of 191 6 the first state conference of high-school librarians in\nPennsylvania was held.\nCleveland, Ohio, was one of the first cities in the country to develop\nhigh-school libraries in charge of librarians who had some library training\nand could devote their entire time to the library. In 1895 the first librarian was appointed for the Central High School. This was opened as a\nbranch of the pubHc library and controlled by both school board and pubHc\nlibrary, being the first high-school library in the country to be administered\nin this way. Seven other high-school libraries in Cleveland are also\nadministered in this manner. The first library graduate appointed to a\nschool library was assigned to the Lincoln High School in 1908 and some\ndefinite instruction in the use of reference books was begun. Following\nCleveland, Dayton and Cincinnati have begun using trained librarians in\ntheir high schools. The Northern Ohio State Teachers' Association has\na library section which is attempting to arouse interest along these lines.\nComparatively little has yet been done in Indiana to bring the highschool libraries to a modern library standard, only 4 cities having Ubrarians\non full time. The Manual Training High School of Indianapolis has a\nlibrary reading-room. Two of the high schools have stack rooms adjoining the study halls. The library section of the state teachers' association\nin cooperation with the Indiana library commission is planning a definite\ncampaign for improving high-school-library conditions thruout the state.\nThe earliest construction work in Illinois high-school libraries was in\nthe University of Chicago High School, which has shown particularly progressive work in training\" students in the use of library tools in correlation\nof the library work with the work of all departments. Its most recent contribution tohigh-school-library development is the experiment of having\nthe high-school librarian supervise the pupils in their methods of study in\nthe library. The library is lookt upon as the ideal study room and the\nlibrarian helps the pupils develop good study habits. Both the University of Chicago and the University of IlHnois have been active in pushing\nforward the state movement for better high-school libraries. Ten high\nschools outside those in Chicago have full-time librarians.\nMichigan was one of the first states in which the high-school Hbrary\nwas made a vital factor in school work. No one high-school library has had\nso great an influence in the movement for systematic instruction of pupils\nin the use of a library as that in the Central High School, Detroit. As\n\n"}
{"page": 563, "printed_page": "551", "text": "Department]\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n551\n\nearly as 1885 the work of developing the library as a factor in the school\nwas begun. In 1898 systematic instruction in the use of reference books\nwas introduced, and since 1900 the importance of this work has been\nrecognized by the department of English, giving credit for this instruction.\nTwelve cities in the state have high-school Hbraries with trained Hbrarians\nin charge. The state Hbrary and the state department of education last\nyear appointed a graduate librarian to visit the normal and high-school\nlibraries and give library instruction and advice about organization. The\nlibrarian of the University of Michigan is cooperating with both the\nstate library and the state department of education to improve the highschool library conditions.\nWisconsin has for a long time had a state superintendent of school\nlibraries. Much has been done to set up standards in book-selection by\nle pubUcation and distribution of a printed list of approved Hsts for highlool libraries. These hsts give simple directions for classifying and\nLtaloging the books. The Milwaukee board of education has for some\nrears employed trained librarians to classify and catalog the books in the\nirious high-school Hbraries, but not until this year were the Hbraries\n)laced in charge of librarians who were in the school Hbraries thru the\nlool day to direct the library reading and reference work of pupils,\n'he state department of education encourages systematic library instruction\nthe high school and has issued a pamphlet outlining lessons for grades\nmd high schools.\nMinnesota was the first state in the country to appoint a trained and\nsxperienst librarian as state supervisor of school libraries in its state departlent of education, and mere constructive work has been done in this state\nluring the last five years in developing effective Hbraries in city and rural\nschools than in any other state in the Union. The state high-school-board\nlies provide that every high school in tlie state must have an adequate\nrorking library for the use of students. If there is no adequate public\nlibrary in the town, the school must have a working library of at least 500\n)ooks selected from the state list. The school librarian must have the\nime educational qualifications as a teacher and must have had at least\nsix weeks' course in library training. The University of Minnesota provides a short winter course in library methods for teachers, and there is a\nsix weeks' summer course conducted by the state library commission.\nThirteen high schools in Minnesota have libraries of more than 1200 volumes each and librarians in charge, 5 of whom are graduates of library\nschools.\nComparatively Httle has yet been done in Nebraska to improve high[school-Hbrary conditions. Omaha Central High School has made the greatjest progress in the reorganization of its library on a modern basis.\nFew high schools in Iowa have develop t their libraries. Davenport\n[has had a trained librarian for some time.\n\n"}
{"page": 564, "printed_page": "552", "text": "552\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Secondary\n\nGrand Forks, N.D., is the only high school in that state reporting\na librarian.\nLead, S.D., has had a library-school graduate in charge of its high-school\nlibrary for several years, and Sioux Falls, with less than 300 pupils, has a\ngood Hbrary reading-room and an active trained librarian.\nUnder the direction of the State Normal School library at Emporia,\nKans., a state campaign for better high-school libraries is being carried on\nvigorously.\n//.\nELLA MORGAN,\n\nSURVEY\n\nIN THE WEST\n\nLIBRARIAN, LINCOLN\nLOS ANGELES, CAL.\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nWashington has 9 high schools where librarians are employed. In\nSeattle, Spokane, and Tacoma librarians are on a salary schedule identical\nwith the teachers.\nCalifornia has 27 librarians giving full time in high-school libraries and\n5 teacher librarians. The salaries in Oakland and Los Angeles are the same\nas for teachers. In at least 9 schools classes in library work are conducted\nfor which school credit is given. School librarians may now be certified\nby the state board of education, thus becoming eligible to the retirement\nsalary accorded teachers for thirty years of service. An association of\nschool librarians which was organized in 191 5 has a membership of 45.\nThe Idaho Technical Institute located at Pocatello is the only high\nschool in Idaho which employs a librarian. This library is a United States\nDepository Station, and a specialty is made of the use of public documents,\ncredit being given for a course of 18 lessons in library use. The standard\nof qualifications for librarians is the same as that for teachers.\nNevada is sparsely settled and does not report any school librarian.\nFour high schools in Arizona have teachers in charge of the libraries.\nButte, Mont., is the only city in that state which supports a school\nlibrary.\nThere are no high-school librarians in Wyoming, altho many of the\nschools have small libraries.\nSo far as can be ascertained, the Latter Day Saints' High School in\nSalt Lake City is the only one in Utah in which there is a librarian.\nThree high schools of Colorado have librarians in their modern and\nwell-managed libraries.\nThe library of Albuquerque, N.M., is cared for by the assistant principal.\n\n"}
{"page": 565, "printed_page": "553", "text": "Department]\n\nPROBLEMS\n\n///.\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nSURVEY\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n553\n\nIN THE SOUTH\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL-LIBRARY COMMITTEE OF THE SOUTHERN\nFOR EDUCATION AND INDUSTRY\n\nCONFERENCE\n\nA committee on high-school Hbraries was organized in April, 191 5, by\nthe Southern Conference for Education and Industry. Thru the cooperation of the United States Bureau of Education a questionnaire was sent\nby this committee to 3729 high schools in seventeen southern states.\nMore than 1400 high schools replied. The committee is at present tabulating the returns and preparing the text of a bulletin to be issued during\nthe year by the Bureau of Education. Information regarding library\ndevelopment in the southern high schools may be obtained by writing to\nC. C. Certain, Cass Technical High School, Detroit, Mich., who is chairman of the committee.\nLantern slides showing interior views of typical southern high-school\nlibraries may be obtained by applying to J. D. Wolcott, chief of library\ndivision, Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C.\n\nA.\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE THRU\nLIBRARY\n\nJESSE B. DAVIS, PRINCIPAL, CENTRAL\n\nTHE HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nHIGH SCHOOL, GRAND\n\nRAPIDS, MICH.\n\nThe traditional school library has been filled with classic literatures of\nantiquity and with the histories of the progress of past centuries. The\ntime has come when the library must afford also a means of information\nwith regard to the achievements of the world of today. We must keep\n^definitely in mind that in this general laboratory of the school we are\nliming to assist in preparing boys and girls to go out into life-activities\nmder present-day conditions, and every feature which we can bring into\nle library that will give them a broader and keener outlook upon life\nrill be in keeping with the trend of modern education.\nThe need of educational guidance arises from the fact that today these\nlanges in the curriculum are already taking place; that we have an\nicreasing variety of secondary schools; and that within each school, social,\ntechnical, vocational, or academic, we also have a great number of courses\nleading the students out into varied life-opportunities. As the child\nreaches the parting of the ways when he steps from the grammar school to\nle high school and again during each of the succeeding years of study, he\nis in need of the best possible guidance. How this guidance can best\n)e given is not germane to this topic as appHed to the Ubrary; but whether\nle counsehng is done by means of trained experts or by special teachers\nrho devote much of their time and attention to this problem, both counselors and students will need to make great use of the library as the center of\n\n"}
{"page": 566, "printed_page": "554", "text": "554\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\ninformation with regard to the great call of the world to service, and for the\nbest ways in which to prepare oneself for his chosen field of endeavor. This\nmeans that there should be an opportunity thru the school library to make\na broad study of vocational opportunities and of the educational institutions\nwhich may best prepare an individual for a certain vocation. It calls\nfor a new department of the modern high-school library — that of the history\nand development of modern occupations. Occupational information is not\neasily obtained. Very few satisfactory books have yet appeared upon the\nmarket. Occasional magazine articles are very helpful to the problem, and\nthe librarian must be on the alert to find this material and to organize it in\nsuch form as will be of most practical use to the inquirer. This portion of\nthe library should be used by teachers in general as well as pupils who may\nbe striving to choose a vocation. Teachers as a group are very ignorant\nin regard to the work-a-day world round about them, into which they are\nsupposed to be sending boys and girls equipt for the battle of life. No\nmatter what subject a teacher may be teaching, she should have a suflScient\nknowledge of the application of that subject to the industrial and commercial\nlife of the community in which she teaches to adapt her work to the vocational needs of the child. Otherwise she will have failed to a large extent\nin the fulfilment of her duty.\nThe problem of bringing about such conditions as I have attempted to\ndescribe is undoubtedly a very difficult one from the point of view of the\nlibrarian. The selection of material for the library is not always left to the\nlibrarian, but in the majority of places is dictated by the teacher of the traditional curriculum. If the librarian, therefore, has any initiative in the\nmatter and at the same time is alive to these possibilities, something can\nundoubtedly be done to broaden the outlook of the teachers as well as of\nthe pupils. Much pioneer work must be done wherever the opportunity\noffers. Librarians must be wide awake to grasp every chance to develop\nthe type of library that will be prepared to meet the changing conditions\nin secondary education. I do not wish to convey the impression that the\nfuture school library should be wholly vocational or materialistic in its\ncontent. The librarian must keep the balance of good judgment in this\nperiod of storm and stress. We have to deal with speciaUsts who are\nprogressive and often aggressive. The ethical, the cultural, and the\nspiritual will still be needed in our system of education, perhaps even\nmore than in the past. The opportunity of the librarian of today is\ntherefore big with responsibility and with unusual possibility.\n\n"}
{"page": 567, "printed_page": "555", "text": "Departmentj\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARY\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nB,\n\nTHE HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nAND HISTORY\n\nELLA\n\nS. MORGAN,\nLIBRARIAN,\nAND\nANNA G. STEWART, HEAD\nDEPARTMENT, LINCOLN HIGH SCHOOL,\nLOS ANGELES,\n\n555\n\nTEACHING\nOF HISTORY\nCAL.\n\nThe following facts regarding practices in certain high-school libraries\nmay be luminous and helpful.\n1. The head of one history department, who beUeves in a departmental catalog, separate and distinct from the librarian's catalog, with\nthe help of teachers in her department, makes a careful analysis of each\nbook bearing on history as it is added to the library. References are placed\nJon cards, giving author, title of book, shelf number, and pages on which\nle reference is found. As many are placed on one card as it will hold.\nSubjects indicated at top of the card are minutely subdivided (more so\nfor the usual catalog) and are arranged, by means of varicolored\nides, chronologically for history and alphabetically for economics and\nnvics.\n2. In another school it is thought that all references should be in one\nLtalog, with library rules of arrangement.\nSimilar analytics are made as\nthe school mentioned above. One reference only is placed on a card,\nid the cards are filed as in any library-card catalog, with the cards for all\n>ther books in the library. Many cross-references are used to answer the\nime question as it presents itself to different seekers after readings.\n3. One history teacher gives the following exercise to provide a short\nrill upon the directions given in a lecture by the librarian, and to aid the\nmpils in preparing a Ust of references. Before the recitation, the students\nissist in selecting and carrying to the classroom the books to be used,\nlen the class meets, each pupil chooses a book, and using the index and\nible of contents, selects topics and writes the pages upon the board (the\ntopics bearing upon the subject on which the list is being made). The\nreferences are then evaluated by considering the standing of the author\nrevealed by title-page, introduction, and explanations of the teacher,\n'he attempt is made to secure a general view of the work by considering\n'whether the books are \"history\" or ''textbooks,\" scholarly or popular.\n^As far as possible in a brief period, the class gets the author's point of view,\ninally each pupil copies the list for future use.\n4. One Hbrarian never gives book numbers on her lists, preferring that\nle pupil shall have the author's name and the title of his book imprest\n)n his mind by looking up the number in the catalog, or by going to the\nshelves for it.\n5. Some teachers require pupils at the beginning of the term to bring\na list of books (number specified) concerning the subject to be studied\n'during that term, thus familiarizing them in a general way with the Hterature on the subject. Author, title, and date of each book must be\ngiven.\n\n"}
{"page": 568, "printed_page": "556", "text": "556\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nIn place of book lists the following means are sometimes employed :\n1. Dolls drest in foreign or historical costumes may sound childish,\nbut have proved of keen interest to freshmen and seniors alike in one large\nhigh school. The Scotch Highlander is exhibited when border wars are\nunder discussion in history classes, and again when Burns's poetry is being\nread in English classes. Having been drest by the sewing classes under\nthe watchful eye of the design, history, and EngHsh pupils, the dolls are\na real result of \"coordination of departments.\"\n2. Clippings from the daily papers relating to current events are placed\non the library-bulletin board by two pupils who have been assigned to this\ndaily task of selecting and putting them up for a period of two weeks.\nThe civics teacher recognizes it as a part of the recitation work. One\nschool, wishing to preserve its clippings, mounts them on the heavy manila\npaper which the library bureau prepares for the purpose. This comes once\nfolded to fit pamphlet boxes. With the subject plainly printed on the\nupper edge for vertical filing, the folders are as durable as they need be\nand easily available. A simple subject card in the catalog directs to\n''Clippings.\"\n3. Current events are taught also in a fascinating way by a historyteacher who, once a week, shows to the class cartoons thrown upon the screen.\n4. United States Commerce Department reports and weekly finance\nreports in the papers are followed by the economics class conducted by an\nIdaho teacher.\nC.\n\nINSTRUCTIONAL\nFLORENCE\n\nPHASE\n\nOF SCHOOL-LIBRARY\n\nM. HOPKINS, LIBRARIAN, CENTRAL\nDETROIT, MICH.\n\nWORK\n\nHIGH SCHOOL,\n\nA school library is supposed to furnish information to any number of\npupils, on any topic conceivable to the human mind, within a moment's\nnotice, and without suflScient resources, or duplicate copies, or helpers.\nNow, while this cannot be wholly realized, yet the situation may be relieved\nin part by giving definite instruction in the arrangement and use of great\nreference books and reference guides to classes regularly assigned for that\npurpose. Work of this character has a double value: it makes students\nfamiliar with the kind of information which is usually readily accessible\nand makes them realize that some kinds of information cannot be found\nwithout a long and hard search. It also makes them grateful and appreciative of the regular avenues of information and much more intelligent\nin their questions and research.\nOne of the requirements for graduation from high school should be the\nability to know where to look for simple references which have a standard\nmedium of arrangement, such as yearbooks, indexes to magazine articles,\nfamiliar quotations, the enormous range of encyclopedic information given\n\n"}
{"page": 569, "printed_page": "557", "text": "Department)\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n557\n\nin the recent dictionaries, and many other points. No one will attempt to\nfind a.house in a strange city without learning something of the map of the\nlocality, yet we turn our students loose in a library with the requirement\nthat they look up certain points and report upon them the next day, little\nreaUzing what a wilderness we have thrust them into, nor how unjust the\nrequest really is unless the student has some compass to guide him.\nInstruction in the use of reference books is now given in many high\nschools and even in some grammar schools.\nSometimes this work is under\nthe direction of the public-library staff and sometimes under a regularly\nappointed librarian of the school. Each plan has advantages and disdvantages.\nThe following extract is from a bulletin of the United States Bureau of\nducation:\nMany educators of note, as well as college and university librarians, have emphathe urgent necessity for instruction and training in \"book-using skill.\"\nThe place of the library in the work of all departments is one of increasing importance,\ne library is a resource or reservoir from which the student should draw constantly\nr information and inspiration, whether his interest lies in history, literature, or science,\nvery month of delay in instructing him in the meaning and use of the library lessens the\nciency of his course.\nEvery new student should be required to take some course in which is given definite\ntical instruction in the handling of library tools. It is not enough to instruct those\nho happen to choose history or literature. Such a course, moreover, should not only\nrequired, but it should constitute a definite part of the work required for a degree,\nerhaps the best way of securing its recognition would be to give it a definite credit\nward a given degree.\n\nIs not instruction in the use of books as mental tools as worthy of being\ncorporated among the regularly establisht subjects as is that of teaching\ne use of manual tools ? Would the creation of a position known as that\nf \"teacher librarian\" be a very radical one in this day of rapid development of both libraries and schools ? Even if it should be incorporated, it\nould be behind such appointments as teachers of sewing, of dancing, of\nathletics, and of many other interests. The status and salary of a librarian\nshould be at least a full faculty member, if not a department head of the\nchool\nin which her library is located.\nJ\n\n^SC\n\nD.\n\nTHE LIBRARIAN'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE EDUCATIONAL STANDARDS OF THE HIGH SCHOOL\n\nH\nHANNA\nH\n\nLOGASA, UNIVERSITY\n\nHIGH SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nOF CHICAGO,\n\nH\nThe high-school library is not a unit in itself but a part of a system,\n^t is in itself not an end but a means to an end, and that end is measured\nin terms of education.\nRThe administration of the library should be uniform with the other\nepartments of the school. If the library is to serve the school it must be\n\n"}
{"page": 570, "printed_page": "558", "text": "S5^\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nan integral part of the school, not an outside agency. Hand in hand with\nthis school relationship comes an educational responsibility. Unlike the\npublic library, the duty of the high-school library does not end when the\nright reader and the right book have been brought together. The highschool library has an added function, to see to it that the book is so used\nby the pupil that a certain result is obtained. That result is measured by\nthe pupil's ability to react to the library assignment given by the teacher.\nThe classroom efficiency of the pupil is the test of the Hbrarian's ability to\ncontribute to the educational standards of the school.\nThe influence of the librarian is far-reaching. She can by a timely\nsuggestion convert an idle pupil into a busy one. On one occasion I\nremarkt to Lazy Tom, \"Let us surprise your English teacher by having\nthat theme written and handed in today.\" Tom entered into the spirit\nof the suggestion and the paper was finisht. The unusually good grade he\nreceived on it gave him an impetus for better work, and Tom confided to\nme that he was astonisht at his own ability.\nTerm papers in history assigned a month in advance were handed in\nearly because the librarian was interested in the pupils' efforts and by\nencouragement, and oversight of their work kept them from putting off\ntheir task until the last moment. Getting the library material was not\nthe only reason why the assignment resulted in a high type of work. Keeping the pupils interested in their work, having them utilize every moment,\nmaking them feel that their efforts were worth while, pointing out the\nrelation of their present efforts to future work, was accountable for the\npromptness with which the pupils met the assignment.\nTo make the library a necessary part of the educational scheme the\nlibrarian must put the major stress of her efforts on her relation with the\npupils and the correlation of her department to other departments of\nthe school. Books, maps, and pictures can be effective or ineffective in\nproportion to the. librarian's ability to make them practical by the test\nof classroom results.\nLesson-organization can well come into the province of the high-school\nlibrary, and should form a part of the instruction in the \"Use of Books\nand Libraries.\" The importance of lesson-organization and plan is evident.\nPupils entering the high school, change from the rote or repetition method\nof learning to the logical method which consists of forming association\nwith the principles already learned. Teaching freshmen pupils how to\norganize their work will help them to make these adjustments to the new\nconditions confronting them.\nSupervised study in the library is an educational problem which the\nlibrarian can share with the teachers. This educational cooperation gives\nthe library an added point of contact with other departments of the school.\nThe more interest the library has in common with other departments of the\nschool the more valuable is the library in the school organization.\n\n"}
{"page": 571, "printed_page": "559", "text": "Departmeutl\n\nREORGANIZATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nENGLISH\n\n559\n\nA BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE FORTHCOMING REPORT OF THE\nNATIONAL JOINT COMMITTEE ON THE REORGANIZATION OF HIGH-SCHOOL ENGLISH\nFor over five years a committee, known as the Joint Committee on the\nReorganization of High-School EngKsh and representing both the National\nEducation Association and the National Council of Teachers of Enghsh,\nhas been gathering material for a report on the improvement of instruction\nin the vernacular. The report is nearing completion and will be available\nin three forms: (i) this brief summary; (2) a longer summary, to be publisht as a part of the report of the Commission on Secondary Education;\n(3) a bulletin of about 250 pages, to be publisht by the United States Bureau\nof Education. The nature of the report as a whole may be inferred from its\ntable of contents, which is as follows : (i) \" The Movement for a Reorganization of the Enghsh Course \" ; (2) '' The New Point of View \" ; (3) \" Aims and\nOrganization of the Course\"; (4) \"Typical Subject-Matter in Literature\nand Composition for Junior and Senior High Schools\"; (5) \"General\nReading\"; (6) \" The Library \" ; (7) \" Classroom Equipment \" ; (8) \"Articulation with the Elementary School\"; (9) \"Separation of the Teaching of\nLiterature and the Teaching of Composition\"; (10) \"Size and Number\nof Classes\"; (11) \"Extra-Classroom Activities\"; (12) \"Preparation of\nTeachers\"; (13) \"Cooperation of Departments\"; (14) \" Differentiation of\nCourses\"; (15) \"Measures of Attainment\"; (16) \"Economy of Time\";\n(17) Bibliography.\nTHE\n\nPOINT\n\nOF VIEW\n\nOF THE\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n1. The college-preparatory function of the high school is a minor one.\nHence the high-school course in English should be organized primarily with\nreference to basic personal and social needs. School life that is genuine and\nhearty is the only satisfactory preparation for either \"life\" or college.\n2. The chief problem of articulation is with the elementary school and\ncan best be solved by regarding the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades as the\nfirst stage of high-school work.\n3. A varying social background must now be assumed and provided for.\nNevertheless, the chief elements of the English course are universal and\nmay furnish typical experiences for all.\n4. English is not a merely formal subject, capable of being mastered at a\ncertain point in the curriculum and then dropt. Life and language grow\ntogether; hence the study of Enghsh should continue thruout the school\nperiod. Only so much of technique should be taught at any one time as\nwill actually enable pupils to improve their use and understanding of the\nvernacular.\n5. Language is social in nature; therefore the study of Enghsh should\nappeal to pupils by reason of actual social use and recognized social value.\n\n"}
{"page": 572, "printed_page": "560", "text": "56o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nComposition should be regarded as a sincere attempt to communicate\nideas, and literature, both classic and modern, should become an expression\nof the pupil's own interests and ideals and an interpretation of his own\nexperience.\n6. The study of English as a training for efficient work should be distinguisht from the study of it as a preparation for the wholesome enjoyment\nof leisure. This will make possible that cooperation of all departments\nwhich is essential in estabhshing good habits of reading, of thought, and of\nexpression.\n7. The conducting of a school paper and the organization of literary and\ndramatic clubs should be encouraged and directed because of the opportunity they afford for free play of the mind and practice in expression.\nThe spirit of the club — and of the laboratory and the shop as well — should\nanimate the English classroom itself. This is now much hindered in the\ncities by the excessive number of pupils imposed upon the teacher. A\nsecond limitation to free, individual effort is found in the absence of suitable libraries and reading-rooms. Good English work requires adequate\nequipment.\n8. The supreme essential to success in high-school EngHsh, however,\nis neither the course nor the conditions, but the properly trained teacher.\nHe should be a professional imbued with the amateur spirit, having good\nscholarship, mature judgment, rational educational standards, and objective\nmethods of measuring results.\nTHE AIMS or HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nENGLISH\n\nEnglish comprises two subjects, composition and literature. These are\ncomplementary to each other, but by no means entirely identical, either in\naim or in method.\nThe chief aim of composition- teaching is to develop the power of effective\ncommunication of ideas in both speech and writing; it seeks to supply the\npupil with an effective tool for use in both public and private life. In\ncommon with other studies, composition also develops power of observation,\nimagination, and inference and makes substantial additions to one's stores\nof useful knowledge and range of ideas and interests. It involves guidance\nin gathering, . selecting, organizing, and presenting ideas for the sake of\ninforming, persuading, entertaining, or inspiring others. It recognizes\nthat good speech demands a sense for establisht idiom, distinct and natural\narticulation, correct pronunciation, and the use of an agreeable and wellmanaged voice; that good writing demands a large vocabulary, a clear and\nvigorous style, and firmness and flexibility in the construction of sentences\nand paragraphs; also correctness as to details of form, namely, a firm and\nlegible handwriting, correct spelling, correctness of graromar and idiom, and\nobservance of the ordinary rules for the use of capitals and punctuation.\n\n"}
{"page": 573, "printed_page": "561", "text": "Department!\n\nREORGANIZATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nENGLISH\n\n561\n\nThe aims of literature-teaching are to quicken the spirit and kindle the\nimagination of the pupil, open up to him the potential significance and\nbeauty of life, and form in him the habit of turning to good books for companionship. Iinvolves\nt\nguidance in the gaining of a clear first impression\nof a book as a whole, the thoughtful consideration of parts in relation to\nthe whole, and a vivid reahzation of the meaning of both the part and the\nwhole in terms of the reader's own experience and imagination. It recognizes that good reading requires a definite understanding as to the purpose\nto be realized by the reading, whether only knowledge of essentials, intimate famiharity with details, or acquaintance with certain selected facts;\nthe habit of careful observation, reflection, and organization; and, in the\ncase of oral rendering, an accurate and sympathetic interpretation of the\nmeaning thru well-controlled voice and manner.\n\nI\n\nTHE ORGANIZATION\n\nOF THE COURSE\n\nIn the fact already stated, that the acquisition of ideas and the development of skill, habits, ideals, and attitudes which the EngUsh studies are\ndesigned to provide for have reference to the two chief aspects of life — work\nand leisure, production and play— may be found the basis for a vital and\neconomical organization of the English course. The study of books of an\ninformational or persuasive character should support the study of oral and\nwritten expression for utilitarian purposes; hkewise the practice of Uterary\nor creative composition, of reading aloud, and of dramatizing should aid\nthe appreciative reading of novels, dramas, essays, and poems. The\nterms \"composition\" and \"Hterature\" are used to designate these two types\nof activities in this report; they should represent separate units with equal\ncredits in the high-school course.\nTHE SUBJECT-MATTER\n\nOF COMPOSITION\n\nIdeas to be exprest and the theory of how to express them effectively\ntogether constitute the subject-matter of composition. The teacher's\nfirst duty is to seize upon or create a situation actually conducive to sincere\ncommunication; his next, to inspire and guide the pupil in using facts,\nP inferences, and imaginary conceptions to produce on other minds the\neffects sought; his last, to instruct the pupil in those principles of the art\nof composition which will make the practice of it as fruitful as possible.\nPutting the last first, either in time or in importance, cultivates slavish\nI imitation rather than initiative, and results in knowledge that is merely\n1 formal instead of knowledge born of experience and reflection.\nThe course in composition must be laid out, then, primarily with\nIHt\n\n■\"\n\nreference to the expressional activities of the pupils of the school, not with\nreference to the logic of rhetorical theory. Necessary facts and principles\n\n"}
{"page": 574, "printed_page": "562", "text": "S62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Secondary\n\nin the senior high school, the entire system of such facts and principles\nwhich it is wise to build up is comparatively small. The gauge is the pupil's\nown range of observation, power of abstraction, and capacity for practical\napplication. This limitation should be observed, not only in the larger\nmatters of structure and style, but also in such minor elements of correctness as grammatical inflection, punctuation, and spelling. With proper\nemphasis on the essentials, instruction in correct form may be made to\nkeep pace with the expansion of the pupil's thought. This implies a\ndistinct advance in the theory of composition from year to year.\nSubjects for oral and written composition should be drawn mainly from\nthe pupil's own Hfe and experience in the home, the school, and the community. The individual should be encouraged to draw upon his peculiar\nresources and to exploit his dominant interests. These will vary from time\nto time and from place to place; hence only the general fields within which\nproper topics for treatment may be sought can be indicated in any course of\nstudy or textbook. The best results will flow from encouraging each pupil\nto form a specific project or point of view with regard to a limited subject\nto be presented to a particular audience, to observe how well he succeeds\nin his purpose, and to learn from the successes and failures of himself and\nhis classmates what the most effective methods of communication are.\nWriting should frequently be done in school under the supervision of the\nteacher, and provision should be made for conference between the teacher\nand each individual pupil.\nTHE SUBJECT-MATTER\n\nOF LITERATURE\n\nNovels, plays, and poems for class study or individual reading by highschool pupils should be selected with reference to what the pupils can\nbring to them as well as with reference to what they are expected to get\nout of them. In the end the stable portion of the literature course will\nconsist of books of universal human interest that appeal strongly and\nincreasingly to the pupils, provided the pupils gain adequate familiarity\nwith them by means of repeated reading under the wise leadership of\nstimulating, tactful, and enthusiastic teachers. With increasing freedom\nto serve their constituencies, high-school teachers and principals are coming to know more and more certainly what these books are and how to\ndistribute them according to their intrinsic difficulty. They should be\nsupplemented with a variety of selections, old and new, to give the pupil\nan adaptable method of reading, a catholic taste, and a discriminating\njudgment. With maturing years, as first-hand acquaintance with literary\nworks justifies it, knowledge of biography and of literary and social history\nshould be brought to bear and systematized. Such knowledge should not,\nhowever, be sought primarily as an end in itself, and it should never\nbe expected to assume more than modest proportions.\n\n"}
{"page": 575, "printed_page": "563", "text": "Department!\n\nREORGANIZATION\n\nOF\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nENGLISH\n\n563\n\nThe continuity of the literature course should depend chiefly, not\nupon chronology nor the logical development of the theory of literary form,\nbut upon the relating of each piece read to the maturing experience of the\npupil. In the senior high school, however, distinct advantage may be\ngained from reading consecutively several pieces of the same type, as\ndrama, for example, in order to habituate the pupil in the interpretation of\nthat type. Likewise, pieces belonging to a certain period may gain added\nforce and interest from association with each other. But neither typestudy . nor period study should be made the occasion for generahzations\nnecessarily meaningless to the pupils.\nARTICULATION\n\nWITH\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAt the end of the sixth grade pupils should be able: (i) to express\nclearly and consecutively, either in speech or in writing, ideas which are\nfamiHar and firmly graspt; (2) to avoid gross grammatical errors; (3) to\ncompose and mail a letter; (4) to spell their own written vocabulary;\n(5) to read silently and after one reading to reproduce the substance of a\nsimple short story, news item, or lesson; (6) to read aloud readily and\nintelHgently simple news items, lessons from textbooks, or literature of\nsuch difficulty as \"The Ride of Paul Revere,\" or Dickens' A Christmas\nCarol; (7) to quote accurately and understanding^ several short poems,\nsuch as Bennet's \"The Flag Goes By\" and Emerson's \"The Mountain and\nthe Squirrel.\" Building upon the attainments which the elementaryschool pupils are found to possess, each high school should organize a course\nin English in accordance with the aims and principles set forth above.\nThe details of such a course will of necessity be varied to satisfy the requirements of different communities. A highly condensed outHne of such a\ncourse follows.\nA Suggestive Outline of the High-School Course in English\nComposition and Hterature, alternately by semesters or by shorter\nperiods, five recitations or conferences a week. General reading by individuals thruout. Equal emphasis upon speaking and writing, and upon\noral and silent reading. Promotion based upon qualitative standards.\nGRADE\n\nVII\n\nA. Composition. — (i) Material and motive: topics from recreation;\nwork in school and out; observation of processes, scenes, and objects;\noccupations; books; imagination. (2) Form: narratives, explanations,\ndescriptions, letters; grammar, including subject and predicate, object,\npredicate noun or adjective, recognition of the parts of speech by chief\nfunction of each, inflection of nouns and personal pronouns for number and\ncase, the idea of tense, clauses and phrases as groups with functions of single\nwords; spelling of words used; necessary punctuation.\n(3) Results:\n\n"}
{"page": 576, "printed_page": "564", "text": "S64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nsentence sense; larger vocabulary; increast power of observation, organization, and expression; correctness; broader interests and knowledge of\nenvironment.\nB. Literature. — (i) Material for class work: shorter poems of Longfellow and Whittier; Miles Standish or Evangeline; The Great Stone Face,\nRip Van Winkle, and the Legend of Sleepy Hollow; Treasure Island or The\nGold Bug; Stories of King Arthur; the Jungle Books. (2) Individual\nreading: list provided.\nGRADE\n\nVIII\n\nA. Composition. — (i) Material and motive: as in Grade VII plus civic\nquestions; imaginary journeys; admirable characters in life or in books;\nquestions of school life; trips. (2) Form: expositions, narratives, descriptions, conversations, discussions, letters; grammar, including essential\nelements of the sentence (subject, predicate, modifiers, connectives), clauses\nas parts of compound and complex sentences, common and proper nouns,\nclasses of pronouns, person, number, and voice of verbs, comparison and\nclassification of adjectives and adverbs, choice of prepositions, conjunctions\nas coordinating and subordinating; planning of themes; manipulation of\nsentences; spelling, punctuation. (3) Results: greater variety of sentencestructure; better paragraphs; larger vocabulary and better choice of words;\nenlarged power to gather, organize, and present ideas; interest in vocations\nand in public questions.\nB. Literature. — (i) Material for class work: poems of Holmes, Lanier,\nRiley, Field ; Snow-Bound; Lay of the Last Minstrel or Horatius; Tales of a\nWayside Inn and Norse Myths; Last of the Mohicans, Kidnapped, Captains\nCourageous, or Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm; Midsummer-Night's Dream or\nthe Tempest; Franklin's Autobiography; In the Wilderness. (2) Individual\nreading: list provided.\nGRADE\n\nIX\n\nA. Composition. — (i) Material and motive: as before; also particular\nvocations, current events. (2) Form: grammar as needed to complete a\nworking knowledge to assist composition and reading, but without attempting scientific completeness; most available means of attaining clearness,\nforce, and interest in composition presented informally; chief features of\nexplanation and narrative learned inductively; social letters for various\noccasions; spelling; word-structure; punctuation. (3) Results: ability\nto avoid or correct any ordinary error in grammar and to improve expression by varying grammatical structure; the foundation of a system of\nrhetorical theory; facihty in writing social letters; increast power of thought\nand of expression; broader interests.\nB. Literature. — (i) Material for class work: narrative poems such as\n\"Atlanta's Race,\" \"The White Ship,\" \"Herve Riel,\" \"The Courtin',\"\n\"The Lady of the Lake\"; lyric poems such as Shelley's \"To a Skylark,\"\n\n"}
{"page": 577, "printed_page": "565", "text": "Departmenti\n\nREORGANIZATION\n\nOF\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nENGLISH\n\n565\n\nEmerson's \"Concord Hymn,\" Keats's \"On First Looking into Chapman's\nHomer,\" Whitman's \"My Captain,\" Poe's \"To Helen,\" Garland's \"The\nWind in the Pines\"; short stories such as Poe's Purloined Letter, liidiVfthornt's Ambitious Gwe5/,0 'Henry's The Chaparral Prince, Davis' Gallegher,\nBrown's Farmer Eli's Vacation, Hale's The Man without a Country; Ivanhoe,\nQuentin Durward, or Kim; Julius Caesar; Palmer's Homer's Odyssey or\nBryant's Iliad (in part), with related myths and legends. (2) Individual\nreading: list provided.\nGRADE\n\nX\n\nA. Composition. — (i) Material and motive: as in Grade IX plus new\nschool studies, social relations, knowledge of the world's work and play.\n(2) Form: building of paragraphs; sentence-manipulation, particularly\nclearness thru connectives, correct placing of modifiers, unmistakable reference; conciseness, word-building; speUing; punctuation; business letters\nand telegrams; briefs and other outlines; news stories, editorials, advertisements, and dramatization of situations. (3) Results: greater clearness\nand force in both speech and writing; fair mastery of the elements involved\nin short themes; increast ability to persuade; abiUty to handle typical\nproblems of business correspondence near to experience; the habit of right\nuse of the newspaper.\nB. Literature. — (i) Material for class work: (a) poetry such as Lowell's\n\"Vision of Sir Launfal,\" Tennyson's \"Enoch Arden,\" Keats's \"The Eve of\nSt. Agnes,\" \"Ulysses,\" Coleridge's \"Ancient Mariner,\" Burns's \"Bannockburn,\" Arnold's \"Sohrab and Rustum\"; (b) plays such as Shakespeare's\nMerchant of Venice, Henry V, and As You Like It, Maeterlinck's Blue Bird,\nPeabody's The Piper; (c) fiction such as Lorna Doone, Silas Marner, Tale\nof Two Cities, Ben Hur; (d) other prose such as The Alhambra, Travels with a\nDonkey, Essays of Burroughs, Grenfell's Adrift on an Ice Pan, Van Dyke's\nSalt, Lincoln's \"Gettysburg Address.\" (2) Individual reading: list provided.\nGRADE\n\nXI\n\nA. Composition. — (i) Material and motive: as before but more definitely the product of investigation and study. (2) Form : expository outlines\nand themes of two thousand words or more; debate; parliamentary usage ;\nrelated letters, short articles, editorials, and descriptions. (3) Results:\nability to gather valuable information on the scale of the magazine article\nand make it pleasantly available to others, employing a working knowledge\nof the more commonly recognized principles of effectiveness and of the\nrules of correctness in doing so.\nB. Literature. — (i) Material for class work: {a) poetry such as Tennyson's Idylls of the King (\"The Coming of Arthur,\" \"Gareth and Lynette,\"\n\"Lancelot and Elaine,\" \"The Holy Grail,\" \"The Passing of Arthur,\"\nand connecting links), \"The Lady of Shalott,\" short poems of Browning,\n\n"}
{"page": 578, "printed_page": "566", "text": "566\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nArnold's \"Balder Dead,\" nineteenth-century and contemporary lyrics;\n(Jb) fiction such as David Copper fields Mill on the Floss, House of Seven Gables;\n(c) plays such as Macbeth, Coriolanus, Twelfth Night, She Stoops to Conquer;\n(d) speeches on citizenship; (e) other prose from the best current magazines.\n(/) Individual reading: list provided.\nGRADE\n\nXII\n\nA. Composition. — Pupils who have done the work outlined for previous\ngrades with credit should be permitted to follow up their special interests,\nwhether in newspaper work, commercial correspondence, advertising,\ndebating, the short story, verse-writing, dramatization, or scientific description, in order to prepare themselves for the calling to which they look\nforward. Current literature, including the magazines and newspapers, will\nprove invaluable for such work. Pupils who show markt deficiency in any\nof the matters outlined for earlier years should be given individual attention\nor groupt according to need. Many schools will find it impossible for the\nmajority of their pupils to complete the work outlined above for the tenth\nand eleventh grades before the end of the twelfth.\nB. Literature. — (i) Material for class work: selected pieces to fill out the\nlist of representative English and American authors read chronologically\nand connected with previous reading into an outHne history of literature;\nsuch as Chaucer's Prologue, Old Ballads, Hamlet, U Allegro, II Fenseroso, and\nLycidas, songs from Books I and II of Golden Treasury, Pilgrim's Progress I,\nSir Roger de Coverley Papers, Poems of Burns, Wordsworth, Shelley, Keats,\nand Byron, essays of Lamb and Stevenson, Macaulay on Johnson, Emerson's\nFortune of the Republic.\n(2) Individual reading: collateral list provided.\nNote. — Two alternative arrangements of the literature course of the\nsenior high school are recommended: First, devote the work of each year\nto two or more types: for example, poetry and fiction in the tenth; poetry,\ndrama, speeches, and miscellaneous prose in the eleventh; and drama,\nessay, short story, and miscellaneous prose in the twelfth. In this case\nliterary history is incidental. Secondly, give pupils in large schools an\nopportunity to elect any one of several courses in the third or fourth year;\nfor example, a course in drama, in the short story, in great speeches, or\neven in the work of a single author.\nGENERAL\n\nREADING\n\nSince one of the chief aims of the English course is to establish the habit\nof reading good books and magazines in the right way, pupils should be\nencouraged and directed to read freely as individuals thruout the school\nperiod. To provide for this, lists must be made up, library cooperation\nsecured, informal class conferences planned, time allowed, and credit\ngiven. To many pupils general reading will prove more valuable than\nany formal subject in the high-school course.\n\n"}
{"page": 579, "printed_page": "567", "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nREORGANIZED\n\nTHE REORGANIZED\nJOHN M. MILLS,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n567\n\nHIGH SCHOOL\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nOGDEN,\n\nUTAH\n\nEducation that makes character is the kind that is worth while. Selfexpression in wood, stone, iron, or bronze gives character; or it may be\nacquired thru self-expression on canvas, thru the vocal organs, thru any\nform of the divine art, thru agriculture or any of tlie industrial arts, or\nthru the arts of pleasure. The real inspiring thrill comes thru the accomplishment ofa task well done. The end is the completion of a creative\ntask. The object completed gets the child's admiration, and the task of\ndoing the work trains his senses, his muscles, his judgment, his intellect,\nhis will, and his sympathies. This is education and it is education for usefulness. He learns how to work and to be useful. Such a sentiment should\nbe created in every community that any boy would be ashamed to graduate\nfrom high school not knowing how to work and make a living. This sentiment should be so strong that he would not only consider himself imeducated, but disgraced.\nThe high school is the college of the masses. It is within easy access\nof the homes of the people, but does not always fit the needs of all the people.\nModern thought is rapidly forcing its reorganization. Education has too\nlong been considered an accumulation of facts, which may leave the possibilities ofa student undevelopt. Education is the acquisition of power and\ncharacter. A majority of those who go to school are not of the bookishstudent type. They are of the motor type, and the bookish school is to\nthem made up of a meaningless collection of disconnected, dissociated,\nabstract formalities. The motor-type boys are as much worth while in the\nworld's work as the student type, and the school should be adjusted to make\nuse of their abiHty in the affairs of life. These boys and girls cannot reason\nout the necessity, any more than some of the rest of us can, of working\nalong lines that lead away from life. The only way to train for life is to\nbegin to do life's work. The boy who is ready for this, and who is put into\nthe school machine, fails to do his part. He considers school an institution\nof torment and becomes a bad boy. If the shackles were taken from him\nand he were allowed to grow while in school he would be found to be one\nof the best of boys. I sometimes think we have no bad boys, but we do\nhave teachers and parents who fail to comprehend them, and they are\nslightly spoiled by tie treatment applied to them. A bad boy is a misfit.\nRembrandt was a bad boy, and when his evil acts— drawmg picturesexcluded him from a school which he did not fit and which did not fit him,\nhe rapidly rose to be one of the world's masters. School should be so shaped\nas to fit all the children of all the people, and those whose chief characteristic\nis self-expression should be given a chance.\nThe junior high school — seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, — In this school\nmuch of the work formerly done in the four-year high school can be placed.\n\n"}
{"page": 580, "printed_page": "568", "text": "568\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nThe languages, mathematics, history, and science can be brought down\ninto the seventh and eighth grades by adapting it to those years. Students\nhere begin to find themselves awakened by new subjects, and their interest\nis strengthened. They study with an eagerness and curiosity to know what\nthese subjects will reveal to them. Their minds are alert and they are ready\nand willing to take part in discussions. They are no longer promoted by\ngrade, but rather by subject, each subject giving a unit of credit, except\nin cases where a student thru natural ability or excessive industry acquires\nan abihty far beyond the other students. He may be given a unit and a\nfifth or some other fraction of credit. This not only rewards him for his\nefforts, but encourages others to be more energetic. One who happens to\nbe superior in all his studies is the honor student of the school, and, by\nacquiring the excessive credit in all subjects, he may shorten his term of\nresidence considerably. If he be successful thruout the junior and senior\nhigh school in acquiring \"A\" in every subject, he will shorten his road to\ngraduation by more than a year. This plan helps to break the perfected\nscjiool machine, where the bright and the dull, the bookish child and the\nmotor-type child, the boy and the girl, are all marcht thru together in lockstep fashion to graduation, and gives an opportunity to each child for ample\nreward for every effort he puts forth. During these three years of juniorhigh-school work the most important period of adolescence is covered.\nThe students are under the discipline that fits their needs. The teachers\ncan be selected to fit those important needs. Specializing here begins,\nbut is not so pronounst as in the senior high school. Bringing the pupils\nof the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades together makes it possible to do\nbetter grading, which makes for efficiency and economy.\nIn this school, too, work, play, and study should be the program. The\nschool could be lengthened, making twelve thirty-five-minute periods each\nday, each pupil taking five academic subjects in classes not to exceed thirty\npupils. Each pupil could devote some time, then, to one or more of the\nfollowing specialties as elected: art, music, woodwork, sewing, physical\nculture, and recreation — including play, games, and educational moving\npictures, swimming, etc. If the child is given some practical problem to\nwork out it strengthens him and makes him more capable of grasping his\ntheoretical problems. Work gives the youth a point of view, an incentive,\na motive, and a power to grasp the meaning of intellectual problems. I\nwould also make further provision that in this school a boy or girl who can\nfind better industrial work at home or elsewhere than the school can provide\nshould be allowed to accept such work in place of the industrial part of the\nschool day, provided a careful report is made concerning the quality of the\nwork done, and provided further that this work is proper and suitable for\nboys and girls of that age. Great care should be taken that work which\nis injurious to either the body, the mind, or the morals of the child should\nnot be allowed; and that no child should be exploited by greedy and selfish\n\n"}
{"page": 581, "printed_page": "569", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nREORGANIZED\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n569\n\nparents for mere financial gain. Teaching children to work is more important than the academic studies of the school. A system of child labor is a\ndisgrace to the state. In Ogden our junior-high-school plan provides that\nboys and girls be kept under supervision from eight-thirty in the morning\nuntil four-thirty in the afternoon, except in cases where boys and girls of\nproper age may be excused for one, two, or three hours of the day to do\nhome work under proper supervision. Woodwork, sewing, cooking, art,\nmusic, with other special subjects to be added, provide ample opportunity\nfor self-expression. Boys who have been termed outlaws have become our\nbest pupils, and girls are wearing the clothing that they made with their\nown hands. The home is thus partly relieved from anxiety and the community ofa mischievous burden. School should be so made that bad boys\nwill run away from other places to go to it. The school should be the social\ncenter of the community where men, women, and children may meet and\nlearn from one another, either day or evening.\nThe senior high school — tenths eleventh^ and twelfth grades. — This school,\nhaving lost its freshman class, is given a little more dignity in the community, and becomes still more of a practical school. Every subject should\nhave good laboratory or good library facilities and should be made practical.\nThe student should be encouraged to g^t into the work of real life while\nattending school. The bad custom of relieving young people of responsibility until they finish high school should be abolisht. The students in\nhigh school who are most worth while are those who must work at home or\nelsewhere while attending. Many students in every high school are under\nthe necessity of making their entire living. The troubles incident to discipline never come from these. The sentiment should be developt that any\nboy who graduates from high school and does not know how to work to\nmake a living is improperly and imperfectly educated. Much can be done\nfor high-school students by working on the cooperative plan, as is done in\nsome of our leading communities. Taking a part of a student's time from\nfrivolity and nonsense and putting it to some serious use is not a bad plan.\nRecreation and play are necessary in every life, but no more so than serious\nwork done under the real practical conditions of Hfe. That father or mother\nwho relieves a child from learning how to work until he gets his education\nmisjudges what an education is. It is not merely knowing what others have\ndone; it is the acquisition of skill, strength, and abiUty to do things ourselves.\nAnyone who gets these qualities, whether he gets them in school or out,\nis being educated. The school should be adjusted to fit the needs of the\ncommunity and the individual. It may strain and wrench out of place our\n-preconceived notions of a school, yet every boy and girl should be trained\nfor service, and should be made to know that service is the greatest thing\nthat can be rendered the world by them. They should not wait until they\nhave their education before they begin to work. A little work done each\nday thru the student's life will be productive of ability and capacity in that\n\n"}
{"page": 582, "printed_page": "570", "text": "S70\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Secondary\n\nstudent. The primary duty of a high school is not to train for college, as\nvery few graduating from high school ever go to college. The function of\nthe high school, therefore, is to train for Ufe. It will not be long before\nthe colleges will recognize the fact tliat the best training for life is the best\ntraining for entrance to college. The high-school program can be so\nadjusted that the building can be used for at least twice the number of\nstudents. Our Ogden plan calls for sessions in the forenoon, in the afternoon, and in the evening, in all subjects. Some young people find work\nin the afternoon which compels them to take their four subjects in the forenoon. Others take their four subjects in the afternoon and work in the\nforenoon. Many others who work all day take their four subjects in the\nevening. These are above the age of eighteen, many of them married\nmen and women, some attending with their own sons and daughters. All\nthe subjects of high school are given, and many practical subjects are conducted by competent men in the community: for example, architectural\ndrawing, given by an architect, for brickmasons, carpenters, and contractors;\nbusiness law, given by a lawyer, for merchants and others; millinery, given\nby a milliner, for women; salesmanship, given by a practical salesman,\nfor clerks; woodwork, sewing, cooking, typewriting, bookkeeping, etc.,\nare given by experts in their Hnes. There are also classes given in physical\nculture, folk dancing, social dancing, dramatics, etc., for fathers and\nmothers. Thus the high school is being made to reach into every family\nin the community. The senior high school should therefore have its program made up (as should all other schools) of work, play, and study. It\nshould be open day and evening as a social center and educational headquarters for the conmiunity. The modern idea should be that the school\nis the center, the community is the campus, and all the shops, gardens,\nstores, and parks should be the laboratories of the students. Work done\nby young people under the real conditions of employment is better than\nthe substitute offered by the schools, and wherever possible young people\nshould be encouraged to get into the real work as a necessary training for\nlife.\nMILITARY\n\nTRAINING IN THE HIGH SCHOOL:\nWHY AND HOW?\n\nW. S. SMALL, PRINCIPAL, EASTERN\n\nHIGH SCHOOL, WASHINGTON,\n\nD.C.\n\nI am glad to have a place on this program devoted to the reorganization\nof secondary education because the thesis I support, if ever reaHzed, means a\ndistinct reorganization of certain aspects of secondary education. Because\nI advocate military training of high-school pupils some of you will be sure\nthat I am a sinister mihtarist with half my cards up my sleeve; because I\nam opposed to making this training compulsory, some of you will be\nequally sure that I am a pacifist ass, ill-disguised in a lion's skin.\n\nIf,\n\n"}
{"page": 583, "printed_page": "571", "text": "Department]\n\nMILITARY\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n571\n\nhowever, your misunderstanding resolves itself into either active opposition\nor active inquiry, I am content to be misunderstood; I shall be dissatisfied\nonly if your misunderstanding simmers down to indifiference.\nWhy. — The common and uncritical idea of miUtary training in the high\nschool is that its purpose is to stimulate the martial spirit and make boys\nlovers of war, and to make trained soldiers of high-school graduates. This\nis an erroneous view. The age and physical status of the boys preclude the\nlatter, and the experience of school systems that have maintained military\ntraining in the high school for many years negatives the former. The\npurpose of such training is to capitalize the ancient, fundamental, and\nineradicable fighting instinct; to exercise, train, and educate it; to make\nof it a productive educational investment, and compel it to yield adequate\ndividends in physical and moral discipline.\nAccurate data in regard to the physical status of high-school boys is not\nto be had, but I believe I am not hazarding my reputation for sanity when\nI say that the average of physical fitness is far lower than it should be.\nIn the year 19 14-15 there were in round numbers 160,000 applicants for\nenlistment in the United States army. Of these, 1 17,000 were rejected upon\npreliminary examination, and of the remaining 43,000, 7000 were rejected\nupon detailed medical examination. Finally 30,000, or about 25 per cent,\nwere accepted. I do not present these figures as properly indicative of the\nphysical status of high-school boys. Probably few high-school graduates\napply for enlistment. On the other hand, the physical standards for recruits\nare justly very exacting. Does anybody here think that more than 50 per\ncent of our high-school graduates would meet those standards ? And what\nof that host of boys who drop out of high school before the third year ?\nAre the results of high-school education from the moral point of view\nany more satisfactory ? Leaving out of account the criticisms of the fanatical and the captious, we who are in daily serious contact with this problem\nknow full well that they are not. Our efforts are not at all vain, but we have\nnot capitalized our resources so as to get the fullest returns. The evidence\nis before us in a striking way in the existence and labors of our Committee\non Social Studies. The basic problem with which that committee is\nwrestling is in the problem of so reorganizing the social studies as to make\nthem productive of civic morality. The immediate object of the courses\nof instruction this committee recommends may be right social ideas; but\nthe ultimate object is right — that is, moral — social action.\nWe are fond of repeating Dewey's maxim: \"The school is Hfe, not\npreparation for life,\" the meaning of which is that the school must have\nemotional reality and must capture the imagination of the scholars. It's\nalmost as iridescent a dream as the Golden Rule in politics ; but it's a dream\nto be cherisht and pursued. Any plan of organization that promises even a\npartial realization of the dream is worth trying hopefully and thoroly. In\nthe field of physical and moral education, I believe with conviction that a\n\n"}
{"page": 584, "printed_page": "572", "text": "572\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Secondary\n\nwise system of military training is capable of just that appeal to high-school\nboys, and that it will vitalize and unify these aspects of high-school education.\nUp to the present time we have relied upon systems of gymnastics and\nathletics to effect physical education. Both are inadequate. They lack\ncomprehensive and unifying motive. All systems of gymnastics are\nindividualistic. Their appeal is to the desire of the individual for physical\nperfection. Competition is narrowly individualistic. Systems of athletics\nare mostly based upon group competitions, and if properly managed are\nvery valuable, not only for physical development, but also for training in\nthe very fundamentals of social morality. But the philosophy of athletics\nis the philosophy of play and the philosophy of play is the philosophy of\ninstinct — a philosophy that is not comprehensive enough to serve as a sole\nbasis of physical and moral education. Military training rightly conceived\nincludes these motives and subordinates them to the ideal of patriotism.\nHow. — The common and uncritical conception of high-school military\ntraining is mihtary drill. This corresponds with the orthodox fact. The\ncharacteristics are a company of boys, in rather gaudy uniform, going thru\nthe forms of the regular army-drill procedure with special emphasis upon\nthe punctilios and the millinery effects of this procedure. The drills commonly are held two or three times a week and occupy an hour and a half or\ntwo hours. Generally there is a competitive drill at the end of the year\nwhich is more or less spectacular and exciting. The net result is a fair\nknowledge of the manual of arms and some acquaintance with the superficial aspects of military tactics. Student officers get some valuable\ntraining in leadership and responsibihty.\nMilitary drill, however, is not mihtary training. Military training in the\nhigh school, to accomplish the purposes I have already indicated, must be conceived as an educational, not as a purely military, problem, and it must be\nadministered and conducted by the educational authorities. This means that\nit must be solved in the light of recognized principles of secondary education\nand in accordance with the practical demands of our democratic institutions.\n1. It must be voluntary. You may ask. Why not compulsory, if it possesses the virtues you have credited it with ? The answer is simple and\ndirect: We are not ready to make it compulsory even if it were desirable.\nIt is useless to compel a few boys to do a thing that they or their parents\nobject to when the great majority will do it voluntarily and joyfully.\n2. It must be free from any suspicion of conscription; must involve no\nrelation with militia or national guards and imply no reserve obligation, but\nmust be purely a school discipline and organization.\nThe content and the form must be determined by the interests and\ncapacities of the human material with which we have to deal. This material\nis boys of the early or middle adolescent stage. They are physically and\nintellectually and morally unformed. Three markt tendencies of adolescence must be utilized : to compete, to cooperate, and to play. Graded and\n\n"}
{"page": 585, "printed_page": "573", "text": "Department]\n\nMILITARY\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOL\n\n573\n\ndiversified exercises are necessary. Adequate and frequent physical examination must be provided.\nBy far the best plan yet formulated is that workt out by Lieutenant\nE. Z. Steever, of the United States Army, in the state of Wyoming, and\npopularly known as the Steever plan. A description in outHne has been\nissued by the Army War College under the title of ''Outline of Plan for\nMilitary Training in the Public Schools of the United States.\" A good\npopular account of Lieutenant Steever's work in Wyoming may be found\nin Everybody's for February, 19 16.\nLieutenant Steever's plan utilizes effectively the three instincts specified\nabove— play, cooperation, and competition. Without taking the work\nout of military training, he has put the play motive into it. He has utilized\nthe competitive instinct without narrowing competition to individuals or to\nselected groups — commonly the bane of our present administration of\nathletics. He has capitalized cooperation in such a way as to make it\ngeneral and genuine, not the cooperation of petty artificially selected\ngroups. The essential competition is between groups so selected that\nabihty will be evenly distributed. Success depends, not upon markt differences in natural ability of the individuals composing the groups, but upon\nthe intelligence, faithfulness, and loyalty of the whole group.\nThe outstanding features of the program are a succession of competitive\ngroup activities running thru the year, and a period of two or three weeks\nin camp. The group competitions as develop t are wall-scaling, infantry\ndrill, troop-leadership, scholarship, field firing and camp and field activities.\nThis kind of group competition is a guaranty of sound training in morality,\nboth personal and civic. Success is infallibly achieved by the cleanestliving groups. Compulsion within the groups insures clean living. A\ngroup of boys will not long tolerate an individual member who imperils\nthe success of the group. Under the fiercest kind of competition and a new\nand fascinating interest in life, the adolescent is better enabled to negotiate\nthat difficult period of life.\nSimilarly, group compulsion takes care of an important phase of civic\nmorality. The groups elect their own leaders. Election of inefficient\nleaders is punisht swiftly and surely by failure. Cause and effect are seen in\nnaked sequence. Respect for true leadership is cultivated coincidently with\nthe development of self-respecting subordination of self.\nDoubtless this plan of Lieutenant Steever's is imperfect and will be\ndevelopt and expanded, but the principles upon which it is founded are\nprofoundly true and enduring. Just as it stands it means much for the\nphysical and moral upbuilding of high-school boys. It is essentially\nAmerican and democratic. It is indigenous, and therefore better for us than\nthe Swiss or AustraHan systems.\nOnce in a generation, or it may be in a century, the public mind is so\naroused and unified that far-reaching reorganizations of education are\n\n"}
{"page": 586, "printed_page": "574", "text": "574\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Secondary\n\npossible. I believe we are in such a mood at this time. We cannot buypreparedness for national defense with millions of dollars spent for material\nequipment or mercenary battalions; we can buy it only by a real education\nof our high-school youth. There is plenty of hysteria and ghost dancing in\nthe preparedness psychosis, but there is also a real searching of the national\nheart and a forming resolution to achieve spiritual preparedness.\nThis is a national, not a local, issue. It is a matter that should be\npromoted by the federal government. The federal government is moving\nin a large and far-sighted way at the present time in the encouragement and\nsupport of rural and industrial education. It should move in the same\nlarge and far-sighted way in the encouragement and support of military\ntraining in our high schools. I believe the following tentative plan for such\nsupport would be both feasible and economic. The federal government\nshould provide the necessary financial support for the maintenance of\nmihtary training in the pubHc high schools of the nation, whose school\nboards may agree to the following conditions:\n1. To maintain in the high schools under their jurisdiction a graded\nand prescribed course of military training extending thru two years of the\nhigh-school course; such training should be open to all boys as a voluntary\nand elective study, provided, of course, that when elected the study should\nbe continued for at least one year, and should not be dropt within that time\nexcept by permission of the school authorities for adequate reasons.\n2. The schools should give credit for military training to the extent of at\nleast one-sixteenth of the total requirements for graduation, provided\nthe course in military training consist of not less than two hours a week for\nnot less than thirty weeks of the school year and the conduct of a camp\nfor not less than two weeks each year.\n3. The school boards must provide adequate physical examination for\nall candidates for mihtary training, the standards for which should not be,\nof course, the standards that prevail in the selection of applicants for enlistment in the regular army, but standards that shall be workt out by competent physical-training experts who shall be conversant with the physical\ncharacter of high-school boys.\n4. The actual teaching of the military training should be done by a\nregular teacher in the school, preferably a teacher of physical education.\nThis work should be done under the direction and supervision of an officer\nof the regular army detailed for that purpose. The teacher who gives the\ninstruction might be designated the school director of military training. He\ncould qualify for this work by attending for a period of about three months\na school for the training of school directors of mihtary traming conducted\nby the supervising army officer mentioned above. Any live, well-trained\nyoung man of good physical capacity who has had some experience in\nathletics and physical training could qualify for this work by completing\nthe three months' course of training.\n\n"}
{"page": 587, "printed_page": "575", "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF MUSIC EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Frances Ellen Dotting, assistant professor of music, Hunter College,\nNew York, N. Y.\nVice-President — Charles H. Farnsworth, associate professor of school music, Teachers Col^\nlege, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.\nSecretary — Constance Barlow-Smith, assistant professor of school music, School of Music,\nUniversity of Illinois, Urbana, 111.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, July 5, 1916\nThe first session of the Department of Music Education was called to order at\n10:30 A.M. in the Auditorium of Hunter College by President Frances Ellen Diitting.\nP. C. Hayden, Keokuk, Iowa, editor of School Music, was appointed secretary.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"Address of Welcome\" — George Samler Davis, president, Hunter College.\n\"Ideals of Music Teaching in School and College\" — Thomas Whitney Surette,\nstaff lecturer on music for the extension delegacy of Oxford University, Concord, Mass.\nMusic in\nthe Elementary Schools\" — Frederic H. Ripley, principal,\nPrince\"Absolute\nSchool, Boston,\nMass.\n\"What Should Be the Musical Equipment of the Secondary-School Graduate:\nWhat Should the Graduate Take into Home, College, Community?\" — ^John F. Ahem,\ndirector of music, Springfield, Mass.\n\"Music in tJie Normal School\" — Frank Beach, director of music, Kansas State\nTeachers College, Emporia, Kans.\nRound-Table Discussion: Frederic H. Ripley, principal. Prince School, Boston,\nMass.; Frank R. Rix, M.D., director of school music. New York, N.Y.\nSECOND SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 6, 19 16\nThe department was called to order at 10:30 a.m. by the president, who announst the\nappointment of the following Committee on Nominations: Charles H. Farnsworth,\nFrank A. Beach, and Margaret L. Humphreville.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"The Child Voice: Responsibility of the Community toward It\" — Henrietta BakerLow, associate professor of music, Peabody Conservatory, Baltimore, Md.\n\"Community Music\" — Edgar B. Gordon, director of music, Winfield, Kans.\n\"Music in a Democracy: The Spread of the Community-Music Movement\" —\nPeter W. Dykema, professor of music, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.\n\"Music Education and Public Libraries\" — Otto Kinkeldey, chief of the music\ndivision, New York Public Library, New York, N.Y.\nMr. Gordon's paper was read by Frederick Goodwin and Mr. Dykema's paper was\nread by Henrietta Baker-Low.\nThe following committee was appointed to consider some means of putting into effect\nthe suggestions which had been made by Mrs. Baker-Low: A. J. Gantvoort, Charles H.\nFarnsworth, Henrietta Baker-Low, Frances Ellen Diitting, and Fallie F. McKinley.\nS7S\n\n"}
{"page": 588, "printed_page": "576", "text": "576\n\nNATIONAL\nTHIRD\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nSESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 7, 19 16\n\nThe committee appointed at the second session made the following report:\nYour committee, appointed to consider the many valuable and timely suggestions\ncontained in the paper read by Henrietta Baker-Low, after due and careful consideration,\nbegs to recommend for immediate action, the appointment of a committee of ten members\nof this body and one member of the Department of Child-Study who has considerable\nmusical knowledge, to consult, and, if possible, act with a similar committee from the Music\nSupervisors' National Conference and the Music Teachers' National Association upofli the\nfollowing:\n1. A selection of six standard songs for each grade to be used when introducing music\nin the public schools of a community, these songs to have some such scientific evaluation as\nis suggested by Professor Yocum, in a recent National Education Association address, in\nthe following words: \"Those {a) which are most many-sided in their relationships,\n{h) which are most frequent in useful recurrence, (c) which inherently make the strongest\nsensational or emotional appeal that is useful.\"\n2. The formulating of a simple statement of ideals in public-school music that will\naid in predisposing school boards to the introduction of music into their schools. This\nstatement to include a definite minimum requirement as to artistic and sight-reading aims.\n3. The selection of a list of twelve artistic unison songs suitable for use in the\nupper grammar grades, high school, and the social circle, with the advice that these be\ncommitted to memory by all.\nYour committee further recormnends: (i) that every supervisor of music make every\neffort to secure the adoption of the religious songs already compiled by a conunittee of the\nMusic Supervisors' National Conference for use in Sunday schools as a help to proper\nsinging by the children; (2) that this conmiittee of ten in joint cooperation with the\ncommittees heretofore mentioned be given the power to appoint, in every state, a supervisor who will agree to furnish information to anyone asking help in music work.\nThe committee further recommends that the other suggestions contained in Mrs.\nBaker-Low's paper be considered at next year's meeting of the department.\nThe report was adopted and the following committee was nominated from the floor:\nA. J. Gantvoort, musical director, teacher of public-school music and sight reading,\nCollege of Music, Cincinnati, Ohio, Chairman.\nFrank R. Rix, director of school music. New York, N.Y.\nHenrietta Baker-Low, assistant professor of music, Peabody Conservatory, Baltimore, Md.\nFrances Ellen Diitting, assistant professor of music, Hunter College, New York, N.Y.\nWill Earhart, director of music. Public Schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nEdward B. Gordon, director of music, Winfield, Kans.\nFrank A. Beach, director of music, Kansas State Normal School, Emporia, Kans.\nHollis E. Dann, head of department of music, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.\nFrances E. Clark, director of educational department, Victor Talking Machine\nCompany, Camden, N.J.\nCharles H. Famsworth, associate professor of music. Teachers College, Columbia\nUniversity, New York, N.Y.\nIt was agreed that the member representing the Department of Child-Study, should\nbe selected by the committee.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"The Psychology of Esthetic Experience in Music\" — Margaret Floy Washburn,\nprofessor of psychology, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N.Y.\n\"Music Appreciation\" — Leonard B. McWhood, instructor in music. Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, N.J.\n\"Mechanical Inventions as an Aid to the Teaching of Music\" — ^Leo Rich Lewis,\nprofessor of music. Tufts College, Tufts College, Mass.\n\"The Folk-Song\" — Luise Haessler, assistant professor of German, Hunter CoUege,\nNew York, N.Y.\nMr. Lewis used a piano-player to illustrate his paper, and a number of costumed\nsingers were present to illustrate Miss Haessler's paper.\n\n"}
{"page": 589, "printed_page": "577", "text": "Department]\n\nABSOLUTE\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN THE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n577\n\nC. H. Congdon, Josephine Duke, and Nellie Dee presented the following resolutions,\nwhich were unanimously adopted:\nWhereas, The Music Section of the National Education Association has been provided with a program that stands out distinctly as one of the best that was ever presented\nto this body, representing the broad phases of music education by a phalanx of distinguisht\neducators; and\nWhereas, These educators, coming as they do from different sections of the country\nand representing the various branches of music education, have exprest a remarkable\nunanimity of opinion and ideas showing the high trend of modem music education; and\nWhereas, The discussions have revealed that public schools, normal schools, colleges,\nand libraries are united in one proud aim toward the achievement of our ideals that will\nresult in the fulfilment of our hope for a musical America; and\nWhereas, Owing to the great calamity that has befallen the art centers of Europe\nwhich brings about a condition pointing to America as the hope of the world, therefore\nbelt\nResolved, That we give full credit to the president, Frances E. Diitting, for preparing\nthis unusual program, which is a decided step toward the realization of our hopes and ideals;\nthat we extend our thanks to the president of Hunter College for the use of this hall and for\nthe splendid cooperation of his assistants; that we thank one and all who have so ably\ncontributed to this program; and that we here pledge ourselves to the furthering of the\nnation-wide cause which has here received such a tremendous impetus.\nThe report of the Committee on Nominations was presented and unanimously\nadopted as follows:\nPresident. — A. J. Gantvoort, musical director, teacher of public-school music and sight\nreading. College of Music, Cincinnati, Ohio.\nVice-President. — Agnes Benson, music department, Public Schools, Chicago, 111.\nSecretary — Florence Schute, St. Louis, Mo.\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION— FRn)AY Afternoon, July 7, 1916\n\nA complimentary organ recital was given by Samuel A. Baldwin, professor of music\nat City College, in the Great Hall of the College of the City of New York, who repeated\nthe program of the five-hundredth recital, as follows:\nI. Sonata No. 5, in C minor. Op. 80\nAlexandre Guilmant\nI. Allegro appassionato; II. Adagio\n(1837-1911)\n'' Fantasie\nli.'^As^s and\nDeaTh\"\"^\n^^^' ^>^^ ^^^^^ ^°- '\n3.\nFugue } in ^\"^^^\nG minor\n4. Vorspiel, \"Lohengrin\"\n5. Prize Song, \"Die Meistersinger \"\n6. Will o' the Wisp (Scherzo-Toccatina)\n7. Prelude in C sharp minor\n8. Am Meer (\"By the Sea\")\n9. Toccato, Fifth Symphony\n\nPAPERS\nABSOLUTE\nFREDERIC\n\nMUSIC\n\nAND\n\n^'^^'^\nJ. S. ^''^\nBach\n(1685-1750)\nRichard Wagner\n(1813-1883)\nRichard Wagner\nGordon Balch Nevin\nSergei V, Rachmaninojff\nFranz Schubert\n(1697-1828)\nCharles Marie\nWidor\nP. C. Hayden, Secretary pro tern\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nIN THE ELEMENTARY\n\nH. RIPLEY, PRINCIPAL, PRINCE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nAbsolute music is music which does not depend for its interest on any\nart outside of itself. The word \"absolute,\" however, is usually applied\nexclusively to instrumental music, in which field of art it is used as the\n\n"}
{"page": 590, "printed_page": "578", "text": "578\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nantonym of \"program'* music. But music which depends for its interest\non variation in relative pitch and duration of tones, however produced,\nmay be regarded as absolute music: for example, in Grove's Dictionary of\nMusic reference is made to the teaching of relative pitch by means of\nsyllables as teaching absolute music.\nThe study of absolute music simply means, therefore, the study of\nmusic itself, dissociated from all other arts. I quite agree that it is\nimpossible to advance far in the study of any art without discovering that\na relation exists between all forms of art which makes some knowledge\nof all essential to the understanding of anyone. That is, there are certain\nfundamental principles common in all art. It is equally true, however, that\neach art is based on elements which are peculiar to itseK and that a\nknowledge of these elements underlies the true appreciation of all works\nwhich employ them.\nA study of the printed reports of the papers read at the meetings of\nthis association reveals some very interesting matters to which I desire\nto direct your attention for a few moments.\nThe department of music as a branch of the National Education Association was the eighth to be added to the original organization. It came\ninto existence in 1868, and the publication of its deliberations appears to\nhave begun in 1870. An analysis of the forty-seven programs presented\nduring the life of the department shows a fairly well-markt progress of\nthought that divides easily into three stages. The first stage is fairly well\nindicated by the address delivered in 1870 by Dr. Eben Tourjee, entitled\n\"A Plea for Vocal Music in the Public Schools.\" The second period is\nmarkt by the discussion of methods of instruction and of systems, including\nthe Tonic Sol-Fa system, the principles of which seem to have become so\ngenerally adopted that no further consideration has been given to it. It\nis to this system that we owe the presence of the three features which\ndistinguish our method, namely, the use of syllable names for the scale\ntones, the movable \"Do,\" and the treatment of the minor scale as a\nderivative of the major scale. The third period may be regarded as the\nperiod of expansion. High-school music appears with increasing frequency\nas a topic for consideration, and college professors have frequently contributed papers on this subject.\nAn excellent course for high schools was presented in 1904, which was\nadopted by the Association. In this course, however, no standards are\nset up, and no idea of the preliminary preparation of candidates is suggested.\nThe papers show that in all this time there has been no agreement as\nto just what the elementary schools should contribute to music, nor any\nclear announcement of the thing to be obtained by the effort made. This\nindefiniteness which prevailed at the beginning still remains. It is with\nthe hope of suggesting a common ground on which we may possibly agree\n\n"}
{"page": 591, "printed_page": "579", "text": "Department)\n\nABSOLUTE\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n579\n\nthat I have chosen for my subject \"Absolute Music in the Elementary\nSchools.\" My hope of a general agreement on certain points is based on\nthe testimony of college and conservatory professors that pupils who\npresent themselves for courses in harmony, composition, and appreciation\nhave no real \"appreciation of tones in relation as real thinkable objects,\nas distinct and clear in the mental conception as color and geometrical\nforms are.\" They report that these pupils gaze at the notation without\ngaining a clear idea either of the tonality or of the movement, because the\nelements upon which true appreciation is based are wanting. This condition arises from the fact that these pupils have had no adequate training\nin tone-appreciation dissociated from other objects of thought. Apparently the power which may be best acquired in the elementary school is\nthe very power which is most prized by musicians. It is on this power\nthat appreciation depends, unless appreciation be interpreted in terms of\ngeneral feeling. The most ignorant person may be moved to tears by a\nbeautiful song, but those tears are emotional and not appreciative symbols,\nunless we hold that emotion and appreciation are s3nionymous terms.\nThe untrained person may admire a beautiful piece of architecture; he may\nlove to gaze upon it, but we must admit that what he see.s and feels has\nlittle or no relation in kind or in degree to what the artist sees and feels,\nand we may agree that this difference arises from differences in knowledge,\nand that the differences in knowledge arise, not alone from capacity, but\nfrom differences in training and experience. All artistic objects, however\ncomplex, are truly appreciated proportionately to the degree of our appreciation ofthe elements of which they are composed. On viewing a magnificent interior, for example, the trained mind at once passes from the\nconsideration of the whole to an examination of the component elements,\nthe materials used, and the arrangement of the parts; and the more intimate\nthe knowledge of these elements the deeper, fuller, and more inspiring\nis the appreciation.\nIt is true that some effort is made in the elementary grades to cultivate\ntonal and rhythmic perception, but this effort is made with a view to the\ncultivation of the power to read music, and the effort ceases as soon as\nsufficient reading power is obtained to secure the rendition of the simple\nmusic which the books contain. A real working knowledge of the fundamentals of music is rarely secured by the pupil; and what knowledge he\nhas is so unclassified and erratic that no structure of musical importance\ncan be reared upon it.\nTo illustrate the benefits of an opposite course and to show what definite organization of the elementary work accompHshes, I shall give some\nfacts in regard to the work done by the Tonic Sol-Faists in England. Mr.\nGrove's account of the Tonic Sol-Fa system of music-teaching, as given\nin the fifth volume of the latest edition of his adnurable History of Music\nand Musicians, contains some statements which come under three heads:\n\n"}
{"page": 592, "printed_page": "580", "text": "58o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\n(i) object to be obtained, (2) the reason for making the effort, and (3) the\nsuccess which has attended the effort.\n1. The object of the effort is to train the pupil to recognize the mental\neffect of one sound as distinguisht from another by relative pitch and\nrelative duration. Helmholtz, commenting on this point, praised the\nwork because it gives prominence to the relation of each tone to a tonic,\nand he exprest his astonishment at the certainty with which a class of\nforty children interpreted simple notation, and at the accuracy of their\nintonation.\n2. The reasons which Mr. Curwin, the promoter, if not the inventor\nof the system, gives for the great effort which he made is exprest in these\nwords, \"In too many schools still, the children only learn tunes by memory.\"\nAgain he expresses his desire to remove the \"poor trumpery\" in song\nmaterial, in which the chief interest is found in the words, and to direct\nattention to the true material of music — tones in relation — with a view to\nestabKshing an appreciation of really good music.\n3. The result: according to the report of the Tonic Sol-Fa College, in\n1908, 20,684 certificates were granted that year to students who had\nmastered tone relation, and since the organization of the college 847,852\ncertificates of qualification have been issued to persons who have past the\nrequired examination; further, choral societies have increast to an astonishing degree, and the power to read music and to participate intelligently\nin choral performances has become general thruout the British Empire.\nMusical progress must be based on appreciation. True appreciation\nmust be based on knowledge as well as on feeling. Knowledge must be\nbased on perception. The thing to be perceived, and hence to be appreciated, istone. Tone has three perceivable attributes, namely, relative\npitch, relative duration, relative quality. There is no such thing as the\nabsolute in matters musical. What is called \"absolute pitch\" is simply\nan expression of the relation of the given pitch to the pitches of some\nstandard instrument with which the musician is familiar.\nThe plea for absolute music in the elementary schools is really a plea\nfor the more careful study of tone entirely dissociated from the elements\nof all other arts.\nA beautiful song is a successful combination of two arts. Each may\nbe heightened in effect by the presence of the other, but the learner inevitably suffers from having a double object for attention before him.\nThe study of tone relation by itself need not interfere with the development of choral music, and does not, as shown by the wonderful spread of\nchoral art in the British Empire.\nThe study of absolute music, too, includes form and harmony which,\nin their simplest development, fall easily within the range of the elementaryschool period. To hear what one sees and to see what one hears in music\nis a power easily secured. The time required is not great, but persistent,\n\n"}
{"page": 593, "printed_page": "581", "text": "Department]\n\nABSOLUTE\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n581\n\nsystematic effort is necessary.\nShall we, then, really teach music in the\nschools, or shall we merely sing for diversion and recreation ?\nUnder strict analysis the fact is revealed that very little systematic\nmusic teaching is being done in the schools, and this little seems likely to\nbecome less if music is taught with an ulterior motive. If the music\nteachers in this country would consider what music teaching really is, and\ndeliver even a little absolute music training in each grade, a result far\ntranscending that secured in England would be obtained, because, since\nthe development of the Tonic Sol-Fa system, great advances have been\nmade both in theory and in practice, and the staff notation has proved to\nbe a far better means of expressing tonal relations, even for Httle children,\nan any of the devices which have been invented to supplant it. But so\nng as we persist in performing choral work, small and great, without\nttempting to secure true appreciation of the music, so long music in schools\nrest on an unstable foundation and be subject to every wind of docine that chances to arise.\nAssuming that a real study of music is to be undertaken, it remains to\nte just what should be taught and how the work should be distributed\ner the several grades. The course divides, naturally, into two distinct\nes, one of which deals with the relative pitch of tones and the written\nression of these differences, and the other with the relative duration\nf tones as exprest in varying note values, the grouping of these values into\nigures or motives, and the final development of form as applied to small\nmpositions.\nBeginners would learn the names and character of the tones of the\nale and become able to name from hearing, and to sound from naming,\ny scale tone which can be represented on the lines and spaces of the\nff. There are but eight tones to be mastered. A few moments of\nstematic drill, given daily for a year, fixes the tones with far greater\ncuracy than is secured for number work from one to ten during the\nme time.\nThe second year's work would continue the same drill with greater\ntention to the written expression and rhythmic variations.\nThe third year would advance the work by adding new tones and more\nried rhythms. So the work would advance till the chromatic scale and\ne modes were completely exploited, and the study of form had advanst to\nelude a consideration of the choral, madrigal, glee, round, catch, and such\ner musical expressions as time had left us; and at the same time attenlon would be called to the effect of tones in harmonic combination, so that\ne effects of major and minor thirds and sixths would be easily recognized;\nd, in the highest grade, triad harmony would be carried to a point which\nwould allow the free use of the primary chords in major and minor, and\nenable the pupil to harmonize simple melodies which involve nothing\nbeyond the resolution of the dominant seventh chord.\n\nII\n\n"}
{"page": 594, "printed_page": "582", "text": "582\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nThis course corresponds in kind to that which has been so successfullycarried out by the Tonic Sol-Faists in England. It is a course which will\nappeal to the heart of the evaluation experts and general critic of music\nwork, because it is easily divisible by grades, the standards of requirement\nare readily establisht, and testing and credits definitely provided for.\nAn element of study running parallel with chord practice would place\nmusic upon a working basis as a subject ranking in dignity and importance\nwith any other in the curriculum. But, you may justly inquire, what is to\nbe done with those who show neither interest nor capacity for this training ?\nYou are all aware that this is the era of reform in school-management.\n.Those who think about these things have already discovered that what is\nsure to be true of music is true of all other subjects. By the time the end\nof the sixth year in school is reacht certain well-markt differences in inclination and in capacity have developt in the pupils along nearly every line\nof study. It is here that d.ifferentiation in courses should begin, and it is\nhere that a stronger, more specialized treatment of music would naturally\nbegin. No subject will be more easily tested than music. No segregation\nwiU offer relief to uninterested pupils or be more advantageous to those\nwho elect the study; and, when the high school is reacht, an intelligent\nselection of pupils ;for advanst work can be made which will easily raise\nmusic to the level of a ranking subject and solve the vexatious problem\nwhich music now presents in the high-school course.\n\nWHAT\n\nSHOULD BE THE MUSICAL EQUIPMENT\nSECONDARY-SCHOOL GRADUATE?\nJOHN F. AHERN, DIRECTOR\n\nOF THE\n\nOF MUSIC, SPRINGFIELD, MASS.\n\nSince it is, or should be, an axiom in education that the value of a^\nstudy is measured by its usefulness in the life of the student, I propose to\nconsider my subject from the point of view of its usefulness. My proposition, therefore, is that our aims and efforts in shaping and conducting our^\nparticular line of work in secoiidary schools should be governed and guided\nby experience which deals with the past, and by an| ideal which has to do\nwith the present and future.\nSuggested by both the experience and the]\nideal comes this question. What kind and degree of musical equipment\nwill prove to be most useful to the graduates of our secondary schools?\nImmediately our thoughts are busy with consideration of the probable\nfuture environment and activities of the graduates.\nAs the social or economic value of these boys and girls is not fully\nestablisht until they have past the stage of existence covered by what may\nbe called the collegiate period, let us first consider them and their musical\nusefulness in their adult life.\n\n"}
{"page": 595, "printed_page": "583", "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n583\n\nSince time is lacking for anything even approaching a close grading of\nthe musically inclined, we may as well proceed with the assumption that the\nmen and women of our time are, in the words of the old Latin grammar of\nmore or less sacred memory, \"divided into three parts\": (i) those who do\nnot care for music — a small percentage, I am fain to believe; (2) those who\npractice and applaud the t)^e of music known as popular; (3) those who\nenjoy and appreciate the performances of the kind of music that we believe\nis worth while.\nThe recruiting of the last class should be the constant endeavor of\neveryone interested in the advancement of the art of music by the raising\nof standards of knowledge and performance.\nWhat can be done to raise\nlese standards ? To an encouraging degree the process is already under\n[way and has been for some years, as witness the increasing interest in, and\nsupport of, such projects as the music festivals in Cincinnati and Springfield,\n[to mention only two of the large number given annually all over the country.\n[But this is not the most promising field for the propagation of a higher\nippreciation of the best music. In my humble opinion we must devote our\ntin efforts toward the upbuilding of higher standards of knowledge and\n)erformance right in our secondary schools, where the boys and girls who\nfill be the men and women of tomorrow, are — boys and girls whose ideals\nid standards are in process of formation and development.\nUpon the\nid and degree of musical experience and educational opportunities which\nire coincident with their high-school and academy days depend the kind\nid degree of interest in, and support of, music on the part of these presentlay boys and girls of ours in their adult years.\nThis is a fact which we are too prone to forget or overlook in the stress\n)f our daily work with our classes; nevertheless, it is a fact with which we\nlUst reckon. We must not forget nor overlook, either, the fact that these\n)oys and girls, by virtue of the shorter school day in vogue in the secondary\n:hools in most places have, and, I am grieved to say, embrace, opportunities\nfor attending places of amusement which, by reason of the comparatively\nsmall admission fees, cannot afford to provide music of a high order, either\n'^ocal or instrumental. Who is there among us that does not recall, with a\nshudder of disapproval at least, the contemptible offerings of the so-called\nsingers or players at some of these places during an indiscreet and regretted\ndsit ?\nIt must be admitted, at once, that the boys and girls are attracted to\nlese places and exposed to influences which, since they are not elevating,\nlust be harmful, because they like to go and like to hear what is there set\n)efore them. Why do they like this sort of thing ? I believe it is because\nIt is all so obvious or easily comprehended. By this I mean that no exertion\n)f the intelligence is called for in listening to these baneful offerings. The\njar is tickled merely, no stimulus resulting. The best than can be said of\nthe sort of music in question is that it entertains by helping to pass away\n\n"}
{"page": 596, "printed_page": "584", "text": "584\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nthe time. That much of it is suggestive of local color camiot be denied, as\nwitness the songs that are built around the distinctive rhythm of the negro\nmusic, commonly known as ragtime. There is also the peculiar effect produced by the extravagance of the text in the attempt to make the words\nrhyme. Numerous examples might be given, if they were worth the time.\nOf late the popular fancy of the song-writers has been diverted from our\nSouthland to the islands of Hawaii, possibly as a result of the San Francisco\nFair, with its ukelele and other strange instruments, so strangely played.\nTo sum up, popular music, as it is reflected in the apparent preferences of\nthe vaudeville and movie devotees, is non-enduring and follows the fad\nof the day, whatever it may chance to be.\nThere are many reasons why this situation exists and is likely to continue to exist to some degree. The first reason is a commercial one. It\npays. At least, it pays and has paid princely sums to certain lucky composers whose success is the magnet that attracts a countless host of others\nhoping to \"produce a winner.\" There is cause for thankfulness in the\nfact that very few succeed, but that very thankfulness is somewhat shaken\nby the deluge of stuff to be found on sale wherever we turn, all indicative\nof the misdirected energy of authors and composers, whose vanity is\nevidenst by the inartistic portraits of themselves invariably displayed on\nthe cover pages among a riot of more or less hideous colors. The reasons\nfor the situation have already been touched upon in this paper, such as the\nlack of standards of excellence in material and performance, the desire to be\namused and entertained, and the hours of idleness to be disposed of, all on\nthe part of the public, of which our boys and girls form so large a proportion.\nThere is, however, another reason, and it should interest us because it\npoints us to an opportunity. To take the reason first: These good people\nare fair game for the promoters of all that is cheap in the way of musical\nentertainment, to no small degree because this form of amusement and\nrelaxation is all that offers and attracts. Put in another way, these\npeople seek amusement at the hands of others largely because they do not\nknow how to amuse themselves. Our opportunity is at once apparent.\nGive them something to do, something that is elevating and cultural, but\nsomething that is also attractive, because it is pleasing.\nWe have all notist, at some time or other, the admiration felt by these\nyoung people when they have listened to a competent singer or players in\na performance of good music. Whatever the dictionary says, admiration\nin this connection carries with it a desire or wish to be able to do as one has\nheard another do. How frequently do we hear the wish exprest by those\nwho have been delighted by a Gluck, or a WiUiams, or an Amato, or a\nBauer, or some of our fine orchestral or choral bodies, \"I wish I could do\nthat,\" or \"I wish I could belong to that orchestra or chorus!\"\nWhy not take advantage of this desire to emulate something really fine\nand worthy ? It may be said that we are already engaged in this endeavor,\n\n"}
{"page": 597, "printed_page": "585", "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n585\n\nbut are we ? We have our choruses, our glee clubs, our orchestras, etc.,\nto be sure, but too often are these organizations left to shift for themselves\nin the matter of supervision and support, while little or no incentive is\nafforded in the way of public appearances, in or out of school, save those\ndirectly promoted by the organizations themselves, or by individuals connected with them.\nHaving considered the unfavorable situation, let us now look at the\nother side, which deals with what may be done to bring about an uplift in\nour national musical life. As a beginning, I wish to affirm my stanch\nbelief in the musical ability of the rank and file of our people of all stations.\nFrom whatever land or race our people or their forbears came, they brought\nwith them a love for music, together with varying ideals or standards of\nperformance which are more or less reflected or develop t in their children.\nThe theory is demonstrable, I am confident, that the vast majority of the\npeople, young and old, like to sing or play, singly or in groups. This being\nthe case, where does the secondary school fit in as a factor or influence\nmaking for uplift? The schools in this land which are next below our\ncolleges in our scheme of education can and should offer courses in music\nof solid worth. There should be something more worth while than a\nperiod once or twice a week for the chorus, devoted in the main to singing\nsongs of a varying degree of excellence. The choral classes should have\nthe advantage of becoming familiar with cantatas, oratorios, masses, and\nsimilar composition, especially the masterpieces. I am not forgetting, in\nurging this form of musical activity, that not all the work of this character\nwill be found to fit the vocal capabilities of the scholars in the choruses,\nbut a goodly supply of judgment and common-sense on the part of the\nteacher will be all that is needed to eliminate the difficulty. The departments of English, modern languages — French and German — all include in\nthe material studied a goodly allotment of the masterpieces in their respective fields. If Chaucer, Shakespeare, Tennyson, and others offer legitimate\nsubject material for the study of our mother-tongue, why are not the\ncompositions of Haydn, Handel, Wagner, Verdi, and others as rich fields\nof experience in getting acquainted with the best in music ?\nShould vocal music be elective or required? Since music is to enter\nmore and more into our social hfe, and it is desirable to have a knowledge\nof what constitutes good music as widespread as possible, it seems to me\nthat music should be put on a required basis. It is not left to the child to\nsay whether or not he will take his part in the study in the grades. Why\nshould it be different in the high school ? That it is not universally required\nis, after all, little more than a tradition which need receive little or no\nconsideration in handling the situation.\nWith music as one of the required studies, there should be such provision of time and leadership as will make possible the organization of\nclasses of reasonable size. Indeed, this will be found to be imperative, if\n\n"}
{"page": 598, "printed_page": "586", "text": "586\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nthe work of the school itself is not to be more or less disorganized by the\nchorus, which, taking in all pupils of a certain class or grade, would deprive\nteachers of other subjects of their usual classes. The exact basis of\norganization of the chorus is a matter for treatment according to the\nindividual school, since there are so many different plans or programs\nin vogue.\nI would have, as a logical result of the required choruses by grades or\nclasses, one choral club or choir on an elective basis, membership in which\nwould be open only to those scholars whose general standing, as well as\nmusical aptitude or scholarship, warranted their acceptance. In other\nwords, make membership in such a body highly desirable as an indication\nof ability above the ordinary. Glee clubs of girls and boys, on an elective\nbasis, would be fostered by the conditions outlined above, a greater proportion of the student body in a school so organized musically being attracted\nto this particular form of musical activity as a result of the raising of the\nvalue of music as a study. Credits should be allowed for all this work,\nboth required and elective, as points counting in securing a diploma. Such\nstudents as have voices of promise should be encouraged and advised as to\nthe things they may or may not attempt to do with safety.\nSo far only the vocal music has been considered, but we must also have\nregard to instrumental music, for talents differ in the mode of expression.\nA strong course in musical analysis, harmony, and musical appreciation\ncould be made a valuable asset of any school on its practical, as well as its\ncultural, side. The marvelous fidelity in rendering vocal and instrumental\nmusic, both solo and concerted, of the modern mechanical devices of\nvarious names opens up a rich field of material and solves the problem of\npresentation for the teacher who is not especially gifted in performance.\nThe natural curiosity of the child or grown-up to see \"how it is made\"\ncan be gratified as to music in the classes last mentioned by the exemplification ofthe elements that enter into a composition. The pupil can be\nmade, or enabled, to see that a theme or subject is a reality, not a vague\nterm. The word \"fugue\" will take on a definite meaning of its own and\ncease to suggest, a certain confection of delectable qualities. He can be\nshown the entrancing possibihties of imitation, as shown by the playing\nof an orchestral record or a Bach invention. In short, he can be shown\nthat there is an intellectual exercise as well as a source of pleasure in listening\nto music. This grasp of the intellectual side will but serve to enhance the\npleasure of listening to good music, while it serves to expose the banalities\nof the popular stuff. A not-too-minute study of the history and evolution\nof music will prove valuable in showing how the various forms of music\nand the instruments employed in rendering them came into being.\nOrchestras, quartets, trios, and instrumental soloists should be encouraged by credits where possible. Outside study should also be credited,\nwhen worthy, by cooperation between the school and the private teacher\n\n"}
{"page": 599, "printed_page": "587", "text": "Department!\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN THE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n587\n\naccording to the plan outlined by the music supervisors in a recent national\nmeeting.\nTo sum up, the secondary-school graduate should receive opportunities\nfor hearing, knowing, studying, and rendering, when possible, as much of\nthe best in music as time will allow. In theory at least he will then become\na powerful factor in raising the cultural and practical value of music in the\ncommunity of his residence.\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN THE NORMAL\n\nfFRANK A. BEACH, DIRECTOR\n\nOF MUSIC, KANSAS\nEMPORIA, KANS.\n\nSCHOOL\nSTATE TEACHERS\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nIn the last few decades music has come to play such a large part in life\n[that by common consent it has a place in some form or other in every\n[institution, whether social, religious, or political. Indeed, we expect to\nind music in the home and in the church, in the schoolroom and in social\ngatherings, for the immediate contribution it makes to these organizations.\nfin normal schools and teachers' colleges music also has its place, but here\n[it exists, not so much for the immediate social influence, as for the effect it\nwill have later upon the home and society at large. When we consider that\nthe sum total of the musical taste of the nation is very largely molded by\n[the teachers in public schools, the music in the normal school becomes a\nfmatter of far-reaching and vital importance.\nConservatories, music clubs,\n[and artists' recitals may raise somewhat the standard among music-loving\nidults in a community, but the average level of musical appreciation and\n[ability will not rise higher than its source, the public school; and the\n[public-school-music ideal in turn runs abreast of the musical standard of\nthe related normal schools. The musical taste of the children of today\nwill largely determine the standards of the nation of tomorrow; and since\n[these children are the folk upon whom music must depend in the next\ngeneration for patronage and encouragement, the question of music in the\n[normal school becomes an issue of no small significance.\nWhen the request for this paper came, it immediately resulted in the\n[perpetration of that valuable annoyance, a questionnaire, sent to some\n[200 normal schools and teachers' colleges. Full and prompt replies gave\n[evidence that many institutions are clearly awake to the present situation\nmd are earnestly striving to meet their responsibiHty. This discussion is\n[based upon replies from 117 institutions, together with information secured\nfrom an investigation of music in the public schools made in 19 14 by\nMr. Earhart, of Pittsburgh.\nThese combined reports, supplemented by a\nI large number of letters, emphasized three facts of importance: (i) the relaj tion of the normal school to the equipment of the supervisor, (2) the problem of the training of the grade teacher in music, (3) the responsibiUty of\n\n11.\n\n"}
{"page": 600, "printed_page": "588", "text": "588\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Musk\n\nthe normal school to the rural community. We shall necessarily consider\nthese three phases of music in the normal school, as they cause it to function in the public schools.\nFrom the returns it is evident that only 26 per cent of the supervisors\nreceive the teacher training of the normal school. This is explained in part\nby the fact that but 23 per cent of the normal schools reporting offer a\ncourse for supervisors. To those who have in mmd any one of a number of\nwell-organized school systems in charge of competent supervisors, these\nstatistics will seem unimportant; but investigation reveals the startling\nfact that in many small cities and towns the local school board appoints as\nsupervisor a pianist, a vocalist, or a violinist as a reward of merit for success\nin studio teaching and for tax-paying residence. Such individuals are\nwanting in the professional knowledge necessary for teaching; they bring\nto the schoolroom the atmosphere of the studio, and often they are utterly'\nlacking in ability to develop the grade teacher into a teacher of music for\nher own room. The failure in the past on the part of normal schools to\noffer courses for supervisors has been one reason, tho not the primary one,\nof course, for the establishment of summer schools by the book companies.\nThe briefness of these courses, their probable bent toward a particular\nt)^e of pedagogy, and their inabiUty to offer related academic work and\npractice teaching is turning students to the normal schools and colleges,\nwhere the courses for supervisors are from one to three years in length.\nThe graduation, as supervisors, of students who have never finisht a highschool eclucation, as practist in numerous schools of music and conservatories, can be checkt only by a propaganda in which normal schools should\nlead — a propaganda for the state certification of supervisors. Beginning\nSeptember, 19 16, no teacher of music may teach in public schools in Kansas\nwith less than two years' work of college grade, consisting of music and\npedagogical subjects. Where courses for supervisors exist, whether in\nnormal schools or elsewhere, a rigid entrance standard should be estabUsht.\nChief among these- requirements should be natural musicianship and not\nless than one year's teaching experience prior to entrance. If one were\nforst to choose between the unmusical teacher and the musician who is not\na teacher, he would doubtless say, \"Give me neither.\"\nOf the 117 normal schools reporting, 98 have sight singing; 90, chorus;\n73, methods; 49, history and appreciation; and probably all practice\nteaching. Manifestly the normal school must take a more definite part\nin the supervisors' training, but in the schools here mentioned only 30 have\ngiven it attention. In one normal school enroUng more than 1000 students,\nno one has yet been prepared as a supervisor. In another school, where\none teacher does all the music teaching, there was graduated two years ago\na young woman who is today one of the most promising supervisors of the\nMiddle West. The small normal school affords opportunity for training\na few select teachers; and these hand-pickt supervisors will, with experience,\n\n"}
{"page": 601, "printed_page": "589", "text": "Department!\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\n^CIIOOL\n\n589\n\nmarket better than those shaken from a heavily bearing tree, pruned and\nmulcht for the sake of a record yield.\nMusic as a subject in the regular curriculum of our public schools started\nwith comparative ease because of its cultural value. It gained momentum\nfrom the easily demonstrable sense training it afforded. In the last decade\nthe added weight of instrumental classes, community music, musical extension, and appreciation has developt a startling speed, until it would almost\nappear that the craft is flying before a steady wind, or, still better, has been\ntransformed into an *'automobilous\" type of vehicle. Tho it has been\nheld in the middle of the road by the supervisors, they are, under present\nconditions, unequal to the task of the inevitable uphill pull. Who then will\ndo this? A glance reveals the fact that the only members of our party\nwho have hold of the rope are the grade teachers. Many of these have not\nbeen taught to pull, while others seem woefully lacking in any sense of\ndirection. From Mr. Earhart's survey we discover that the average\nsupervisor visits each room once in ten days or two weeks. In other words,\nthe grade teacher does more than 85 per cent of the teaching. While\n\\i credit is allowed for music in 75 per cent of the schools where it is taught,\nin two-thirds of these schools grade teachers are not examined as to their\nfitness to teach the subject. To this anomalous situation add the fact that\nof the schools organized to equip the grade teacher, 20 per cent in 1914\noffered no courses in music; while in 19 16 this percentage has been reduced\n^to perhaps 5 per cent, not one-half the normal schools make music a required\nsubject for the grade teacher. If to the above we add the statement made\nby the commissioner of education that probably not more than half of the\n500,000 teachers of this country receive normal training, one need not be\nconsidered a musical pessimist nor infidel when he characterizes the situation\nas chaotic.\nThe following means are suggested for bringing order out of this condition:\n1. A movement in the several states which shall lead to the inclusion\nof music as a regular subject for the certificates of all grade teachers. In\n1 9 14 not more than ten states required the study of music of the teachers\nin the common schools.\n2. Two classes of normal schools demand consideration: {a) those so\nunprogressive as to offer no music at all, and {h) those so progressive as to\nplace music in the elective column.\n3 . Supervisors in organization should prepare a recommendation to their\nrespective boards which will permit them to devote a reasonable time to the\ncoaching of the grade teachers. The average grade teacher remains in her\nposition long enough to warrant a partial neglect of the childr-en for a year,\nt\nif need be, in order that she may be equipt for the succeeding years.\n4. We must recognize the limitations of the grade teacher. No super-\n\n"}
{"page": 602, "printed_page": "590", "text": "590\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nSince the present plan has not won the approval of the judges of sight\nsinging on the one hand, nor the lovers of artistic interpretation on the other,\nwhy not give the departmental plan a trial? A questionnaire sent to\nfifteen of the leading supervisors of the country indicates that more than\nhaK favor a special teacher of music wherever possible, and a still greater\nnumber would departmentalize the work above the sixth grade. The crux\nof the matter lies, not in the fact that the grade teacher cannot follow an\noutline, but in the fact that often she cannot teach music.\nIn regard to music in the rural schools we have become so accustomed\nto hearing discussion of various phases of rural life that we take it for\ngranted that the discussion stands for results accomplisht. While it is\nreadily apparent that rural conditions have changed for the better in the last\ndecade, a superficial study discovers that the betterment has been largely\nalong the material lines of intensive farming and stock-raising. Not dissatisfaction with the result of his working hours, but the emptiness of his\nleisure hours, leads the country boy to go to the city. The character of the\nhome life, the amusements, and the opportunities for improvement demand\nconsideration; and in this connection the giving to music its place claims\nattention. So largely does the life of the rural community focus about the\nschool, and so completely must the culture which is to exist come thru\nthe medium of the teacher, that the assertion that the music training of\nsuch a teacher should be included in the normal-school curriculum needs no\nargument. While in the city system the work neglected by the grade\nteacher may be supplied by another teacher, the rural teacher is the only\nchannel thru which the boys and girls of the country will receive a taste\nand love for good music. That any school designed to train leaders — and\nsuch the rural teachers should be — could overlook this essential seems\nincredible. The recent questionnaire, however, indicates that 30 per cent\nof the normal schools offer no courses that would fit the rural teacher to\ncarry music to her pupils. To many persons present the term \"rural\nschool\" brings the image of a one-room building whose attendance of ten\nor twenty pupils seems negligible as compared with the army of children\nin the immense systems of the cities. The problem of the rural school\nlooms large, however, when we learn that of the 18,000,000 children in this\ncountry 60 per cent, or about 11,000,000, are in small communities to which\nthese teachers from the normal schools, or others with less preparation,\nwill go. Consider this and tell me, if you will, whether our scheme of music\neducation is sufl&ciently comprehensive to be worthy of the title democratic.\nLet us remember too that the 40 per cent of the school children who are\nreceiving music instruction in the cities are so situated that they may hear\nan abundance of good music. Thus do we make real the prophecy, \"To\nhim that hath shall be given.\" This appalHng need for music in the country demands the attention of every music-loving citizen, of every musical\norganization and institution. Three things devolve upon the normal school\n\n"}
{"page": 603, "printed_page": "591", "text": "Department!\n\nMUSIC\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\n591\n\nwhich we have already loaded heavily with responsibility: (i) The awakening of the rural teachers to the social possibilities and opportunities offered\nby music. In a small community the preeminence of the teacher is greatly\nenhanst and she becomes a more important individual if she can make,\nthru music, a contribution to its social life. (2) The normal school should\ngive practical training to every teacher in the rudiments of music. Such\ntraining will include acquaintance with the best in song literature, singing,\nappreciation, and the development of the power to listen, together with\nthe quintessence of musical pedagogy. Simple suggestions in the related\nfield of dramatics will be exceedingly valuable. (3) The normal school has\na responsibility for stimulating county superintendents, agricultural leaders,\nand women's clubs to the inclusion of music in rural-community gatherings\nof every sort, and to its introduction into the school curriculum. Institutes\nshould be supplied with teachers, not those who are music abecedarians,\nbut leaders who love music for itself and possess the gift of arousing others\nto an appreciation and participation in music. Many rural communities\ndo not know what music may mean to them for the reason that they have\nhad little opportunity to judge real music. Normal-school students\nshould be given sufficient vocal confidence that they will not hesitate to\nsing and lead in the singing of folk-songs and other songs of the so-called\ncommunity type. One normal school reports concerts given by its students\nin ten neighboring towns. Because of the physical impossibility of reaching\nmore than a limited portion of the field, the institution at Emporia has\ninaugurated what we have termed \"The Parcel-Post Music Course for\nRural Communities.\" This equipment consists of a phonograph, a selected\nset of twelve records with an accompanying \"talk,\" photographs of instruments and artists, and instructions for the teacher as to its use. This\nequipment is loaned for three days to any school paying the postage. Six\nof these sets have been in motion in Kansas thruout the year, and the\nreports, which are a required feature of the plan, indicate several things\nof interest: (i) The music is not considered \"canned\" by the children.\nTo them it is real and they readily learn songs by imitation with or without\nthe assistance of the teacher — who in many instances does not sing. (2) The\nmusic of the better type grows upon the youngsters even in the short period\nof three days. In the total recorded vote \"Funicula\" heads the list as\nfirst, with \"Humoresque\" as a close second. (3) The schools invariably\ncarry out the suggested plan of concluding with a musical evening, when\nthe parents hear the records, the children have a part, and all join in community singing. (4) A desire for more music is aroused and an occasional\nrequest is made for suggestions for the introduction of the subject as a part\nof the school program.\nThere are three important features of music in the normal schools,\nnamely, the training of supervisors who will be teachers as well as musicians;\nthe practical equipment of the grade teacher with sight singing, and love\n\n"}
{"page": 604, "printed_page": "592", "text": "592\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nfor the song of birds and children, with the forward look toward departmentalizing music teaching when possible; and the development of a\nmusical missionary spirit which shall arouse a Macedonian call from the\nrural communities where it is not already audible.\nTo the accompUshment of these and other aims the normal schools\nmust, with all related institutions, make common cause. A prime essential\nis that they should seek thru every means to acquaint themselves with\nwhat is being done in similar institutions. This knowledge should form the\nbasis of a definite campaign in which all interested forces should unite to\nsecure the adoption of advanst legislation for certification and formulation\nof extension plans for the various states thruout the Union. The knowledge\nof what is being done in certain states will be the strongest incentive to\nthe most backward states and an encouragement to the most progressive.\n\nTHE CHILD\nHENRIETTA\n\nVOICE:\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\nTOWARD IT\n\nOF THE COMMUNITY\n\nBAKER-LOW,\nASSOCIATE\nPROFESSOR\nCONSERVATORY,\nBALTIMORE,\n\nOF\nMD.\n\nMUSIC,\n\nPEABODY\n\nIn 1 9 14 the Bureau of Education issued a report on music in the public\nschools. Mr. Earhart, of Pittsburgh, the compiler, tabulated answers\nunder certain queries which were sent to 681 towns and cities. Under the\nquery, \" Do you give particular attention to voice-building ? How is this\ndone?\"\nMr. Earhart makes the following note:\nIt is a pleasure to state that nearly every school reported afl&rmatively as to the first\npart of the query. The only divergence was with regard to the voice-building being done\nincidentally or by special practices. No feature of school practice shows more intelligent\nand careful treatment than this; and few questions elicited such interested and sympathetic replies.\n\nWith all this careful attention to the voice in school, one should, therefore, expect to see good voice habits functioning in life, one might look for\nbetter tone in church and Sunday school, for a better quality of tone in\nthe home singing group, for better speaking voices, for a more intelligent\nattitude of listening to tone at voice recitals, for better community singing,\nfor better taste, in short, in all use of tone. But is this true ? Is right use\nof voice a general habit in life ? If not, what is wrong with our teaching ?\nOr is our teaching modified or thwarted by contrary or opposing habits in\nthe child's world outside the school ?\nNot only do music departments bewail their powerlessness; in every\nphase of teaching one finds the same thing. Professor Canby, of Yale, in\na series of articles in Harper's Magaziney treats the same problem with\nregard to English. In his summing up he lays the remedy in the home\nattitude toward education — the outlook on life which the home, more than\n\n"}
{"page": 605, "printed_page": "593", "text": "Departmentl\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nVOICE\n\n593\n\nthe school, always gives. And a right attitude in the home means the\ngeneral education of those who are at the head of the home. Educational\npractice varies with educational ideals, and educational ideals change faster\nthan the community can be made conscious of that change. In an address\ndelivered before the National Education Association in perhaps 1901 a\nfamous educator said something like this: \"Education is for living, not\nfor a living, and trades schools or vocational training have no place in\nsuch an educational scheme.\" See how educational opinion has changed\nin a few years ! But if that opinion was woven into the mind fabric of the\naverage man at the time he went to school, it will take more education to\ngive him a viewpoint in consonance with the changed ideal.\nGranting that the public is wilHng to give cooperation but does not\nknow how, let us ask whether we really take practical means to insure the\ncooperation of home and community in the use of good voice habits ? Do\nwe educate our communities to the point of having a right attitude toward\npublic-school music, and do we actively assist in improving the avenues\nof musical expression in our community ? A child's voice is at the mercy\nboth of the musical stuff upon which it is used, and also of the great ocean\nof ignorant voice usage that surrounds its little island of school habit. No\nwonder he jumps from his isolated and inane little \"island\" into the\n\"ocean\" where exciting \"stunts\" take place and real things happen.\nCommunity music is not a separate field for the music supervisor; it is the\nfield in which the greater part of the practice of his carefully taught voice\nprinciples takes place, and it must, perforce, loom large in his plans.\nTheoretically, we all believe that voice is as much psychic as physiologic.\nGranted voices of equal physiologic perfection, the richer and more imaginative nature is capable of the finest expression; but that richer and finer\nnature will also exhibit itself in its choice of material to express; for\nmuch music material, in school or out, does not hold within itself the\npossibilities of rich and fine expression. We in school are hoping, not only\nto instil correct voice principles, but to make rich and fine natures. The\nmaterial with which we work is the song material, the method of teaching,\nthe method of procedure of the lesson which develops certain habits of\nwork, and the personality of the teacher. The last is largely responsible\nfor the pupils' attitude toward the subject and toward life, and for the\npupils' taste. The feehng attitude in music I hold the great thing. We\nhear much about the refining value of school music, the ethical value of\nschool music, the social value of school music, etc. Hardly a meeting of\nthe National Education Association has been held which has not given\nplace on its program to some such topic. Some music is not ethical.\nSome singing, even of good music, has not necessarily an ethical value.\nTechnically, good singing of good material (lacking the feeling attitude)\nmay not have much ethical value. A lack of spiritual quahty in a director\nmay reduce a performance to a thing of form without content, in which\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 606, "printed_page": "594", "text": "594\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\ncase a vital thing is missing from the tone as well as from every other detail\nof performance. Tone is a resultant of forces; and we are still groping in\na very unscientific manner for the laws that govern the forces. Now if\nwe are to be of any help to the community in its care of the child voice, we\nsurely need to have our own educational data scientifically assembled.\nA series of experiments is being made in a well-known school for the\npurpose of testing music abihty. Some of the experiments (which are yet\nin their infancy) seem to show that the training lessens musical ability\ninstead of increasing it, and the experimenters ask: ''Are the usual methods\nfor training in the technic of an instrument detrimental to the ability for\nmusical expression?\" Is any- method that is connected with an art\nharmless ? I can conceive as a bare possibility that any method in some\nsubjects might not injure the child; but in music — ! Bagley, I think it is,\nsays something to this effect: \"The reason our result in the teaching of\nthe arts is so barren is that we appear to be teaching the arts with the same\nmethod we use in teaching mathematics.\"\nIn the report on music in the schools, referred to in the beginning of this\npaper, Mr. Earhart makes a telling note under the query, \"What are the\nsteps in your method of teaching children in primary grades to sing by\nnote?\"\nHe says:\nThe replies were most disheartening because of the revelation they brought of a\ndeplorable lack of pedagogical training and understanding. It is not that faulty methods\nwere revealed, for it is not the intention here to imply that any well-considered and welladministered method is wrong; but the absence of any method, the lack of any known\nreason for the features of practice adopted, with the implication this carries of wasted\nhours, injudicious and untimely effort, uncertain and wavering procedure — this is\nlamentable.\n\nIf in just these matters of material and method we might have a scientifically determined basis for our teaching we would save inestimable time\nand energy which we are now expending in haphazard usage.\nWe need a sound basis for arguments to use with school boards and\nwith our communities, and those arguments should be founded on wide\nexperiments whose results are carefully evaluated and put within the\nreach of all communities. Why cannot it be done on a large scale and put\nforward with authority? Of the eighteen million children of school age,\nonly five millions, I believe, are taught music in school. The other thirteen\nmillions are mostly in rural districts and in so-called private schools. On\nthe proposed program of the Music Supervisors National Conference\nthere is a suggested topic, \"How to introduce music into schools which at\npresent have none?\" How can we approach school boards and superintendents with arguments for school music until we can afi&rm that educational opinion has defined our aim and suggested our method ? Recently\na music supervisor was selected by some visiting board members, who chose\nher because they said they could see definite work in each grade. Askt\nwhat the definite work was, they said, \"Each grade could read harder songs\n\n"}
{"page": 607, "printed_page": "595", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nCHILD\n\nVOICE\n\n595\n\nthan the one before it, and besides, she was pleasant to the children.\"\nThese were honest men seeking the best person possible; but the aims of\npublic-school music were not known to them, and they lookt for only one\nresult. I am not decrying the result — I am only regretting that only\none result was lookt for. Suppose we could mail to each inquiring school\nboard a definite statement of the aim in public-school music with a minimum\noutline for accomplishment? Suppose we could tell them in just what\nplaces in the community they might expect this training to function?\nSuppose we offered definite help for the improvement of all communitymusic agencies, beginning with the church and Sunday school — the latter\noften the most powerful rural agency? This help should come with\nauthority — it should have force because of the educational consensus of\nopinion behind it. This help is what community-music bureaus aim to\ngive. We have several now, well establisht. What we need is a chain\nof operating bureaus giving such help a national force. And then we need\na publicity committee to let the general public know where it can find the\nhelp. A very earnest woman from a small town in the Far West is interested\nin school music because she has children in school and she herself is a\nmusician. She is organizing \"community-song evenings\" in the place,\nbecause she believes this the quickest way to stimulate music interest of\nall kinds. She said she was at an utter loss what to sing — she had never\nheard of the Eighteen Songs for Community Singing nor of the Music\nSupervisors National Conference. Only a few weeks ago a supervisor said\nhe wisht there was any kind of reliable information regarding the kind of\nmusic for high-school curriculums. Organization and publicity for the\nfurtherance of information about people's music — not musicians' music\nbut people's music — these are two things we need. In closing, therefore,\nI make the following suggestions, which look (i) toward a better evaluation\nof our own material and methods in the schoolroom, and (2) toward a\ndefinite organization and publicity for the help of the public:\n1. That it would be well to appoint a committee of ten to formulate a\nvery simple statement of ideas in school music which any layman may\nunderstand; that this statement append a definite minimum requirement\nas to artistic aims and sight-reading aim.\n2. That the school-music section of the National Education Association and of the Music Teachers National Association, together with the\nMusic Supervisors National Conference appoint a joint committee looking\nto the establishment of some long-continued experiments in various sightreading methods; that before any method is tried it shall have a pedagogic\nand psychological approval, so that theoretically it may be correct before\nit is tried out in practice; that an able member of the Department of\nChild-Study, Pedagogy, and Psychology, with an artistic musician, be askt\nto serve as an additional advisory committee so that expert scrutiny of\nevery detail may be made. This committee must also experiment with\n\n"}
{"page": 608, "printed_page": "596", "text": "596\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nthe preliminaries (quality and amount of music) which a child should have\nbefore beginning reading.\n3. That the Music Supervisors National Conference, the Music Section\nof the National Education Association, and the Pubhc-School Music\nDepartment of the Music Teachers National Association would make a\nvaluable contribution to school music and to all musical education if they\nshould appoint committees to formulate statements of the ideals, principles,\nand features of practice appropriate to the several courses, to the end that\nsupervisors could choose wisely one path or another, and then within that\npath could adopt methods of procedure that would be consonant with the\nideals, of course, and therefore efficient and successful.\n4. That these same three agencies (Music Teachers National Association, National Education Association, and Music Supervisors National\nConference) appoint a committee to formulate ways of obtaining the\ncooperation and support of all possible agencies for the improvement of\nAmerican speech in tone, quality, and enunciation.\n5. That these three agencies urge a song- vocabulary of not more than\ntwelve songs, which we will endeavor to give a nation-wide use in school\nand out; these songs to be artistic and ethical, satisfying to a musician\nand to an educator, and to be absolutely committed to memory.\n6. That these three agencies appoint a committee to look into the\nmatter of song material for Sunday schools. This has been done by the\nMusic Supervisors National Conference under a most able committee, but\nthe work needs support, for most Sunday schools use publications of their\nown pubHshing boards.\n7. That the community-music bureaus thruout the country cooperate\nto formulate ways of helping the cause of people's music specially.\n8. That the three organizations appoint a joint publicity committee to\nfind ways of bringing musical help before the public. Mr. Dykema has done\na nice and wise thing when, in his capacity of president of the Music Supervisors National Conference, he appointed'an adviser in each state to look after\nthe cause of music in the state. We need an organization that will have\nits workers in every state to bring home to the community in simple, direct\nways the best thought in music for school and community.\nIn conclusion I would say that life is a whole, the school is a part of life,\nand to improve the whole environment is often the quickest way to improve\none's teaching.\nMUSIC\nOTTO\n\nKINKELDEY,\n\nEDUCATION\nCHIEF\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nOF THE MUSIC DIVISION, NEW\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nLIBRARIES\nYORK\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nThe problem of education has a twofold aspect. There is, first, that\nphase of the subject which involves the direct contact between teacher and\npupil in the schoolroom or elsewhere. It is the problem with which the\n\n"}
{"page": 609, "printed_page": "597", "text": "Department]\n\nMUSIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n597\n\nteacher, as such, is most directly concerned, and with which, as a rule,\neducators have chiefly concerned themselves. But direct teaching by word\nof mouth is not the only factor in the education of a nation. There is\nanother which is not less important. In every community there are individuals whose thirst for knowledge and whose desire to advance themselves\ndo not stop with the cessation of instruction in the classroom. In fact,\none mark of a teacher's success may be discerned in the extent to which he\nhas inspired his pupils to go on learning by themselves. In our struggle\nwith the more immediate problems of pedagogy we are prone to forget\nthe importance of the work of self-education, its significance for ourselves\nas teachers, and its value to the pupils who are in, or who have past out\nof, our care. After all, the measure of the intellectual stature, of the mental\ncaliber, of a nation, is to be found, not in the amount of knowledge which\nhas been poured into its people in the classroom, but in the intensity and\ngenuineness of their desire to improve their own minds, and in the degree of\ntheir success in satisfying that desire.\nThe chief instruments in this process of self-education are books. Its\nmethod is that of many-sided, but systematic, reading and study. The\ninstitution which offers the easiest access to the means of study is the library.\nWith respect to the organization of these means for popular self-education,\nwe in America are more fortunate than the people of many European countries. Our American libraries have made great and well-directed efforts\nto foster the ideal of popular education. Access to books has been made far\neasier here than in most European libraries, which have remained primarily\nscholars' libraries.\nUnfortunately for us who are interested in music, the development in\nour libraries and in the use of those libraries has not been uniform in all\nfields of mental activity. Along literary and scientific, along social, economic, and political lines, our libraries have done superior work; but the\nfield of art, of musical art, at any rate, has been comparatively little cultivated. This is not entirely the fault of the libraries. It is due in great\nmeasure to the demands of the people who use them, to the lack of activity\non the part of those who profess to be interested in music.\nThere are some factors which make the use of musical works more difficult than that of other books, even of books dealing with the other arts.\nBut even tho we recognize this difficulty, there is no reason why it should\nnot be possible in every good-sized community to have access to a public\nlibrary, at any rate to the classics, for the voice and for such instruments\nas the piano and the violin. And in larger cities, which enjoy orchestral\nconcerts or opera, even the orchestral scores and the vocal scores of the\ngreat masters should be available for the student.\nThere are in America just a few fairly large pubhc music collections, such\nas those in the Public Library at Boston, the New York PubUc Library, the\nLibrary of Congress at Washington, and the Newberry Library at Chicago.\n\n"}
{"page": 610, "printed_page": "598", "text": "598\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nTo these we might add a few of the university libraries. Some of the circulating libraries in the smaller cities, as well as in the large cities named,\nhave attempted to provide material for musical readers. Some libraries\nhave begun to circulate the perforated rolls used on player pianos and\nrecords for phonographic instruments. Some have even tried to encourage\nthe use of these latter by practical exhibitions, little weekly recitals, which\nare a parallel to the weekly story-telling hour which many of our libraries\nhave establisht for children.\nThis is evidence that the awakening of the musical sense of our ordinary\ncitizens, which has markt the last few decades, has not been disregarded by\nour libraries. But much remains to be done. And it is for you as teachers\nto do your share in fostering the newly awakened sense and to call upon\nthe libraries to aid you. All these new movements for the study of school\nmusic, community music, and folk-song, and for work in what is called\nappreciation, could be materially advanst if the libraries, especially in the\nsmaller cities and towns, provided suitable material, and if (this is every\nbit as important) that material were put to use. I call upon you teachers\nto use your influence with librarians, boards of trustees, town councilors,\nboards of education, or whatever other authority regulates the purchase of\nbooks, to secure aid in this matter and by your own efforts to see to it that,\nwhere your appeal has been heeded, the books do not remain on the shelf\nto be covered with dust. I might add that there is not a single large library,\nlike those I have mentioned, which would not joyfully aid such efforts by\nmaking suggestions, quoting prices, or giving advice as to the handling of\nmusical material; and they would one and all welcome the appeal which\nmight come to them either thru you directly or thru your library.\nIt has just been intimated that the presence of books on the shelves is\nnot enough. The books must be used. And here we touch one of the sorest\nspots in our whole American educational and intellectual life, particularly\nthat second aspect of the problem before emphasized — study and selfimprovement. Here we fall far behind European nations, in which the\nwork of seK-education is beset with greater difficulties than in America.\nWe want to get our knowledge too easily. We are not willing to work hard\nand systematically for it. We like to take it in tabloid form with no effort\nat digestion or assimilation. We would rather have someone lecture to us\nabout it than dig for it ourselves. And as to the quaHty or fitness of the\nlecturer we are too often absolutely uncritical, provided only he be entertaining. That is particularly and painfully true in the field of music.\nThere is an appalling number of people in our country lecturing on musical\nsubjects or writing in our magazines whose whole knowledge of the matter\nthey pretend to teach or to comment upon is gathered from some one book.\nIn my short experience as the custodian of the musical books in the\nNew York Public Library it has happened repeatedly that a reader, coming into the Music Division and introducing himself with the remark, \"I\n\n"}
{"page": 611, "printed_page": "599", "text": "Department!\n\nMUSIC\n\nEDUCATION\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n599\n\nam preparing a lecture on folk-song\" or on some other topic, askt, \"Which\nis the best book on the subject?\" When several books were put before\nhim, instead of trying to become familiar with them he repeated his query,\n''Which is considered the best?\" and then, if one were recommended, particularly it\nf were a small book, he would push aside the rest and make no\neffort to get beyond that one. Of course, there are exceptions, but they\nserve only to make such instances as I have mentioned seem more shocking.\nAs it is with the teacher so it is with the pupil. So far as mere technical\nmatters are concerned, our American music students as a whole compare\nvery favorably with European students. We turn out numerous musicians\nwhose voices and whose finders can do as startUng things as voices and\nfingers across the ocean. But that, in many cases, is all our students care\nabout. In matters of musical knowledge, taste, and judgment they are\nfar behind their European cousins. It is true that many of our music\nschools have compulsory courses in subjects that look toward a broader\nmusical culture, but — and I say this in all seriousness and with all the\nemphasis I can give it— our average music student does not care enough\nfor the deeper things of his art, and cares still less to spend any great part\nof his time in those more serious studies, which are not of immediate use\nfrom the viewpoint of technique, but which are absolutely necessary to the\nbroadening of his musical horizon.\nOur so-called musical public is in no better case. Its musical life is\ncentered almost wholly in the opera house, the concert hall, or other place\nof public musical performance. It cares for nothing but the highly paid\nopera singer, the astonishing virtuoso, for much-advertised or much-criticized\nmusical works — in fine, for the spectacular and sensational side of the art.\nSo long as the various new impulses which our national musical Hfe\nhas received, so long as the new interest and enthusiasm with which our\npeople have responded to those impulses do not find a counterbalance to\nthis external glamor in the quiet work of the study and the library, in the\neffort of the individual music teacher, music student, and music-lover to\nacquire a broader view and a deeper comprehension of his art (such as the\nintelligent perusal of the classics and of many good books on music alone\ncan bring), all signs of awakening and of progress will be but a flash in the\npan. The effort will be vain. The benefit cannot be lasting.\nIn this connection we come to the difficulty upon which I toucht before.\nIt is almost useless to read about music so long as the musical signs which we\nsee before us on the printed page mean nothing to us; so long as the musical\nsounds represented by the notes do not assume a living presence in our inner\nconsciousness. Here again my experience in a large public music library\nhas revealed to me a most surprising condition of affairs. It has happened\nto me repeatedly that writers on music, even such as enjoyed a fair reputation, were almost utterly helpless before a page of music without the aid\nof an instrument.\nThey could repeat glibly the things they had read in\n\n"}
{"page": 612, "printed_page": "600", "text": "6oo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nbooks about a musical work, but they were powerless to hear the sound and\nto divine the meaning of a few bars of even fairly simple music which they\nhad before them. One theologian who talkt learnedly about hymns and\nhymn tunes, and who was in search of a particular tune, askt, when several\ncompositions were laid before him to choose from, ''Have you a piano\nhandy?\nI want to see how this sounds.\"\nThe extent of this musical illiteracy, even among students in our higher\ninstitutions of musical training, would astound the uninitiated. We try\nto teach our children to appreciate the beauties of Longfellow and Tennyson\nin school. But we also teach them to read, so that they may help themselves todo this. We expect them to be able by their own reading to comprehend ina measure the greatness of an epic by Milton or of the dramas\nof Shakespeare. We do not wait until they have seen performances upon\nthe stage of every play by Shakespeare, nor until someone has recited for\nthem the whole of Paradise Lost. To be sure, the art of reading ordinary\nwords has other and more practical uses than this, but even so the parallel\nbetween ordinary reading and the reading of music is not so far-fetcht.\nEven the most elementary musical education, such as we attempt to give\nthose of our school children who have any musical instinct at all, must fall\nshort of the ideal if it fails to enable them to make their own, by their own\nunaided efforts, such simple music as their intellects can grasp. And any\nfurther advance in the musical capacity of the nation will be impossible\nif this fundamental faculty be neglected. The stigma of illiteracy is for\nthe music-lover as great, comparatively speaking, in his art, as ordinary\nilUteracy is for any civilized nation.\nIn closing I would utter a twofold plea to you as musical educators:\nIn the first place, let your own work in musical self-education be such that\nyour musical horizon may become wider, your interests more manifold, and\nyour feehng and comprehension deeper. Be willing to devote some of your\ntime to conscientious reading and serious study. Do not hesitate to make\nuse of the collections of books and of the custodians of these collections,\nwhich are always at your service. It matters little where you begin, if\nonly you do not stand still. And in the second place, see to it that the\npupils who come under your care learn to read, that they may not be so\nutterly helpless, as they too often are, when their turn comes to increase\ntheir knowledge and to widen their horizon for themselves.\nTHE PSYCHOLOGY\nMARGARET\n\nOF ESTHETIC\n\nFLOY WASHBURN,\n\nEXPERIENCE\n\nPROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY,\nPOUGHKEEPSIE,\nN.Y.\n\nIN MUSIC\nVASSAR\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nIt is only a moderate statement of the difficulties involved in the psychology ofmusic to say that the problem of human enjoyment is one of the\nmost puzzling that psychology encounters; the problem of esthetic enjoy-\n\n"}
{"page": 613, "printed_page": "601", "text": "Department]\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF ESTHETIC\n\nEXPERIENCE\n\nIN MUSIC\n\n6oi\n\nment is harder than that of any other form of enjoyment, and musical\nenjoyment is apparently the most mysterious form of esthetic enjoyment.\nMoreover, the researches of very recent years have revealed an unexpected\ncomplexity in the problems of tone sensation itseK, so that while a\npsychological textbook of a few years ago speaks simply about the pitch of\ntones, one publisht last year requires the student to distinguish between\npitch, tonal character, and mellowness or shrillness of a tone.\nIt is not my plan to discuss the general problem of the esthetic experience at all this morning. I shall confine myself to two aspects of the\nesthetic experience as derived from music, namely, the relation of music to\npleasure, and the relation of music to the complexer emotions. And I shall\nfurther limit myself to the discussion of one question with regard to these two\naspects of music, namely: In what respect, if any, is it true that the\npleasantness of music and the emotional appeal of music depend on laws\nthat have no validity anywhere else in our experience ? How far, in other\nwords, is the musical experience really unique and mysterious; how far is it\nan illustration of more general psychological laws ?\nYou will appreciate the distinction I have drawn between the significance\nof music for pleasure and its significance for the complexer emotions. It\nis a distinction which we must draw in the case of all the higher arts. The\neffect of a great work of art such as Hamlet or the Fifth Symphony would\nbe very inadequately described by calling it pleasant; it should indeed not\nleave an unpleasant impression, but its main function is to stir up much\ndeeper and more complex emotions. We shall therefore consider (i) how\nfar musical enjoyment or pleasure depends on principles not governing\nour other enjoyments, and (2) how far and why the relation of music to\nemotion is unique.\nWhat are the general laws of human enjoyment? Amid all the contradictions ofindividual tastes one central generalization does emerge.\nOur likes and dislikes are, broadly speaking, connected with the welfare\neither of the individual or of the species. On the whole, the things which we\nfind agreeable are the things which are actually beneficial to us. It seems\nseK-evident, if there is any truth in the doctrine of the survival of the fittest,\nthat such creatures as likt, and therefore sought, the things that harmed\nthem should have perisht; and that surviving animals should therefore\nbe those with a natural taste for the normal. If we can show with regard\nto any source of pleasure that it contributes to the welfare of the organism,\nwe feel that we have approacht as nearly as possible an explanation. We\ndislike all forms of stimulation that are too intense or too long continued;\nintense and prolonged stimulation acts unfavorably on the nervous apparatus. We dislike rapidly intermittent stimulation, such as that given by\ntouching a rough surface or looking at a flickering light; this kind of stimulation, too, may readily be conjectured to be injurious. We like anything that\nsuggests to us free and unhampered movement; we dislike anything which,\n\n"}
{"page": 614, "printed_page": "602", "text": "6o2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Music\n\nlike a Cubist picture or a moral dilemma, throws us into a baffled and uncertain motor attitude. It is bad for us to be baffled and uncertain; it is\ntherefore unpleasant. Further, we like to recognize the famihar in the\nmidst of the novel; the familiar is the safe, the beneficial. We hate to be\nsurprised; we like to have our expectations satisfied. Surprise is, under\nprimitive conditions of life, a dangerous experience. On the other hand,\nthe too familiar becomes the fatiguing; thus temperaments fall into opposed\nclasses, one of which enjoys the familiar and hates the new, while the other,\nmore readily fatigable, is less unpleasantly affected by surprise.\nSuch, then, are some of the corollaries, applying in all departments of\nour experience, of the principle that we like what is good for us. Can\nmusical enjoyment be wholly derived from these corollaries, or does it\ndemand laws of its own ? One of the first points to be noted with regard\nto musical enjoyment is the pleasantness of thc'raw material of music, the\nsingle tone sensation. A simple tone, struck on a tuning fork, has a quaUty\nof agreeableness perhaps greater than that belonging to any other equally\nsimple sense experience. When we were children, seizing for a few instants\nthe forbidden joy of drumming on the piano, our unjaded senses, as Kenneth\nGrahame has reminded us in The Golden Age, appreciated to the full the\ndelightful quaUty of the single musical tone. \"The pure, absolute quality\nand nature of each note in itseK are only appreciated by the strummer.\"\nAltho the freshness of childhood is needed for the full savoring of the pleasantness ofa single tone, yet no one who is really capable of hearing tones can\nconceive that a musical tone of moderate pitch, loudness, and duration can\nbe anything but pleasant.\nIs there, now, any connection between the natural pleasantness of the\nsingle tone and the general laws of human enjoyment ? Such a connection\nhas been suggested by Vernon Lee, with the principle that our enjoyment\nof sensations is dulled by too great familiarity. Musical tones, compared\nwith other sensations, are rare experiences, and have not had a chance to\nlose their native delightfulness. This suggestion would find support if, as\nsome recent researches indicate, the sensory apparatus for tones should turn\nout to be quite different from that for noise. In any case the pleasantness of\ntones is connected with a rarely used and hence wholly unfatigued mode of\nfunctioning of a sense organ. Another way in which the comparative rarity\nof tone experiences may be made to account for their pleasantness, in accordance with general psychological laws, would be thru the fact that tone\nsensations as such have no disagreeable associations. Certain single colors\nthat would otherwise be agreeable are unpleasant because of the objects they\nsuggest: thus a dark yellow is the color of mud. Single tones have no such\nsuggestions as these.\nWhile, then, musical enjoyment has as a peculiar asset the naturally\nagreeable character of single tone sensations, this character may be traced\nto the working of a general psychological law not confined to tonal experi-\n\n"}
{"page": 615, "printed_page": "603", "text": "Department)\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF ESTHETIC\n\nEXPERIENCE\n\nIN MUSIC\n\n603\n\nence — the law that a sensation from an unfatigued sense organ, with no\nunpleasant associations, is naturally agreeable. A more complicated problem is presented by the pleasantness or unpleasantness of tone-combinations, simultaneous and successive. All theories of consonance make some\nattempt to refer the cause of the agreeableness or disagreeableness that is\nproduced when two tones are sounded together to laws that transcend\nthe field of music and are based on human nature as a whole; but some\ntheories must travel a long and weary road of speculation before the connection isestablisht. For example, Stumpf finds that consonant tone\nintervals are those in which the two tones sound most like one — those which\nhave what he calls the greatest fusion degree. In the dissonant intervals\nof the second and the seventh it is apparent to the ear that there are two\ndistinct tones. In the supremely consonant interval of the octave, on the\nother hand, the two tones blend almost indistinguishably, and the intervals\nof the fifth and major third make an impression of greater singleness and\nsimplicity than do the second and seventh. But there is no obvious reason\nwhy simplicity of impression should be more agreeable than a reasonable\ndegree of complexity. We do not enjoy a solo more than a duet. It is only\ndissonant complexity that is disagreeable, which leaves the question where\nit was before. Much theorizing, into which we have not time to follow him,\nis needed to enable Stumpf to bring the pleasantness of consonance into\nrelation with any other esthetic principle. A similar criticism may be\nmade of another famous theory, that suggested by Lipps. As you all know,\nthe vibration rates of the air waves that produce the tones used in the\nmusical scale stand in certain fixt ratios to one another. If the vibration\nrate of the first tone in the octave be regarded as i, that of the\noctave above will be 2. The ratio of the rate of a tone to that of the fifth\ntone above it is 2 to 3 ; that of a tone to the major third above it is 4 to 5 ;\nthat of a tone to the fourth above it is 4 to 3. Thus the pleasant or consonant tone-combinations are those whose vibration rates stand in simple\nratios. On the other hand, the tones which are unpleasant when sounded\ntogether have their vibration rates in complex ratios; the minor second\nhas the ratio 16 to 15; the major second the ratio 9 to 8; the seventh, the\nratio 15 to 8. Lipps says that a tone-combination is pleasanter the simpler\nthe ratio of the vibration rates of the tones combined. But how can this\nbe when people who are perfectly ignorant of the simplicity or complexity\nof these ratios still find fourths agreeable and sevenths disagreeable ? It is\na matter, Lipps says, of unconscious rhythm. If two vibrations, falling on\nthe ear, have frequencies that are in a simple ratio, such as i to 2, every\nsecond nervous impulse will coincide; if the ratio is complex, like 8 to 15,\nthere will be a perfectly irregular and unrhythmic excitation. Altho we\nare not conscious of this rhythm as such, yet Lipps seems to think we can\nexplain it as we explain our enjoyment of the consciously experienst rhythm\nof a drum.\nCertainly this is a far-fetcht and unattractive hypothesis.\n\n"}
{"page": 616, "printed_page": "604", "text": "6o4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nOne hesitates to simplify where such authorities as Stumpf and Lipps\nhave found it impossible to do so, yet I cannot refrain from hoping that in\nplace of fusion degree or unconscious rhythm some of the principles which\nwe have already mentioned may be found sufficient to explain the pleasantness or unpleasantness of tone-combinations. One of these principles is\nthat we like what we are used to, so long as its familiarity is not so great as\nto pass over into fatigue. We are all thoroly used to the intervals which\nhave the highest degree of consonance, namely, the octave, the fifth, and the\nmajor third, not because they are used in music, but because nature constantly provides them for us as partial tones. The first overtone is the octave,\nthe second overtone is the fifth, the third overtone is the second octave, the\nfourth overtone is the major third. To these tone-combinations our ears\nare forst to respond in the great majority of cases where tones are heard.\nThe cross-principle, that we grow fatigued with the too familiar, will explain\na whole series of phenomena in the range of musical appreciation, from the\nfact that most people find the octave and fifth insipid compared with the\nfourth, to the fact that some people find Haydn insipid compared to Richard\nStrauss.\nAgain, one of the earliest theories of consonance, that of Helmholtz,\ncorrelated the disagreeableness of a dissonance, such as the second or the\nseventh, with the law that all rapidly intermittent stimulation is unpleasant\nbecause somehow injurious to the nervous apparatus. Dissonant intervals,\nhe held, always involve the roughness of beats, either between the fundamental tones or their overtones, and the disagreeableness of beats is like that\nof a rough surface or a flickering light. One of the most recent theories —\nthat of Krueger — seems to explain consonance as due to the absence of\ninterference from difference tones. There is some experimental evidence\nagainst the supposition that beats are the source of dissonance, but\ninto this we have not time to go. If all unpleasant tone-combinations\nare those which produce fatiguing interference phenomena, such as beats,\none would have to explain the pleasantness of consonant-combinations\non the same principle that makes the single tone an agreeable experience— if a single tone is pleasant, the more tones we hear simultaneously\nwithout disagreeable roughnesses due to interference the more pleasure\nwe get.\nThis principle, again, may be applied to the theories which relate the\nagreeable character of a consonant interval to what is called tone relationship.\nTwo tones are more nearly related the more overtones or partial tones they\nhave in common. Since all the overtones of the upper tone in an octave\nare also overtones of the lower tone, the octave has the greatest degree of\ndirect tone relationship: the upper tone of the fifth has four overtones in\ncommon with the lower tone within the compass of three octaves, while\nthe dissonant intervals of seventh and minor second have no common overtones at all. When overtones do not coincide, we may get interference\n\n"}
{"page": 617, "printed_page": "605", "text": "Department)\n\nPSYCHOLOGY\n\nOF ESTHETIC\n\nEXPERIENCE\n\nIN MUSIC\n\n605\n\nphenomena; when they do coincide, we get more pleasantness because\nmore tones are present.\nOn the whole, it seems probable that all the facts regarding the pleasantness of simultaneous tone-combinations may be derived from laws whose\ngenerality transcends the special field of music. The same may be said, I\nthink, of the pleasantness of successive tone-combinations. There are\ntwo groups of facts which fall under this head : the facts of melody and those\nof rhythm. Authorities on musical esthetics tend to explain melody on the\nsame principle that they use to explain consonance; thus Lipps applies the\nlaw of simple ratios, and Stumpf even declares that fusion occurs between\none tone and the memory image of its predecessor. There is, however,\nthe added problem as to how a melody, a series of tones, gains unity for the\nmind. Apparently the agreeableness of recognition applies to our satisfaction with the return to the tonic; we enjoy everywhere and always the\nsafe return to a recognized starting-point after wanderings. Thus we\nenjoy the recurrence of a musical phrase in a composition as we enjoy the\nrecurrence of a motive in a decoration; to recognize in the midst of diversity\nis a reassuring experience. The pleasantness of a rhythmic series of sounds,\nas distinct from its deeper emotional appeal, of which I shall speak presently,\nrests mainly on two principles: first, there is the law that we enjoy whatever\nsuggests free and unhampered bodily movement, as we enjoy the upward\nsweep of the Gothic arch. Free movement, owing to the construction of the\nhuman body, is naturally rhythmic; unrhythmic movements are for the\nmost part constrained and difficult. The second principle is that we like\nto have our expectations satisfied. We like not only to meet the same\nmotive repeated in a decoration, but to have it recur at equal and symmetrical intervals, just when we expect it. A rhythmic series of sounds\nis one in which the accents occur just when we expect them. In an\nunrhythmic series, we feel precisely the same kind of irritation that we\nexperience when someone makes a mistake in a familiar quotation. The\ndisappointment of expectation is closely related to that primitively\ndangerous experience of surprise.\nI think we may sum up a discussion of the sources of musical pleasure by\nsaying that all of them are sources not peculiar to music. We enjoy music\nfor the same reasons that we enjoy other things. There is a problem of\nmusical enjoyment — a problem of great complexity — but there is no mystery of musical enjoyment. The case is somewhat different with regard to\nour second topic, of which I must speak in a very few words — the emotional\nappeal of music.\nThe uniqueness of music's appeal to the emotions is, as you all know, its\npower to reach them directly. It gets at them without the use of any associations derived from the individual's experience. The other arts suggest\nemotion to us by giving us thoughts or mental pictures which our past\npersonal history has associated with emotions. The musician cannot sug-\n\n"}
{"page": 618, "printed_page": "606", "text": "6o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\ngest thoughts, except musical thoughts, and he cannot suggest imagery with\nany definiteness. In an investigation carried out by Weld, at Clark University, a piece of music of the most pronounst program type, intended to describe ahunting scene, called up in its hearers images of a circus, an auction\nsale, an amusement park, and a battle. Yet there is no such inconsistency\nin the emotions and moods awakened by music. Since, then, its emotional\nappeal is thus independent of association with individual experience, it must\nbe based on racial experience.\nI believe that this direct appeal to emotion, which constitutes, if anything does, the real mystery of music, is due to its profound and ancient\nsocial significance. Herbert Spencer, you know, found the origin of music\nin impassioned speech, and Stumpf derives it from signal calls. These\ntheories tell only a part of the truth, but we cannot overlook the fact that the\nsense of hearing has a more direct hold than any other sense on our emotions,\nbecause it is the medium of human communication, the means by which\none soul reaches another; and nothing in the world is so compelling to the\nemotions as the mind of another human being. Again, as you know,\nWallaschek accused Spencer of leaving out of his theory the most fundamental element in music, rhythm. We must not omit rhythm in speaking of\nthe emotional appeal of music. And the emotional power of rhythm is\nderived from the immense emotional power of the mob. All concerted\naction by a mass of individuals must be rhythmic. In the wild dances of\nprimitive man, in which the individual merges himself in the crowd and feels\nhis powers increast a thousand fold by the contagion of its emotions, we\nfind the source of the magic of rhythm. The sense of hearing reaches the\nemotions directly because it is the medium of social intercourse; musical\nsound is the kind of sound that is produced under the stress of emotion;\nrhythmic sound means that/ the emotion is magnified and exalted by being\nshared with a whole mass of one's fellow-beings.\nMECHANICAL\nLEO\n\nRICH\n\nINVENTIONS AS AN AID TO THE\nTEACHING OF MUSIC\n\nLEWIS,\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF\nTUFTS\nCOLLEGE,\n\nMUSIC,\nMASS.\n\nTUFTS\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nLet me give you a few results of twenty-four years of belief in automatic instruments. Let us first observe that there are three different\nuses of these instruments: (i) in concert, (2) in classroom demonstration, and (3) in the ^'laboratory.\" As to the first, these instruments, in\ntheir most recent developments and in the hands of a skilled performer,\ncan do remarkable things. Educationally, these possibilities are of importance, but not of prime importance. As to the second, they make it possible\nfor the technically unskilled but well-informed teacher to present to a class\n\n"}
{"page": 619, "printed_page": "607", "text": "Departmentl\n\nMECHANICAL\n\nINVENTIONS\n\nIN TEACHING\n\nMUSIC\n\n607\n\nthe representative works of all periods of the art, and, with the aid of copious\nexisting literature concerning music, to lay a firm foundation of musical\ntaste. But the third phase of their usefulness is, it seems to me, the most\nimportant. These instruments make it possible for the student to study\nmusic exactly as he studies biology, physics, chemistry.\nBut these devices are doing more than that. They are helping us to\npractice principles of pedagogy which are now, as it seems to me, being\ntoo much neglected. I may be in error, but, in viewing the course of things\npedagogical, I seem to find that we are failing to devote our attention to the\norganization of the mind. We make millions of imprest minds, but few\norganized minds. We college people are finding it necessary to do what the\nsecondary schools have been supposed to do in many branches; and, even\nat that, we are finding ourselves unable to develop a real power to \" tackle\"\na new problem. We can blame no one, certainly no individual teacher.\nBut, in music, I prize the automatic instrument because it can fully and\ndefinitely organize the mind as to musical art; and I confess an intense\nregret that it is not more generally used specifically to that end. But I\nmust not Hnger on this topic. It would lead us too far afield.\nBut you have, in the automatic player, the means by which the pupil\ncan clarify his own ideas. And you naturally ask, \"Do you expect that we\nshall have player pianos in such abundance that every student shall have\nthat opportunity?\" My answer is: \"Probably not ievery student in the\nschool, for not every student will wish to study music; but I do believe\nthat not until we accept the principle that only by such laboratory methods\ncan any fruitful study of the art be attained shall we be making real progress toward a respectable minimum of attainment in the study of music —\nnot in the performance of music, which department is now fairly well provided for.\nAnd let me mention one other point of the many which might be taken\nup if time allowed. I select this point because I have not seen it discust\nanywhere. As things are at present in our schools, pupils are restricted\nto acquaintance with music which they themselves can perform, and largely\nto vocal music. The great monuments of the art are never presented to\nthem unless they live in a large city. It is as tho in the study of EngHsh\nno Shakespeare, no Milton, could be studied, but only the lesser masters,\nor passages of the great authors, \"arranged for school use.\" What a\nchange in this respect is bound to come when the possibilities of automatic\ninstruments are thoroly understood by those in charge of our schools!\nAnd yet the possibilities of the player piano are not exhausted as to\nshowing features of interpretation, for the recording instruments can bring\nto us characteristic renderings by great artists; and the talking machine\ncan be of the greatest service in presenting vocal works of all sorts. These\nmatters claim our attention here less than others, however, because we are\ncontinually reminded of them by the manufacturers of the instruments.\n\n"}
{"page": 620, "printed_page": "608", "text": "6o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nIndeed, I have sometimes thought that the enthusiastic emphasizing of\nthese wonders of the inventor's art prevented our seeing the value of the\nmachines in the less fascinating but more serviceable phases of music-study.\nHere we are in the midst of an epoch which we confess ourselves\nunable to grasp. Not merely do world-convulsions daze us, but we look\nalmost despairingly upon the future of a movie-educated generation, with\nimprest, but unorganized, minds, and we wonder whence shall come the\nforce which shall keep alive in the world the educational ideals which\nare so dear as well as definite to us, no matter how imperfectly we have been\nable to realize them. The pessimist has a right to be limply hopeless. And\nyet who shall say that the spirit of this careless, but marvelously inventive,\nage, this materialistically imaginative epoch, has not begotten a child that\nshall have power to keep alive the very art which, in view of the tendencies\nof the times, seemed most likely to languish. That the Siegfried of the\nimmediate future of music should be a machine is no more unfitting than\nthat the hero of the present war should be a machine. Let us rally to the\nMachine's support with the conviction that its influence can be wholly\nbeneficent, if we so will it.\n\nTHE FOLK-SONG\nLUISE HAESSLER,\n\nASSISTANT\n\nPROFESSOR OF GERMAN,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nHUNTER\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nWhat is a folk-song? The word itself sounds almost as foreign as\n'^ fatherland,\" altho the former is applied to all countries, while the latter\nis practically a proper noun. It is perhaps because of the recent naturalization of the word \"folk-song\" that the New English Dictionary does not\nmention it under a separate head, but only as an illustration of the meanings\nof folk, ''current or existing among the people; as folk-belief; -custom,\n-literature, -name, -song, -speech, &c.\"\nThe German word Volkslied^ of which folk-song is a translation, was\nprobably first used by Herder in the little pamphlet Von deutscher Art und\nKunst, publisht in 1773; hence about a hundred years before it was translated into English. Interest in the folk-song, however, goes back to 1580,\nalmost two hundred years before Herder. Almost simultaneously Montaigne, inFrance, to whom Herder himself refers, and Sir PhiUp Sidney, in\nEngland, speak approvingly of the folk-song, but do not as yet distinguish\nits character from that of the art song. In 171 1 Addison tells us in the\nSpectator of his delight in the songs of the common people. It is a significant fact that Herder's great interest in the folk-song, and that of his\ndisciples, arose at a time when Rousseau had electrified the world with his\ncry, \"Back to nature.\"\n\nBut the direct impulse was given by the publica-\n\n"}
{"page": 621, "printed_page": "609", "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nFOLK-SONG\n\n609\n\ntion of Percy's Reliques of Ancient English Poetry in 1765, and of MacPherson's Ossian. Herder was not always consistent in his conception of the\nfolk-song, but on the whole we may state his idea of a typical folk-song as\nfollows: Any song of an author, known or unknown, that could be sung,\nespecially one that was really sung by the people unspoiled by education,\nreflecting the character of these people in its natural, passionate, lively\ncontent, and its simple, partly imperfect, form.\nThe Romanticists cast a veil of mysticism especially about the origin\nof the folk-song, the ill effects of which have not wholly disappeared even\nin our own time. Their notion, however, that the folk-song was somehow\nproduced by the common people as a whole is entirely exploded. The\ncreator of a song is always an individual who stands out above the surrounding multitude. He is the gifted one. And it is gratifying to know that\nwomen play a prominent part in the creation of the folk-song; that in\nmany, if not in most, cases they are the sole creators. There is no better\nanswer to the assertion so frequently made that women have no creative\nfaculty. Let those who have any doubt in the matter read chapter vii in\nBockel's Psychologie der Volksdichtung: Die Frauen und ihr Anteil am Volksgesang, and chapter viii in Biicher's Arbeit und Rhythmus — Frauenarbeit und\nFrauendichtung.\nIt is a source of pride, too, to know thaf a woman, Talvj, was the first\nto formulate, in a thoroly scientific way, the characteristics of the folk-song,\nand that her definition, publisht in 1840, practically holds today. Talvj\ndistinguishes two kinds of folk-song according to their origin: (i) such\nas the people themselves have produced, and (2) inherited possessions of\nthe people, partly produced by poets of the higher classes. But she adds\nthat the former must have had a distinct influence upon the development\nof the people; that the latter must for a long time have been the exclusive\npossession of the lower classes. Hence not every production of a peasant\nis a folk-song; it must be approved and accepted by the people.\nToday two points of view in regard to the folk-song are prevalent, one\nschool insisting that the author be unknown, the other considering the origin\nof the folk-song of no moment, but emphasizing the attitude of the people\ntoward the folk-song as a lordly attitude of full possession. The latter is\nthe view of John Meier, who is probably the greatest authority on the\nGerman Volkslied today.\nThe killing of a man may be accidental or it may be murder. It depends\nupon the mental attitude of the killer. Whether a particular song is an\nart song or a folk-song depends upon the attitude of the singer. John\nMeier cites the song \"In einem kiihlen\" Grunde,\" written in 1809 by Joseph\nvon Eichendorff , which has become a true folk-song. If it is sung in school\nor by a singing society, it is an art song. If it is sung by a village girl who\ndoes not know the author and cares nothing about him — who sings the song\nfor the love of it— it is a folk-song; but if this village girl tries to sing the\n\n"}
{"page": 622, "printed_page": "610", "text": "6io\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nsong as Eichendorff wrote it, the song is an art song, even tho the girl should\nmake some mistakes.\nIt may be interesting to note the view of two poets in regard to the folksong. In September, 191 1, the French writer, Marc Henry, calling attention to his past efforts to bring France and Germany closer together,\ninvited his friend, the German writer Hanns Heinz Ewers, to collaborate\nwith him in editing a book of French folk-songs for the German people.\nThe book appeared in the summer of 191 2. In the Introduction we find\nthe following characterization of the folk-song:\nNothing is more amusing than to follow up any folk-song thru time and regions.\nAll possible circumstances change in a strange way, now the melody, now the content.\nSometimes, like little marmots, or even, more poetically, like the Sleeping Beauty, they\nfall asleep, sleep more than a hundred years, until some event arouses them and makes\nthem awake to new life. The popular imagination often confounds persons and deeds,\nit ascribes fanciful deeds to historical personages or, vice versa, historical events to\nimaginary heroes — life's fairy tales.\n\nThe folk-song is in a constant state of flux, as the experience of Murko\nin Bosnia and Herzegovina shows. When he askt a singer why he had\nchanged a part of the text, the latter answered, \"It happens so while singing.\" Another singer, when told that he had not sung a song as he had\nbefore, remarkt, \"The song is not out of a book; when it gets into a book,\nthen it is settled.\" But Murko adds that his records showed that not even\nthat was true. Hence we cannot say that any particular version of a folksong is the true version; all the versions are true versions. A folk-song\n\" born of the people \" has neither beginning nor end. We do not know what\nthe first version was, and we cannot tell what the song may become. Meier\nsees in this constant change the fundamental characteristic of the folk-song.\nTo understand the nature of a folk-song, we must therefore study a\nfolk-song which has been derived from a known art song. Ankenbrand\nfound 125 dififerent versions of the text of a folk-song about \"the jealous\nlad\" and 40 versions of the melody. The latter fact, by the way, shows\nthat the melody is more stable than the text. How do these variations\narisjB ? Primarily because of the oral transmission of the folk-song. Singers\nfrequently have a repertoire of more than a hundred folk-songs. Similar\nexpressions in different songs will cause two or more of these to coalesce,\nand the stanzas that become incongruous by the process are dropt. Often\nthe similarity or identity of melody causes fusion or transference.\nThe folk-song is not historical; its theme is that of humanity in general.\nWhich of the rich harvest of German songs produced during the present\nwar will survive ? Not Lissauer's \" Song of Hate,\" which is already dying,\nif not dead. Only the songs which breathe truly human sentiment will live\non. It is not surprising, therefore, that many songs are international, as\nfor instance, the \"Song of Marlborough,\" which we find, not only in\nFrance — where it originated — in England, and in Germany, but even in\nEgyptf sung by the Arabs in Arabic. Our own \"Yankee Doodle\" is\n\n"}
{"page": 623, "printed_page": "611", "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nFOLK-SONG\n\n6ll\n\nprobably derived from a Hessian folk-song, brought to our country during\nthe Revolution.\nThe folk-song is generally composed in the literary language, not in\ndialect. This has been observed in France, in Germany, and in England.\nIt is supposed to be due to the great awe and reverence people feel for the\nart of poetry. Most people in their early history regard the power of song\nas the inspiration or direct expression of the divinity. In this connection\nit is interesting to note that many of the smaller tribes of the Caucasus\ndo not sing in their own language, but in that of the neighboring larger\ntribes. Just what the reason may be in these instances remains to be investigated.\nIn Germany the folk-song is a hundred years behind the art song, out\nof which it has developt or from which it has derived its inspiration. The\ninterval of time, of course, depends upon the social and economic organization of society and upon the state of education of the various ranks of\nsociety. Thus in Germany the required years of mihtary training, broadening the horizon of the individual by contact with men from all parts of\nthe country and from all ranks of society, necessarily tend to shorten this\ninterval.\nThe more or less archaic character of the folk-song is borne out by the\nphonographic records of epic folk-songs which Murko took in Bosnia and\nHerzegovina in the summer of 19 13. Murko says that the epic song is\nof such nature that often only natives of the region, but not inhabitants\nof other countries speaking the same language, can understand it; and\nsometimes even the natives, if they have lost touch with the common\npeople, understand it with difficulty.\nIn the folk-song the melody is intimately connected with the text. Collectors have repeatedly found that singers of folk-songs were unable to\nrepeat the words without the melody. In Ravno the priest Don Ivan\nRaguz, well verst in song and music, remarkt to Murko that epic songs were\nof value only when sung; that the singer, when dictating, immediately\nfell into prose.\nWhen the investigation of the folk-song got its great impetus thru\nHerder in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, and for a long time\nthereafter, the interest centered in the literary side. The musical aspect\nhas not received the attention it deserves, altho present-day investigators\nare alive to the importance and the difficulty of the question. It is not\neasy to interpret and write down accurately melodic progressions that\ndiffer from those to which we are accustomed. There is always the tendency to substitute familiar progressions for unfamiliar ones. The FolkSong Society of England admonishes its collectors to have the song sung^\nseveral times before attempting to write down the melody, as it is never sung\ntwice the same. Only an expert can judge what the melody probably i^\nEven the most expert result is no doubt a new version of the folk-song.\n\n"}
{"page": 624, "printed_page": "612", "text": "6 12\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Music\n\nBockel says of the folk-songs in Oberhessen that one can get the true\nmelody only when many sing together; that it is often difficult to recognize\nthe melody when it is sung by an individual. We can readily see that the\nphonograph would not be wholly satisfactory, altho Murko has obtained\ngood results with it.\nIn histories and dictionaries of music we often read that our modern\nmusic forms are based on the song and dance forms. It used to be a puzzle\nto me in what respect the song form and dance form differed from one\nanother; how one could tell whether a certain musical form had developt\nfrom the song form or from the dance form. Now a study of the folk-song\nteaches us that there is no difference. Until the beginning of the eighteenth\ncentury every dance form was also a. song form, for before that time purely\ninstrumental dances were unknown. As a typical illustration we may take\nthe following description given by Dirr of a Georgian dance: \"The people\ngenerally form a circle, in the middle of which one person dances. One or\ntwo sing the words, the rest drone the bass without an}?^ words, and all beat\ntime with their hands.\"\nWhat part may the folk-song play in education ? It should be cultivated for its own sake because of its freshness and beauty. It may be a\nvaluable aid in vivifying other subjects of the curriculum, such as reading,\nliterature, geography, and history, especially geography.\nAnd finally we should foster in the children of our immigrants a pride\nin their contribution to our wealth. They only too often despise their\nmother-tongue and native customs. Let them learn to respect and love\nthem by cultivating their treasure. Many of their folk-songs are already\navailable. The Oliver Ditson Co. has publisht,' not only One HundredSongs of England J Seventy Scottish Songs, Sixty Irish Songs, Sixty Folk-Songs\nof France, but also Sixty Patriotic Songs of All Nations, One Hundred FolkSongs of All Nations, and Folk-Songs of Eastern Europe. In all except the\nlast named both the original text and an English translation are given.\nIn the Folk-Songs of Eastern Europe only the melody is original. The\nwords are by friends of the editor, Ralph Radcliffe Whitehead.\nMr. Whitehead says in his preface:\nThe folk-songs of Eastern Europe have been too much neglected owing to the diflaculty\nof singing the words of so many strange languages. The desire to bring some of these\nsongs within the reach of the English-speaking public may perhaps be sufficient excuse\nfor what at first sight appears to be the impertinence of providing these melodies with new\nwords. The reason for so doing is that very few of these old melodies are found accompanied by words as old as themselves. Most of them are sung to words put to them in\nthe nineteenth century. These words are only occasionally suitable to the music; in\nmost cases they are commonplace; sometimes they are vulgar.\n\nThe only impertinence lies in the assertion that the words are not suitable to the music. The suitability is wholly a subjective matter. If,\nhowever, the teacher will make clear that only the music belongs to the\ncountry, no harm will be done in singing the American words.\n\n"}
{"page": 625, "printed_page": "613", "text": "DEPARTMENT OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL\nEDUCATION\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — George A. Works, professor of rural education, Cornell University. . .Ithaca, N.Y.\nVice-President — ^Henry N. Goddard ,high school inspector. State Department of Education,\nMadison, Wis.\nSecretary — W. S. Taylor, associate professor of agricultural education. University of Texas,\nAustin, Tex.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Monday\n\nForenoon, July 3, 19 16\n\nThe opening meeting of the Department of Rural and Agricultural Education was\ni called to order in the Ballroom of Hotel McAlpin at 9:30 a.m., by President George A.\nWorks. C. H. Lane, chief specialist in agricultural education, United States Department\nof Agriculture, Washington, D.C., was appointed secretary.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"The Farm Bureau as an Agent in Local Development\" — M. C. Burrit, state leader\nof farm bureaus, thaca, N.Y.\n\"Field Exercises in Their Relation to Agricultural Teaching\" — K. C. Davis, pro[fessor of agriculture, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn.\n\"The Home Project in Secondary-School Agriculture\" — ^L. H. Dennis, director of\n[agricultural education. Department of Public Instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 4, 19 16\n\nThe second session was a joint meeting of the Department of Rural and Agricultural\n[Education with the Rural School Committee of the American Library Association, PresiIdent Works presiding.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"The Rural School and the Reading Habit\" — Henry N. Sanborn, secretary, Indiana\n[State Library Commission, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\"Rural-School Extension Work by the New York State College of Agriculture\" —\n[E. M. Tuttle, editor, Cornell Rural-School Leaflet, Ithaca, N.Y.\nThe following oflScers were elected for the ensuing year:\nPresident — W. H. French, professor of agricultural education, Michigan Agricultural\nCoUege, East Lansing, Mich.\nVice-President — Z. M. Smith, supervisor of agricultural education, State Department\n[of Public Instruction, Indianapolis, Ind.\n613\nSecretary — C. H. Lane, chief specialist in agricultural education. United States\nrDepartment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.\nC. H. Lane, Secretary pro tern\n\n"}
{"page": 626, "printed_page": "614", "text": "6 14\n\nTHE FARM\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nBUREAU\n\nM. C. BURRIT,\n\nSTATE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nAS AN AGENT\n\nIN LOCAL DEVELOPMENT\n\nLEADER OF FARM BUREAUS\nITHACA, N.Y.\n\nFOR\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nAt the outset it should be recognized that the problem which the\nfarm-bureau movement aims to meet is that of adult rather than junior\neducation. Adult education involves many different factors, altho the\nunderlying principles are much the same. Some of the factors which must\nbe met are those of the greater experience of the adult and the tendency\nto fixity in ideas, habits, and methods of work. This frequently leads to\nstrong prejudices, difficult to overcome. Moreover, the method of approach\nto the person taught is very different. The authority and the organization\nof the school are lacking. There is lack of continued teaching contact.\nThis irregularity and infrequency of contact, together with the fixt ideas\nand prejudices are serious factors.\nThere have been three great epochs in the development of agricultural\nscience and of adult agricultural education in this country. The first\nof these was the establishment and early development of the agricultural\ncollege; the second was the establishment and early development period of\nthe experiment station, or research work in agriculture; the third epoch,\nthe one in which we find ourselves at present, is the development of the\nextension of agricultural fact and teaching.\nWith the first and second of these we are not concerned now, save to\nremind ourselves that the foundation of the agricultural colleges rests on\nthe Morrill Act of July 2, 1862, supplemented by the second and third\nMorrill acts of 1890 and 1907, and that the experiment stations were founded\nby the Hatch Act of March 2, 1887, and supplemented by the Adams Act\nof 1906.\nThe extension movement in agriculture, which we may call the third\ngreat epoch in the development of adult agricultural education, had its\nbeginnings in the decade just preceding this century. For nearly thirty\nyears we have had what we commonly know as farmers' institutes, which\nare essentially a part of the extension movement. During the last five years\nmost of the states have recognized that the function of the state to teach\nbetter agriculture must be extended beyond centralized institutions, and\nhave granted small appropriations for the carrying-on of extension work.\nThe real extension epoch in agriculture was, however, ushered in by the\ngreat Smith-Lever Act of May 8, 1914. Its objects are ''to aid in diffusing\namong the people of the United States useful and practical information in\nagriculture and home economics, and to encourage the application of the\nsame .... to persons not attending or resident at said colleges.\" The\namounts of money appropriated by this Act, supplemented by the state\niM.\n\n"}
{"page": 627, "printed_page": "615", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nFARM\n\nBUREAU\n\nAND\n\nLOCAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n615\n\nappropriations, will eventually enable the agricultural colleges to meet the\nproblem in a fairly adequate manner. The maximum appropriation in\n1922 and 1923, and thereafter, will be $4580, all but the initial $600,000 of\nwhich must be duplicated by the states in order to make it available.\nThis extension work is organized as a branch of the agricultural college.\nIt is carried on chiefly by means of extension schools, reading courses,\npublic lectures, field demonstrations, and similar methods.\nThe farm-bureau idea is partly an outgrowth, and partly a local development phase, of the extension movement. Its primary purposes in New\nYork State are twofold: (i) the extension of the knowledge and work of the\nagricultural college and experiment station. This phase practically\n[amounts to a branch of the extension division; (2) the development, organization, and stimulation of local rural forces. The second purpose of the\nwork is no less important than the first, tho, in my judgment, it has been\ngiven inadequate emphasis in the majority of the states. This phase of\nIthe work contemplates the taking of an inventory of the rural situation and\n[forces, particularly along economic lines at first, and the organization of\nthese forces to meet the opportunities in each rural community. It further\nIcontemplates the searching-out, stimulating, and encouragement of local\n[rural leadership, so that the extension forces of the centralized institutions\n[may be supplemented by the equally forceful and wholly rural community\n[effort.\nThe beginnings of the farm-bureau movement are to be found in the\n[southern states, where since 1902 there has been developt a great centraljized, but chiefly federal, effort along extension and demonstration Unes.\nA tremendous amount of good has been accomplisht, but, in my judgment,\na serious weakness is that, projected from the distant and centralized federal\n^government, it does not adequately meet the rural problem in that it fails\nfto develop enough local rural responsibiUty, organization, and leadership.\n[A similar development is found in the province of Ontario, in Canada, where\n^the work has been under way for nearly ten years.\nIn the thirty-three northern states \"outside the Cotton Belt,\" as Con[gress designates the area, the farm-bureau idea was first developt in southern\nJNew York. Out of these small beginnings the work has spread in five years\nfto something more than 400 counties in the northern states. Local organization receives more emphasis than in the South and the resident rural\n[forces have a larger part in the work. The work in New York State differs\nImost perhaps from that in the other states in the much greater emphasis\n;placed upon local organization and the resident rural forces. I must, of\nnecessity, speak to you chiefly from the point of view of the work in New\nYork State.\nyears of activity in the conduct of the work have led us to believe\nkFive\nthat tliere are certain fundamental principles which should be observed\n........................\n\n"}
{"page": 628, "printed_page": "616", "text": "6i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nAny plan of adult education must take into consideration the experience\nand consequent comparative j&xity of ideas and methods of thought of adults.\nAmong farmers one must also reckon with that natural conservatism, inevitable with the great mass of men who deal directly with nature — the soil, the\nweather, plants, animals, etc. In the open country another manifestation of\nthis element of human nature is reluctance to accept a new plan or a new\nline of effort. Another is an equal hesitancy to accept responsibility for the\nplan, even when finally convinst of its reasonableness. Experience has\ntaught us, however, that both these considerations usually give way to the\nstronger element in human nature, especially among rural people — namely,\nthe appeal to the natural desire to be independent.\nIt is with this fact in mind that our efforts are first directed toward\ngetting the county which is to have state and federal aid in organizing a\nfarm bureau to provide at least three-fifths of the cost of the work. This\ntends to establish proprietorship and to arouse interest and respect for the\nplan. What men pay for they are more likely to appreciate. The next\nstep is to organize a farmers' association and obtain the pledges of not less\nthan 10 per cent of the farmers of the county to secure and maintain moral\nand financial support and to manage the enterprise locally.\nThe fulfilment of these conditions on the part of the county accomplishes\ntwo objects: (i) it measures the real interest of farmers in the thing desired;\n(2) once started, it puts the promoters in a receptive mood toward a constructive and efficient plan of organization which may be proposed to them,\nand which straightway becomes the locally accepted plan. A good part\nof the responsibiUty for the work then belongs to the community. Thus\nreal and effective partnership between the agricultural college and the rural\ncommunities is secured and equal responsibility assumed at the beginning.\nThus we have the community paying approximately three-fifths of the\ncost of the work and providing at the same time an organization of farmers\nto manage the enterprise locally. We have in thirty-six counties in New\nYork State total estimated financial resources for carrying on the work in\n1916, amounting to more than $145,000, or over $4000 per county. Of this\namount the localities themselves provide more than $100,000, or about\ntwo-thirds of the entire cost. Again, approximately 13,000 farmers are\nidentified with the organizations which are carrying forward this work.\nOf these about 300 are executive committeemen, engaged in managing the\nenterprise locally, and about 1600 are advisory councilmen. In addition,\nduring 19 15 there were a little over 4000 cooperators in carrying on the\nfield- test and demonstration work.\nWe hold that the surest way to help a community is to help it to help\nitself, that is, to put it in the way of self-betterment. Communities, like\nmen, grow by doing rather than by having done for them. For this reason\neffort to bring about agricultural improvement should be along the line of\nsearching out, encouraging, stimulating, and developing local leadership\n\n"}
{"page": 629, "printed_page": "617", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nFARM\n\nBUREAU\n\nAND\n\nLOCAL\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\n617\n\nand organization, and then utilizing these local resident forces to work out\ncommunity problems. Not only is it easier to help such forces with suggestion, illustration, and demonstration of principles, but it is the most\nefficient way to bring about a solution of local problems that will be permanent in the community. Perhaps I can best illustrate this principle by\noutHning the New York plan of farm-bureau work.\nIn doing so, however, I should like to call attention to the size and\nextent of the problem of adult agricultural education in the rural communities of New York State. Some careful analyses of the problem in\nseveral counties indicate that the number of communities in our rural\ncounties varies from 26 (Tioga) to 98 (Cattaraugus). If we assume an\naverage of 50, we have then in the agricultural counties of this state not less\nthan 2500 such communities. Each of these separate communities represents a problem by itself. An inventory must be taken of this problem and\nof the resident and non-resident forces which may be factors in its solution.\nThere are necessarily two divisions of our effort in farm-bureau organization— one administrative and the other advisory. The administrative\nfunction is carried out by a committee of from seven to nine farmers, elected\nby the county association. These men are responsible for raising and paying out local funds, making agreements with the central office at the\nagricultural college, jointly employing an agent or manager, and for the\nformulation of local policies. This is a comparatively small number of men,\nbut their leadership, initiative, judgment, and ability are exceedingly\nimportant in making work successful.\nThe advisory committee has to do with the carrying-out of the plan of\nwork with the farm-bureau manager in each community in the county,\nand is, therefore, much larger. The ideal is to have at least one, and\npreferably from three to five, such advisory committeemen in each community in the county. It is expected that each farmer who accepts an\nappointment on the advisory council will (i) represent his community in the\nbureau, (2) represent the bureau in his community, and (3) meet in sectional\nand county-wide meetings to discuss and to determine upon the most\nimportant local problems, and to recommend a county agriculturalimprovement program.\nThus in this plan we have (i) a responsible local committee backt by an\norganization with which to deal administratively in the management of the\nwork, and (2) an organization which reaches into each community in the\ncounty with the necessary local representation. When the farm-bureau\nmanager, carrying out the program outlined by the advisory committee as a\nwhole and adopted by the executive committee, seeks a point of contact or a\nplace to get a hold in a particular community, he naturally, consults with\nthe advisory councilman. This resident representative, selected because\nhe enjoys the confidence and the respect of his community, and because he\nhas knowledge of its local problems and conditions, is able to introduce him\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 630, "printed_page": "618", "text": "6i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nto friends and neighbors best qualified and willing to undertake the cooperative work. In pursuance of this plan of organization and community cooperation, about 1600 such community representatives have been selected in\nthe 30 counties in the state which are organized for the work, or about 40\nper county.\nIt is my belief, as a result of eight years of close, first-hand observation\nof rural problems in this state, that there exists in every community the\nforces and the abihty to solve that community's problems. They are\nfrequently latent and undevelopt, but they are none the less there. These\nforces must be sought out, stimulated, trained, and developt, and then\napplied to the problems of the community. In view of the experience,\nconservatism, and prejudices of communities, it is frequently necessary\nto make a demonstration of what can be done by organization and leadership before the community can be started to work along this line.\nIt has been said that farmers are poor business men. This is not\nnecessarily so. What is probably true is that most farmers, because the\ntotal business which they have to do is small, and because their capital is\nusually turned over only once a year, do not get as much training in business affairs as business men of the same financial resources in the towns.\nAltho in limited numbers, farmers of our committees are getting some\nexcellent training in business affairs, and in organizing and conducting this\npiece of educational work. This is especially true of executive committeemen.\nBut it is with the advisory committeemen, who are brought in constant\ncontact with the manager of the bureau and with extension workers from\nthe college, and upon whom is placed the responsibility of representing their\ncommunities, that this training for leadership, especially counts. To have\ntheir efforts combined with those of similarly minded men, to absorb the\nenthusiasm that usually comes when numbers of men are working together\nfor a worthy object, and to bear the responsibility and the honor of representing one's community, rapidly develops these men into real communityleaders. If this can be effectively done in every one of the 2500 rural\ncommunities in this state, and if these men carrying out the purpose for\nwhich they are selected, are able to organize their communities, to work\nwith the agricultural colleges and the experiment stations, to teach themselves and their neighbors better methods of production, better methods of\nhandling and organizing their business, and of marketing and distributing\ntheir products, much permanent good will have been done.\nAs I have already indicated, the work is yet young and there is great\nneed for the general development and perfection of the plan. During the\nlast year the membership organizations supporting the work locally have,\nas a whole, doubled numerically. Not only has the average number of\nmembers been substantially raised, but there are fewer inefficient organizations and more of a strength which approaches a maximum of effectiveness.\n\n"}
{"page": 631, "printed_page": "619", "text": "Department]\n\nFIELD\n\nEXERCISES\n\nIN AGRICULTURAL\n\nTEACHING\n\n619\n\nThe development of the advisory councils is most gratifying, both in the\nnumber of strong local leaders taking up the work, and in the quality and\nactivity of these men.\nThe local farm-bureau associations thru their advisory councils and\nexecutive committees have assumed the responsibility for determining the\nkind of work to be done in their respective counties and communities,\nexpressing this in carefully drawn semi-permanent agricultural programs, to\nbe carried out by still more definite annual projects.\nA striking feature of the year's progress in the work has been the\nstimulation of interest, and the crystallization and organization of many\nlatent forces in communities into associations to deal with specific problems,\nsuch as community breeding, seed-production, standardization of crops, and\nlike enterprises.\nField tests and demonstrations have become a generally accepted method\nof farm-bureau teaching and effort. These have been organized and\ncarried out in most of the counties to an extent that has made the influence\nof the farm bureaus appreciably felt in modifying farm practice.\n\nFIELD EXERCISES\nKARY C. DAVIS, KNAPP\n\nIN THEIR RELATION\nTEACHING\n\nTO AGRICULTURAL\n\nSCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE, GEORGE PEABODY\nFOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENN.\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nAt the Boston meeting six years ago I read a brief paper on \"Field\nLaboratory Work,\" giving a few suggestions and a classification of exercises\nof this character. In the present paper I wish to be more specific, and state\nreasons for field work, suggest some methods of conducting it, and suggest\nmore subjects somewhat in detail.\nAmong the reasons or arguments for field-laboratory exercises, we may\nfind the same arguments as may be advanst in favor of laboratory work in\nany subject, and in favor of home projects and demonstration plots, which\nare to be discust by others on the program here today. Let us briefly\nenumerate some of these points:\n1. To make the instruction of all the subject-matter more concrete.\nIn this respect agriculture has a great advantage over many subjects in the\nschool curriculum.\n2. To show the student the relation of the subject-matter of the classroom or textbook to scientific principles involved; or, to state it in another\nway, to show the relation between the scientific principles underlying\nthe subject-matter and real things and real life.\n3. To bring all the agricultural work into closer touch with the environment of the student.\n\n"}
{"page": 632, "printed_page": "620", "text": "620\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Agricultural\n\n4. To link the school work of today with the occupation and life of the\nstudent after finishing school.\n5. To aid in stopping the criticism that agriculture is too bookish.\nSuch criticism comes partly from the students, but chiefly from others less\nfamiliar with agricultural teachings.\nNaturally all teachers, as well as laymen, think of agriculture as founded\non both practice and science. This is right, but there is danger that in an\neffort to make agriculture a culture subject, many schools will fail to maintain the practical side. The cultural side can be emphasized without losing\nthe practical aspect.\nI maintain that the more practical phases are given to the student thru\nfield exercises with soils, crops, orchards, livestock, machinery, etc., and\nthru laboratory exercises, school and home demonstrations, school and\nhome projects. When the values of these methods of training and instruction are neglected, the instruction will become too theoretical and too\nabstract, and receive the criticism of being too bookish.\nField exercises should find a place in all kinds of agricultural courses\nand in all phases of the subject-matter. Schools having no plots nor\nfarm lands of their own should make far more use of the field exercises than\nschools which have their own plots. Field exercises can, to a very large\nextent, take the place of poor laboratory facilities; but it should not be\nthought for a moment that under ideal conditions a well-equipt laboratory\ncan be dispensed with.\nThe places for the field exercises may be on school plots, on the school\nfarm, at the homes of pupils, or on fields and farms near the school, or\nperhaps in distant places. Consequently the exercises will need to vary\nin length from a single school period to a half-day, whole day, or even longer\ntrips. We need to discriminate here between the field trip and the project.\nThe time element enters strongly into this discrimination. Any exercise\ncontinuing for some days may take on the nature of a *' project,\" and is no\nlonger called an \"exercise.\"\nThere are several essentials of a good field exercise : (i) It should have a\ndefinite aim with one or more definite points to be brought out. (2) It\nshould be well planned by the instructor in charge, and should not fail for\nwant of forethought and knowledge of the situation on the part of the\ninstructor. (3) Too much energy must not be expended to accomplish a\ndefinite purpose. For example, the thought of the student must not be\ntaken up too much with the means of going and coming, but should be\ncentered on the lessons to be learned. (4) The purposes and points of the\nexercise should be planned with the students in advance. (5) Outlines\ncovering the points to be studied should be in the hands of each student,\nwith definite instructions for his observation and study. (6) Certain\ndata should be required of each student, and reports prepared during the\nexercise, in the presence of the instructor, should be required. These may.\n\n"}
{"page": 633, "printed_page": "621", "text": "Department]\n\nFIELD\n\nEXERCISES\n\nIN AGRICULTURAL\n\nTEACHING\n\n621\n\nor may not, become a part of the student's permanent record or notebook.\nBut in all cases they should be examined by the instructor and returned,\nwith criticisms, to the student.\nIn large classes a device is sometimes used which will greatly aid the\ninstructor in charge. The class is divided into groups of four or five students each. A leader, or monitor, is appointed for each group. The points\nin the exercise, or trip, are explained by the instructor to the leader of each\ngroup. And the leaders, in turn, bring out the points to the members of their\nown groups. Much better work can be done if the classes are not so large\nas to require subdivision during the same hour.\nThere are certain classes of exercises which can readily be performed by\nstudents of high-school age, without the presence of the instructor during\nthe exercise or on the trip. Monitors, or leaders, may be appointed. If the\ninstructor is not to be present he should give a very full outline and require\na detailed report from each student.\nAmong the exercises which would fall into this last group, to be performed without the presence of the instructor, may be mentioned two\ngroups:\n1. Drill exercises, which are repetitions of those performed when the\ninstructor was present. Care should be exercised to not repeat these too\noften. There is danger of the work degenerating into drudgery on one\nhand, or play on the other.\n2. Trips may be taken to new places to study lessons similar to those\nwhich have already been studied by students when accompanied by the\ninstructor. For example, garden plants have been sprayed for a particular\ndisease in one garden, with the work under the immediate supervision of an\ninstructor. An application then comes for the same kind of work in another\ngarden. This time a responsible student may be placed in charge of a\ngroup to go to the new garden and do this \"expert\" work. They may\nreadily be brought to feel the responsibility placed upon them, and the\ntraining is very valuable.\nI have mentioned the importance of having a definite outline for study\nbefore an exercise or field trip is undertaken. Let us look at a sample\noutline — the corn-root system.\nTo determine the depth and extent of the feeding roots of corn, the\n\nfollowing method is suggested: Go to field \"A\" near the water-supply.\nDrive four pegs level with the surface of the ground at the four corners of\na square yard, between the two rows. With a shovel or hoe remove one\ninch of top soil between the pegs. Then with the water wash away the\nsoil in this area until the feeding roots are exposed. If the ground be\nsloping the surplus soil may be carried away with running water. Continue\nIjK the washing, and with fingers and sharp eyes, carefully trace roots from near\n■^\" the cornstalk to the opposite side of the square yard, A number of roots\nshould be traced.\n\nIfe\n\n"}
{"page": 634, "printed_page": "622", "text": "622\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nNotes should be made, and lessons learned thru the following inquiries :\n(i) To what distance from their source can you trace roots? (2) How\nshallow do you find them ? (3) How large and strong are they ? (4) Do\nthey connect with the brace roots of the corn ? (5) Are the roots much\nbrancht ? Sketch some of them. (6) Are corn roots damaged when the\nsoil is tilled with deep-shoveled cultivators ? (7) How may corn be cultivated without injuring the roots? (8) What relation has this to frequency ofcultivation during the growing season ? (9) Why does corn suffer\nseverely when the weather becomes dry ?\nStudents should be askt to suggest an exercise by which the deepest\ncorn roots may be studied. The outline may be taken down in a notebook\nby each student and the report made on the same, or following, page of his\nbook.\nThe following exercises are merely suggestive and not intended to cover\nany particular phase of agriculture completely:\n1. Identification of annual weeds in a cultivated field.\n2. Study and collection of perennial weeds in a pasture or hayfield.\n3. Comparing the root systems of perennial weeds with those of annual\nweeds.\n4. To determine which classes of weeds are most abundant along roadsides and fence rows.\n5. To determine how rotation of crops will help control both these\nclasses of weeds.\n6. To make a school collection of ripe weed seeds.\n7. The use of spray materials in combating mustard and other weeds.\n8. The control of weeds in cracks of walks.\n9. Weed-control by grazing sheep,\n10. The influence of composted manure in comparison with fresh\nmanure in spreading farm weeds.\nThe foregoing scattered list of suggestions is presented merely as a\nbeginning, but not as exhausting the list of possible field exercises.\n\nTHE HOME\n\nPROJECT\n\nIN SECONDARY-SCHOOL\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\nL. H. DENNIS, DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, STATE BUREAU\nVOCATIONAL EDUCATION, HARRISBURG, PA.\n\nOF\n\nVery rapid progress has been made in the introduction and development\nof the teaching of agriculture in the elementary and secondary schools of the\nvarious states of the Union. We have past thru the stage of questioning as\nto whether or not this subject should be incorporated in the curriculum\nof public-school studies. We have definitely decided that the subject is\nentitled to recognition, and, moreover, we have come to the realization\nthat it is a matter of necessity rather than choice. The problem con-\n\n"}
{"page": 635, "printed_page": "623", "text": "Department]\n\nHOME\n\nPROJECT\n\nIN SECONDARY-SCHOOL\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n623\n\nfronting educational leaders today is not whether or not the subject should\nbe taught, but rather under what conditions and how it shall be taught.\nAgriculture as first introduced in the public schools was as one subject\namong many in a scheme to furnish a general education and for the purpose\nof enriching this education, with the idea of teaching in terms of the environment of the boys and girls thus instructed. Serious attempts are now being\nmade to train boys very specifically for the occupation of farming as a\nvocation. We now appreciate the fact that it takes brains and trained\nbrains at that to make a farm produce maximum results with maximum\nefficiency. It is hardly necessary to state that educators are now fully\naware of the economic need for developing our agricultural resources and\nfor enriching of rural life. Our object in teaching agriculture on a vocational\nbasis is really twofold. We are aiming first of all to increase the efficiency\nof the boy in a very specific manner, thus enabling him to do his work on the\nfarm with greater ease, better results, and with increast profits to himself.\nOf almost equal importance is the agricultural development which is bound\nto be the result of such training for agricultural work. As important as this\nmay be, however, I strongly feel that it is the boy's interests chiefly, and\nfirst of all, that we are attempting to serve by vocational agricultural education rather than to secure bigger and better crops and the enrichment of\nthe land. However, I do not in the least minimize these economic aspects.\nThe problem of vocational education for the farm boy is decidedly\ndifferent from the problems connected with the training of plumbers,\nmachinists, printers, textile workers, etc. The business of farming involves\nso much biology, chemistry, physics, and other general sciences, in addition\nto a specific application of the same, that necessarily this type of training\nmust be very broad and inclusive. The problem is again different from the\nstandpoint of practice or trade experience. In training a boy to be a\nplumber specific provision must be made for trade experience. In other\nwords, if the boy is to learn the trade of a plumber, he must not only\nreceive instruction in the theory of the trade, but he must have an opportunity to become skilled in its technique by actual practice or work during\na sufficient period of time. The boy of the open country comes to the\nsecondary school with a rich practical or trade experience. It is not safe\nto assume, however, that because of this the boy needs no further contact\nwith actual farm operations. He needs very definite instruction in the\nprinciples underlying the common farm practices with which he is already\nmore or less familiar. Moreover, he needs definite training and even\nactual experience in the application of these principles, in order that they\nmay become fixt, and, furthermore, that they may be put into actual practice. Enough reliable, scientific, and technical data of an agricultural\nnature has already been compiled to save this country millions of dollars\nannually, could the principles herein establisht be put into actual operation by those most vitally concerned. It is one thing to establish certain\n\n"}
{"page": 636, "printed_page": "624", "text": "624\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nscientific facts relating to farm practice. It is an entirely different proposition to bring about the operation of these principles in the everyday\npractices of the farm, even tho the value of them has been establisht\nbeyond a question of doubt.\nEducators directing the development of vocational agricultural education have had this clearly in mind when work of a practical nature providing\nfor the application ofscientific truths was incorporated into the scheme of\nvocational education for the country boy. As is now generally known,\nsome states have attempted to solve this by means of the school farm connected with the district or county agricultural school. The majority of the\nstates, however, which have undertaken this type of education have chosen\nto provide for this necessary practical work by means of the home-project\nplan supplemented by some group-project work carried on at the school or\non some other land secured for the purpose either by the school or by the\nindividuals involved.\nThe word \"project\" is coming into about as general use as the terms\n\"educational survey,\" \"correlation,\" etc. It is a very popular term with\nthose dealing with agricultural education. It might be wise here again to\ncall attention to the distinction between an agricultural project and an\nagricultural exercise, as these terms have been somewhat confused in some\nsections of the country. The agricultural exercise is a simple experiment,\nor demonstration, or illustration, and is usually of short duration. It is\nnot organized in the same manner as an agricultural project. It is not so\ncomprehensive, as it usually deals with one principle or operation which\ncan be completed in a short time.\nThe agricultural project on the other hand is very definitely studied\nout, and planned on a systematic basis. It involves much preliminary\nstudy and organization of agricultural matter bearing upon the work to be\nundertaken. It involves, not only the learning of a scientific principle\nrelated to some farm practice, but the application of such principle or principles tofarm practices. It usually extends thru a period of time.\nAn agricultural project, to be of value, must be of economic importance.\nIt must involve the improving of some conditions or the production of some\ncrop, etc. It must be carried out on such a basis that the success of the\nproject means financial gain, and the failure of the project a corresponding\nloss. In other words, a project is a business enterprise carried out on the\nfarm or in the garden. The boy must be made to realize that he has an\ninvestment which, if possible, must be made to yield a satisfactory return\nor income. The scientific principles involved, and their relation to accepted\nprinciples, will be properly emphasized under such conditions.\nIt does not seem possible to carry on successful projects without the\nclose supervision of someone who has had special training along this line.\nThe class in agriculture in the ordinary high school or rural school cannot\nbe expected to carry on successful home projects unless there is a teacher\n\n"}
{"page": 637, "printed_page": "625", "text": "Department]\n\nHOME\n\nPROJECT\n\nIN SECONDARY -SCHOOL\n\nAGRICULTURE\n\n625\n\nor supervisor of agriculture on duty during the time the project is in operation. This means that the teacher of agriculture must be employed during\nthe summer months or the growing season, as the majority of the boys'\nprojects are productive projects.\nGreat care must always be exercised in the selection of a boy's project.\nMany things should be taken into consideration. The teacher of agriculture must have an intimate knowledge of the boy's home conditions, the\nland available for this purpose, poultry conditions, size and nature of\norchard, etc. The inchnation, or natural bent, of the boy has an important\nbearing upon the selection of the project. The cooperation of the parents\nshould, by all means, be obtained. To secure this sometimes requires\ndiplomacy and tact on the part of the teacher, altho it has been our experience in Pennsylvania that the parents of the majority of the boys are more\nthan willing to cooperate in this work. The parents of the boys should be\nconsulted freely relative to the choice of a project.\nThe actual work incidental to the operation of the project itself must\nbe preceded by a long and carefully planned study of the project itself and\nall that it involves. This requires organization of subject-matter, much\nreading and study, and the use of bulletins, books, and other reference\nmatter.\nAn accurate record of all the details of the project is absolutely\nindispensable. It should include a list of authorities consulted, method\nof procedure, and plans to be followed. A careful account should be kept\nof all receipts and expenditures. This should include a labor account with\nthe project debited with the cost of the boy's labor at actual market value.\nAny other items of similar nature should be duly recorded. Such a record\nis only valuable when it is systematic and accurate.\nIt seems to me that one of the developments of the future will be an\nefficient working relation between the home-project work of the vocational\nschool and a certain type of work carried on by the farm bureaus. It\nfrequently happens that a boy enroled in an agricultural school will take\nas his project the raising of an acre of corn. If there is a farm bureau in his\ncounty and this farm bureau is conducting a boys' corn club, he will probably join this club. There should be no confusion, however, between the\nwork of the boys' club and the home-project work as supervised by the\nvocational instructor. A home project may meet all conditions necessary\nfor the club work. On the other hand, however, a boy enroled as a member of the corn club may by no means have his work on such a basis as to be\nconsidered a home project. It meets the requirements from the standpoint\nof practical work, and possibly from the standpoint of profit and loss.\nThere is not, however, the same systematic study and supervision as in\nthe case of the home project supervised by the vocational instiructor. Some\ndefinite relation will undoubtedly be establish t between the club work\nand the home-project work as one of the developments of the future.\n\n"}
{"page": 638, "printed_page": "626", "text": "626\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Agricultural\n\nThe home project is an integral part of the scheme to furnish specific\npreparation for Hfe on the farm. It is, however, only one part of this\nplan of education. To my mind everything else does not depend upon\nit, and there is perhaps some danger of overestimating its value. On the\nother hand, to eliminate the home project from the vocational agricultural\ncourse would be equivalent to removing the means whereby theory and\npractice meet. While the home-project idea has already been extensively\ndevelopt, its possibilities have by no means been exhausted.\n\nTHE RURAL\nHENRY\n\nN. SANBORN,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE READING\n\nSECRETARY, INDIANA STATE LIBRARY\nINDIANAPOLIS, IND.\n\nHABIT\nCOMMISSION,\n\nThe United States government in the last census, I believe, adopted a\nnew classification of urban and rural communities. Formerly any town\nof 8000 inhabitants was urban, and any smaller one was rural. Beginning\nwith 1 9 10, the Census Bureau clast all towns of less than 2500 inhabitants\nas rural. When we discuss the rural school or rural life, however, we\nundoubtedly have in mind much smaller communities, very often isolated\nfarms and tiny neighborhoods. Furthermore, the word ''rural\" generally\nconnotes, as it literally means, something belonging to the fields and hence\nto agriculture. It is districts of this sort that I shall have in mind particularly asI talk to you this morning, altho much of what I say may apply\nequally to some towns having as large a population as 2500.\nIt will be necessary, I think, to call to mind succinctly certain wellknown conditions of life on the farm or in small communities before discussing intelHgently the need and value of reading and the part of the rural\nschool in forming and fostering the reading habit. Everyone here at least\nknows of the constant exodus from the country to the city, from the farm\nto the factory or the office. It is not possible, of course, by way of generalization, to give every reason why every individual has abandoned rural\nfor urban Ufe, but the isolation and drudgery of farm life and the scanty\nopportunities for recreation in the country are given as leading causes for\nthis migration.\nNot long ago I saw a moving picture sent out by the General Electric\nCompany to illustrate the effect of electricity on the farm. It was an\nexcellent illustration of the old-time drudgery of farm hfe, and it had a\nfurther helpful influence in showing that the son who ran away from this\ndrudgery to the city did not find hfe there such a primrose path of dalHance\nas to prevent him from returning to the farm when very easy and logical\nchanges had been made which ehminated unnecessary toil.\nWhat some agency must teach the rising generations in the country is\nthe intelligent use of leisure and the emptiness of mere exciting forms of\n\n"}
{"page": 639, "printed_page": "627", "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nREADING\n\nHABIT\n\n627\n\namusement; a return to certain forms of recreation peculiarly adapted to\nrural life, and a development of new forms of recreation equally suited to\ncountry conditions. For old and young at all times and in all places there\nis no pleasanter or more satisfying way of using leisure time than by reading.\nThe book nowadays can reach the remotest farmhouse.\nSo far we have given attention chiefly to the economic side of rural life,\nand I believe rightly. Our family and community life must be on a firm\neconomic foundation before we can hope for a superstructure of culture.\nAt the same time, however, while we are teaching more efficient farming\nmethods, we can be sowing the seeds of a culture that will mean a higher\nstandard of living and a more intelligent use of leisure. To increase the\nincome of the farmer and also his amount of leisure without increasing his\ncapacity for the right kind of enjoyment, is not best for the interests of\ncountry life. As it is now, too many farmers, after acquiring a competence,\nfind no pleasure in a home in the country, but move to a near-by town\nor city to spend their last days, and as an acquaintance of mine says, will\nspend nothing else. They have no cultivated tastes. As I go about in\nIndiana, I find myself often conscious that too many farmers are interested\nalmost entirely in how much corn and wheat they can grow, how many\nhogs they can raise, and how they can keep down taxes. Whether they\nlive in sanitary and comfortable houses does not always trouble them, and\neven when they are surrounded with physical comforts, they have very\ngenerally no sense of how to make a real home, attractively furnisht, and\nsuitable for anything more than a comfortable place to eat and sleep.\nMan cannot live by bread alone, and plain living and high thinking\nmay be as important for the farmer as bumper corn crops and big profits.\nIt is, then, a plea for the country school to take its place as. a promoter of\nculture as well as a trainer of farmers that I wish to make this morning.\nAnd as books are perhaps the most potent, certainly the most accessible,\nagents of culture, I am to talk of the reading habit and how it can be fostered\nby the rural school. If we were to stop the man on the street, or, to keep\nto our atmosphere, the man with the hoe, and ask him in what he considered\nlies the advantage of reading, he would, no doubt, without hesitation tell us\nthat it gives a man information, especially useful information, and it serves\nto pass away the time. Indeed, any of us must needs think a bit before\nwe can enlarge upon or subdivide these reasons for reading. I am not sure\nthat these two purposes are not sufficient motives in the reader, if only,\nwhen he reads for recreation, he will read the right things. The value of\nrecreational reading depends upon the taste which directs the choice of the\nreading-matter. Taste for anything is something that can be educated and\nimproved.\nThree years ago there appeared a little book by Professor C. Alphonse\nSmith, of the University of Virginia, entitled What Can Literature Do for\nMe ? This book has been included by the United States Bureau of Education\n\n"}
{"page": 640, "printed_page": "628", "text": "628\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nin one of the reading courses for the National Reading Circle. I have\nnot read the book and do not know how Professor Smith treats his subject,\nbut his title appealed to me, and, more than his title, his six chapter heads,\nand to me, in collecting my thoughts for this talk, they seem especially\nto suggest ways in which reading can touch particularly the needs of rural\nlife so as to make for contentment and real recreation.\nIn the first place, literature, he says, can give you an outlet. All the\npent-up sorrows and yearnings, the unattained, unfilled ambitions and the\ndisappointments in the individual breast ooze away and leave comparative\ncontentment thru the widened openings made in the mind by reading the\nexperiences of others and thinking the thoughts of those who have drained\nthe dregs of a bitter cup. Our very reading shows us how many men have\nfound in books an outlet. Self-expression is not easy for many of us, and\nbooks are our satisfactory substitute. The lack of some outlet, it seems to\nme, is one of the chief causes of the nervous tenseness and the frequent\ndissatisfaction to be found in the country dweller. Even in hospitals for\nthe insane books are now used as therapeutic agents to furnish this very\noutlet to the mind. If literature can furnish this escape valve, let us train\nmen and women to use and appreciate literature.\nBut one must not only have an outlet for one's feelings. One must\nalso see visions and dream dreams. This, Professor Smith says, literature\ncan do for you by keeping before you the ' ' vision of the ideal. ' ' The reading\nof biography is perhaps especially helpful in furnishing ideals, but all literature can contribute its share. Merely as a means of improving manners,\nreading, and especially the reading of proper fiction, is a powerful help.\nA good novel is a picture of life, and reading about real ladies and gentlemen,\nor their opposites, will have a beneficial influence on the observant reader.\nThere is no reason why country people should not observe the niceties of\ngood manners as well as city people. Some of the best-mannered persons\nI know are New England farmer folk. There are, of course, higher ideals\nthan manners, but none so high that literature cannot inspire them.\nWith self-expression and visions we can do much, but we have also\na knowledge of human nature and a knowledge of the past. Human nature\nwe learn largely by rubbing up against our associates, and we can learn it in a\nsmall rural community as well as in the crowded city, but a large part of\nour theories of life come from our reading. Reading, if you will, coordinates\nour experiences with our fellow-men. In biography and history, and largely\nin fiction, we see how human beings behave in circumstances we may at\nany time be called upon to face. For our knowledge of the past we are\ndependent almost entirely on books. To know history we must read, and to\nsolve the problems of the present we must know the experience of the past.\nTeaching the dignity of labor and the refinement of the simple life is\nnot the only way, however, in which books can show the glory of the commonplace. Inmy native New England I have often heard city dwellers.\n\n"}
{"page": 641, "printed_page": "629", "text": "i\n\nI\n\nDepartment]\n\nTHE\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nREADING\n\nHABIT\n\n629\n\nwhen admiring some beautiful view, wonder at the habit which the builders\nof New England farmhouses seem to have had, of deliberately building\ntheir barns so as to shut off from the house the most attractive outlook\nfrom the site. You will find many a countryman entirely untoucht by the\nbeauty which surrounds him. Seedtime and harvest and a long winter of\nchores are all the seasons mean to him. The mountains, the flowers, the\nbirds, have no message for him. If a country boy, or girl, has some one read\nhim Burns's \"Wee, sleekit, cowrin', tim'rous beastie,\" or \"To a Mountain\nDaisy,\" do you not believe he will see the field mouse and the common\nflower with new eyes ? It needs the poet or the painter to show us the\nbeauties which we gaze on unaware. Custom has a hateful way of showing\nthe infinite variety of nature. If I could teach a boy really to love Burns,\nand some of Wordsworth, and much of Whittier, I should have little fear\nthat he would find life in the woods and the fields and the farmhouse commonplace.\nFinally, Mr. Smith tells us that literature can give us the mastery of our\nown language. I am a true believer in the teaching of the principles of\nliterary composition; but just as firmly do I believe that except in rare\ncases no one can really express his thoughts well until he has read widely\nor deeply. Men like Lincoln and Bunyan are good examples of what\nfamiliarity with the Enghsh Bible will do to give ease of expression. The\npages of Burke are covered with evidence of his familiarity with books.\nThe first thing the rural school can do is to teach how to read. You\nsmile at the obviousness of my remark; but I hope it is a wiser and less\nplatitudinous remark than it appears at first glance. Certain I am that\nthe greater part of print-devouring humanity cannot read. In my eight\nyears of teaching English composition and Hterature to young men of from\nseventeen to twenty-two, pickt from all over the country, I proved over and\nover again that few of them could read even a simple piece of narrative\nwriting and really know what they had read. Only the barest outline of\nthe story — the most striking events — had made any impression upon their\nminds. All the finer touches that lend distinction to literature escapt.\nIt was^s a man, partly blind, sees only the outlines and most blatant colors\nof the objects around him.\nNext to teaching how to read and to think, the school should develop\ntaste for literature. It is always a comfort to remind ourselves now and\nthen that taste can be developt and even acquired. Most of the finer tastes\nof civilized man are acquired tastes, and what the race as a whole has\nacquired the individual may acquire. Developing hterary taste in the\nyoung is possibly the most delicate task the teacher has to perform. Too\ngreat zeal creates suspicion. Most of the influence has to be exerted by\nindirection. To tell a boy that he ought to like a book is to give him\nsufficient reason for disliking it. To tell a girl the same thing is to make her\npretend to like the book even if she does not.\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 642, "printed_page": "630", "text": "630\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nReading aloud is perhaps the most effective way of teaching a love of\nbooks, especially a love of poetry. A great deal of the reading aloud should\nbe done by the teacher if she is a good reader, and if she cannot read well\naloud she should not be permitted to teach literature. Such reading by the\nteacher, with occasional comment on some beautiful passage, will never fail\nto hold a class. Such comment, if carefully worded, can be made, not a\nperfunctory teaching exercise, but the natural expression of the teacher's\nappreciation.\nReading aloud by the pupils is also helpful, but, because the pupil will\nprobably not read so well as the teacher, the effect upon the other pupils\nwill not be so good. For the sake of teaching the individual to read aloud,\nhowever, the pupils themselves must do some reading. Reading dialogs\nand plays in class, with the parts assigned to pupils, always arouses interest\neven with the oldest pupils.\nClubs for reading aloud can be organized by the schools among inhabitants of all ages, except those too young to read aloud with ease. Such\nclubs, in addition to encouraging a taste for reading, furnish an agreeable\nand wholesome form of amusement. Shakespeare, Browning, the modern\ndrama, short stories, poetry — read aloud and afterward discust — are all\nsuitable subjects for such reading clubs.\nSomewhat similar to these reading clubs is the amateur performance\nof plays. My personal experience has been that taking part in many plays\nwas one of the most helpful experiences I underwent in forming my literary\ntastes. I am sure I learned more of Shakespeare by taking leading parts\nin two of his plays than I ever learned in any other one way.\nThere is one means of encouraging reading in rural districts that is\nrather widely used in several states and has been recently adopted by the\nUnited States Bureau of Education — the reading circle. Indiana was, I\nbelieve, the first, certainly one of the first, states to start a pupils' reading\ncircle. The conditions vary in different states, but generally credit is\nallowed and certificates and diplomas issued when a certain number of\nbooks from a recommended list have been read. In some cases there is a\nmore or less simple examination designed to show that the books have\nactually been read. The books on these lists are generally selected by a\ncommittee of the state teachers' association or by the state board of education. The reading circles, it is entirely true, have been the greatest and\noften the only means of building up a school library or of getting books\ninto the hands of the pupils. In Indiana alone, over 900,000 volumes\nhave been purchast, and the average annual membership is 160,000 different\npupil readers.\nBut even better than these several ways of encouraging reading is the\nassociation with books themselves. To be surrounded with freely accessible books is sure to affect one's habits and tastes. To make books accessible in any number to children or to adults is one of the problems of rural\n\n"}
{"page": 643, "printed_page": "631", "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nRURAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nREADING\n\nHABIT\n\n631\n\ncommunities, and here again the rural school can be of the greatest assistance. Where there is no public library in a community or where the library\nis at a considerable distance from the school, the school itself can build\nup a library of its own. The Hbrary in each school district, with its own\npermanent collection of books, has been the goal in many states for many\nyears.\nIn Indiana, for instance, there are at present literally hundreds of school\nlibraries. N. M. McRea, writing in Harper's Weekly in January, 1909,\nestimated that there were 8000. This establishment of small school libraries\nin the various school districts of the state has resulted in a vast deal of\nunnecessary duplication. Reference books, as encyclopedias, dictionaries,\nand standard texts, every good working school library must have, but the\nnumber of titles of general reading that may properly be included in a school\ncollection is great. As might be expected in the libraries of a few hundred\nvolumes, there is much duplication of titles. In a small school library\nin a community that has no public library these few titles are soon read by\nthe children and there are not sufficient funds to add enough books to keep\nup with the readers. The natural result is that both children and teachers\nsoon lose interest in the library. The only present help in this situation\nin .most states is the state traveling-library system. In many states there\nare maintained at state expense and operated by one state department or\nanother, generally a library commission, collections of books, often in fixt\ngroups, that may be borrowed by rural schools for periods averaging from\nthree to six months. In this way general reading that is frequently changing is supplied to supplement the meager school library. For temporary\nreference and debate work, these state commissions can also supply material.\nThe policy of supplying at state expense textbooks for instruction in such\nsubjects as may be called vocational subjects is questionable and should\nbe unnecessary. State traveling libraries, it would seem, should supply\nonly general reading matter.\nAny state system, however, with the many demands made upon its\nproportionally small collection of books, can, at best, help but little here\nand there. Some system of cooperation and interchange between school\nlibraries of convenient districts seems the most promising method of keeping fresh the stream of reading matter. In most states south and west\nof the Northern Atlantic seaboard, the county is a political entity of sufficient importance to serve as a unit of school-library service. In many of\nthese states there are county superintendents of schools who might easily\nand property make their offices the administrative centers of the ruralschool libraries. A supervising school librarian for each county would\nfittingly be one of the staff of the county superintendent's office. She could\nselect the books purchast with the library funds of each school district and\nsee that in the county there is no duplication of titles other than the absolute necessary references and texts. She could arrange to interchange these\n\n"}
{"page": 644, "printed_page": "632", "text": "632\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\ncollections so that each school could in time have the use of every other\nschool's purchases. Such a system of supplementary purchasing and interchange isbeing successfully workt out by Miss Archer, librarian of the\nTalladega (Ala.) Public Library. Such a supervising Ubrarian might also\nattend to the technical work of all the libraries, might instruct teachers at\ncounty institutes in the use of books and simple Ubrary methods, and might\neven herself give instruction to the pupils in the schools. In counties\nwhere such a librarian would be impossible, the superintendent himself\ncould at least oversee the purchasing and arrange a system of interschool\nloans. The state library commission would in many states furnish instruction to teachers and aid in many other ways.\nThe agency, however, that more than any other, perhaps, has the\ngreatest opportunity to mold the rural-school library of the future is the\nnormal school. Trained school librarians can do much and library commissions can give expert advice and supervision, but the teacher preeminently ofall persons outside the home, can arouse in the child of school\nage the love of books. Special librarians in small schools are impossible,\nand librarians in large schools, or supervising librarians of several schools,\ncannot, say what you please, have the direct contact with, and influence\nover, the individual child as can the teacher who has the child under her\ncare several hours a day.\nRURAL-SCHOOL EXTENSION WORK BY THE NEW\nSTATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE\nEDWARD\n\nM.\n\nTUTTLE,\n\nEDITOR, \"CORNELL\nITHACA, N.Y.\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL\n\nYORK\n\nLEAFLET,\"\n\nVery rapidly the education of boys and girls in the open country is\nfinding its sources in the rural environment. In its broadest sense, this is\nwhat we mean by nature-study: the process by which a child comes to\nknow and to appreciate the forces and phenomena with which he comes in\ncontact in the world about him, the establishing of his relationship to Hfe.\nChildren naturally reach out for knowledge when they can see tangibly\nbefore them the object or circumstance to which the knowledge relates.\nInterest can find its motive only in sense impression that produces desire.\nAnd interest means an awakened spirit and potential growth.\nA child is bom in the country. He lives for six years before he enters\na schoolroom. Those six years are years of marvelous growth, as the unfolding personaHty struggles to find its bearings and learns to express its\nthoughts and feelings in the form of speech. The child's whole being is\npermeated and influenst by his environment as represented in the out-ofdoors, the farming operations, and the home life. These three phases are\nincluded in the terms \"natural history,\" \"agriculture,\" and \"home-making\"\nas applied to elementary teaching.\n\n"}
{"page": 645, "printed_page": "633", "text": "Department]\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL\n\nEXTENSION\n\nWORK\n\nIN NEW\n\nYORK\n\n633\n\nThere comes a day when the child follows the road to the schoolhouse,\na place of mystery, to be entered with a feeling of awe and of respect not\nunmixt with fear. He crosses the threshold and a new epoch in his life\nbegins. Have we older persons forgotten what a tremendous moment that\nis to the six-year-old lad or lass ?\nThe country child comes to school with a background experience\nderived from the out-of-door world, the farm, and the home. This experience and the daily interests that contribute to it and are in turn suggested\nby it offer a natural starting-point for the teacher. Its right development\nconstitutes environmental study, or nature-study. If the child finds that\nschool and home have common interests, that each supplements the other,\nhe will eagerly reach out for new knowledge under the teacher's guidance,\nand will grow in ability and power. If the school is merely a place of\nunassociated fact instruction, he may respond in a mechanical way, but the\nhfe has gone, the fact has no meaning and therefore can produce no real\ngrowth.\nThis is the reason why rural schools are finding the motive and basis of\ntheir teaching in the rural environment. The state of New York has made\ngreat progress in this respect, and each year sees the movement become\nmore far-reaching and fundamental. The state department of education\nhas provided a suggestive syllabus of work in natural history, agriculture,\nand home-making. The New York State College of Agriculture suppUes to\nteachers subject-matter on these topics, together with suggestions for its\nuse. The most important point, and the one which is constantly emphasized, isthat the work shall deal with real things and shall be a natural,\nspontaneous effort on the part of the children, and that under no circumstances shall it be developt on a formal recitation, textbook basis. The\nsubject-matter sent to the teachers is for the purpose of giving them a point\nof view and of broadening their background of knowledge to the end that\nthey may guide the activities of the children more intelligently and effectively.\nTeachers who do not understand nor appreciate this method of approach\nask for definite outlines giving in detail the time and manner of presenting\nthe various topics. To supply these woul^ destroy the spontaneity and\ntake the life out of the work. What is needed is to see that teachers have\nthe ability and the desire to take advantage of the natural opportunities as\nthey constantly arise. There are all gradations of success and failure but,\non the whole, the work in New York State is well done and is already manifesting itself in the Hves of the children.\nAnother mistake sometimes made, and one which apparently has not\nimprest itself on all directors of education, is that of considering the accomplishment, from time to time, of certain definite, but unrelated, pieces of\nwork in one or the other of these subjects as the ultimate end to be attained.\nThis is quite likely to be the case where all the work done by the children is\n\nI.\n\n"}
{"page": 646, "printed_page": "634", "text": "634\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Agricultural\n\nin the form of project or club enterprises. Undoubtedly there is valuable\ntraining for any child at certain periods of his life in doing some definite\npiece of practical work under competent direction; but far more essential\nis the need that his activity from day to day all his young Ufe long shall\nreflect his environment. Until natural history, agriculture, and homemaking in some phase or other constitute the vital framework of the rural\nschool and form the basis of its daily life, their greatest value has not been\nfound. The real result to strive for in nature-study is an atmosphere, not a\nrecord, altho to a superficial observer the record may be the only evidence\nof accomplishment.\nEducation is a very personal thing. The closer the bond of sympathy\nbetween teacher and pupils, the more fundamental the results. Likewise\na close relationship between teachers and their supervisors and directors is a\nvery desirable condition. There is no reason why officials should not\nshow that they are human, nor why institutions should not have souls.\nThis is a large factor in the rural-school extension work undertaken by the\nNew York State College of Agriculture. By means of the regular publication known as the Cornell Rural School Leaflet, by personal correspondence,\nand by attendance at conferences of teachers and gatherings of school folk\nall are led to feel, on the part of those in the institution, a friendly human\ninterest that produces greater opportunities for service. Every letter\nis an opportunity, and may be made to carry a feeling of real, as well as of\nofficial, interest. Of course, this is a matter capable of being overdone and\nmisused. There are no rules. No force is capable of so much good, nor of so\nmuch harm, as personal power. One who uses it wisely must be sensitive\nand fundamentally controlled. The limit of its use varies with different\npersons and with different conditions.\nThe actual organization of the rural-school extension work from the\nNew York State College of Agriculture includes the following considerations:\n1. The work is centered in the Department of Rural Education, which\nalso conducts courses of instruction for prospective teachers of agriculture\nand home-making, and which does some research work.\n2. The chief extension enterprise, out of which all the others grow,\nis the publication of the Cornell Rural School Leaflet. The Leaflet owes\nits conception and development to Alice Gertrude McCloskey, who died\nlast October. Years ago she saw the trend of rural education toward a\nconsideration of the rural environment, and in 1907 she was given an\nopportunity to start the Leaflet, There is one large number for teachers\nissued annually in September. It contains material on a year's work as\noutlined in the state syllabus. The technical subject-matter is prepared\nby the various experts in the college, and publisht with notes and suggestions\nfor its use. There are three smaller leaflets for children issued in November,\nJanuary, and March of each year. These serve to stimulate and direct\nthe children's interest and to supplement the efforts of the teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 647, "printed_page": "635", "text": "Department]\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL\n\nEXTENSION\n\nWORK\n\nIN NEW\n\nYORK\n\n62,<,\n\n3. The children's leaflets each contain, among other things, a message\nto the boys and girls in the form of a personal letter from the editor. The\nchildren are encouraged to reply, and their correspondence forms a large\nand interesting feature of the work. Every child who writes three letters\nin the school year receives a small gift picture representing some appropriate art subject.\n4. Correspondence with teachers is extensive and covers a wide range of\nsubjects. Many of the letters contain technical questions which are\nreferred to the proper experts in the college for reply.\n5. The district superintendents in the state hold local conferences of\ntheir teachers several times a year, and there are always more requests for\nspeakers received at the college than can be met. The conference work is\nvery important, however, and serves to supplement the leaflet and to direct\nits use.\n6. There has developt an annual exhibit of rural-school work at the\ncollege, and this is held during the general Farmers' Week in February of\neach year. Effort is made to provide definite standards for each class of\nexhibit material, in order that the schools may prepare their work intelKgently and with some degree of uniformity, altho great freedom is encouraged in the detailed execution of the work, providing the essentials are\ncovered. There is only a limited number of classes each year — about\ntwenty — covering phases of natural history, agriculture, and home-making.\nLocal exhibitions of various kinds are also encouraged and suggestions are\ngiven for making them definite and fundamental.\n7. Within the last year a new phase of extension work has been undertaken by the Rural Education Department. It is known as the Junior\nHome-Project Work, and is analogous to the movement that in many\nstates is known as boys' and girls' club work. In New York State there are\nseveral features of the work which are essentially different, and which seem\nto us important. These are: (i) that the junior home-project work, or any\nwork of a competitive nature with boys and girls, shall be directed by the\neducational authorities — the state department of education and its local\nrepresentatives, the district superintendents; (2) that all other agencies\nof whatever kind, including the College of Agriculture, shall cooperate with\nthe educational authorities, and shall not organize such work on their own\ninitiative; (3) that the function of the State College of Agriculture is to\nprovide subject-matter instruction to teachers and pupils engaged in\nproject work; (4) that, while effort is made to standardize the work for the\nstate, there is no state organization or club in any sense of the term, for\nthe movements are local; (5) that the work on the part of the boys and girls\nshall consist of a certain amount of school study plus a home project, the\ntwo to go hand in hand;^ (6) that the home project must be properly supervised by a competent person — the district superintendent or someone\ndesignated by him; (7) that the successful completion of the work as\n\n"}
{"page": 648, "printed_page": "636", "text": "636\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nlAgricultural\n\ndesignated by the district superintendent shall entitle the child to regents'\ncredit toward high school. The junior home-project work is limited to\nchildren in the seventh and eighth grades, or over twelve years of age, and\nwhile at any given time it will never afifect more than a small percentage of\nthe children in rural schools, it has an important place in their educational\ndevelopment, especially if it grows out of a broad background of environmental study, or nature-study, which, as has already been stated, is the\nultimate end to be attained in developing the work of natural history,\nagriculture, and home-making in the rural schools.\nConsidered broadly, the use of the rural environment by the rural schools\nof New York State is growing quietly, steadily, and fundamentally; and\nthe State College of Agriculture is using its resources freely to cooperate\nin the good work.\n\n"}
{"page": 649, "printed_page": "637", "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF CLASSROOM\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nTEACHERS\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident— Mary E. Adkisson, teacher, East Denver High School\nDenver, Col.\nVice-President — Isabel A. Ennis, president, Class Teachers Organization of Brooklyn,\nNew York, N.Y.\nSecretary — Mary V. Donoghue, sixth-grade teacher, Stewart School\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday\n\nChicago, 111.\n\nForenoon, July 5, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in the Ballroom of the Hotel Astor, by\nVice-President Isabel A. Ennis, who appointed Estelle M. Johnson, Richmond Hill High\nSchool, New York, N.Y., secretary.\nSara Helena Fahey, teacher of English, Seward Park School, New York City,\npresented a paper on \"Moral Education: What the School Can Do.\" In the discussion\nwhich followed. Miss Weeks, of Denver, emphasized the necessity of impressing upon the\nchild the dignity of labor; and Professor Romain, of Syracuse University, urged that a\ndistinction should be made between work that was useful and work that was simply\nparasitic.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 6, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9: 30 a.m. by Vice-President Ennis.\nThe following program was presented:\n\n\"Teachers' Advisory Councils\" — ^Thomas W. Churchill, former president, Board of\nEducation, New York, N.Y.\n\"Vocational Guidance thruout the School\nTraining School for Teachers, Brooklyn, N.Y. Course\" — Emma L. Johnston, principal.\n\"Waste in Education\" — ^James Fleming Hosic, head of the department of English,\nChicago Normal College, Chicago, 111.\nMr. Churchill spoke informally, outlining some of the changes which had been made\nin the course of study during the period that he had been a member of the board of education, and indicated that the rigidity of the course of study had been a drawback to progress\nin the public-school system. He gave it as his opinion that there was a greater proportion\nof efl&cient teachers than of eflScient lawyers, efficient doctors, or efficient ministers. He\nadvocated greater cooperation between the teachers and the administrators.\nThe paper by Miss Johnson was discust by Professor Romain, Miss Fahey, and Miss\nEnnis.\nThe Conmiittee on Nominations consisted of: Anna Willson, principal of high school,\nCrawfordsville, Ind.; Jane McCarthy, elementary teacher. Public School No. 164,\nBrooklyn, N.Y.; Frances B. Meeks, Danville, 111.; Theresa B. Clark, Newark, N.J.;\nand Lonoda Newton, Denver, Col.\nUpon the recommendation of the committee the following officers were unanimously\nelected for the ensuing year:\nPresident — Sara H. Fahey, teacher of English, Public School No. 147, Brooklyn, N.Y.\nVice-President — Anna Willson, principal637of High School, Crawfordsville, Ind.\nSecretary — Mary V. Donoghue, sixth-grade teacher, Stewart School, Chicago, 111.\nEstelle M. Johnson, Secretary pro tern\n\n"}
{"page": 650, "printed_page": "638", "text": "638\n\n.\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Classroom Teachers\n\nPAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS\nMORAL\nSARA\n\nHELENA\n\nEDUCATION:\nFAHEY,\n\nWHAT\n\nTHE SCHOOL\n\nTEACHER OF ENGLISH,\nNEW\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nSEWARD\n\nCAN DO\nPARK\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nIn the limited time assigned to my theme I shall not attempt to present\nthe subject of moral education in all its relations to school life. It is my\npurpose, rather, to emphasize the need of a revolution in our present lax\nattitude regarding the subject, to point out some serious obstacles to any\neffective scheme of moral education in our public schools, and to suggest\na few lines of moral training which it is possible for the school to carry out\nwith profit to itself and to the community of which it is a part.\nEducation begins in babyhood. We all seem to agree that it should be\nsimultaneously physical, mental, and moral, but because of our aversion\nto heated discussions on religious questions, the moral side is not strest.\nWe eliminate God as a basis for inspiration for moral life. Reverence has\ngiven way to the moral-suasion ideal that we should be good because it is\nso beautiful to be good. Experience teaches us, however, that when moral\ncrises have to be met, this ideal is not a sufficient stimulus to the ordinary\nhuman being.\nSome educators have assumed that the easiest way out is to leave\nmoral education to the home and the church. They forget that, in a large\nnumber of homes, there is neither the desire, nor the intelligence, nor the\ntime, to give children adequate moral training. Furthermore, they forget\nthat, in our nation of over one hundred million souls, 55 per cent have not\neven a nominal church affiliation. The public school, therefore, is of necessity the great moral mentor of a majority of our people.\nIt is of little use to deplore the growing alienation of the people from\nall forms of religious effort so long as a vast organization, maintained at\npublic expense, devotes itself primarily to the physical and mental side.\nYoung people are thus indirectly educated to undervalue moral and religious life. The greatest thinkers of our age have exprest their concern\nregarding the evil fruits of non-moral education. Twenty-two years ago,\nAlexander Johnston, of Princeton, said, ''The moral quahties are developt\nin the same way that the bones, the muscles, and th^ mind are, by exercise.\nOur educational system falls short here. Every effort is made to develop\nthe physical and mental qualities, but the moral qualities are left to take\ncare of themselves.\"\nLast month President Hibben, of the same University, in his address\nto the graduates, on moral preparedness, said, \"It is not the foe without, but\nthe enervating forces within, which cause a nation to sicken and die, and\nthis is our greatest menace.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 651, "printed_page": "639", "text": "Department]\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION:\n\nWHAT\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCAN\n\nDO\n\n639\n\nWe rely upon the public schools to perpetuate institutions of which we\nare proud, institutions which have been establisht thru an immense expenditure of blood, and treasure, and toil. Yet when we examine the results,\nwe begin to fear that our reliance has been misplaced. We are led to\nquestion whether the public school is really fulfilling its mission.\nIf the moral possibihties of the public school were appreciated, the\nsignificance of compelling pupils to attend school would be seen. We\nboast an enrolment of over twenty-two million pupils in the public schools\nof the United States, yet this is Httle more than half of the actual number of\nchildren in our land from five to eighteen years of age. To be sure, many\nare cared for by parochial, or by private schools, but still a great number\ngo uncared for. Furthermore, of the numbers actually enroled, about onefourth are absent daily.\nMany, many young people in our country can truthfully say with\nTopsy, \"I just grow'd up one fine morn.\" The morning, however, will\nnot continue fine for them if the home and the school persist in leaving to\nchance their moral education.\nSomeone has said, \"Life forever keeps the keynote first struck.\" We\nknow that, unless the school give positive moral training, the formation of\ncharacter will be left to accident, and will be determined by the habits\nand ideals of those with -whom the child associates in his leisure hours.\nThe characteristics of the street -gang chief, or of the leader in after-school\nplay, have determined the future of many a lad. The \"smartness\" of\nclever youngsters outwitting their elders, as frequently shown in the movies,\nhas been a stimulating ideal for the perversion of weak children. These\nand other untoward influences have developt among us today a class of\nyoung people who think that all morality is a farce, that religion is a myth,\nand that their aim should be to get all they can out of Hfe regardless of the\ninterests of anybody else. To such people, country, flag, or God means little.\nWe, as teachers, must set out to destroy these false ideals and to create\nworthy ones. We must help to establish moral and social standards for our\ntime, and must help to influence public opinion as to the necessity for positive moral education. The pivotal thought that teachers should force\nhome to the community is the progress of the world thru proper education.\nThe public needs much instruction on this point.\nThe great American fetish is a superstitious reverence for book learning.\nMillions of hard-working fathers and mothers go without comforts to\nkeep their boys and girls in school. The fact that they seldom ask what\nlessons the children are learning, aside from those found in books, makes it\nimperative that the school be awake to its responsibiUty.\nWe must recognize that our age is strenuous, complex, and democratic.\nThe individual is, perhaps, too much exalted. He finds it difficult to substitute law for desire. His social instincts must be trained until racial responsibiUty idevelopt.\ns\nThe public is learning, thru daily experience, that\n\n"}
{"page": 652, "printed_page": "640", "text": "640\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Classroom Teachers\n\nneglected children become a menace to the world around them. This fact\nalone ought to make it clear that there is no economy quite so false as that\nwhich refuses to make adequate appropriations for education.\nThe factor that miUtates most powerfully against effective moral\neducation in the school is overcrowding. When we find, for example, that\nin the largest city in the world and the wealthiest city in this country, there\nare 836 classes of 50 pupils each, 102 1 classes of between 51 and 55, 314\nclasses having 55 or more pupils, and, to add to the evil, 465 classes in charge\nof substitutes, it at once becomes apparent that with such herding of children there can be little time or opportunity for moral training. Attention\nhas been called to the physical harm of overcrowding, as shown by the spread\nof disease, to the mental evil, as exprest in retardation, but the high percentage ofmoral failures among such groups has been little noted. When\nthe numbers are so great, individuality is lost sight of. The absolute\nuniformity that becomes establisht is spiritually deadening. The pupils\nunder such training actually lose the power to adjust themselves to new\nconditions.\nAnother evil is an overcrowded curriculum, which makes follow-up\nwork impossible. Teachers tend to be constantly on the jump in the classroom. A few minutes is given to one subject, and then a rush is made to\nanother, as if the sole purpose of each successive lesson was to obliterate\nall traces of previous work. This practice destroys concentration of mind\nin the pupil. Professor William James, of Harvard University, many\nyears ago called attention to this weakness in method when he said, \" Education is preeminently a leisurely process.\" We should reflect seriously on\nthis thought. Unless the teacher has time to enter into the Hfe of the children, she can do little for them in a moral sense.\nAnother great obstacle to success in moral training is the inability of\nmany parents to deal with moral questions that are constantly arising.\nThis inability is especially markt in foreigners who are unable to speak our\nlanguage. The influence of the parent is likely to be weakened when the\nfamily has to contend for existence in a congested American city. The\nparents cHng tenaciously to old customs and are slow to acquire new styles,\neither of clothing or of manner. The children, on the contrary, are quick\nto imitate. They are imprest by superficial values, and sometimes they\nfeel ashamed that their parents are so slow. Here is the first loosening\nof respect and authority. The children imagine they have to blaze the\ntrail, as it were. Undirected, they more easily acquire vicious habits than\nvirtuous ones. Nature seems to tend that way.\nAnother drawback to moral training is what is known as \"soft pedagogy.\" The aim seems to be to make children comfortable in the present,\nwhatever the outcome in the future. It is an age of breathless rushing\nfrom one sensation to another. Children are led to think that there must\nbe outward activity every moment, or school is dull; that unless they hke\n\n"}
{"page": 653, "printed_page": "641", "text": "Department]\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION:\n\nWHAT\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCAN\n\nDO\n\n641\n\na subject, it is unworthy of their attention. They must be led to value\nthe slow, silent, penetrating influence of steadiness and perseverance which\nmakes for moral education.\nAnother tendency of modern pedagogy is to shuffle responsibility from\nthe child to the adult, to an alarming degree. If a child is brought before\nthe court, the principal or teacher, rather than the delinquent, is put on\ntrial. Finally, the reputation of the school becomes of more importance\nthan the salvation of the child, and school officers will tolerate his wrongdoing rather than risk undeserved public censure.\nIf all methods of correction are to be tabooed, then complete segregation\nof the vicious and abnormal should follow. The young rowdy should then\nbe shown that he cannot successfully defy authority. The contrast today\nbetween the method of the school and that of the outside world, in dealing\nwith offenders, is criminally cruel in its inconsistency. Common-sense\nsuggests that we prepare children for what they must meet in life. They\nmust be taught that the laws of the world are harsh, and are enforst by\nsuch penalties as failure, hunger, misery, and death.\nAnother practice distinctly wasteful is that of keeping pupils on a\ngeneral curriculum after vocational interests are aroused. This is a frequent cause of moral loss.\nThen there is the constant effort to standardize the human relations of\nchild and teacher. The unobtrusive staying qualities, which often characterize the faithful, overworkt teacher, are not the first things in sight\nduring a survey. There is often a startling contrast between paper efficiency and field efficiency. The efficiency of a shop can be computed when\nthe completed product has been turned out, but it needs at least ten years\nafter graduation for the efficiency of a school to show itself, if moral values\nare to be estimated in the count. It is the resulting impress left by a school\nupon its pupils working itself out in their future lives which determines\nwhether a school has been truly successful.\nThe energy wasted at the present time in the two greatest cities of our\ncountry in the search for efficient teachers could be more profitably spent\nin removing factors and conditions which create inefficiency. A hypercritical attitude toward teachers tends to weaken their moral force. The\nprime need in moral training is the strong teacher with initiative, high ideals,\nbroad sympathies, and education. If teachers are not encouraged to\ndevelop desirable traits of character in themselves, how can they develop\nthem in others ? If they have no spiritual outlook, how can they recognize\nits value for others ? Teachers must be imbued with confidence if they are\nto arouse confidence. If they are forst to think of themselves as failures,\nhow can they stimulate pupils to regard themselves as something more than\nfailures ?\nI know of no better outline in ethics than that contained in the course\nof study for elementary schools in the city of New York. From it I quote\n\n"}
{"page": 654, "printed_page": "642", "text": "642\n\niV'^ TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\n[Classroom Teachers\n\nthis statement: **The personality of the teacher is at the root of all moral\neducation in the school. The teacher's poise, her self-control, ideals, and\nattitude toward life are inevitably reflected in the character of her pupils.\"\nIf this be true, how necessary it is to eliminate as far as possible all forces\nthat weaken this personality. We are all frail human beings, but the power\nwe possess to cause ourselves to be idealized is the first step toward imitation\nby pupils. For this reason, those leaders in education who believe in vitalizing the schools by faith in the classroom teacher are rendering a distinct\nservice to education and to youth.\nThen, too, in some communities the economic situation is destructive of\nmoral ideals. The flagrant injustice which forces teachers to the courts to\nobtain what they have honestly earned makes teachers, and intelligent\npupils too, feel that ideals of citizenship set by the school are mere theories\nto be exploded in real life, and that possibly education itself is not worth\nwhile. In the last analysis a community must do right, not simply preach\nright. If harmonious relations are destroyed, because of the attempts of\nthe community to exploit the teachers, they cannot work with the same\nsingleness of purpose for the good of the schools. Wherever workers have\nbecome machines in the mind of the employer, they quickly respond to the\nstandard set. The business world is beginning to recognize this truth, and\nto apply a truer efficiency standard than mere output as a measure of success.\nAnd now a few words as to desirable moral traits, and to methods of\ndeveloping them in the school. Habits which are merely the incidental\nresults of school work, as punctuality, order, and neatness, while essential,\ndo not assure us that moral life is in full vigor. The definite things to be\nestablisht thru moral education, aside from training in useful habits for\ndaily life, are a training to resist what is known to be evil, and a training\nin interests. Teachers must have in mind the characteristics necessary to\na well-balanst human being. While differences of opinion exist among\neducators with regard to methods of teaching morals, agreement is wellnigh universal as to certain moral qualities, the absence of which makes for\nfailure.\nPupils need to have the will and the imagination thoroly developt.\nThen, one of the first things to teach them is a respect for useful work and for\nthat knowledge which can be gained only thru steadfast application.\nUtilize school studies to teach thrift. Make pupils feel the sense of independence that comes as a result of paying one's bills. The school savings\nbank is a potent factor in developing this trait. Get the notion out of\npupils' heads that they are entitled to an extravagant use of public money.\nThey should be taught to care most scrupulously for books and other public\nproperty. Teach them to visualize the taxpayers. Give them some tangible ideas about this nebulous creature called '' the public.\"\nTrain pupils in concentration for its moral value. The weakness of\nthe ordinary man lies in being so easily diverted. Trivial social-service\n\n"}
{"page": 655, "printed_page": "643", "text": "Department!\n\nMORAL\n\nEDUCATION:\n\nWHAT\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCAN\n\nDO\n\n643\n\nwork is sometimes organized to side-track social reform. For example,\novercrowding in our schools is to be cured by the duplicate school. The corporations that persist in endangering public health are the most active in\nforming safety leagues. Officials are not embarrast by these movements,\nwhile people get the illusion that the community is headed toward progress.\nPupils should be trained to think of the body as a temple for the spirit.\nThey must be ambitious to make it healthy and perfect. They should\nunderstand that nervous energy can be conserved or wasted; that, if it is\ndiverted thru vicious habits from its proper purpose, it will eventually bring\nphysical and moral disease, and death.\nTeach a sane patriotism. Pupils should be taught that there are a\nthousand lines of effort which demand finer courage and more intense\ndevotion than those which center in the ordinary war. Service where\nour country needs us is patriotism in the best sense. This patriotism is\nshown in our use of the franchise and of the opportunities afforded by\nofficial position.\nWhat subjects in the school can be most effectively utihzed for moral\neducation? As the will is synonymous with character, and becomes the\nstarting-point, as well as the end, in all moral training, any subject or process that tends to develop the will of the student has a moral value.\nHistoric traditions should be interpreted in a way that will help peace.\nMake pupils see that a pacifist is not necessarily a dove, but just somebody\nwho has imagination — who wants to know whether the scrap is worth while,\nand whether the difficulty can be better settled in some other way. Effort\nshould be made to wipe out race hatred. Train high-school pupils, when\nreading history, to note whether a war is waged in defense, of human liberty,\nor whether it is carried on because of the vaulting ambition of rulers, or the\nstill more unrestrained ambition of plutocrats and political adventurers.\nLiterature, however, is more fruitful than any other subject as a means\nof creating and stimulating worthy ideals. It opens up a wide range of moral\nquestions that might not arise in the classroom, and yet are well within\nthe intelligence of the child. If a bad habit is noted, a quotation to correct\nit should be taught. The offenders, without feeling that a personal criticism\nhas been made, are helpt by the thought that great men and women had to\ncombat similar weaknesses.\nThe potency of quotations from the world's best thought, as moral\nhelps, is recognized by the outside world. A few days ago I read a circular\non ''Courtesy\" posted in a station of the New Haven Railroad, signed by\nPresident Howard Elliott. The employes were shown that courtesy is a\nvaluable asset to the road and to themselves. It closed with, ''Life is not so\nshort but there is always time for courtesy\" — (Emerson). If Mr. Elliott,\nwith his knowledge of human nature, believed that Emerson's line strengthened his advice to a body of men not distinguisht for literary tastes, the\npractice would seem to be significant for teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 656, "printed_page": "644", "text": "644\n\nN^ TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION\n\nASSOCIA\n\nTION\n\nIClassroom Teachers\n\nThe greatest value that comes from this application of the ideals of\ngreat literature is that the habit is formed of communing with great minds\nand seeking to apply their wisdom. This practice gives young people\nresources for the future. The desire is created to go onward and upward —\nto attain perfection.\n\"What shall I do,\" I askt an angel bright,\n\"When age draws nigh?\"\n\"Then,\" smiled he from his height,\n\"Keep growing.\"\n\nLastly, I would say that we, as teachers, must keep growing ourselves.\nWe must be so earnest in our desire to reach the ideals of our profession that\nwe shall be able to make the community understand that its best investment is in education. We must have the vision to see that our effort is\nnot on bricks or marble that will crumble away; that our business is to\ntrain character and to shape human life. Your work and mine is in things\neternal. Literature again points the way to the ideal in these beautiful\nlines:\nBuild it well whate'er you do;\nBuild it straight and strong and true;\nBuild it high and clean and broad;\nBuild it for the eye of God.\n\n"}
{"page": 657, "printed_page": "645", "text": "Department!\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nVOCATIONAL\nEMMA\n\ni\n\nGUIDANCE\n\nGUIDANCE\n\nL. JOHNSTON,\n\nTHRUOUT\n\nTHRUOUT\n\nPRINCIPAL, TRAINING\nBROOKLYN,\nN.Y.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCOURSE\n\nTHE SCHOOL\nSCHOOL\n\n645\n\nCOURSE\n\nFOR TEACHERS,\n\nThe popular pastime of enriching the elementary-school curriculum\nhas certain rules which those who have played the game successfully have\nusually followed. At its introduction the new subject is put in the hands\nof a specialist. The speciaHst, having the enthusiasm, the faith, the\ncourage, the energy of the pioneer, makes a great success of his job, and\nconvinces the school authorities and the general pubHc that the subject is\nindispensable; whereupon he is provided with assistants, their number\nincreasing until in a great school system they become an important organization of teachers, one of whose objects is to obtain as much recognition and\nconsideration for their specialty as possible. The study given by the\nspecialists to their subject and to methods of teaching it results in a body\nof knowledge that is a more or less valuable contribution to the theory of\nthe school curriculum. But sooner or later the specialists discover that\nwithout the sympathetic and intelligent cooperation of a certain other\nspecialist they cannot apply their theories with much success. This other\nis the specialist in children, the name by which I like to designate the\nclassroom teacher. The speciaHst in a subject presents a well-prepared,\nwell-organized lesson, but after he has taken his departure, the classroom\nteacher sees to it that her Tom, Dick, and Harry clearly understand or\nintelligently practice; and she does this, not in one short lesson, but at\nintervals thru a long period of time.\nVocational training is now in the hands of specialists, and since its field\nis as wide as human endeavor, it is likely to remain in their hands; but\nmy subject is not vocational training, it is vocational guidance, and vocational guidance is, in most school systems, in nobody's hands. Yet vocational guidance is of great importance; it may be that it is as important\nas vocational training.\nNot all the misfits in the world of workers are those who have not been\nproperly trained for their job; there are many who have chosen the job\nfor which they could never have been properly trained. Vocational guidance is a more difficult work than vocational training, but all sorts and\nconditions of persons who would hesitate to train for any calling whatever\nare confident of their ability to act as vocational guides. Parents have been\nknown to select their children's vocations as early as they have selected\nthe children's names, and with as little deference to the children's opinions.\nMakers of courses of study have been known to select the same few vocations for ten thousand pupils with ten thousand kinds of native endowment.\nThe reason vocations are selected for young people by their elders is\nthat the young people are considered too inexperienst to choose for themselves. This is where the classroom teacher, the speciaKst in children, can\n\n"}
{"page": 658, "printed_page": "646", "text": "646\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Classroom Teachers\n\nbe of service. She can put the children in the way of obtaining experience.\nShe can do this without adding any subjects to the school curriculum and\nwithout increasing the already heavy burden of her own preparation.\nWhat she needs to have is a more specialized aim in her teaching. She has\nalways meant, in general, to prepare her pupils for life; but her notion\nof life may have been rather vague or indefinite. Now let her think of life\nas the using of all one's powers for self-support, contentment, and service,\nand let her remember that every individual in her class is an individual\nwith unique capacities and unique Hmitations.\nHere are oflfered a few suggestions regarding the way in which the classroom teacher may give her pupils some vocational guidance. It will be\nnoted that there is nothing new in the exercises suggested. They are in\ngeneral use, but they have not always been employed with the distinct\npurpose which is here set forth.\nIn the first place, school children should have an opportunity to become\nacquainted with workers in many fields. The father of Benjamin Franklin\ngives parents and teachers of children a good suggestion regarding vocational guidance. In the Autobiography we read:\nAt ten years old I was taken from school to assist my father in his business, which\nwas that of a tallow-chandler and soap-boiler. I dislikt the trade and had a strong\ninclination for the sea; but my father declared against it. He was under apprehension\nthat if he did not find a more agreeable trade for me I should break away and get to sea.\nHe therefore sometimes took me to walk with him, to see joiners, bricklayers, turners,\nbraziers, etc., at their work, that he might observe my inclination and endeavor to fix\nit on some trade or other on land. It has ever since been a pleasure to me to see good\nworkmen handle their tools.\n\nThe classroom teacher has many opportunities to lead her pupils to\nobserve men and women at work. The kindergartner begins the course.\nHer purpose is clearly defined in her own mind. To use Miss Blow's words,\n\" She means to select from the offerings of life those that will develop in\nchildren some faint presentiment of the beauty of universal service, some\nresponsive feeling of gratitude, and some desire to share the work that all are\ndoing.\" To this end, like Franklin's father, she takes her children to walk\nwith her in order to observe men and women at work. The beauty of\nservice, the duty of gratitude may be the ideas uppermost in the kindergartner's mind when the excursions to the bakery, the market, the smithy,\nthe shipyard, are made; but it is the desire \"to share in the work that all\nare doing\" which is uppermost in the child's consciousness. This childish\ndesire to engage immediately in some definite kind of important productive labor is the first response to that call for service which will be sounded\nall thru childhood and youth for him that hath ears to hear. The call will\nbe interpreted by the hearer in different ways, as his knowledge of the\nrequirements of different vocations and his understanding of his own powers\nand limitations increase, but his teacher's constant aim will be to induce him\n\n"}
{"page": 659, "printed_page": "647", "text": "Departmenti\n\nVOCATIONAL\n\nGUIDANCE\n\nTHRUOUT\n\nSCHOOL\n\nCOURSE\n\n647\n\nto heed the call, to try to discover for himself whence it comes, and to determine as well as he can whether or not it is his call.\nNot kindergartners alone but teachers of all grades take their classes\n, on excursions to see workers at their labors. This form of school activity\nis so well known that it is not necessary to give instances of the variety of\noccupations observed by pupils above the kindergarten, nor of the many\npurposes served. The point to be emphasized here is that this kind of\nexcursion, wherever employed, should be recognized as material or opportimity for vocational guidance.\nThe classroom recitation or conference in which pupils give reports\nof their individual observations may be substituted for the class excursion\nand serve the same purpose. The teacher who gives the following assignment as an exercise in composition may have uppermost in her mind the\nformation of certain linguistic habits, but the pupils who make the reports,\nand their classmates who receive them have their minds on the occupations\ndiscust. Says the teacher, \"Select the occupation you know most about,\nand prepare a report on it for your classmates; if possible, go where the work\nis being done, and prepare to describe it as an eyewitness; or else ask for\ninformation from some relative or acquaintance who is in the business.\nIn making the report the following topics may be used: interesting features\nof the work; necessary outfit or equipment; kind of skill or ability required;\npreparation required of beginners; healthfulness; dangers; beginner's\nwages; opportunities for promotion.\"\nBesides being led to discover what different workers are doing, children\nshould be encouraged to express and develop their impressions thru the\nactivity most characteristic of childhood, namely, play. Here again the\nkindergartner shows the way. The young child plays everything he wants\nto be, and his play shows his choice of vocation for the time being. The\nnormal child makes a new choice every day; for, like Bottom in Shakespeare's play, he desires to act each new character that is presented to him\nin the unfolding drama of labor, and, Hke Bottom, he believes that he\n[ would shine in each part.\n^m\nTeachers of older children use vocational play, tho they do not call it\n^pby this name.\nSuch are the exercises in which \"make believe\" is an\nI element — ^playing store in the primary number class, representing the\nactivities of a banking business in the higher-grade arithmetic class, imperI sonating municipal government employes in the school city. Classroom\ndramatization frequently has forms of labor for its theme, and the school\nfestival, especially that of Labor Day, dignifies and beautifies vocations\n, thru art, poetry, and music.\n^K It is well known that one reason why boys and girls chafe at being\n\" obliged to attend school is that they consider the time spent there wasted.\nThey do not long to escape school in order that they may play, it is that they\nmay work, that they may be about the business of life. They want to do\n\n"}
{"page": 660, "printed_page": "648", "text": "648\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA TION\n\nASSOCIA TION\n\nIClassroom Teachers\n\nsomething real, something worth while, something useful. In their opinion\nthere is a great gulf fixt between school Hfe and real life. Vocational training has been introduced into the curriculum in the effort to bridge that gulf;\nbut as a result of this introduction another gulf has yawned, this one between\nthe vocational branches and the traditional studies of the school, the\nso-called academic branches. It is the classroom teacher who can bridge\nthis gulf. It is she who, thru her sympathetic attitude toward the pupil's\ndesire to do something and to be something of importance, can make the\nthree R's and kindred branches an indirect means of vocational guidance.\nShe has only to see the aim clearly, to keep it ever before her mind, and she\nwill have little difficulty in finding ways in which to reaHze her object.\nEvery study furnishes its characteristic opportunity. Classroom teachers,\nit is not my purpose here to show you what any of these opportunities are.\nMy object is merely to make this point, namely, that thru your teaching\nof the common branches, thru the activities connected with your classroom\nwork and play, your pupils may come to know much of the world of labor\nand much of their own fitness or unfitness for the common types of vocations.\n\nWASTE\nJAMES\n\nFLEMING\n\nHOSIC, HEAD\nNORMAL\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nOF THE DEPARTMENT OF\nCOLLEGE, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nENGLISH,\n\nCHICAGO\n\nEfficiency engineers are necessary in education as well as in building\nand commerce. That the applications of science have revolutionized\nmethods of production and distribution in the world of commodities every\nwell-informed person knows. SimpUfying the movements of the bricklayers isbut one comparatively unimportant instance of what is going on\nthruout the world of affairs. That educators should be left behind in the\nrace for effectiveness is not to be thought of for a moment.\nFor some years the movement for economy in education has been gaining headway. Under the leadership of President Harper, President Eliot,\nand, later. President Baker, the movement was first of all an attempt to\nshorten the time necessary for obtaining a college degree. A study of the\nactual situation soon revealed, however, that the possibihties of economy\nwere to be found, not so much in the higher institutions, as in the early\nyears of schooling. Consequently, the various committees on economy\nincluding that of the National Education Association and several appointed\nby the states, have sought means of eliminating useless subject-matter and\nof strengthening the methods of the elementary schools.\nThere need be no fear that this will result in impoverishment. The\nwell-meant efforts of the learned specialists of the Committee of Ten resulted\nin overloading the grades. The result was dissipation rather than growth.\nWe are just now seeking such simplification as will adapt the activities of\n\n"}
{"page": 661, "printed_page": "649", "text": "Department]\n\nWASTE\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n649\n\nthe grades to the immature children found in them. As a contribution\nto the discussion of this problem I venture to suggest the following simple\nprogram for reducing waste.\nFirst of all, we must restate the aims of the school. Unless we are\nheaded in the right direction we shall certainly fail to arrive at the goal.\nThe older view was deeply colored with the theory of mental discipline.\nPupils went to school to strengthen their minds. Added to this was some\nthought of the necessary rudiments of knowledge and skill as embodied\nparticularly in reading, writing, and ciphering. The newer idea is that of\ngrowth — a natural development of latent powers and capacities. The business ofthe school is to provide an environment most conducive to the unfolding of the child's native being. To do this the school must become\n;sentially an epitome of civilized Ufe, presenting its more simple aspects to\nithe younger child and venturing to greater complexity year by year. The\n[activities of the school must take on for the child a sense of reality. The\nchildren must actually live and feel that they are living. The hope that\nthe instruction which is being received may some day bear fruit is too vague\nmd intangible to affect the conduct of little ones. In its place must come\n>ecific purposes which will result in definite access of ability. In other\n^ords, the school must aim to form helpful ideals, right attitudes, and good\n►ermanent interests as well as to establish habits, develop skill, and convey\njeful knowledge.\nSecondly, in order to carry out the newer aims of the school, there must\na sifting of the traditional subject-matter and the addition to it of activities until recently thought to be no part of the life of the school. The\n>rting process is already well advanst. Anyone who will take the trouble\nread the Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Edu;ationy Part I, will be profoundly imprest with the progress which has been\n,de. In the field of arithmetic, for example, there is a considerable\nlanimity in the dropping of subjects and problems which are obsolete\n:cause of the change in the world of business or because they are too com>lex to be of real value. Geography and history are being analyzed from\nle point of view of the reader who seeks to keep himself informed about\nle progress of the world. Spelling lists have been reduced from ten or\nteen thousand words to less than a third of that number, selected w^ith\nreference to the actual writing vocabulary of the pupils themselves. At\nleast half of the topics formerly dwelt upon in English grammar have been\nrelegated to the limbo where dwelleth the gerund grinder. In composition,\nin the other hand, there has been a great addition to the projects underj taken, with a careful minimizing of the accompanying theory; while in\nI literature there has actually come to be a fair agreement as to the selecI tions from American and British authors and from world-literature which\nI ought to be made familiar to all Americans.\nThere is every assurance that\n\n"}
{"page": 662, "printed_page": "650", "text": "650\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Classroom Teachers\n\nstandard subjects and will make these topics dynamic thru proper emphasis\nand the use of supporting details.\nAdded to the traditional studies are handwork, music, drawing, physical\neducation, survey of occupations, health, and the care of plants and animals.\nHere is an enrichment of the course on the side of motor activity and appreciation. These newer subjects are rich in possibilities, both on the side of\npractical appHcation to the work of life and on the side of culture, which is\nbut another name for that maturity of experience and increasing sensitiveness which enables a man to enter vicariously into the labors of others and\nenjoy them as tho they were his own.\nAs a third important fact, waste in education is being eliminated thru\nthe sociaUzation of school methods. Just as contemporary life will suggest what is most worth while to teach, so the life of the home and neighborhood will suggest the best ways of teaching it. The ''stiff and formal\nrecitation\" in which the teacher sat as daily inquisitor and played Sherlock\nHolmes to the more or less sparsely populated brain pans of the luckless\nyoungsters is happily obsolescent. The idea of teaching is slowly but\nsurely replacing the idea of examining. Learning is not now regarded as\nentirely synonymous with memorizing. Taking the cue from the newer\nfunctional psychology, the progressive educator of the day talks about\nproducing changes in behavior, the formation of habits, the development\nof appreciation, etc. Above all, he regards the class as a group of equals\nwho are to learn thru their mutual associations. One familiar only with\nthe older type of rehash of the book would open his eyes in astonishment\nwhen introduced suddenly into the midst of a modern class in oral composition, for example, in which the pupils were actually contributing one by one\nfrom their stores of experience for the enlightenment or entertainment of\ntheir fellows. This give-and-take of the classroom, this socialization of\nmethod, is vitalizing school work to a degree not easy to realize except as\nit is compared with the stilted and rigid methods of an earlier time.\nThere is, however, the possibility that socialization of aim, subjectmatter, and of method may be taken in too loose a sense, and may therefore\nresult in a lack of continuity and thoroness. Fortunately, the tendency\nto more lifelike procedure in the classroom is balanst by another tendency\nin a very different direction. This is the tendency to apply to the results\nof school work far more definite and dependable tests than were available\nin the past.\nEconomy is to come, furthermore, by the application of better measurements of results. These measurements are essentially objective in character. They represent the united experience and judgment of many\nworkers. They are freed as far as possible from idiosnycrasy and wavering\nmoods. True, they are as yet limited. Nevertheless, the list includes\nsuch more or less valuable measures as the handwriting scales of Ayres\nand Thorndike, the arithmetic- tests of Courtis, the composition scales of\n\n"}
{"page": 663, "printed_page": "651", "text": "i\n\nDepartment!\n\nWASTE\n\nW\n\nEDUCATION\n\n65 1\n\nHillegas and of Ballou, the grammar scale of Starch, the drawing scale of\nThorndike, and the reading-tests of Thomdike and of Gray. Applied\nhitherto mostly in the various surveys which have been carried on in the\nlast three years, they are clearly destined to become a part of the working\nmachinery of every progressive school administration. By means of them\nthe judgment of the individual teacher will be clarified and steadied, and\nby means of them also the supervisor will be able to compare class with\nlass and school with school. Thus will be made possible the gathering\n>f a body of data that will enable us to determine whether progress is being\nlade and to what degree, at least in the case of the more tangible activities\n)f the school. Such a prospect is most gratifying when we consider that\nit means the removal from education of the stigma under which it has always\nrested, namely, that it is a matter of guesswork on the part of well-meaning\n►ut rather easy-going men and women, fitted to be missionaries, but not\nto take any definite or business-like part in the world's work.\nObviously the four factors in the program of reform thus far outlined\n•e dependent upon one other, which is more than ever indispensable.\n'his is the teacher himself, or in America we should perhaps say, herself.\n'he trained teacher is the indispensable means to advancement in education\nlow as always — now more than ever. What the nature of that training\nLUst be, the factors already outlined may serve to indicate. That the\nteacher of children should know arithmetic, history, geography, composition,\niterature, drawing, and the rest, goes without saying. But in addition to\npersonal knowledge and skill the teacher must have professional point\n)f view and equipment.\nThat this is being more and more recognized is\ntear from the fact that little by little the schools of the country are bemg\nlosed to those who cannot offer themselves as specially prepared for the\nrork.\nTo carry out our program of reform we must of necessity educate the\nconstituency.\nParents want their children educated, but they are obliged to\n^^^depend mostly upon the teachers as to what that education shall consist of.\n^^Mlost parents are certain that their own training has been inadequate.\n^^Hrhey fondly hope that the school of their day, proudly announst in the real■■Bstate circulars as the best in the country, will do for their children much\nmore than the little *' bulwark of freedom\" at the crossroads did for them.\n^K\nThis merely passive, not to say pathetically trusting, attitude must\n^Riecessarily yield to something more constructive if American schools are\never to rise to the level of their real possibilities. Teaching must be\nI regarded as truly a profession, and must be safeguarded as law and mediI cine are beginning to be safeguarded.\nIt must be recognized that teaching\nis a Ufe-work, not a task for girls in their teens, just out of high school, and\nexpecting to marry any day. Something of the permanence and the dignity attaching to the schoolmaster of Germany and of France must someIow find its way into America before there will be much change for the\n\n"}
{"page": 664, "printed_page": "652", "text": "65 2\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[Classroom Teachers\n\nbetter. When there is added to sound scholarship and training in the arts\na knowledge of educational psychology, of modern school methods, and the\nuse of educational measurements, there is built up a task not to be surmounted ina day, nor even in a summer course at a normal school. Rigorous preparation is the price of success in the new education. It must be\ndemanded by an intelligent and discriminating public, which is ready to\npay the cost, recognizing that the conservation of the precious years of\nchildhood and the development of those inborn possibilities dependent\nupon the proper environment for their unfolding, is at once our greatest\nprivilege and our greatest duty.\n\n"}
{"page": 665, "printed_page": "653", "text": "LIBRARY DEPARTMENT\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Irene Warren, librarian, University of Chicago\nChicago, III.\nVice-President — Casper Carl Certain, head, department of English, Cass Technical\nHigh School .... Detroit, Mich.\nSecretary — Grace D. Rose, librarian, Public Library\nDavenport, Iowa\n\nFIRST SESSION— Monday\n\nForenoon, July 3, 1916\n\nThe Library Department met in the Auditorium of the Washington Irving High\nool, and was called to order at 9:30 a.m. by President Irene Warren. Miss Warren\ntlined the plans which had been followed in preparing the program.\nAnnie Carroll Moore, supervisor of children's work. New York Public Library, chairn of the local committee, presented the following report:\nThe ommittee of nine members representing the public libraries of Brooklyn, Queens\norough, Newark, and New York, and the school libraries of the Brooklyn Training School\nr Teachers, the Girls' High School of Brooklyn, and the Department of Classroom\nlibraries of the Board of Education, met once a month from January until June to conder how it might best serve the interests of visitors to the National Education Assotion. The work of the committee was defined at the outset and has been divided as\nfollows:\n1. The preparation of a cooperative folder or brief handbook of library, school, and\nuseum work of interest to teachers. The text was fumisht by the institutions included,\nh institution paying a proportionate amount of the cost of printing. The editing of\nis pamphlet was done by Alice Blanchard, of the Newark Free Public Library.\n2. Thp preparation of a list of \"Lists and Aids for Teachers\" by Esther Davis and\ngnes Cowing, aided by Eflae Power of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh and the staff\nf the children's department of the New York Public Library. This list may be obtained\nm the H. W. Wilson Company.\n3. The preparation of an exhibit based on this list for elementary schools.\n4. The preparation of a high-school exhibit under the direction of Mary Hall.\n5. Short lists on popular subjects: Camping, Photography, Plays for Children, A\new Girlhoods, Wireless Telegraphy, Adventure, etc., printed by pupils of the vocational\nepartments of the public schools under the direction of C. G. Leland.\n6. Organization of personal service at the various exhibits and meetings.\nHarriet A. Wood, school librarian. Library Association, Portland, Ore., presented the\nport of the Committee on University and College Libraries.\nThe following program was given:\nTopic:\n\nThe Administration of the High-School Library\n\n\"Joint Administration of the High-School Library by the Board of Education and the\nPublic Library\" — Bessie Sargeant Smith, supervisor of high-school libraries, Cleveland\nPublic Library, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\"General Principles Involved\" — Arthur E. Bostwick, librarian, Public Library,\nSt. Louis, Mo.\n\"A Constructive Policy\" — William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal College,\nChicago, 111.\nDiscussion — Henry Legler, Public Library, Chicago, 111.; Purd B. Wright, Public\n653 Public Library, Chicago, 111.; Adelaide\nLibrary, Kansas City, Mo.; Adah Whitcomb,\nZackert, Public Library, Rochester, N.Y.; Miss White, High School Library, Passaic, N.J.;\nS. W. Ranck, Public Library, Grand Rapids, Mich.; John B. Kaiser, Public Library,\n\nIft.\n\n"}
{"page": 666, "printed_page": "654", "text": "6S4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Library\n\nTacoma, Wash.; Helen L. Price, High School Library, Oakland, Cal.; Casper C. Certain,\nCass Technical High School, Detroit, Mich.; Sherman Williams, State Board of Education, Albany, N.Y.\nThe president reviewed the general work of the department, and recommended that\nthe chairmen of the various committees be continued from year to year, also the secretaries,\nas it is very diflScult to carry on consecutive work with constantly changing committees.\nThe president appointed the following committees:\nCommittee on Nominations\nHelen L. Price, High School Library, Oakland, Cal.\nL. Louise Smith, Lincoln Park High School, Tacoma, Wash.\nPatience Pegan, North Central High School Library, Denver, Col.\nCommittee on Resolutions\nWillis H. Kerr, State Normal School, Emporia, Kans.\nMary J. Booth, State Normal School, Charleston, 111.\nSherman Williams, State Board of Education, Albany, N.Y.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION—\n\nTuesday Forenoon, July 4, 19 16\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the president of the department at 9:30 a.m. in\nRoom 213, New York Public Library.\nAnnie Carroll Moore, chairman of the local committee, explained the various exhibits\nwhich had been provided for the benefit of the visiting librarians and teachers.\nThe following program was presented:\nTopic: News from the Field\n\"Educational Value of Bibliographic Training\" — Willard Austen, librarian, Cornell\nUniversity, Ithaca, N.Y.\n\"The Normal-School Libraries\" — ^Willis Holmes Kerr, librarian. State Normal\nSchool, Emporia, Kans.\nDiscussion— O. S. Rice, supervisor of school libraries, Madison, Wis.\n\"Report of Committee on High-School Libraries\" — Mary Hall, librarian. Girls'\nHigh School, Brooklyn, N.Y.\n\"Report of the Elementary-School Committee\" — Efl&e L. Power, supervisor of work\nwith schools, Carnegie Library, Pittsburgh, Pa.\n\"The Rural-School Library\" — Orpha Maud Peters, assistant librarian, Public\nLibrary, Gary, Ind., and Renee B. Stern, editorial staff. Mother's Magazine, Elgin, 111.\nDiscussion — O. S. Rice, State Board of Education, Madison, Wis.; James A. McMillan, University of Rochester, Rochester, N.Y.; Miss Bogle, director. Training School for\nChildren's Librarians, Pittsburgh, Pa.; H. E. Legler, PubUc Library, Chicago, 111.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, July 4, 19 16\n\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 2:30 p.m. in the Auditorium of\nthe Washington Irving High School.\nThe following program was presented:\nTopic: Source Material\n111.\n\n\"Source Material in the Library\" — May Massee, editor, A.L.A. Book List, Chicago,\n\nLecture Recital: \" The Drama of Life in the Lyrics of the Folk \" — Caroline Crawford,\nTeachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y., assisted by Elizabeth Rose\nFogg, New York, N.Y.\nThe report of the Committee on Resolutions was read by W. H. Kerr, chairman, and\nwas adopted.\nThe Committee on Nominations recommended the election of the following officers,\nand the report was unanimously adopted:\nPresident— E&e L. Power, supervisor of school libraries, Carnegie Library, Pitts-\n\n"}
{"page": 667, "printed_page": "655", "text": "Department!\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n655\n\nVice-President — Mary C. Richardson, librarian, Lewis and Clark High School,\nSpokane, Wash.\nSecretary — Nancy Thompson, librarian, State Normal School, Newark, N.J.\nThe president of the department reported that the exhibits were being visited daily\nby hundreds of teachers who were asking help and advice of the librarians in charge, and\ncommended the members of the local committee who had given so liberally of time and\nenergy in providing for these exhibits.\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July 5, 19 16\n\nThe Library Department met in joint session with the Department of Secondary\nEducation in the Auditorium of the Washington Irving High School at 9:30 a.m.\nThe following program was given:\n\" The Importance of the Library in the Modern High School\" — WiUiam M. Davidson,\nsuperintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.\n\"The Need of an Aggressive Campaign for Better High-School Libraries\" — Charles\nHughes Johnston, professor of secondary education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.\n\"The Value of the Library to Vocational and Technical Courses in High Schools\" —\nWalter D. Hood, principal, Gilbert School, Winsted, Conn.\n\" The Administration and Maintenance of the High-School Library\" — Mary Sullivan,\ndepartment of English, Fifth Avenue High School, Pittsburgh, Pa.\n\"Report of Library Committee\" — C. C. Certain, head, department of English, Cass\nTechnical High School, Detroit, Mich.\n\"S)niiposium on the Uses of the Library in the Teaching of Subjects in the High\nSchool Curriculum:\"\n\"German\" — Lydia M. Schmidt, German department, University High School, University ofChicago, Chicago, 111.\n\"French\" — William L, Milwetzky, French department, Barringer High School,\nNewark, N.J.\n\"Commercial Subjects\" — Arthur M. Wolfson, principal, Julia Richman High\nSchool, New York, N.Y.\n\"English\" — James F. Hosic, secretary. National Council of Teachers of English,\nChicago Normal College, Chicago, 111.\nThe papers of this meeting appear in the section devoted to the Department of\nSecondary Education.\nGrace D. Rose, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\nREPORT\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF THE COMMITTEE ON UNIVERSITY\nLIBRARIES\n\nHARRIET\n\nA.\n\nWOOD,\n\nSCHOOL LIBRARIAN,\nPORTLAND,\nORE.\n\nLIBRARY\n\nAND COLLEGE\nASSOCIATION,\n\nThis committee was organized because it was felt that the library work\nin our high schools depends largely upon the attitude and point of view\nof the teachers.\nIt was found that many of our teachers came to us from leading universities with very little idea of using a library independently themselves\nor of helping to train their pupils to do so. The committee recommends:\n1. That every college and university should give training in the use\nof books and libraries in classes, including all students.\n2. That there be a staff adequate to carry on this work. One of the\nleading universities reports in the June Public Libraries that \"the increasing\n\n"}
{"page": 668, "printed_page": "656", "text": "656\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nnumber of students has made it almost impossible to set aside time for\ninstruction in the use of the library. A small group of students is given\nsome instruction in the library in the use of the library tools.\" Adequate\nprovision for instruction in the use of books as tools should be made just\nas surely as adequate provision for laboratory work in science, and a sentiment should be aroused among college libraries that will demand the necessary assistants.\n3. As a large majority of college students teach in public schools,\ncourses should be offered on the best books for school children in the grades\nand in the high schools either by the department of English, by the department of education, or by the Ubrary staff. As a part of the library exhibit,\nhelpful outlines of college instruction in libraries are included. Attention\nis called to the outline prepared by Ida A. Kidder, Ubrarian of the Oregon\nAgricultural College. Mrs. Kidder has been carrying on this work systematically for a number of years and has brought it beyond the experimental\nstage. Lucy E. Fay has prepared an outUne that has not yet been tried.\n4. Each college should provide its students with handbooks, either\nprinted or typewritten, explaining the resources and arrangement of the\nlibrary. The handbook prepared by Vassar College is an excellent example.\nIn the library exhibit will be found a number of such handbooks for inspection.\n5. Special departments in colleges may add very much to the usefulness\nof the library by requiring the students to prepare bibliographies in proper\nform. The history department of Vassar College has issued two pamphlets\nwhich are an aid to the proper use of books by its students.\nIt is the hope of this committee that the next year will see a markt\nadvance in the introduction of systematic courses of library instruction, and\nthat anyone interested in the subject will write to any member of the committee who will be glad to make further suggestions.\n\nJOINT\n\nADMINISTRATION OF THE HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY\nBY THE BOARD OF EDUCATION AND THE\nPUBLIC LIBRARY\n\nBESSIE SARGEANT SMITH, SUPERVISOR OF HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARIES,\nCLEVELAND PUBLIC LIBRARY, CLEVELAND,\nOHIO\n\nIt is within the memory of many of us that public-school education\nconsisted in learning facts which were between the covers of given textbooks,\nno matter how dry and seemingly without meaning for the present they\nmight be. The pupil who most accurately and quickly learned those facts\nwas held as the best student, and the pupil whose gift of imagination led\nhim to venture on a new expression of the subject-matter of the textbook\nwas reproved.\n\n"}
{"page": 669, "printed_page": "657", "text": "Department]\n\nJOINT\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARY\n\n657\n\nHappily for the child of today, teaching from the textbook has expanded\ninto wide fields, and supplementary reading has grown to be a large part\nof the work which all progressive teachers require. This change in method\nhas necessitated collections of books in the schools to furnish the child with\nthis supplementary material. As this demand for supplementary reading\nhas developt in all grades, the school Hbrary has followed of necessity.\nClassroom libraries have done much fine work in bringing this supplementary reading to the grade schools, thus laying the foundation for gradeschool libraries. Where these grade-school libraries have been estabUsht,\ntheir great value has been so evident that demand for a library in every\nelementary school has been created. However, teachers in high schools\nhave naturally felt most keenly this need of books to supplement their class\ntextbooks. From this need has arisen a movement for high-school libraries\nresulting in their formation all over the country.\nIt is obvious that the two factors which must be instrumental in the\nestablishment of such high-school Hbraries, are the school and the public\nlibrary. What then may we expect each to contribute to the work of the\nhigh-school library ? The school thru its teachers represents a specialized\nknowledge of the child, with an understanding of his needs from the kindergarten thru the high-school age in particular relation to his learning capacity.\nThe public library, because of its very organization, is able thru its Kbrarians\nto furnish a trained understanding of the way to use the world of books\nto the best advantage for the child.\nAltho the school and the public hbrary are in nearly every instance\nunited in the administration of the high-school library, there are different\nways in which the high-school library administration is workt out in various\ncommunities. Because of my familiarity with the plan of administration\nunder the joint jurisdiction of the board of education and the pubHc library,\nI have been askt to discuss this plan as it is used in Cleveland. Here, in\ncarrying out their plan of joint administration, the Board of Education\nfurnishes the high-school libraries with their rooms and equipment, including shelving, tables and chairs, desks, exhibit cases, magazine racks, vertical\nfiles, catalog cases, and other minor articles of furniture, all of which they\nkeep in repair. The Board of Education also buys certain books, chiefly\nthose of a strictly reference character, such as dictionaries and encyclopedias, and \"dupHcate\" sets, rebinding them when required; also it subscribes for a large proportion of the magazines.\nThe Public Library selects the high-school Ubrarian and pays her salary\nand that of any other assistants needed; but, in order that there may be\nentire agreement between them, no high-school Hbrarian is appointed by\nthe PubUc Library before the principal of the school is consulted. The\n\nI\n\nPubHc Library is represented by a supervisor with assistants,' whose duties\nconsist primarily in unifying the work of all the hbraries, and in bringing\nthe ideals of the public Hbrary to the knowledge of each high-school Hbrarian.\n\n"}
{"page": 670, "printed_page": "658", "text": "6s8\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n(Library\n\nThis is done by individual conferences and by regular joint meetings of all\nthe high-school librarians. At these meetings the important new books\nof the month are inspected and reviewed, and special problems of highschool library administration are discust.\nThe Public Library purchases the major portion of the books in all\nclasses, repairing them at need. It also furnishes all the stationery, supplies,\netc.\nHowever, speaking again of high-school-library administration in\ngeneral, the chief point for our consideration is whether the combined\nadministration justifies itself by producing better high-school libraries.\nTo discover whether this be the fact let us analyze specific details.\nThe library recognizes the importance of care in technical organization\nof the work for efficient library service, and therefore insists that its workers\nmust have technical library training. It follows that when the public\nlibrary shares the administration of the high-school hbrary, the Hbrarian\nhas this point of view as to technical library routine, performing easily\nthat which, to a teacher trained in other directions, is very difficult and often\nseems non-essential.\nThe high-school Hbrarian stands in middle ground in relation to the\npupils. She is regarded in a less formal Hght than are the teachers, and\noften because of this is enabled to become sufficiently acquainted with the\npupils to suggest right lines of vocational work. Class instruction in the\nuse of books is given by the high-school librarian to all freshmen. This\ninstruction takes up the structure and care of the book, the printed parts\nof the book, the content and use of the dictionary and encyclopedia and a\nfew reference books, the use of the card catalog, and the classification of\nthe hbrary. Questions on the dictionary and encyclopedia are given\neach pupil, and credit is allowed by the English department for the work\ndone. A real appreciation of the value of this work is felt by the teachers,\nand a spirit of cooperation is evidenst by the fact that the boys in the printshop of our East Technical High School have been allowed to print 10,000\nsheets of these questions for use in all our high-school instruction. This\nclass instruction in the use of the hbrary given by the high-school Hbrarian\nis also a means of bringing her into a relationship with the pupils which\naffords her many chances for friendly talks or for making helpful suggestions\nfor personal reading. The suggestions are usuaUy accepted by the pupil\nand a taste for good books is frequently formed in this way. The character\nof the high-school library should not be that of the schoolroom, but should\nmaintain the viewpoint of a library. While teachers must look upon the\nmatter of public education from the academic viewpoint, a high-school\nlibrary should be a place where there may be less formality than in the\nschoolroom. Experience has shown that this sense of freedom is another\naid in bringing about the closer touch needed by the boy or girl in the high\n\n"}
{"page": 671, "printed_page": "659", "text": "Department]\n\nJOINT\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nschool with a person of mature judgment and taste.\nwell said:\n\nLIBRARY\n\n659\n\nAs Miss Hall has so\n\nThe room may fulfil all its proper pedagogical functions as a reference collection for\nobtaining information, as a training school in best methods of securing that information,\nas a laboratory for special topic work and collateral reading in connection with the subjects in the curriculum, yet fail of one of its highest functions if it fail to be a place of\ninspiration and recreation as well.\n\nThe public Hbrary, in its special technical departments, catalogs and\nclassifies the books added to the high-school library, thus furthering the\neconomy of high-school-library administration. The public Ubrary also\nhas facilities for buying its books with much better advantage than has a\nschool. It is the function of an order department of a public library to\nknow the best ways and means to buy with the greatest economy. Moreover, a public library can buy its books at all times, while often a board of\neducation, owing to its organization, in order to procure bids, can buy only\nat infrequent intervals and in large quantities. This means that a book in\nimmediate demand can be obtained only with difficulty. Many teachers\ntestify as to the benefit their classes have received from the quick purchase\nby the public library of a new book which otherwise would not have been\navailable in the time of need.\nAll lists of books to be bought, either by the Board of Education or the\nPublic Library, are compiled by the high-school librarian, and always\ninclude the specific titles which teachers suggest as meeting the needs of\ntheir work, as well as those suggested to the librarian by the more general\nneeds of the school library as a whole. These lists are carefully compared\nwith the books at the Public Library on the same subjects, that the best\npossible selection may be made for the school library with the funds allowed.\nMay we not say, then, that the great contribution of the public library\nto the high-school library is in its function as a reservoir of books from which\nthe high school may draw at need ? The high-school librarian, when, and\nbecause, she is a member of the public-library staff, knows more intimately\nthe resources of the whole book-collection of the pubHc Ubrary, than could\nanyone not a member of the public library staff. She can therefore use\nthe central collection more intelligently and effectively. This close affiliation makes possible a more discriminating selection of books for loans to the\nhigh-school library. The value of these loans for supplemental work is\ninestimable, as no high-school library could possibly afford to buy extensively books which, in many instances, are needed only for brief periods.\nNew books may be borrowed from the public-library collection to test\ntheir usefulness, with a view of purchasing them for the high school. Such\n\"trials\" many times save buying of books which prove unwise for the particular high-school library. The opportunity to borrow books from the\npublic library keeps the high-school collection free of dead wood and makes\n\n"}
{"page": 672, "printed_page": "660", "text": "66o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nfor a working library, live and active. A very real economy for the educational funds of the community is effected on the books side; that is,\nneedless duplication is avoided because the high-school librarian knows\nso well the collection of the central library and does not buy when a title\nborrowed temporarily from the library will serve the high-school purpose.\nIn cases where there is more than one high-school library in the city, books\nmay be exchanged between the school libraries. For supplying recreational\nreading the loans from the public library furnish an impetus which creates\na lasting taste for reading and leads the boy or girl after leaving school to\nseek the rich stores of the public library in the way that only the lover of\nbooks knows.\nLastly, books being the very tools of a public library, library workers,\nto fulfil their function, must have a comprehension and understanding of\nthe world of literature thru their wide reading and specialized training, and\nmust have the ability to evaluate those books needed for the high-school\nlibrary.\nIf \"a fundamental truth is never trite,\" may we not once more say that\nthe public library, the continuation school for life, can be brought to the\nhigh-school boy or girl more vitally when the librarian is herself part of\nthat continuation school ? May we not also say the value is greatest when\nthe public-library's reservoir of books is brought to the boy or girl by the\ncooperative interests of public library and public school ?\n\nGENERAL\nARTHUR\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nE. BOSTWICK,\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINVOLVED\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nST. LOUIS,\n\nMO.\n\nToday's topic divides itself, in my mind, very sharply into two heads:\n(i) Shall the public library administer the high-school library ? (2) Shall\nit control the educational policy of that library ?\nBefore proceeding to discuss these divisions seriatim it is only right\nthat I should state my conviction that the second has been so worded as to\ncreate a prejudice in advance against public-library administration. The\nhigh-school library can have no educational policy apart from that of the\nhigh-school itself; and that the public library should control, or attempt\nto control, the educational policy of the schools is unthinkable. The way\nin which the subject is worded fairly creates the presumption that such control isproposed, and for this reason I object to it; for I know of no such\nproposal.\nMy advocacy of placing the machinery of administration under publiclibrary control is based on the broader thesis that when various public\nbodies are conducting departments whose technic is identical, that\ntechnic may be profitably put in charge of the one of them that best understands it. Thus, when a library is conducting a training school for librarians\n\n"}
{"page": 673, "printed_page": "661", "text": "Department)\n\nGENERAL\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nINVOLVED\n\n66i\n\nI believe it to be proper that the administration of the school should be\nintrusted to a local teaching body, where such a body is able and wiUing to\nundertake it. This is practically what has been done in Cleveland. Conversely, where a school is operating a library, I believe that this library\nshould be administered by the pubhc body that has been created for the\npurpose of administering libraries, that is fitted for this task by training,\nexperience, and by the fact that it has no other aims to conflict with the\nproper performance of the task.\nI beg you to observe that where the public Ubrary is under the authority\nof the board of education, no one has ever proposed any other method of\nadministration. Where that board has what is practically a Ubrary department there is no question that all the libraries under its jurisdiction should\nbe administered by that department. Now the question is not fundamentally changed, it seems to me, by the mere transference of the pubUc\nHbrary to a separate board. The fact that objection arises as soon as this\ntransference is made shows that it is an objection, not to the operation of\nschool libraries by the public library authorities, but to intrusting anything under the jurisdiction of the board of education to what that board\nconsiders an alien body, without reference to the fact that it is an expert\nbody. This attitude on the part of boards of education of wishing to\nassemble under their own jurisdiction everything that touches their work\nin the slightest degree is by no means confined to school libraries and has\nbeen frequently commented upon. It is doubtless a necessary attitude in\ninstances where the city is under the rule of the ward boss and in the grasp\nof the spoils system — where the board of education is the only public body\nnot permeated with graft and finds it necessary to preserve its independence and liberty of action with jealous care. Complete duplication of\nmany things may be allowable in such a situation, where, on general\nprinciples, it would be wasteful. I am assuming, of course, that this situation does not exist.\nWhere the feeling is very strong on the part of the board of education\nthat it would be improper to let another board administer anything that\ngoes on within its buildings, a working agreement between the two boards\n]\nmay solve the problem. Such an agreement is in successful operation in\nPortland, Ore., where school libraries are in charge of a supervisor who is\nan official of both boards and whose salary is paid jointly by them.\nOne of the obvious advantages of library-control is that when such a\ncourse seems desirable the school Hbrary may function also as a branch\nlibrary for the neighborhood. This plan has been successful in Cleveland,\nin Kansas City, in Gary, and elsewhere. There are differences of opinion\nabout its desirability, but it certainly would not be practicable at all with\n^— school libraries wholly under the control of the schools.\n^H\nI fear, however, that I may weaken my case by seeming to rest it on\n\n"}
{"page": 674, "printed_page": "662", "text": "662\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Library\n\nthem, but depends on the broad principle laid down at the beginning.\nWhat we are aiming at, of course, is to get good school libraries and to\nconnect the habit of school reading with a general habit of reading thru life.\nThat school libraries should be in charge of someone who has no other\nduties and who understands Ubrary technic, admits, I think, of no doubt.\nThere is a priori no reason why such persons should not be employed wholly\nby boards of education; and they have, in notable instances, been so\nemployed. But the fact remains that generally, where school hbraries are\noperated directly by school authorities, they have not been put in charge\nof experts and are unsatisfactorily administered. The public library is not\nseeking for aggrandizement, but it does beheve that it has the special knowledge and the machinery to reorganize and operate these unsatisfactory\nlibraries better and more cheaply than if it were done by duplicate machinery and expert advice under the board of education. And the question is\nmore than one of methods. The facts are that, still speaking generally, the\npublic library does the work and the board of education does not. Boards\nof education have been accustomed for years to look on collections of books,\noutside of the text-book domain, as entirely subsidiary or even unnecessary.\nThe present discussion is sufficient evidence that this point of view is changing. If it is desirable that it should change completely and radically, why\nnot allow the school libraries to be taken in charge by bodies who have had\nthe broader view for a generation, who have thought for years in terms of\nlibraries, and whose theory and practice is all directed toward making\nlibraries eiGEective ?\nDISCUSSION\nHenry Legler, librarian, Chicago Public Library. — ^He reported new high-school\nlibraries organized on the same lines as those in Cleveland. The Public Library undertook the work of organization for the Board of Education. Chicago has 22 high schools,\nand in the old buildings the libraries were in very small rooms, in closets, and even in\ncellars. In the newer buildings provision is made for large, light library rooms where the\nlibrary will be administered by the Public Library. There has been cordial response and\ncooperation on the part of the school people. The first high school in which the library\nwas establisht was the Carter Harrison Technical High School with large day and evening\nsessions, work shops, etc. The School Board appropriated $2500 for a first purchase of\nbooks. They also furnish the room and equipment, some of which is made in the school\nworkshop. The Public Library supplies the staff of library workers, pays salaries, and\nbuys additional books, making an annual appropriation to supplement the collection and\nfurnishes 80 to 100 magazines. Cataloging and technical work is also done by the Library.\nThis school library was opened in February, 19 16. In March two others were opened;\na fourth will be ready in October, and plans are under way for the establishment of branch\nlibraries in all the high schools under this same arrangement. These libraries will be for\nschool patrons only. The cooperation and helpfulness both on the school side and on the\nlibrary side is most favorable to both institutions.\nPuRD B. Wright, librarian, Kansas City Public Library. — It is too early to be sure\nthat the public library is the only way of administration for high-school libraries. In\n\n"}
{"page": 675, "printed_page": "663", "text": "Department!\n\nGENERAL\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nINVOLVED\n\n663\n\nKansas City the public library is under the control of the school board. There has been a\npublic branch library in one high school, open for two years, and this is of great benefit to\nthe school. It is open to a grade school and to the public after high-school hours, and\nconnects the library with the practical as well as with the educational side of life. It has\nbeen notist that many boys and girls, when they quit school, also quit the library. When\naskt why, reply, \"Why, I am thru school.\" And this is the reason why the branch and\ngeneral work should be connected with the high-school libraries. Kansas City has also\nfive branches in grade schools.\nArthur E. Bostwick. — We will try the same experiment in St. Louis. Conditions\ndiffer in different cities, and what may be successful in one may fail in another. There is\na large high school in St. Louis distant from any branch library and a good place where\nthis joint-library experiment can be tried out.\nAdelaide Zackert, extension librarian. Public Library, Rochester, N.Y. — Rochester\nwill try this experiment in grade schools, but not in the high-school libraries which are\nsupported wholly by the board of education. The largest percentage of readers are children and it is difficult to get adults to come to the school and feel the same interest.\nSherman Williams, supervisor of school libraries. New York State Board of Education, Albany, N.Y. — ^This discussion turns on large city high schools and their library\nconditions, and I know of many cities where the school is better able to help the library\nthan the library the school. Often high school and the grades are in the same building\nand no such division as has been suggested is possible. The child who has not formed\nthe reading habit before high school is reacht, seldom forms it at all.\nS. H. Ranck, librarian, Public Library, Grand Rapids, Mich. — Grand Rapids has\nhad libraries in grade schools for twelve years past and has now ten, and from the educational viewpoint I consider that to be the strategic point for work. The undesirable\nclass is practically nil. The library strengthens the whole system because it does tend to\nbring adults to the school building. The library gives free lectures attended by adults.\nWe have one high-school library for both the school and the community about seven\nminutes' walk from a branch library in a separate building. The place to serve people is\nwhere they congregate. Where there is a large foreign population they come only for the\nforeign books. In American neighborhoods adults do come after a little time. The free\nlectures help to bring them and on the slips announcing the lectures are always lists of\nbooks on the subjects which may be found at the branch library. The children also take\nbooks for their parents. School-deposit libraries are in all cases administered by the public\nlibrary. A school library is valuable even near a branch and is often a nucleus sufficiently\nlarge to establish a branch, providing certain conditions can be met. New problems come\nup constantly, but we are extending this work with schools as rapidly as possible.\n\n■\n\ni\n\nWe should all keep in mind the saying of Dr. L. P. Ayers, \"An invincible love of reading\nis the most important gift that can be given to a child and both school and library should\njoin in giving this invincible love to each child.\" In Grand Rapids the superintendent of\nschools is a member of the Board of Library Commissioners ex officio and the relations\nof the two boards are very close.\nJohn B. Kaiser, librarian, Public Library, Tacoma, Wash. — The library board in\nsome cities is the final authority on budgets but often city councils decrease the budget\nand it may not be possible to carry on this joint work. In Tacoma a branch could not be\nestablisht on account of the action of the council but we thought that it was better to\nhave first a successful high-school library before making it a branch library.\nBessie Sargeant Smith. — In Cleveland book lists are made out by the library and\npurchast by the Board of Education.\n\n"}
{"page": 676, "printed_page": "664", "text": "664\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nMiss White, librarian, High-School Library, Passaic, N.J. — ^In Passaic the school\nboard pays to the public library $600 each year which is to be spent on this work and an\naverage of $500 is spent for books for the high-school library. We think that gradeschool branches are more important than high-school branches and the library work\nis continued from the grammar school to the high school.\nHelen L. Price, librarian, High-School Library, Oakland, Cal. — It is late to discuss\nlibraries in very small high schools but this is a great problem and I hope it can be put\non future programs. I visited forty such high schools last year and in many of them\nthere was no library at all and often but from four to ten teachers. These teachers are\nmost earnest and ask, \"What can we do?\"\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nVALUE\n\nWILLARD\n\nLIBRARIAN,\n\nAUSTEN,\n\nOF BIBLIOGRAPHIC\nCORNELL\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nTRAINING\nITHACA,\n\nN.Y.\n\nAt the apex of the educational pyramid is commonly supposed to stand\nthe scholar, the university scholar, or professor. Following in his wake\ncomes the graduate student, in training for the scholar's position, working\nunder his superior's direction, but reaching out into bypaths that lead from\nthe main traveled roads. Then comes the so-called undergraduate in all\nstages of development. Finally comes the great group of general readers\nfollowing out their free fancy, dipping into science today, literature tomorrow, liberally spiced with fiction of varying quality.\nRoughly cast, these are the groups of users that the library has to deal\nwith, and the attitude of the library toward the several classes, changing\nas it has been, calls for a glance in passing. With regard to the great body\nof general readers, many of whom mentally crystallized at an early age, the\ntask of helping them to develop into self -helpful readers has seemed in many\ncases well-nigh hopeless. The easiest thing for them, and, at the moment,\nthe easiest thing for the librarian, is to find out what is wanted (not always\nan easy task) and put the book into the hand of the reader opened at the\nright page, or to learn what to him will prove an interesting novel and give\nit to him. This process must needs be repeated every time such readers\ncome to the Hbrary, so that what seems the easiest method at first really\ninvolves the more expenditure of time in the case of all such readers who\ncome with more or less frequency to the Hbrary. Thus far comparatively\nlittle is being done in most libraries to make this class of readers selfhelpful, and perhaps little can be done. The feeling that many librarians\nhave, that the public hbrarian is paid to be of service to the public leads\nmany to decide that library assistants should go to any length in serving\nthe public, as often as the readers reappear.\nThe work with the school children, from the very beginning of their use\nof the library up to the time of entering college, and after, is a more hopeful field. At least, it seems more worth while to teach them how to help\nthemselves, and they are more willing to make the effort to learn. What-\n\n"}
{"page": 677, "printed_page": "665", "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF BIBLIOGRAPHIC\n\nTRAINING\n\n665\n\never may be said in excuse for this practice with older readers, there is little\nto be said in defense of any failure to teach young readers how to use the\nlibrary. Reading children are in possession of certain fundamental principles,\naltho we sometimes find them without a knowledge of the order of the letters\nof the alphabet, which is certainly a fundamental requisite in using a library,\nas it is in every form of mental activity, and when in possession of these\nthe labor of giving them an insight into the general principles of using a\nlibrary is small compared with the labor saved in the long run. Then the\nworth-whileness of doing this does not end with the economy of time to\nthe library. We know not which of these young readers is a scholar in\nthe making, and therefore all must be lookt upon as such and should be\nstarted in the training that plays so large a part in all higher research work,\naltho the ripe scholar is often slow to realize his own defect in this respect.\nThe same principles hold true all the way up thru the college and\nuniversity body. If the students have had no bibliographic training in the\npreparatory schools, and as yet few come to the universities who have had,\nthen the college library must do what it can to supply this lack, realizing\nthat a still larger percentage of college students than are found among the\npreparatory group are destined to be workers with books. Hitherto a\nlarge part of the work of training college students in using the library has\nbeen taken up with teaching them how to use a catalog, an index, or a cyclopedia, and other steps fundamental to doing anything more advanst; and\nuntil students come to the university with this preliminary preparation,\nsuch library training is inevitable. The great service that public and school\nlibraries can do for students preparing to go to college is to teach them these\npreliminary steps toward more advanst research problems, to give them\ndrill in the technic with little stress on the facts found, but all stress on\nthe methods of finding them. In this way, when they begin their use of\nbooks in a university library it will be with some such appreciation as the\nmusician has of his music after he has mastered the technic and has no\nlonger to consider it.\nIn the present crowded state of the preparatory-school curriculum and\nthe lack of opportunity that prevents librarians from getting any systematic cooperation from the preparatory teachers, it is not easy to see just\nwhere such instruction can best be given. The Hbrarians know that the\nschool teachers lack the training in the use of books that would enable them\nto instruct the pupils. It is maintained by some that teachers should get\ntheir bibliographic training in their college courses, but with the elective\nsystem prevaihng in nearly all our colleges, such training cannot be required,\nand unless room can be found for it in schools where work is required the\nproblem cannot thus be solved. The student enters college and begins his\nspecial work in one or more groups of subjects. He is expected to gain\nmore or less familiarity with the books on these subjects, but beyond\nthose immediately brought to his attention, he has no time, inclination, nor\n\n"}
{"page": 678, "printed_page": "666", "text": "666\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nfacility for getting bibliographic training. Cooperation between preparatory schools and college libraries may well be a subject for special attention at some future discussion of our association.\nWe now come nearer the apex of our intellectual pyramid and encounter\nfor the first time the graduate student, one who is doing real research work,\nwhose results are, perhaps for the first time, of some importance. To the\nstudent is assigned a piece of work, generally something that has not been\nfully workt out before. One of the first steps in the process is to gather his\nmaterials. To find just how much has been done by others along the same\nor similar lines. This calls into play the historical method. All this must\nbe done by reference to the literature of the subject, if it has a literature,\nand there are few that have not. The master may know in a general way\nwhat has been done in the special field, but the investigator must find out\nfor himself, and he goes to work. He begins with the most obvious thing,\nthe latest authoritative work on the subject. Here he is sure to encounter,\nperhaps for the first time, citations to the literature of the subject, and his\nreal difficulties begin. If he is working in science he is likely to encounter\nsuch references as Comptes Rendus, Silliman's Journal^ Poggendorfs\nAnnalen, etc. He does not know that Comptes Rendus in science references\nprobably refer to the reports of the Academie des Sciences y altho the same\nwords may with equal propriety be used by other writers to refer to the\nAcademie des inscriptions et belles lettres; he does not know that Silliman^s\nJournal is a loose way of referring to the American Journal of Science j\nstarted by Benjamine Silliman.\nIf the student is working in literature or philology, then he will sooner\nor later encounter such references as W.Z. meaning Wiener Zeitschrift and\nbe wholly unable to tell among at least a dozen Zeitschriften publisht at\nVienna, which one is intended.\nAnd finally, a student working in the social sciences will find such references as the \"Committee of Ten,\" or the committee of fifteen, or of seven,\nor some other meaningless number, and never know, until he is told, that\nthe references are to the publications of special committees of the National\nEducation Association or the American Historical Association whose number happened to be ten or fifteen or seven.\nThese are samples of many inaccurate and incomplete references found\nin the best classes of literature, that hundreds of advanst students are\nencountering every year. It is not too much to say that the literature of\nevery subject is full of references to authorities that are so far from being\neven suggestive of the publications referred to that only a scholar of years'\nstanding or an unusually clever reference librarian could guess what is\nintended by many of them. The attitude of writers making such references\nis well known to librarians. They argue first that because others have made\nsuch references before them, they should continue the practice. They have\nsome of the lawyers' tenacity for following precedent.\n\nThey say that all\n\n"}
{"page": 679, "printed_page": "667", "text": "Department]\n\nVALUE\n\nOF BIBLIOGRAPHIC\n\nTRAINING\n\n66y\n\nscholars in their field know what is intended, and, furthermore, bibliographical practice should conform to the practice of scholars and not the scholar's\npractice to bibliographic law. They overlook the fact that the same publication iscited by different writers in different ways. Witness the citations\nLeip. abh. Ges.y Wiss. Ahh. Sach,^ Ges. Gesell d. Leip., all intended for the\nsame publication, viz., The Konig. Sdch. Gesell. d. Wissenschaft. Abhandlungen. Often they do not know that the same abbreviation may be used for\ntwo entirely different works. If all scholars in a given field do recognize the\nusual references, which is far from being the case, they forget the hardship\nimposed on the rising generations of scholars who are looking up these\ncitations for the first time. They consult the usual bibliographical lists,\nbut fail to find anything that corresponds to their citation. In this\nway hours of time are wasted simply in the effort to find out what is\nintended by the author. These citations often bear no resemblance to\nthe form that every bibliography worthy of the name must use to enter\nthe work. Finally, reference to the librarian may put him right. Often\nit is mere guesswork with the most experienst librarian.\nThe Umit of endurance is reacht when scholars refuse to recognize a\nbody of bibliographic law which has grown up all unknown to them, and\nwhich has attained the same dignity of authority that the specialist claims\nfor laws in his own field of work. It would be unjust to apply this criticism\nto all scholars, because many of them are conscious of their shortcomings in\nthis direction and are wilHng to accept the bibliographer's law when it is\npointed out to them, but, as yet, the number is not large and the majority\nwill persist to the end in doing these things as their predecessors have done.\nNot only does this lack of knowledge work hardship to others, but the\nscholar himself suffers when he comes to use the great bibliographies of the\nworld. Let me cite a recent case of a writer of many books who had occasion to look up the well-known history of the Civil War by the Comte de Paris y\nand not finding it, appealed to the Ubrarian to know why it was not in the\ncatalog, he having lookt for it under \"Comte,\" and of course, failed to find\nit. I have known an eminent classicist, familiar with all the literature of\nhis subject, who has difficulty in finding his materials in a card catalog,\nparticularly the learned society publications. He looks for Abhandlungefiy\nSitzungberichte, Acte, and other catch words, and wonders why he does\nnot find what he wants, never recaUing the simple rule regarding the\nentry of such materials he has been so often told. Now I am not telling\nthese cases to hold anyone up to ridicule, but merely to show the real need\nthat exists among the highest class of literary workers for a knowledge of\nbibliographic law. If this lack of comprehension of first principles exists\namong those who have spent years in looking up citations and following\nout chains of references, what can be expected of those just beginning the\nprocess, or still more, of those who haye never approacht the problem with\n^ny serious needs ?\n\n"}
{"page": 680, "printed_page": "668", "text": "668\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nIt will now be realized without much difficulty, I think, how great are\nthe needs of a knowledge of bibliographic law among all classes of Hbraryusers, from the highest to the lowest, and how important it is that we train\nthe rising generation in the right way that when they come to write books\nthey will not follow their predecessors in the matter of citations. As yet\nthe only workers in this field are the librarians. When the normal-school\nstudents hav.e been trained long enough to create a considerable body of\nteachers in our public schools with a knowledge of bibliographic law, then\nlibrarians will be strongly reinforst, granting the need for this bibliographical knowledge.\nThe problem that confronts us today is to find out what can be done to\nextend this instruction to the widest possible number and at the earliest\npossible time. As has been suggested, the elements of this instruction\nshould be given in the preparatory schools. Two difficulties stand in the\nway of this. There is not room in the crowded school curriculum to add\nany more required courses, and the teachers are not trained to give instruction in the subject. The schools that have trained librarians offer the most\nhopeful solution of this problem.\nCollege and university students, especially those going out to be\nteachers, should get this training before graduation, in order to be prepared\nto give instruction to their pupils. Here again the elective system that\nprevails in our universities, and the large number of students, prevent such\ninstruction being required work, altho its need may be generally recognized.\nEvery college and university should offer a systematic course in bibliography, dealing, not alone with the several groups of books that every\neducated person needs to know about, but enough of the technic of classification, cataloging, indexing, bookbinding, etc., to enable the student to\nuse a library and to teach others to do so.\nThe addition of a historical course dealing with writing, printing,\nillustrating, etc., is less imperative, altho decidedly valuable for the complete\nknowledge of the subject.\nIn Cornell University a course covering one-half-year, two hours a\nweek, dealing with the principles of classification, cataloging, etc., as well\nas the great groups of books in a systematic way, is offered to all students.\nThe impossibility of requiring such a course in an institution with an entering class of over looo students is apparent.\nA course in the history of writing and book-making of ancient times and\nprinting and book-making of modern times is offered to those who have had\nthe introductory course.\nA course in paleography is offered to those qualified to take it.\nFor some years a single lecture on using the library was given at the\nopening of the college year to all new students. The difficulty of finding an\nhour for this lecture when any considerable number of students could be\nbrought together, together with the fact that few students, so early in their\n\n"}
{"page": 681, "printed_page": "669", "text": "Department)\n\nDISCUSSION:\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n669\n\ncollege experience, realized their need of such instruction, operated to discourage the continuance of this practice.\nA handbook of general instructions for using the library is given to each\nstudent on registration. In this book an attempt is made to explain some\nof the more difficult parts of the catalog, together with a general statement\nas to the location of the main groups of books, and the general rules and\nregulations governing their use. Beyond this it has not been possible thus\nfar to extend instruction in bibliography.\n\nDISCUSSION:\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nO. S. Rice, state supervisor of school libraries, Madison, Wis. — ^The committees\nwhich have been formulating standards and collecting data relating to various phases of\nschool-library work are doing pioneer service in an important field. The time is at hand\nwhen the indefiniteness surrounding the school-library problem, both in theory and practice, must yield to clear-cut aims and plans carried forward with energy; the halo of goodwill which surrounds this subject should be justified by good works.\nStandards bring about definiteness of aim and serve the double purpose of stimulating\nprogress and of measuring the advancement made. They enable us to know \"where\nwe're at.\" When a standard has been set, it is likely to be subject to criticism and this\nleads to discussions, experiments, and modifications which result in its being more nearly\nfitted to the actual needs of the situation. At the same time its principles are being\ncarried into practice on a larger scale than would otherwise be possible.\nThe discriminating character of the questionnaire sent out by the committee whose\nreport has been given by Mr. Kerr will of itself influence normal-school librarians to take\nstock of the condition and effectiveness of their respective libraries. At least an uneasiness will be created which only definite improvement will allay.\nThe question relating to a children's department in the normal-school library, for\nexample, touches a matter of vital importance, and those normal schools which do not\nhave a children's room will at least study the question, and as a result some will establish\nthem. I am of the opinion that a children's department should be maintained in every\nnormal school. It is needed as a school library for the children enroled in the training\nschool and as a laboratory for library instruction given to teachers.\nThe questions relating to the librarians and assistants, their qualifications, pay,\netc., touch a vital feature of normal-school library administration. Self-examination on\nthe part of normal-school authorities here ought to result, in many instances, in adding\nto the dignity and effectiveness of the library staff. Only a few years ago the normalschool librarian's name was invariably found at the end of the list of faculty members in the\nannual catalog, there to dangle between the name of the latest and greenest addition to\nthe \"faculty\" above and that of the \"clerk,\" and mayhap of the janitor, below. Conditions as to the librarian's rank have greatly improved lately, but the proper standard\nhas not yet been reacht in most normal schools. The teaching function of the librarian\nhas been an effective help in obtaining for him proper consideration. I may say in\npassing that, owing to the teaching requirement, which is likely to increase as schoollibrary work progresses, it would seem advisable and even necessary that the normalschool librarian should have, in addition to library training, preparation as a\nteacher.\nNot only will this questionnaire lead to self-examination on the part of the normalschool libraries, but it will also suggest profitable topics for discussion at gatherings of\nlibrarians and teachers.\n\n"}
{"page": 682, "printed_page": "670", "text": "670\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nWithout doubt the most important part of the committee's investigation relates to\nthe extent to which the standardized courses of study in library instruction are being used.\nReference is here made to the report of the committee on standardizing the course of\nstudy in library instruction in normal schools, which reported at last year's meeting of the\nNational Education Association, and of which Mr. Hosic was chairman.\nOnly a very small proportion of the normal schools reporting reach that standard.\nWe need not be surprised at this, but should feel encouraged that a start has been made,\nthat a standard has been set.\nIt must be borne in mind here that normal-school authorities are hard prest to find\ntime and means adequately to prepare teachers to impart instruction in the subjects\nrequired to be taught in the elementary schools. They will therefore be hesitant about\nintroducing standard library courses for teachers, if library lessons are not a required\npart of the elementary-school course.\nBut has not the time come when lessons on the use of books and reading, including\nnewspapers and magazines, should be made a part of the course of study in elementary\nschools just as definitely as geography, arithmetic, or any other traditional school subject ?\nPresident Owen, of the Chicago Normal School, in his address before this department\nyesterday, said that he favors a definite requirement that pupils before graduation from a\nhigh school shall prove their ability to find and organize information on any topic within\nthe range of their powers. But most young people quit school in the grades. Shall we not,\nthen, also make definite library requirements in the grades for the further reason that it is\nimportant to start the library habit early if it is to be fully effective ?\nThe new watchword in education is not \"training the mind,\" for the theory of formal\ndiscipline has lost its hold; it is not \"cxilture\" alone, for ideals not backt by deeds are\nfutile; but it is preparation for life.\nIn spite of this saner and better basis of education, the textbook to a large extent\nholds the fort against all comers. We give the pupils minute directions on how to use\nthem — page by page, paragraph by paragraph, we follow them religiously; we proceed as\nif the child were going to consult textbooks daily thruout life. And yet we seldom, unless\nwe are teachers, look at a textbook when school days are over. The kind of reading which\nis, or should be, done thruout life is represented by the school library. Logically, then,\nwe should transfer much of the energy expended on textbooks to securing the effective\nuse of the school library.\nBut if the teacher needs to give such explicit directions for using textbooks, then,\nsurely, the child needs instruction in the use of the library — a collection of books — which is\na more complex situation than that represented by the textbook.\nNow this instruction in books and reading should be given in a definite course of study\nextending thru the grades. In order that this may be accomplisht the library lessons\nmust be carefully outlined and specifically made a part of the required course.\nWe cannot expect the teacher to prepare a textbook for her own guidance in library\nwork any more than in geography, history, or any other traditional school subject. Realizing this situation and finding no text of the kind on the market, the Wisconsin Department of Education had one prepared for use in the schools of the state. It is entitled\nLessons on the Use of the School Library and was distributed at the beginning of last\nschool year.\nTeachers receive many publications in the course of the year, and it was foreseen\nthat, if this publication was to be used in all schools, it would be necessary to incorporate\nits lessons in the elementary-school course. Fortunately that course has been revised\nwithin the last few months and the lessons on the use of the school library were included\nwith the following explanation, quoted in part:\nHow to bring about such use of the school library on the part of pupils as will make\nthem intelligent users of printed matter, both for reference and for general reading, is\none of the most important problems of the school. In view of this fact the State Depart-\n\n"}
{"page": 683, "printed_page": "671", "text": "Department]\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n671\n\nment of Education at the beginning of the school year 1915-16 distributed to the schools\nof the state a publication entitled \"Lessons on the Use of the School Library.\" In this\npublication will be found definite lessons to be given in the various grades and classes of\nthe school course\nThe work thus outlined is an integral part of the common-school\ncourse as presented in this manual.\nWe thus have in Wisconsin a series of library lessons thruout the grades as definitely\na part of the course as the traditional subjects. Special classes are not required, since\nthe work is distributed among the various school branches already establisht in the course.\nFor example, the thirty lessons on the use of the dictionary, given from the third to the\neighth grades, inclusive, are distributed among the reading, spelling, geography, and\ngrammar classes. Each lesson in the course is assigned to that class to which its subjectmatter is most closely related. For example, the lesson on the gazetteer in the dictionary\nis assigned to the geography class; the lesson on farmers' bulletins to the agriculture\nclass; the literary reference lessons to the reading class; etc.\nIt is difficult to see how normal schools can escape their responsibility in the preparation of teachers to give such lessons, when they are specifically made a part of the elementary-school course.\nWould it not be advisable for library workers to put much emphasis in this connection\non impressing state departments of education in their respective states with the need of\nsuch a course in the elementary schools, and, as a corollary, the need of training teachers to\ngive the library lessons effectively ? If we reverse the emphasis, we put the cart before\nthe horse.\nBefore library lessons can, with success, be made an obligatory part of a state course\nof study, however, there must be, at least, a small library in practically every school. In\na growing number of states such a condition already exists. The spread of this condition\nto all the states, the incorporation of library lessons in the elementary course of study, and\nstandard courses in library training in all normal schools, will constitute as great an\nadvance in education as it has experienst in a generation of unpredecented educational\nprogress.\n\nREPORT\nMARY\n\nOF COMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nE. HALL, LIBRARLA.N, GIRLS' HIGH SCHOOL, BROOKLYN,\n\nN.Y.\n\nThe last year has been one of steady progress in the development of\nhigh-school libraries. The committee has followed closely the program\nof work as outlined in its 191 5 report. With the cooperation of various\nstate and local committees and librarians of public libraries, much has\nbeen accomplisht.\nOur work has been greatly strengthened by the appointment of a\ncooperating committee on high-school libraries in the Department of\nSecondary Education. This committee promises great things for the\nfuture. The year has proved that each committee can made a definite\ncontribution to the high-school library movement. That which we, as a\ncommittee of librarians, had failed to accomplish in the last five years is\nUkely to be done by the new committee. In the past our greatest hindrance\nto progress has been the apathy of educational leaders and their lack of\nvision of the possibilities of the high-school library. The most important\nwork of the new committee will be to secure the active support of school\nsuperintendents, state departments of education, high-school principals.\n\n"}
{"page": 684, "printed_page": "672", "text": "672\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nand boards of education. For the first time since we began this high-school\nlibrary campaign in 191 1, a brief hearing on the subject was granted by the\nDepartment of Superintendence at the Detroit meeting. The Department of Secondary Education has set apart an entire session of the New\nYork meeting for a discussion of high-school Ubrary possibilities.\nOur chief work this year has been along the line of the development of\nlibraries in city high schools. Definite things have been accompHsht in\nthe way of laying a foundation for constructive work by all committees in\nthe country. We submit the following brief summary of what has been\ndone:\n1. Compilation of a directory of the leading high-school libraries of\neach state. This will be publish t in the American Library Annual , 191 5-16\n(R. R. Bowker Co., 241 West Thirty-seventh Street, New York). The list\nwill be revised and kept up to date each year.\n2. A high-school library map. This has been prepared for the New\nYork meeting of the National Education Association in order to show\nclearly just where the different cities stand in this reorganization of highschool libraries. By means of pins we have indicated the number of high\nschools in each city which are now on a modern efficiency basis and doing\nvital work. By the aid of the directory of high-school libraries similar\nmaps can be prepared for exhibits at educational and library meetings.\nMany large cities are not yet on this map, and the lack of pins in whole\nsections of the country demonstrates how much is yet to be accompUsht.\n3. Loan collection of architects' blueprints showing floor plans and\nequipment of modern high-school libraries. This has been lent to architects, superintendents, and principals planning new high-school buildings\nor remodeling high-school library rooms.\n4. Publicity work. The committee has spared no effort to bring before\nthe public, especially the educational world, the possibiHties of the modern\nhigh-school library organized on an efficiency basis and in charge of a\ntrained librarian. Its work has been along the following lines:\na) Exhibits at educational meetings.\nb) Presentation of the subject at educational and Hbrary meetings.\nc) Articles in educational and library periodicals and in daily newspapers.\nd) Distribution of printed material on the high-school library.\ne) Compilation of a high-school library bulletin for distribution at this\nmeeting. This was made possible by the courtesy and generosity of the\nH. W. Wilson Co., White Plains, N.Y. who devoted the greater part of\ntheir June bulletin to the material the committee prepared and contributed\na large number of copies for distribution.\nDuring the last year the high-school Hbrary was a main topic for discussion at various important meetings of educational and library associations.\nAn exhaustive library exhibit has been prepared for this meeting. Two\n\n"}
{"page": 685, "printed_page": "673", "text": "Department!\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nON\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARIES\n\n673\n\nlarge corridors and three rooms in the Washington Irving High School were\nassigned for this exhibit and an effort has been made to illustrate the entire\nwork of the modern high-school library, showing its relation to each department, commercial, manual training etc., as well as academic. In the\nplanning and preparation of this exhibit we gratefully acknowledge the\nhelp given by many teachers and Hbrarians in different parts of the country.\nThat part of the exhibit which can be lent in the form of scrapbooks, pamphlets, etc., will be kept by our committee as a permanent loan exhibit to\nbe sent wherever it can be of service. There is great need at present that\neducational leaders be given a visible demonstration of what we mean by\na modern high-school library. If they cannot actually see one in action the\nexhibit will prove the next best thing.\nFor the loan of the exhibit or any section of it apply to Mary E. Hall,\nthe Girls' High School, Brooklyn, N.Y. Borrowers are expected to pay\nexpressage both ways. There is no further charge.\nPERMANENT\n\nLOAN\n\nEXHIBIT\n\nOF HIGH-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARY\n\nWORK\n\nIn order that leaders in the movement may know the nature of this\nexhibit we submit the following rough outline with the hope that it may be\nsuggestive as to its scope and value for educational and library meetings.\nLibrarians of high schools will also find sections suggestive to them in their\nown work.\nPlanning and equipping a high-school library:\n1. Collection of architects' blueprints showing floor plans of leading high-school libraries which are well planned and well equipt according to modem library standards.\n2. Scrapbook showing photographs of interiors of high-school libraries, floor plans, etc.\nAids in building up a high-school library:\n1. Collection of the best printed lists of books recommended for high-school libraries.\nThese cover all departments.\n2. Scrapbook showing magazines on file in various types of high-school libraries.\n3. Aids in buying pictures, lantern slides, post cards, and other illustrative material.\nAids in organizing a high-school library:\n1. Books and pamphlets on the administration of small libraries.\n2. Scrapbook illustrating methods actually in use in different high-school libraries,\nchanges in classification, charging system, rules, printed forms, etc.\nThe work of a modern organized high-school library:\nThe aim of this section of the exhibit is to illustrate as fully as possible what the\nmodern high-school library contributes to the entire work of the modern high\nschool. The most progressive high-school libraries in the country were askt to\nprepare scrapbooks fully illustrating their work. This section of the exhibit\nconsists of the following scrapbooks at present. It will be augmented from time\nto time.\n1. Chicago University High School.\n2. Cleveland.\nHigh-school branches of the Cleveland Public Library.\n3. Decatur, 111. High School.\n4. Denver, Col. North Side High School.\n5. East Orange, NJ.\nHigh School.\n6. Grand Rapids.\nCentral High School.\n\n"}
{"page": 686, "printed_page": "674", "text": "674\n7. Minneapolis.\n8. Newark, N.J.\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\nSouth Side High School.\nBarringer High School.\n\n9. New York City.\nGirls' High School, Brooklyn.\n10. New York City. Julia Richman High School, New York.\n11. Passaic, N.J. High-school branch of Public Library.\n12. Portland, Ore. High-school branches of the Public Library.\n13. Spokane, Wash.\nNorth Central High School.\n14. Tyrone, Pa. High School.\n15. White Plains, N.Y.\nHigh School.\n16. Winsted, Conn.\nGilbert School.\nTraining high-school pupils to use a library.\n1. Best pamphlets and books on this subject.\n2. Scrapbook giving outlines and courses in different high schools. (Does not\ninclude courses already included in the scrapbooks made by high schools listed\nabove.)\nThe use of a modern high-school library by each department.\n1. Art department.\n2. Biology.\n3. Commercial subjects.\n4. Domestic science and domestic art.\n5. English department.\nHome reading lists in various high schools.\n6. English department.\nOral English and the library.\n7. English department.\nCollateral or supplementary reading for English classics.\n8. Julia Richman High School. Supplementary reading list on R. L. Stevenson.\n9. Scrapbook illustrating the use of magazines and newspapers in high-school English;\ncompiled by B. A. Heydrick, High School of Commerce.\n10. Hunter College High School, New York City. Scrapbook illustrating how the\nEnglish department uses library aids.\n11. History department, Los Angeles High School. Charts prepared by Miss Stewart\nto illustrate the use of a library in the teaching of history.\n12. History department.\nScrapbook giving history reading lists for European history, ancient and modem.\n,\n13. History department.\nAmerican history and civics. Scrapbook.\n14. Latin department.\n15. Manual Training and Technical courses.\n16. Modem languages: French, German, Spanish.\n17. Vocational guidance.\n\nThe report of the committee of the Department of Secondary Education\nwhich appears in the proceedings of that department should be read by\nthose who desire to secure a good idea of the present situation of high-school\nlibraries.\nIn closing, the committee wishes to express its appreciation of the\nsplendid cooperation given by Hbrarians and teachers in all parts of the\ncountry and to suggest the following new lines of work for the next year:\n1. The estabHshment of a model high-school library in every college\nand university maintaining a school of education, where students preparing\nto teach in high schools may gain some knowledge of what their own highschool libraries in the future ought to be.\n2. The maintenance of an exhibit of the high-school Ubrary aids in every\ncollege and university giving summer courses for teachers. If possible,\n\n"}
{"page": 687, "printed_page": "675", "text": "Department]\n\nREPORT\n\nOF ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\n675\n\nan experienst high-school hbrarian should be in charge to meet teachers\nand principals of high schools and advise with them on the care of their\nsmall school libraries.\n3. The introduction of a brief course in library methods in every college\nand university and that this be a required course for all prospective teachers.\n4. Occasional informal conferences of trained Ubrarians in cities with\nteachers in charge of small high-school libraries in near-by towns.\n\nREPORT OF THE ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL\nEFFIE L. POWER,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nCOMMITTEE\n\nOF WORK WITH SCHOOLS, CARNEGIE\nPITTSBURGH, PA.\n\nLIBRARY,\n\nThe Elementary-School Committee of the Library Section of the\nNational Education Association was authorized at the St. Paul -meeting in\n1 9 14 and has since been continued under the same chairman with a change\nin members. The first report made at the Oakland meeting was in the form\nof an outline of organization of departmental library work with elementary\nschools, and was not final. Its aim was to cover the field of library work in\nelementary schools in connection with public-hbrary systems in large towns\nand cities only, and not to encroach upon the work of the committees on\nrural schools nor of those on normal schools.\nDuring the last year the new committee has endeavored to develop\none point in the outline submitted in 19 14; that is, the book-collection\nneeded for departmental-Ubrary work with elementary schools.\nSuch a collection should contain books for intensive work in literature\nin the classroom, supplementary reading on all class topics, but chiefly\nbooks of literature and information for children's home reading. It should\ndiffer from a collection of the same size for use by children in a library room\nin the following points: the standard of selection should be higher, and the\nnumber of titles less; there should be more duplicates of standard and\nclassic books; the local-school course of study should be more fully considered, and the collection should be correlated to all other collections in\nuse in the local schools.\nIn 1 9 14 the committee recommended five lists of books as aids toward\nbook-selection, but was not able to find a satisfactory short Hst which could\nbe used by libraries or schools beginning departmental-library work in elementary schools on a small scale. To meet this need a tentative list of 800\nbooks has been prepared to serve as a basis for such a collection. It consists ofa selection of standard and classic books for children, together with\na number of books on subjects in common demand. The latter have been\ntested and are recommended as the best available at the present time. It\nis the plan of the committee to extend this list to 1000 or 1200 titles\narranged by grades, with descriptive notes on each book.\n[As long as the\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 688, "printed_page": "676", "text": "676\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION .\n\n[Library\n\nsupply on hand lasts, Miss Power will be glad to send a list on request. —\nEditor.]\nThe committee has kept in mind the fact that any list made for general\nuse will need to be supplemented by books of information to meet the\ndemands of the curriculum of the individual school. The selection has\nalso been made on the basis of a definite plan of distribution.\nThe committee believes that the books used in the first grade should be\nlimited to fifteen or twenty titles and that these should be duplicated to the\nnumber required. About five more titles have been allowed for the second\ngrade. The oral presentation of selected folk-lore and poetry should be\nemphasized to little children, the book being introduced as a means toward\nthe enjoyment of this literature. They should also be allowed to read some\nbooks in part, as a grown-up reads a book in a half-known foreign tongue,\nbecause their literature is often interpreted by means of pictorial illustration\nas well as by word symbols. Following these principles, the collections for\nthe lower grades have not been limited to the child's capacity for classroom\nreading, and the books listed are not intended to be used as textbooks.\nThe collection for grade three should be more miscellaneous in character, but should be confined chiefly to folk-lore and poetry. More books of\ninformation should be included beginning with the fourth grade, emphasis\nbeing placed upon nature subjects and biography.\nThe next expansion should come at the beginning of the seventh grade,\nwhen the number of books should be materially increast. At this age the\nchild's love for reading stagnates, or grows by leaps and bounds, and more\nvariations in taste are noticeable among members of groups. It is the age\nat which to introduce standard adult fiction and adult books of biography,\nhistory, and science.\nIn listing the classics for children, particular attention has been applied\nto the selection of an attractive edition, but a cheaper one has been added\nin most cases.\nTHE RURAL-SCHOOL\nI.\n\nLIBRARY\n\nORPHA MAUD PETERS, ASSISTANT LIBRARIAN, PUBLIC LIBRARY, GARY, IND.\n\nSo much needs to be done toward placing the needs and possibilities of\nthe rural-school library before the people that the question to be solved by\nthe Rural-School Committee was. What is the most valuable piece of work\nthis committee can do ? How can we best succeed in creating an interest\nin the rural-school library, in causing investigation as to the existing conditions, and at the same time get results which will be of real value in the\nnational campaign for better school libraries ?\nMost people who have investigated the rural-school problem reahze\nthe deplorable condition of the majority of these libraries, and are awakening\nto the fact that something must be done. What organization directs the\n\n"}
{"page": 689, "printed_page": "677", "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARY\n\n677\n\nwork matters not so much as that the work be done. In any case the rural\nteacher plays a most important part in the rural school-library and can at\nleast assist in its general supervision. There are those who contend that\nthe rural teacher is too busy to bother with the library; that she has all\ngrades and that every minute of her time is occupied by her school duties.\nThose who advocate this, however, are considering the library an adjunct to\nthe school when it should be a vital factor in the school curriculum.\nSomeone has said that the eflScient country school must be a \"community center of education, instructing both children and adults in terms of\ncountry life and pointing the way to community prosperity and welfare.\"\nTo make the school such a community center, there must be provided, in\nsome way, an adequate library, and the teacher should know how to judge\ngood books and should know the fundamental principles in using and caring\nfor them.\nRealizing these things, the Rural-SchooL Committee undertook as its\n[chief piece of work (in addition to a small rural-school exhibit) the preparation ofa bulletin on rural-school libraries which should serve as a handbook\n|for the rural teacher. Mr. Claxton, United States Commissioner of the\nbureau of Education, has kindly consented to print it, and it is now in his\n[ofl&ce awaiting publication. This bulletin, which will be distributed widely\nJwill consist of a general survey of rural -school libraries in the United States,\nm article on the organization of a rural-school Hbrary, an article on chil[dren's literature, a list of four hundred books for a rural-school library, and\n[a selected bibliography on the rural-school hbrary.\nExisting conditions\nin rural-school libraries are practically identical in many states. They consist of a collection of several hundred books in extreme need of repair,\nmorganized and with no provision for use outside of the school building,\n''or this reason, the survey is not a detailed statement of the conditions\nexisting in each state, which would be of little value to a rural teacher, but\n>f what is being done in some of the states where experiments have been\n:ied and fruitful results have been obtained. For example, a good article\nis included on the county-library method which has proved so successful\nJin California. The article on the organization of the rural-school Ubrary\n)y Helen L. Price, of the Michigan Library Commission, contains only the\nfundamental things which will be valuable to the rural teacher in making\nle school Hbrary of greater use, not only to the children, but also to the\njrown people of the community.\nMost states issue a list of books for use\nconnection with the course of study mapt out by the state, and therefore\n[the article on children's literature, written by Frances Jenkins Olcott treats\n)articularly (tho not entirely) of inspirational books. It also contains an\nmthne for a year's study, for parents and teachers, on children's books.\n?he list of four hundred books for a rural-school library is based on the\nme-hundred-book Hst and the two-hundred-book Hst prepared by members\n)f former rural-school committees.\nIn order to make the bibhography of\n\n"}
{"page": 690, "printed_page": "678", "text": "678\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Library\n\nthe greatest value to the rural teacher, only references to articles which\nwould be really useful have been included.\nTo provide something which would be concise and truly a valuable tool\nfor the rural teacher in making her school library a real factor in the life of\nthe people of the rural community has been the aim of the Rural-School\nCommittee.\n\nII.\n\nRENEE\n\nB. STERN, EDITORIAL\n\nSTAFF, \" MOTHER'S\n\nMAGAZINE,\" ELGIN, ILL.\n\nThe opinions here stated are the outgrowth of several years' experience as a librarian in charge of school deposits in connection with a large\npublic library, and also in charge of rural libraries. The last year has\nbrought a new angle of vision — that of the club and civic-work member\nof the editorial staff of the Mother^s Magazine. It is interesting to see a\nday's mail as it comes into that department. Here is a letter from a\nwoman in a small town requesting a short paper on Equador, another\ndesires material on American literature for a dozen club meetings, and here\nis one asking about the population of Topeka. There are many letters\nasking help on various phases of child-training and child-care.\nNow, when a woman lives on a rural route, seventeen miles from\nnowhere in particular, we prepare her paper for her on the theory that\npredigested food is better than no food at all; but, if she is within reach of\na public library or a library commission, she should do her own thinking,\nand we send her references easily obtainable. But the fundamental lack is\nnot with the woman so much as with the school she attended, in not training\nher to look upon books as tools, and then providing her with a few simple\nones for her mind's use. A small library in the school, with an intelligent\nteacher to direct its use, will make our children mentally self-helpful, as\nfew of them are today. Why write a thousand miles to ask the population\nof Topeka, when the gazetteer in the back of the dictionary at the schoolhouse tells all about it ? More than enough for several dozen programs on\nAmerican literature can be extracted from the history of Hterature owned\nby the average schoolhouse, and if there is an encyclopedia or school geography on the same shelf, there are the makings of a very fair paper on\nEquador. The trouble lies in the fact that pupils — and teachers too, sometimes— fail to see that it is as necessary to teach the use of books as to\nteach the proper method of handling a pen or a hoe.\nA certain indexing firm lately set out to ascertain how many topics in the\nhigh-school course are covered by one book — Bryce's American Commonwealth— with the result that over 150 specific subjects were found in that\nsingle volume. We may not expect children to do this sort of intensive\nanalyzing, but it well illustrates our lack of good business methods in using\nour school books. The by-products are wasted. No progressive business\nhouse would do that. Paraffine is a big income-producer today; a few\n\n"}
{"page": 691, "printed_page": "679", "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL\n\nLIBRARY\n\n679\n\nyears ago it was a troublesome waste product, but business cannot afford\nwaste products and so its use was found. If, by installing a dozen small\nlibraries in our country schools, our children can be trained to use their\nminds in extracting information from the volume thus provided, we have\nadded a valuable asset for after hfe when there is no teacher to provide\nthe brains for them. Then mentahty ceases to be a by-product.\nChoose rather a small, well-selected library than a large collection of\nbooks without proper arrangement and supervision. Books alone are like\na set of fine tools. A few bright youngsters will figure out for themselves\nthe use of these tools, but the mass of students cannot handle them. So it\nis with the books — the teacher's direction is required if pupils are to get\nfull value from them, and in a large consoHdated school, where there are\nspecial teachers, there should be a speciaHst in command of the hbrary also,\n[trained for her work, and ready to cooperate with the teaching force. It\nasking too much of a teacher to expect expert Ubrarianship in addition to\nler regular training.\nGiven the school Hbrary, children will be trained to get their own knowlIge. After graduation they may help their town to start a public library,\nthat the ending of school days need not be synonymous with the ending\n)f education. Some three dozen of our states have state library commisions, while others supply books thru the state superintendent of public\nistruction. No two of these have identical rules, but most of them loan\n[books to town libraries, schools, and clubs; and some even loan to indiviluals. Are you making use of these sources to freshen the school library\ndth extra-cultural reading matter for the leisure hour, to aid your students\nchoice of vocation, or borrowing expensive reference volumes which your\n)wn slender funds prohibit ? Are you teaching the children how they can\nmtinue to borrow and use books provided by the state, or town, after\n[school is over, making of the library commission or the nearest town library\ncontinuation school thruout life ?\nIf you would realize how much such training is needed, spend a week\nlandling the mail that comes to an editorial desk. You will be surprised\n[by the proportion of these inquiries which the writer could answer for himself\n)y means of a Uttle thought, a good dictionary, an encyclopedia, and one\n)f the comprehensive yearbooks (Hke that issued by the New York World\n)r the Chicago Daily News)^ had his school taught the full value of these\nvolumes. Not one in a hundred knows of the free publications to be\n>btained from the federal, state, and town governments.\nAnd one who\n;eks the source finds the school rather than the individual at fault; for\nrhen the individual went to school he was taught to read, but he wasn't\nLught to delve into books; he was taught to write, but alas! he\nrasn't taught to make full use of the writings of others. The people on\nle farms and in small towns are awakened to art, literature, and local\nImprovement.\nThey want the best information obtainable on these sub-\n\n"}
{"page": 692, "printed_page": "680", "text": "68o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Library\n\njects, but they do not know how to get at it. The school Ubrary that will\nteach its pupils how to obtain information, to get literature \"on the job,\"\nis the greatest source of cultural and civic improvement any community\ncan boast.\nTHE DRAMA\nCAROLINE\n\nOF LIFE IN THE LYRICS\n\nCRAWFORD,\n\nTEACHERS\nCOLLEGE,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nOF THE FOLK\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\n(Outline)\nWhile the folk-story has found wide use in education, folk music has\nnever been presented in such a way that its great artistic, as well as educational value, has been revealed.\nFor these lyrics are, even more than the racial epics, character-studies of\nthe human heart. They are glimpses of the great emotions that have\nstirred the souls of men. The first poetry of any people is always sung,\nand these poems present the spiritual history of the heart of man.\nTwo sides of this history are portrayed in these lyrics: the personal\nand the social — man's relations to individuals; and his relation to society,\nnature, and God. Beginning with the music of childhood, the program\ncontinues with the dances and songs of youth and love. Then comes the\nmusic of adventure and conquest. After this, the thoughts turn inward,\nand there are the songs of dream and meditation, and those of sorrow and\ndeath.\nIn the second part of this history, there are given the songs of man's\ncommunion with nature, the music of social life. And, the climax of all —\nthe prayers and chants to the Great Spirit of Life, and the songs that reveal\nthe birth of the Spirit, the awakening of vision in the soul.\n\n"}
{"page": 693, "printed_page": "681", "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF PHYSICAL EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Edward B. DeGroot, director of physical education, public schools,\nSan Francisco, Cal.\nVice-President — Baroness Rose Posse, president. Posse Normal School of Gymnastics,\nBoston, Mass.\nSecretary— Mary G. Long, supervisor of physical training, public schools\n\nFIRST SESSION— Wednesday\n\nEverett, Wash.\n\nForenoon, July 5, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in the DeWitt Clinton High School,\nwith Vice-President Posse in the chair.\nClara Gregory Baer, professor of physical education, Newcomb College, Tulane\nUniversity, New Orleans, La., was appointed secretary pro tern.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"Physical Training in the Schools\" — Gustave Straubenmiiller, acting city superintendent ofschools. New York, N.Y.\n\"The New York System of Physical Training\" — C. Ward Crampton, director,\ndepartment of physical training, public schools. New York, N.Y.\n\"Physical Training vs. Military Training\" — Randall Warden, director of physical\ntraining, Newark, N.J.\n\" Physical Training in Modern Education \" — William Wirt, superintendent of schools,\nGary, Ind.\n\"A Real Field Day in a Rural District\" — Orson Ryan, superintendent, Jordan\nSchool District, Midvale, Utah.\n\" Folk Dancing and Athletics in the Education of Girls\" (illustrated with folk dances)\n— Elizabeth Burchenal, inspector of athletics, department of education. New York, N.Y.\nClara Gregory Baer, Secretary pro tern\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nAfternoon, July 5, 19 16\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 2:30 p.m. with Vice-President Posse in the chair.\nH. E. Stewart, M.D., New Haven, Conn., was appointed secretary pro tern\nThe following program was presented:\n\"A Keynote to Physical Education\" — E. H. Arnold, director. Normal School of\nGymnastics, New Haven, Conn.\n\"Physical Education from a National Standpoint\" — Philander P. Claxton, United\nStates commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.\nDiscussion — Dudley A. Sargent, director, Henenway Gymnasium, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.\n\"The Health of College Women\" — Clara Gregory Baer, professor of physical education, Newcomb College, Tulane University, New Orleans, La.\n\"The Organization of Athletics for Girls in the Elementary Schools\" — Emily A.\nO'Keefe, inspector of athletics for girls, public schools. New York, N.Y,\n.\n^ \"Defining the Work of Physical Training in Relation to Playground and Recreation\nActivities\" — Rowland Haynes, secretary, Commission on Recreation, Board of Estimate\nand Apportionment, New York, N.Y.\nH. E. Stewart, Secretary pro tern\n681\n\n"}
{"page": 694, "printed_page": "682", "text": "682\n\nNATIONAL\nTHIRD\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nSESSION— Friday Afternoon, July 7, 1916\n\nThe department met in joint session with the Department of School Patrons in the\nBallroom of the Hotel Waldorf-Astoria, at 2:30 p.m., with Vice-President Posse presiding.\nCharlotte Stewart, of Salt Lake City, was appointed secretary pro tern.\nThe following oflScers were elected for the Department of Physical Education for\nthe ensuing year:\nPresident — Baroness Rose Posse, president, Posse Normal School of Gjonnastics,\nBoston, Mass.\nVice-President — C. Ward Crampton, director, department of physical training, public\nschools, New York, N.Y.\nSecretary — E. H. Arnold, director, Normal School of Gymnastics, New Haven, Conn.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"Sex Morality or Social Hygiene \"—Mabel L. Ulrich, M.D,, St. Paul, Minn.\n\"Social Science in the Public Schools\" — Elizabeth McManus, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\"Administration and Method in High-School Physical Training for Girls\" (illustrated bya class of 20 girls) — ^Josephine Beiderhase, assistant director of physical training,\npublic schools, New York, N.Y.\n\" The Boy Scouts of America \" — ^James E. West, chief scout executive. New York, N.Y.\nThese papers will appear in the section devoted to the report of the Department of\nSchool Patrons.\nCharlotte Stewart, Secretary pro tern\n\nPAPERS\nPHYSICAL\nGUSTAVE\n\nSTRAUBENMULLER,\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN THE SCHOOLS\n\nACTING\nCITY SUPERINTENDENT\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nAs long as men were hunters, fishermen, warriors, and farmers, or\nfollowed occupations requiring suppleness of body and the exercise of a\nvariety of muscles, there was no need of purposive training of the muscular\nsystem. Work was done in the open air, muscles were trained naturally in\nthe round of daily Hfe, and the training was unconscious. Lack of strength\nand skill and endurance 'meant in those days dependence, or starvation, and\ncontempt.\nAs, however, life in the open air became more restricted, when people\nbegan to gather in large communities, when manufacturing began, when\nspeciaUzation led to more processes with fewer processes for the single individual; when fewer and fewer muscles were called into play, from hour to\nhour, in the round of Hfe; when some muscles were overdevelopt and others\nneglected; when schools were establish t, restricting the free and unimpeded\nplay of the children, then deterioration threatened the human race. It\nwas seen that health suffered and mortality was great when the fundamentals— good food, fresh air, sufficient sleep, and proper physical exercise\n— were inadequate, improperly distributed, and wantonly wasted. Thus\nthe need of physical training to stop decay slowly began to make itself felt.\n\n"}
{"page": 695, "printed_page": "683", "text": "Department)\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nIN THE\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n683\n\nLike all great movements, it asserted itself slowly, and finally reach t the\nschools. Great tho its progress has been in some school systems of the\nworld, purposive training is only just beginning to take its rightful place\nin education.\nWe know that the highest respect was paid to bodily eflSciency by the\nPersians, Greeks, and Romans. The knights of old, by virtue of their\ncalling and aims, gave systematic attention to developing bodily strength,\nskill, and endurance.\nBut there it ended.\nSporadic attempts were made to introduce it in the schools by Basedow\nand the Philanthropines. Pestalozzi, in order to relieve the stress of mental\neducation, introduced gymnastic exercises. Froebel advocated it. It\ngrew out of its empirical stage a century ago in Germany, Denmark, and\nSweden, yet its propagandists met with very little general encouragement.\nSports were indulged in, it is true, but they usually meant exercise and\nbenefit for the few with the neglect of the many.\nThe writer, in his experience as pupil and teacher in the public schools,\nrecalls the time when physical training was not thought of in connection\nwith school children; he remembers the first gingerly approaches to it,\n['when it was still regarded as a fad. He retains the memory of its final\nrecognition, its embodiment in the course of study, and its development\nunder the supervision of a director and special teachers.\nNow that it has been introduced in the city-school systems, exercises\nare being evolved, not only for the normal child, but also for the crippled,\nthe mentally defective, the blind, and the deaf. There are now remedial\nexercises, not only for the handicapt, but also for the adult industrial\nworker.\nBut why emphasize muscular training in schools and Kfe? Because\n[ it is said that one-quarter of the blood in the body is contained in the substance ofits muscles and nearly half of the body is muscular, and because\nman is a motor animal.\nWhat do we aim at in physical culture ? The ultimate aim, broadly\nstated, is the development of the race (i) by strengthening the body, (2) by\nsafeguarding the cells of the brain in establishing an equilibrium between\noverworkt nerve tissues and neglected muscular ones, (3) by maintaining health, (4) by restoring health. But health and strength are not its only\npurposes; true physical training also promotes mental and moral discipline.\nThus it establishes quickness of perception, it develops rapid muscular\nresponse to the dictates of the mind, it promotes good muscle habits; it\nfosters self-control, attention, honesty, and fairness to an opponent; lastly,\nit also gives pleasure.\nHow can strength and health be developt and maintained ? How can\ngood posture, a grace of bearing and of motion, be induced? How can\njoints be kept flexible? (i) By play, free and unimpeded, a great educational force; by supervised play, sports, games, running, jumping, dancing,\n\nli\n\n"}
{"page": 696, "printed_page": "684", "text": "684\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nswimming, rowing, coasting, walking, hiking, throwing, wrestling, etc.;\n(2) by gymnastic exercises, including cahsthenics, and apparatus work, so\ngraded and planned as to fit the individual, or a fairly homogeneous group;\n(3) by manual training, such as shop work, garden work, work at home;\n(4) by industrial work.\nBy the practice of all these exercises for the muscles or the body, we\nare enabled to overcome physical obstacles, just as mind-training gives\nus the power to overcome psychical ones. But, in order that good physical\nhabits may be acquired, and in order to make the muscles automatic agents,\nthere must be a continuity of good training.\nIn planning exercises we should be particularly careful not to require nor\nencourage such as are harmful to health. We should not allow exercises\nthat are too strenuous, too uniform, too dangerous, and too extreme. Nor,\nto be efficacious, should the planned exercises be **too softy\"; they should\nbe done with snap and vigor so that every movement counts. Nor should\nwe, in our enthusiasm, demand a disproportionate amount of school time\nfor it. For as fatigue is very high in physical exercise, the proper place\nfor it in the daily program is an important consideration. We should bear\nin mind and impress upon the pupil that muscular strength does not necessarily mean health, that a one-sided training should not be indulged in, that\nfoolhardiness is not manliness, that winning in contests, sports, and games,\nat any expense, endangers health and morals.\n\"Preparedness\" does not consist merely in learning the manipulation of\na gun and maneuvering, which can be learned in a short time. Of what\nuse is a soldier who knows these things, but who has no physical endurance ?\nPhysical endurance, good health, and intelligence, are far more desirable\nin a prospective defender of his country than a knowledge of the manual\nof arms. Thelatter he canlearn ina few days; the former is the resultant\nof years of good living and judicious exercise, that is, a proper balance of\nwork, recreation, and muscular care. Physical-training teachers should\nmotivate their work. The best way to get a pupil's interest aroused is to\nlet him know \"why\" he is doing as well as \"what\" he is to do. Then he\nwill return to the exercises again and again of his own accord, and thus he\nwill accomplish more for himself.\nThe child should also have the proper conditions under which to exercise, the proper paraphernaha, and a good gymnasium.\nFinally, physical-training teachers should insist upon more open-air\nplaygrounds in order to restore to children, in a degree, opportunities for\nfree and unimpeded play. The unnatural and restricted life in cities should\nbe assuaged for children as far as it is possible for the teaching force to do so.\n\n"}
{"page": 697, "printed_page": "685", "text": "Department!\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nSYSTEM\n\nTHE NEW\n\nYORK\n\nSYSTEM\n\nC. WARD\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF PHYSICAL\n\n685\n\nTRAINING\n\nCRAMPTON, M.D., DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL\nNEW YORK PUBLIC SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nTRAINING,\n\nThe Department of Physical Training of the New York City Public\nSchools has three subdepartments:\n1. Physical Training. — This provides for the teaching of gymnastics,\ngames, athletics, and folk dancing to the children of the elementary, high,\nnormal, special, and truant schools thruout the city.\n2. Educational Hygiene. — This provides for the instruction in hygiene to\nall pupils; the inspection, investigation, and supervision of all matters pertaining to the health of pupils and teachers.\n3. Athletics. — Competitive athletics for boys in running, jumping, and\nchinning, basket-ball, baseball, and the like, are provided after school, and\nfolk dancing, athletics, and games for girls are given in clubs formed for the\n[purpose.\nThe system of physical training used is one specially developt by the\ndirector of the department to meet New York City conditions. The typical\nlesson consists of introductory, corrective (postural), educational, hygienic,\nand recreative exercises. The introductory action is similar in purpose and\ncontent to the Swedish system. The corrective exercises, however, are\ndifferent, emphasizing elevation of deprest chest, shoulders, and head,\nmainly by the use of static positions which are held for five or six seconds\n'while stimulating elevation commands are given. Educational exercises\ndevelop subjective control, alertness, precision, and inhibition. Hygienic\nexercises are given to rhythmic serial commands. These are large, strong,\njvigorous trunk and thigh movements calculated to stimulate circulation and\ndevelop endurance. In each lesson there appears some game or folk dance\nfor the purpose of recreation and the development of objective control.\nIn athletics, over two hundred school district and city athletic meets\nare held during the year. In addition, from twenty to thirty thousand\nathletic badges are awarded annually to boys who reach certain standards\nin running, jumping, and chinning. To get all boys into athletics, a system of interclass competition has been devised. The boys all make records\nin running, jumping, and chinning which are compared with others of similar\nclasses thruout the city.\nA system of afternoon athletic centers for boys and girls has been\nintroduced. One hundred and sixty- three were opened last year and the\nattendance exceeded four millions.\nFor the girls, after-school instruction classes for teachers are formed.\nThese in turn develop after-school athletic and folk-dance clubs for the\n'^ girls of their schools. The attendance is over twenty-five thousand. At\nthe end of the year, festivals are held in the various parks. These are\nattended by over fifteen thousand.\n\n"}
{"page": 698, "printed_page": "686", "text": "686\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nIn hygiaie, among many features of importance, a new course of study\nhas been introduced. This provides for a daily morning hygienic inspection\nof every pupil, the teaching of a daily hygienic routine, the examination of\nthe eyes by every teacher, and the supervision of a weekly lesson on the\ncare of the health.\nThe new state law provides for the military training of all boys between\nthe ages of sixteen and nineteen after school for not more than three hours a\nweek. This instruction will be conducted by specially qualified school\nteachers who, in New York City, have undergone military instruction in\nthe specially organized Schoolmen's Battalion, and by officers delegated\nfrom the National Guard of the state of New York. It will probably consist of careful medical examination and a thoro physical and athletic training as a foundation. Emphasis will be placed upon physical training and\nupon outdoor excursions; in addition, marksmanship and military drill will\nbe given.\nThe system of physical training., athletics, and hygiene of the New York\nschools is designed to use every possible means to make children healthful,\nvigorous, strong, happy, and efficient.\n\nPHYSICAL\nRANDALL\n\nTRAINING\nWARDEN,\n\nVERSUS\n\nMILITARY\n\nDIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL\nNEWARK,\nN.J.\n\nTRAINING\n\nTRAINING,\n\nOne should hesitate to talk on these subjects unless he knows by experience what is meant by each, and the value to be derived from each kind of\ntraining. Congressmen and military experts are expressing opinions for\nor against one or the other of these subjects — opinions which are questionable, because these men know nothing of the conditions under which, at\nthe present time, miHtary training or physical training must be given in our\ngreat public-school systems.\nIt was my good fortune to be educated in Boston, where in the elementary schools we had daily lessons of Swedish exercise. I was fortunate,\ntoo, in being brought up in the Young Men's Christian Association under\nthe famous Robert J. Roberts. It was in Boston that I learned mihtary\ndrill. As you know, this training continues to be the prescribed physical\nexercise for Boston high-school boys. These things I tell you as a sort of\ncredential for my right to speak on the assigned topic.\nJust now our country is trying to get back to an ancient principle —\nnamely, that one of the elements of education means training the youth\nof the land for national defense. The idea started two thousand years\nago, and is what true physical education means in the last analsyis.\nThe two questions therefore arise, what kind of physical training is\nbest to make national defenders of America's school children and how\n\n"}
{"page": 699, "printed_page": "687", "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nVERSUS\n\nMILITARY\n\nTRAINING\n\n687\n\nshall this training be accomplisht? Can it best be done by offering\nphysical training to the pupils, or by giving them practice in military drill ?\nIt is a wise thing in argumentation clearly to define terms. We must\nunderstand each other when we speak of physical training or of military\ntraining. Both terms are as indefinite as the north pole. Physical training isoften made a farce, and to affirm that miHtary drill will make a soldier\nis to insult the uniform. Military drill, such as the usual platoon and\ncompany evolutions of \"four's right,\" of \"four's left in the Une,\" or \"right\nforward four's right,\" given in the school, say two periods a week, is as\npuerile and useless a training toward making a soldier as could well be\nfoisted on an already sorely confused city scholar; and by the same token,\nphysical training, meaning exercises in the classrooms, moving arms, bending trunk, raising legs, is often just as puerile and useless and fraudulent\nas the endeavor to make a soldier by teaching a smattering of tactics.\nLet me interrupt here to speak about the present status of physical\ntraining in our common schools. It seems unbelievable that most of our\npublic-school systems have assigned in the curricula but fifteen minutes a\nday for physical training, when it is conceded that the product of the\nschools should be, to say the least, able-bodied, well-set-up citizens. When\none reaHzes that this time (fifteen minutes), put in terms of days totals up\nin the entire school year to about forty-eight hours, one is overcome with\nastonishment. Think of business men countenancing an outlay of money\non such a paltry subject as physical training must be, when it can be\nmastered in forty-eight hours a year. Can physical training do any good for\nthe pupil where the instruction covers a period of forty-eight hours during\nthe year ? Is fifteen minutes a day long enough time to develop delicate\nadjustments of the neural muscular centers, motor and sensory nerves,\ncirculation and metaboHsm? Can curvature of the spine be corrected\nin the pupil in fifteen minutes' daily practice. Will fifteen minutes' training\nhelp anemia, flat foot, chicken breast, or lumbar curve ?\nThere is a fallacy to be exploded if the public or the educators think\nthat two days a year will correct any postural defect, and the field of\nphysical training is infinitely larger than mere correction of physical defect.\nIt covers exercise which will acquire and keep health and courage, dosage\nthat wiU give a symmetry to the body and develop strength and endurance.\nWhat hope is there of preparedness if the physical efficiency of our future\ncitizens depends upon forty-eight hours of physical training per year in the\nschools ?\nTo go back to the definition of terms — we must fully understand when\nwe speak of military training hereafter that we shall mean thoro efficient\ntraining for the soldier, training, not only in the school of the soldier, the\nsquad, and the company, but training in camp, in the trenches, with the\nsignal squad on scout duty, skirmishing, taking care of a gun, marksmanship,\nand the carrying of the soldier's pack on a test march.\n\n"}
{"page": 700, "printed_page": "688", "text": "688\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nSo, too, let us define now what we mean by \"an adequate course in\nphysical training\": it means (i) exercise tending to the acquisition of\nhealth and symmetry, (2) good carriage and correct posture, (3) perfect\nmuscular coordination, (4) manly courage, and (5) the spirit of cooperation.\nThese attributes will be acquired thru means of: (a) tactics, (b) free standing exercises, (c) apparatus exercises, (d) group games, (e) athletics and\nsports.\nNow we have two big ideas before us: (i) the soldier, brave, resourceful, disciplined, strong, and trained for fighting; (2) the citizens, wellrounded, living the laws of health, trained in the difficult feats of strength\non the horse, bar, or ladder, individually courageous and having the spirit\nof team play and cooperation ingrained in character.\nHaving these two ideas in mind, let us see what like or unlike elements\nwill throw the choice in our public-school work for either one or the other.\nFor the business man the element of cost will arise, to the educator the element of time will appeal, and by the philosopher the element of demand or\nnecessity will be considered.\n1. As to cost: The cost of training a soldier is perhaps little greater\nthan the cost of giving a well-balanst course in physical training. To be\nsure, the various phases of soldiering require much more paraphernalia\nthan the latter form of training; for instance, a soldier could scarcely be of\nmuch service if he did not have a uniform and a pack, and know how to put\nthe pack together. He must have a gun and know how to clean it and keep\nit in order; he must have a tent and know how to set it up; he must be\nskilled in building fires, and the selecting camp sites where the drinking\nwater is fit for his canteen; and in mounting guard duty at night. This\nwould require a rifle range, a field for maneuver and an armory for winter\ntraining. Then count must be kept of the ammunition for rifle practice.\n2. As to time: It will be out of the question to develop a skilled soldier\nin anything less than two hours a week, indeed, it ought to be an hour a\nday for the best results. As to the time required for a course in physical\ntraining, previously set down, thirty minutes a day is the minimum that\nshould be allowed. Anything less will not allow of the full development of\nall-round strength and manhood.\n3. As to necessity: Itis, however, on the third]element — that of demand —\non which I shall make a deciding plea. And here I shall not maintain that\nwe do not need soldiers; on the contrary, I insist that we do, but the thought\nof a nation trying to make seasoned campaigners or regulars out of inmiature school boys is so absurd that it is astonishing that anyone should consider it seriously. Even the attempt to prepare boys so that they can,\nafter a few weeks' training, take their places in the ranks of the standing\narmy, is unreasonable and lacking in common-sense. It is, however, perfectly proper that boys, after they reach the age of eighteen, should be\nrequired to take up military training. At this time in life, boys are strong\n\n"}
{"page": 701, "printed_page": "689", "text": "Department!\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nVERSUS\n\nMILITARY\n\nTRAINING\n\n689\n\nenough in body and mature enough in mind to absorb some of the training\nwMch may be given to them, but before this time it is as absurd to try to\ndevelop soldiers and have them remember instructions as it would be to insist\nthat all boys be given a course of medicine in the elementary or high school\nso that they could cure themselves of diphtheria or malaria. *\n- Soldiering is a mature science and requires fully developt bodies and\nmental and physical self-control. The smattering of the science that\nmight be given to under-age pupils will do more harm than good. This\nhas been proved by the experience of nations now in the throes of warfare.\nBoth Germany and France have at different times required military training in their public schools. But both nations have discontinued the practice as unfavorable to the best interests of the army.\nMilitary training needs first a foundation of good health and of sturdy\nmuscular development, and this can best be given in the gymnasium by\nclass work on the floor, under the direction of a competent instructor; by\nturning on heavy apparatus, led by magnetic leaders; thru the stimulus\nf competition in climbing ropes and poles and ladders; by strife in indidual games; by the competition of the athletic field; and the influence of\nthe coach in our great national pastimes of baseball, football, and swimming.\nIn Boston, the oldest city in this country to provide military training in\ne high schools, you will find the training narrow and lacking the elements\nf physical development.\nThe course teaches at best the manual of arms,\ne school of the soldier, the company, and the battaHon. There is no\nractice in real shooting, no practice or very little in signaling, no camping,\no marching, except around the auditorium, no training in the carrying of\nuggage, and what little physical development is given comes from carrying\ngun, which for the greater part of the time is carried on the right shoulder.\nThis training is of undoubted value as a discipHnary measure, it teaches\natriotism to some extent, and is effective in training careless individuals\n0 work together for the sake of the personal appearance of the company.\nhese are strong recommendations for the subject, but on the other hand\ne gymnastic class under the proper teaching becomes just as strong a\nisciplinary measure and teaches quite as much the necessity for individuals\norking together for the accomplishment of a given result as when the orders\nome from a captain. The officers of the company perhaps have an advange in that they get valuable training in self-reliance, judgment, tact, digity, and self-control. But here again, only the fittest are chosen as officers,\nd they would be distinct in any line of endeavor.\nSo, too, on the gymnaum floor, the squad-leader, while not having the advantage of the sword and\nniform, may become quite as efficient a leader of men as his more imposing\nrother.\nLet us take up directly the advantages of physical training over military training. The growing boy, from twelve to sixteen, is in, we say, the\nadolescent stage. This means he is in the formative period of his career.\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 702, "printed_page": "690", "text": "690\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nHe needs to learn a wide range of subjects. It is the plastic time of his\nlife. It is the time when educators develop his powers of reasoning, and it\nis the time when the school should look out for the development of his\nphysical powers. This unfortunately has not been fully realized except by\nsome private schools. The public elementary and high schools must be\nbrought to realize that their first duty lies in building a strong foundation\nfor mental poise and effort. Schools are failing to do this with the present\nmeans at hand.\nWhat is needed is a thoro course in physical training with at least 150\nminutes a week devoted to it. It should include, besides the gymnasium\nwork, the teaching of swimming, and training on the athletic field. After\na boy has had an elementary-school and a high-school course of this, let\nthe military organizations of the country use such material as this will make\nto construct the finest army in the world.\nTEE HEALTH\nCLARA\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nWOMEN\n\n■\n\nGREGORY\nBAER,\nPROFESSOR\nOF PHYSICAL\nEDUCATION,\nCOLLEGE, TULANE UNIVERSITY, NEW ORLEANS, LA.\n\nNEWCOMB\n\nJust how far the college is responsible for the health of its students is one\nof the leading questions of the day. Granted that the college acknowledges its debt, the question still remains, does the well-equipt gymnasium\nand the well-organized department of physical education and hygiene\naccomplish all that is needed, if no direct provision be made for promoting\nthe health of students individually, especially with those students whose\ngeneral condition is below par ? We know that there exists a strong sentiment, arising from reliable sources, against the physically unequipt student\nentering college at all. Just how far one is able to judge of the physical\nfitness of the applicant is the question (barring of course disease and deformity, mental and physical) . Then, too, who is willing to assume the responsibility of determining this fitness when the college stands for catholicity in\neducation; when the great institutions of learning of today are saying,\n\"Give us your boys and girls; we shall make men and women of them,\nstrong and healthy in body, clear in mind, keen in thought, earnest in purpose, seK-con trolled and able to control\"? What the larger opportunity\nhas done for the college woman in teaching her the care of her health and the\nconservation of her powers only those who have spent years in educational\ninstitutions really know. Many of our leading women of today, who have\nhad a childhood and youth of struggle against physical handicap and\nphysical weakness, now acknowledge the wonderful power and opportunity\ngiven them to be the result of the fostering love and care of their Alma\nMater.\nIf education means anything at all, it means opportunity for overcoming\nweakness, not only of mind, but of body. We have left behind the in-\n\n"}
{"page": 703, "printed_page": "691", "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nHEALTH\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nWOMEN\n\n691\n\nherited idea of college education — that it is merely a means of acquiring\nceitain facts of history, language, and science. We have come to the\nbroad concept of the dynamic, the grasp of the larger things of life by the\nactual doing of definite tasks, thru the education of the great motor system.\nToday ''hygiene\" is the word that stands out beyond all others as the\nlatest thought and purpose in education and in the upbuilding of the race.\nAll avenues of education lead, or should lead, to efficiency. As Dr. Goldthwait says, in concluding his Shattuck Lecture:\nOne would certainly be a pessimist of the most profound type if he felt that the\nsplendid work of our profession along preventive medical lines was a curse to the race by\npreserving the lives of the slender, or delicate, physical type, which Nature, in keeping\nwith the law of the survival of the fittest, would have thrown off; or that the splendid\nwork of the school and college is also harmful to the race by accentuating qualities of\nweakness; but such must be the fact, unless something else is added to the mere saving of\nthe lives and to the common system of education, as it exists today. If the physician and\nthe teacher recognize these facts and apply natural principles for the proper development\nof these individuals, the result must be inevitable — a stronger and a finer race.\n\nNever in the history of the world have as many intelligent influences\nbeen at work to bar the door to disease and degeneracy, and to open the\ngates to health by giving to men and women every opportunity to overcome\ninherited weakness, to fortify themselves against the inroads of modern\ncivilization, and to enable them to join the large aristocracy of the mentally\nand physically fit. That the college, with reference to this matter, has one\nof her greatest opportunities for service is very evident. That she must\ntake her place and do her part in the evolution of the social order of the\nfuture is also evident. The only way that she can fulfil her destiny is to\nstand shoulder to shoulder with the other great forces of education, working\nwith the material at hand and making for the future a new order of manhood and womanhood, based upon right Hving as well as high thinking.\nThe character of specialized work in our colleges as suggested here\ndoes not refer, however, to those conditions that would be questioned as\naffecting the student's fitness to take up college work; but rather it is concerned with conditions already present, with the means employed when\ndefinite needs require specific treatment — a state of affairs brought about\nfrequently thru the college life itself, as well as thru faulty living.\nLeaving out organic disease and all conditions that require medical\nattention, there is a gap between illness and health that can be filled by\nspecialized gymnastics and personal attention. Between the class work\nof the gymnasium and the direct need of medical attention lie the manifold conditions wherein the student requires remedial exercise, and here it\n\ni\n\nis that the physical director and the physician join forces for the student's\ngood, working together along definite lines. The knowledge of the individual student's need, gained thru careful bodily examinations and personal\nhistories, enables the physical director to be of peculiar service. This is\nespecially true in our women's colleges where so much must be known of\n\n"}
{"page": 704, "printed_page": "692", "text": "692\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nthe general health of the girl if she is to enter athletics. This, combined\nwith the talks on personal hygiene, estabHshes a confidential relationship\nbetween student and teacher that cannot fail to work ultimate good. In\nthe department of corrective gymnastics and personal hygiene these confidences are further developt as the needs of the student are more definitely\nascertained and provided for.\nAmong the conditions in our colleges requiring remedial exercises, most\nteachers will agree, are the following :\n1. Psychic nervous conditions, sensitiveness, neuralgic headaches,\nfainting, insomnia, and continuous worry.\n2. Defects of posture — scoHosis, kyphosis, and lordosis, drooping head,\nflat chest, and ptosis.\n3. Defects of the respiratory organs — usually an inability to breathe\nnormally and an utter lack of the fundamental principles of breathing;\nrigid chest with lack of muscular development of chest; also cases with\ninherited tendency to tuberculosis.\n4. Derangements of the digestive organs — chief of which is constipation\nwith its attendant ills, where frequently the student has no real understanding of how to remedy conditions. Here we often find a lack of practical\nknowledge as to diet and water and their bearing upon health and efficiency,\naltho lectures on dietetic hygiene have been given them during their college\ncourse.\n5. Disturbances of the pelvic organs with functional irregularities.\n6. Skin troubles, especially those that can be traced to constipation, diet,\npelvic disturbances, and to the general lack of care of the body, due in many\ninstances to a want of understanding of the efficient use of water as a\ntherapeutic agent, and of the fundamental principles of personal hygiene.\n7. Defects of the feet — especially flat foot.\n8. Sprains, old and new.\n9. Obesity, rarely serious, but affecting the student's general efficiency.\nDuring the current year the writer has had some remarkably good results\nfrom the special work referred to the department by tlie college, or the\nhome physician, which involved a little less than 10 per cent of the total\nnumber of students registered in gymnastics, or about 58 or 60 students.\nThis does not include the home work prescribed by the regular teachers of\nthe gymnasium for ordinary postural defects and faulty carriage; nor does\nit cover all the work that might have been undertaken. These students\nwere taken during the regular gymnastic periods. Some were assigned\nwork additional to their regular classes in gymnastics; others were not permitted to take the class work at all. In addition to the cases regularly\ntreated during the school year, the work in therapeutic gymnastics rendered\ntemporary rehef in a number of cases. These and many other cases, not\ncited, of the students need from day to day, are their own greatest plea\nfor the provision for specialized health work in our colleges.\n\n"}
{"page": 705, "printed_page": "693", "text": "pepartmentl\n\nATHLETICS\n\nFOR GIRLS IN ELEMENTARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n693\n\nOne feels, in passing, that mention should be made of the head nurse in\nour college infirmaries. In this instance she has rendered valuable aid in\ndiscovering obscure cases where no definite opportunity had presented itself\nto acquire certain facts.\n[Several specific cases were cited to show the method of handling and\nthe results secured. — Editor]\nWe believe that the need exists. All over the country teachers of\nphysical education are beginning to realize the full significance of special\ngymnastic work. For years there has been a feeling of unrest among us,\na conviction that gymnastics as an educational factor was not fulfilling its\ngreat mission. A provision to reach all will go far toward the realization of\none's hope for greater efficiency and service. Then let the vigorous, healthy\nstudents, those who can enter into the spirit of athletics and games, have\nthe full benefit of the gymnasium and of its apparatus, but let us provide,\nalso, for those who are not so constituted and who need personal supervision and individual attention. Then we can truly feel that the health\nof our college women is the chief consideration, among the varied educational and recreative activities of the college gymnasium.\n\nTHE ORGANIZATION OF ATHLETICS FOR GIRLS IN THE\nELEMENTARY SCHOOLS\nEMILY A. o'kEEFE, INSPECTOR OF ATHLETICS FOR GIRLS, PUBLIC\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThere is no longer any doubt in our minds regarding the advisability\nof girls taking part 'in athletics; there is no longer any doubt as to the\ntype of athletics which girls should take part in, nor is there any longer any\ndoubt as to the policy to pursue in conducting athletics for girls. The\ngreat problem which confronts us is how to bring athletics to every\nelementary-school girl of athletic age. I shall, therefore, only skim over\nthe need of play in the form of athletics, of the kind of athletics, and the\npohcy to pursue in conducting them, and tell you of our problem of organization and how we are working it out in New York City.\nI am sure you will all admit that games played without law or order\ndo not develop a sense of fairness in our girls, and I have observed that\nchildren like games with a certain amount of necessary restraint.\nThe fundamental policy underlying our athletics for girls here in New\nYork City is:\n1. Athletics chosen with regard to their suitability for girls.\n2. Athletics to include all girls rather than to develop a few stars.\n3. Athletics in which teams rather than individuals compete.\n4. No interschool competitions.\n\n"}
{"page": 706, "printed_page": "694", "text": "694\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\nThe type of athletics chosen for use by girls will be shown in the following list: walking, swimming, skating (both roller and ice), coasting, ropeskipping, folk dancing, basket-ball, end ball, captain ball, punch ball, relay\nraces.\nHaving workt out a poUcy and chosen kinds of athletics, the next thing to\nconsider is how to bring these athletics to all girls in the elementary schools.\nFor years we have depended and do still depend largely on volunteer service\ngiven us so generously by the class teachers. In exchange for instruction\nin the dances and games, they have consecrated their time and energy to the\ninstruction of the children. The usual method is to organize an athletic\nclub and meet with this club once a week. These clubs are necessarily\nrather small, and are often Hmited by scholarship requirements. They\ndo not include the large mass of girls of athletic age (third year up). Out\nof 1500 or 2000 girls in one school, not more than 100 or 150 have been\nafforded athletic practice thru volunteer clubs. This is perfectly natural\nas there is a limit to the amount of volunteer service that can be askt of\nthe class teachers after school hours.\nThe relation between the teacher and children is usually a very sympathetic one, and the class teachers generally provide for the children whatever is possible. We have had thousands of dollars worth of volunteer\nservice in conducting athletics for girls, and still have to depend on it to a\ngreat extent. But it does not meet the wide demand.\nTwo years ago we started to work out a plan to provide for athletics\nby estabhshing what we called athletic centers. We have operated these\ncenters off and on for two years and a half and their success justifies our\ntelling you of the plan. Certain schools are selected, and teachers paid by\nthe Board of Education are put in charge to organize athletics for the\nchildren of the school from three o'clock to five-thirty. Some of these\n\"centers\" are open for five days a week, while others are open only three or\ntwo days. Any girl wishing to practice the athletic events which she has\nlearned in her club or during her physical-training period in school is welcome to come to the center. The centers are organized on the club plan,\nand all clubs are registered with the Girls' Branch Public Schools Athletic\nLeague. Each club chooses its own captain, and she in turn selects her\nassistants. The captains are indicated by a badge and are given charge\nof the records of the club. They keep a record of the attendance and of\nathletic activities in order that the members of the club may quaUfy for\nathletic pins at the end of the season. Each club chooses a significant\nname and color, and a group spirit is developt which makes the interclub\ncontest interesting.\nThe teacher inspects the playgrounds of the school and decides where\nthe different activities can be played to the best advantage — folk dancing,\nfor example, in some indoor yard where the piano is available, or in some\noutdoor space where a phonograph can be used. The punch-ball court is\n\n"}
{"page": 707, "printed_page": "695", "text": "Department]\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\nAND\n\nRECREATION\n\nACTIVITIES\n\n695\n\nmarkt out with paint in another part, and so on until every available space\nis accounted for.\nThe next step is to plan a program assigning each club to a space for\nthe different periods of the afternoon. The afternoon is divided into periods\nof a half-hour each. When the first half-hour is up, a blast of the whistle,\nblown by the teacher, brings all play to a standstill. The groups then\npass to the next activity for which the program calls. In this way each\ngroup has an opportunity to practice several different activities during\nthe afternoon.\nThe afternoon is usually brought to a close by a short period of free\nplay, roller-skating and rope-skipping in the outdoor courtyards. The\nchildren go home happy, having had an opportunity to play under proper\nsupervision but without undue restraint. Opportunities for developing\ninitiative and a capacity for self-direction on the part of the children are\nunlimited under this sort of an organization. By this organization two\nteachers can easily supervise several hundred children, and we have had\nas many as four hundred at one time in a center, all busy.\nWe have encountered many difficulties. Different sections of the city\noffer their own problems. In one section it was only with the greatest\ndifficulty that we were able to organize the girls, as they seemed to lack\nadhesiveness. It was an entirely new experience for them to play under\nthe leadership of one of themselves. Whenever the teacher would leave\na group it would dissolve. This was overcome however.\nIn another section the difficulty is home cares and responsibilities.\nThe mothers expect so much of the children that they have little or no\ntime for play. We are solving this difficulty thru mothers' clubs and\nmothers' days at the centers. And so it goes, each section having its own\nproblem. Our centers, however, are organized loosely enough to allow\nfor the working-out of these problems.\nBut it all costs money. With sufficient funds we could reach the great\nmass of girls in need of athletic practice thru athletic centers. We have\nincreast the percentage of girls qualifying for athletic pins. In some\nschools where fifty or more girls used to quahfy for pins at the end of the\nseason, now 75 per cent or 80 per cent qualify. Athletic centers seem to be\nthe most economical means of providing athletics for all girls.\nDEFINING THE WORK OF PHYSICAL TRAINING IN RELATION\nTO PLAYGROUND AND RECREATION ACTIVITIES\nROWLAND\n\nHAYNES, SECRETARY, COMMITTEE ON RECREATION, BOARD\nESTIMATE AND APPORTIONMENT, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nOF\n\nThis paper is based on the following convictions, gained from the\nobservation of physical training and playground work in various cities\nthruout the country for a number of years.\n\n"}
{"page": 708, "printed_page": "696", "text": "696\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\n1. Physical training has a work of its own.\n2. Playground and recreation work has a task distinct from that of\nphysical training.\n3. Much work now being done under the name of either physical training or recreation is neither good physical training nor good recreation work\nbecause of confusion as to the task before each.\n4. Correlation is possible between physical training and recreation work,\nbut only when the different aims of each are clearly recognized. Much of\nthe present correlation is superficial, consisting in the use of the same workmen and the same tools, rather than fundamental, consisting of a division\nof work with cooperation where that is possible and specialization where\njoint action is not possible.\nBecause of these convictions, I ask your attention to the definition\nof the task of physical training and of recreation work, not as an academic\nexercise, but because it is necessary for us to know where we are going in\norder to know where we will meet and where we must part company.\nThere would be no confusion if there were not similarities between\nphysical training and recreation work. There is a fundamental similarity\nin purpose. Both are educative. Both seek to develop character. Physical training does much more than build muscle. It builds will power, since\npsychologically will is the habit of having action follow thought. Physical\ntraining develops alertness in the way in which physical action obeys the\ncommand of the mind. Physical training develops self-respect which, in\nathletic terms, is a state of \"feeling fit.\" Likewise, recreation work\nattempts to develop traits of character, initiative, teamwork, and abihty\nto meet new situations in new ways. Besides this fundamental similarity,\nthe two are superficially alike in that both use part of the same kit of tools,\nnamely, games. When I contrast the dull grind of stupid calisthenics,\nwhich were given me as the sole curriculum of physical training, with the\nenricht curriculum of physical training in the modern school, consisting of\ncalisthenics, hygiene lectures, and game activities, I feel that we have come\na long way.\nBecause of this similarity, we are very likely to forget certain very\nradical differences between physical training and recreation work. A\ncabinet-maker is not a carpenter because both use a saw, and a physicaltraining worker is not a recreation leader because he uses games. On\naccount of this confusion we are likely to have neither the physical-training\nworker nor the recreation worker make the most of his special field.\nPhysical training and recreation work differ in activities, spirit, and\npurpose. It goes without saying that physical training has more in its\nkit of tools than games. It also should not need to be said that recreation\nwork has more in its kit of tools than games, gymnastics, and athletics.\nChoruses, orchestras, story-telHng, dramatics, reading, moving-picture\nshows, social dancing, pageants, all are methods of work essential to a com-\n\n"}
{"page": 709, "printed_page": "697", "text": "Department!\n\nPLAYGROUND\n\nAND\n\nRECREATION\n\nACTIVITIES\n\n697\n\nplete recreation program, which have no particular value for physical\ntraining.\nThe two differ in spirit. A man may be an excellent physical-training\nworker, and still lack characteristics which are demanded in recreation\nwork. Thus I remember being taken around in one city to see the playground work under the school system. In one school I was led to a basement\nplayroom where a man with an excellent turnverein training was giving a\ngroup of boys a wand drill, followed by a session with the chest weights.\nIt was good physical training, but I had to stretch my imagination to the\nbreaking point to see where it was play or recreation. I have had gymnastic work myself, and the amount of zest in pulling chest weights I found\nto be distinctly Umited. In another city I visited a physical-training man's\nclass in folk dancing. He had certain spots markt on the gymnasium\nfloor. Each movement in the folk dance was analyzed. The music was\nsedate, if not mournful. Everything was done with precision and correctness and with about as much spontaneity as a street-car conductor ringing\nup fares. It was good physical training. The class was learning poise and\nself-control. They were having the joy of doing something just right,\nwhich in these slipshod days is immensely worth while. But the spirit\nof play was entirely lacking. I went into another class led by a real recreation worker where the same folk dance was being given. The music had\nso much spirit in it that you couldn't keep your feet still and the children\n;were laughing for the sheer fun in it.\nThe two differ in purpose. Physical training has a man-sized job on\nits hands in combating the sedentary conditions of modern life. Its purIposes are to build muscle, to train muscular coordinations, to overcome\n[physical defects, especially of posture, to develop traits of character which\n'come thru muscular control. Recreation work also has a man-sized job\nIin developing leisure time from a Hability into an asset.\nThe failure to recognize these differences is hurting physical training\n[by crowding out, in the short time allowed to it, certain necessary developments which it should make in connection with the physical examination\n!of children, and training in hygiene. Failure to recognize these differences\nis hurting recreation work because it is permitting games to be called\n[recreation work even if conducted without any knowledge of neighborlood conditions and without any analysis of the recreation needs of the\n[particular neighborhood in which the work is being done.\nThe school is now changing into an institution which is trying to learn\n[the haK-conscious ideals of the society of our time and to interpret those\nideals to that society. A good teacher, as we all know, does not try to turn\nout the children from his class like so many bricks, all stampt in the same\nI\nmold, but tries to find out what are the best capabilities in each youngster\nand to develop those individual capacities. The school as an institution\nis awakening to the fact that it is the teacher of society, that society as its\n\ni\n\n"}
{"page": 710, "printed_page": "698", "text": "698\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Physical\n\npupil must be treated, in each generation, as a teacher of individuals in a\nclassroom adapts the work to individual capacities.\nIn this new conception of education for this generation both physical\ntraining and recreation work have a part to play. Physical training is to\nrelate itself to the new era of preventive medicine in its hygiene work.\nPhysical training in the United States is to relate itseK to that preparedness\nwhich is essential to a nation in the midst of international burglars, by furnishing the inescapable foundation on which all preparedness training must be\nbased. On the other hand, recreation has its part to play in utilizing\nthe unused educational asset of after-school, after-work time and in stopping\nthe educational leak whereby the children outside of school form habits\nwhich waste much of their school training. Recreation work must play\nits part by molding together alien interests by having the people of different neighborhoods join in common purposes in their recreation life.\nAs physical-training workers or recreation workers, we can render the\nbest service to the subject to which we are devoting our lives if we make the\ncorrelation between these, not the superficial correlation of workmen and\ntools, but the fundamental correlation of division of labor between two\nspecialized tasks.\n\n"}
{"page": 711, "printed_page": "699", "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCIENCE\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — ^James E. Peabody, head, department of biology,\n\nMorris\n\nHigh School,\nNew York, N.Y.\n\nVice-President— WiLLUM Hedrice, head, department of science, McKinley High School,\nWashington, D.C.\nSecretary — ^John C. Packard, head, department of science. High School\n\nFIRST SESSION— Monday\n\nBrooklyn, N.Y.\n\nForenoon, July 3, 19 16\n\nThe department met in joint session with the Chemistry Teachers' Association of\nNew York, and was called to order by Henry T. Weed, Manual Training High School,\nBrooklyn, N.Y., at 9:30 a.m., in the Washington Irving High School.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"Applied Chemistry in Secondary Schools\" — Chester B. Curtis, principal, Central\nHigh School, St. Louis, Mo.\n\"Method in the Teaching of Chemistry\" — W. G. Whitman, science department.\nState Normal School, Salem, Mass.\n\"The New York State Syllabus of Applied Chemistry \"—William J. Hancock,\nErasmus Hall High School, Brooklyn, N.Y.\n\"Household Chemistry for Girls\" — Harold A. Holly, Manual Training High S hool,\nBrooklyn, N.Y.\n\"What Elementary Science Needs\" — Charles S. Palmer, fellow, Mellon Institute\nof Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, Pa.\nSummary of Session — W. A. Estabrooke, chemistry department, College of the City of\nNew York, New York, N.Y.\nOn motion of John A. Randall, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N.Y., the chair was authorized to appoint a committee of three to consider a course in chemistry adapted to those\nstudents who do not expect to go to college, and the chair named as such committee,\nWiUiam J. Hancock, Erasmus Hall High School, Brooklyn, N.Y.; Frank Huested, High\nSchool, Albany, N.Y.; B. W. Peet, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich.; Chester B.\nCurtis, Principal, Central High School, St. Louis, Mo.\nAnnouncements were made concerning the excursions in the afternoon.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, July 4, 1916\n\nThe department met in joint session with the Physics Club of New York City and the\nEastern Association of Physics Teachers.\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:45 a.m. by John C. Packard, High School,\nBrookline, Mass.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"The Relation of General Science to Later Courses in Physics and Chemistry\" —\nLewis Elhuff, George Westinghouse High School, Pittsburgh, Pa.\n\"The Relation of the Bureau of Standards to Physical Research and to the Teaching\nof Physics\" — Frank A. WoLff, associate physicist, Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.\n699— Robert H. Spahr, State Department of\n\"Applied Science in the College Course\"\nUniversity Extension, Boston, Mass.\n\"Local Industries as a Source of Illustrative Material for Science Teaching\" (illustrated)— Clarence M. Hall, Central High School, Springfield, Mass.\n\n"}
{"page": 712, "printed_page": "700", "text": "700\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nThe discussion was formally opened by Raymond B. Brownlee, Stuyresant High\nSchool, New York, N.Y., and was continued informally by F. D. Barber, State Normal\nCollege, Normal, 111; W. H. Timbie, Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass.; C. R. Mann,\nUniversity of Chicago, Chicago, 111.; A. L. Williston, Wentworth Institute, Boston,\nMass.; R. A. Wetzell, College of City of New York, New York, N.Y.\nAnnouncements were made concerning the excursions of the afternoon.\nTHIRD\n\nSESSION— Wednesday\n\nForenoon, July s, 1916\n\nThe department met in joint session with the New York State Scien'ce Teachers'\nAssociation, the New Jersey State Science Teachers' Association, and the Association of\nBiology Teachers of New York.\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. by H. Morgan Campbell, High School,\nBayonne, N.J.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"The Conservation of Natural Resources thru Education\" — Leon W. Goldrich,\nprincipal. Public School No. 62, Manhattan, N.Y.\n\"Studying Fungi as a Pastime\" (illustrated) — W. A. Murrill, assistant director,\nNew York Botanical Garden, New York, N.Y.\n\"General Science in Secondary Schools\" — Thomas H. Briggs, assistant professor of\neducation. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.\nReport of Committee on Biology — W. H. Eddy, High School of Commerce, New\nYork, N.Y.\nThe discussion was formally opened by M. C. Leonard, Dickinson High School,\nJersey City, N.J., and was continued by William Grady, Public School No. 64, New York,\nN.Y.; Fred D. Barber, Normal University, Normal, 111.; Lewis Elhuff, George\nWestinghouse, High School, Pittsburgh, Pa.; C. C. Kohl, New York University, New\nYork, N.Y.; W. H. Kilpatrick, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.\nOn motion of J. A. Randall, the Science Council was directed to appoint a committee\non biology and a committee to coordinate the work of aU the science committees.\nAnnouncements were made concerning the afternoon excursions.\nFOURTH\n\nSESSION— Thursday Afternoon, July 6, 19 16\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m. by Arthur L. Williston, principal,\nWentworth Institute, Boston, Mass.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"Method in Science-Teaching\" — ^John Dewey, professor of philosophy, Columbia\nUniversity, New York, N.Y.\n\"Training of Science Teachers\" (a symposium) — C. H. Robison, Normal School,\nUpper Montclair, N.J.; C. H. Elliott, Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N.J.; Geo. H.\nSherwood, American Museum of Natural History, New York, N.Y.; C. F. Hale, New\nYork College, Albany, N.Y.; Thomas M. Balliet, New York University, New York, N.Y.\nDiscussion — M. C. Leonard, Dickinson High School, Jersey City, N.J.; N. A. Harvey,\nState Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich.; M. L. Stone, Manual Training High School^\nBrooklyn, N.Y.; William W. Clennin, Wadleigh High School, New York, N.Y.; C. R.\nMann, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.\nW. H. Timbie, for the Committee on Resolutions, presented the foUowing resolutions,\nwhich were unanimously adopted:\nWhereas, There is a never-ceasing demand for the introduction of new materials into\nthe curriculum, to prepare the pupil to take his place in our complex modem life; and\nWhereas, Much time and effort on the part of both pupils and teachers in our schools\nwould be saved by the early substitution of the international metric system for our customary system of weights and measures; and\nWhereas, This wasted time and effort constitute an enormous loss, estimated as\naggregating hundreds of millions of dollars each year, to the people of the United States;\ntherefore be it\n\n"}
{"page": 713, "printed_page": "701", "text": "Department]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n701\n\nResolved, That the Science Department of the National Education Association\nrespectfully recommends to the Congress of the United States that the substitution above\nreferred to be made obligatory, reasonable time being allowed for the necessary adjustment,\nand that copies of this resolution be sent to the members of the Committee on Resolutions\nof the National Education Association, to the President of the United States Senate, and\nto the Speaker of the House of Representatives; and be it further\nResolved, That the Science Department of the National Education Association\nexpress its obligation to its friends for the great pleasure and profit derived from the many\nentertainments which have been provided by them in such abundance.\nThe report of the Committee on Improvement of Physics Teaching was made by\nJ. A. Randall. On motion of C. F. Hale, State College for Teachers, Albany, N.Y., it\nwas decided that all officers of the Science Department elected in future, including the\npresent officers, be made permanent members of the Science Council.\nOn motion of Miss Mullen, Washington Irving High School, New York, N.Y., the\nScience Council was instructed to appoint a committee of the coordination of the different\nsciences into a four-year course.\nOn motion of W. H. Timbie, Went worth Institute, Boston, Mass., the Science\nCouncil was instructed to appoint a committee on the training of science teachers, the committee to use the report of the Biology Committee as a basis, and to outline a definite\nprogram of action.\nThe following were elected officers for the ensuing year:\nPresident — W. H. Timbie, Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass.\nVice-President — Chester B. Curtis, Central High School, St. Louis, Mo.\nSecretary — Fred D. Barber, Normal University, Normal, 111.\nFIFTH\n\nSESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 7, 1916\n\nThis meeting was held under the direction of the Committee of Visual Instruction\nand was called to order at 9:30 a.m. in the American Museum of Natural History, by\nEdward W. Stitt, district superintendent of Schools, New York, N.Y.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"The Importance of Visual Instruction\" — Edward W. Stitt, district superintendent\nof schools, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Value and Importance of the School Museum\" — C. G. Rathmann, assistant\nsuperintendent of schools, St. Louis, Mo.\n\"Collection, Organization, and Circulation of Visual Aids to Instruction by State\nBureaus\" — ^A. W. Abrams, chief, Visual Instruction Division, State Education Department, Albany, N.Y.\n\"The Museum as the New Force in Public-School Development\" — Henry F. Osborn,\npresident, American Museum of Natural History, New York, N.Y.\n\"Can the Moving Picture That Imparts Information Be Used to Educate?\" —\nLouise Connolly, education expert, Newark Museum Association, Newark, N.J.\n\"Motion Pictures to Aid the Educator\" — A. H. Saunders, director, scientific education department, Cushing-Perine Company, New York, N.Y.\nDiscussion — Clarence M. Abbott, assistant secretary. National Board of Review of\nMotion Pictures, New York, N.Y.\nAt the conclusion of the meeting luncheon was served in the Philippine and South\nSea Island rooms, thru the courtesy of the president and the board of trustees.\nFollowing the luncheon Sir Douglas Mawson's bird and animal motion pictures were\nshown by the courtesy of Lee Keedick.\nJohn C. Packard, Secretary\n\n"}
{"page": 714, "printed_page": "702", "text": "702\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nAPPLIED\nCHESTER\n\nB.\n\nCURTIS,\n\nCHEMISTRY\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nIN SECONDARY\n\nCENTRAL\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nST.\n\nLOUIS,\n\nMO.\n\nChemistry is essentially a practical science. Thru this agency only,\nor thru its aid as an ally of other sciences, the industrial, engineering, and\nmedical problems of the world are being solved. It is a pragmatic science.\nTo the layman, chemistry is an enigma; to the student, a body of theories,\nof laws to be rediscovered, and of historic experiments to be performed; to\nthe manufacturer, the engineer, and the physician, it is a means to an end.\nAs ordinarily presented to high-school pupils, chemistry is intended\nto be both an informational and a cultural subject. It was originally\nadmitted to a place in high-school programs on the assumption that it would\ncontribute something to the pupil's mental structure in the way of discipline and knowledge. It came nearly in the form of pure science, relieved\nonly to the extent of the descriptive matter and the simple experiments\nwhich were necessary as illustration of the theories and principles under\ndiscussion. Fortunately, chemistry is, first of all, an experimental, observational science. This very inherent characteristic of its pedagogy saved\nthe day. It still is, and must ever be, true that the best learning comes\nfrom doing; that the purpose of learning is doing; and that knowledge is\nof value just to the extent that it can be put to use in the needs of daily\nlife. I, therefore, take thie pragmatic rather than the cultural point of\nview in the teaching of high-school chemistry. Indeed, chemistry taught\nwith reference to its usefulness will include the cultural as an essential\nand valuable by-product; but if taught as an informational and cultural\nsubject only, the very result which is most desired will lack those cultural\nfactors which are supplied by examples of applied chemistry.\nI would not convey the idea that in secondary-school teaching we can\nomit the descriptive and the theoretical phases of chemistry. Not at all.\nThese features are fundamental in any course, but they must be used with\ndiscretion. My contention is not for less theory and for fewer principles,\nbut for the proper use of theory, the correct use of principles, and for an\nextension of the knowledge acquired, to its application in some concrete\nillustration by processes as nearly as possible those of technical chemistry.\nChemistry as generally taught today does not satisfy. The trouble\nis not with nature, her laws, and principles; not with the tools of pure\nscience; not with the mutual processes required for its enjoyment or\nmastery. Fundamentally our trouble is pedagogical. We have not\nproperly adjusted the material at hand to the varying needs of our pupils.\nIt is in part a question of vitalized presentation; in part, of practical\napplication. Applied chemistry, as such, must wait upon the acquisition\nof fundamental principles and largely occupy the latter part of the course.\n\n"}
{"page": 715, "printed_page": "703", "text": "Departmentl\n\nAPPLIED\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\nIN SECONDARY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n703\n\nBut from the first day the teacher of chemistry should hold before his class\nthe intensely practical aspects of the subject. Many pupils approach the\nstudy with the query \"What's the use of chemistry?\" Our first duty is\nto answer that question. The first day or two may well be spent in an\nenumeration and a brief discussion of the industries and their products in\nwhich chemistry is a factor. Pupils should make their contribution to the\ndiscussion from the objects and processes observed in and about the home,\nthe street, the school. This unconscious vitalizing of the subject is a pedagogical asset of rare value. It is the first step toward inspirational teaching.\nIt should be continued at frequent intervals, by a period set apart as the\ninstructor's hour — or \"stunt,\" if you please — in which he may perform an\nexperiment, give an illustrated lecture, or talk of the most recent practical\nappHcation of the science. Pupils have an increast respect for an instructor\nwhose mastery of a subject is evident. In such an hour illustrations should\nbe, not only up to date, but up to the minute. Wonderment should be\ncreated and satisfied. Demonstrations should be striking and skilfully\nperformed.\nPupils should be able to use chemical formulas and equations intelligently, and to apply them arithmetically in the solution of problems and\nprojects. The usual course in high-school chemistry stops at this point — a\nblind-alley course. Just as the student is ready to use his tools of chemical\nscience in a practical way, he lays them aside. The best training in chemistry, as in mechanics, is obtained on the productive, or creative, side.\nQuaHties of analysis can be given to advantage if they too be considered as\ntools for use. Gas- and water-analysis are practical and not beyond the\nability of high-school pupils of the upper years. Ammonia, its compounds,\nand solution mixtures as cleansing agents for paints, fabrics, and glassware,\nis an interesting field. Books on technical formulas should be used freely\nand experimentally. A study of ores, pigments, and paints is practical\nand commercial. A paint mill is an inexpensive acquisition to a laboratory\nequipment. But the work on paints should be carried to the point of mixing, and of application to small surfaces of different materials as finisht\nproducts. A comparison of different pigments of similar appearance, such\nas zinc and white and powdered silica, is valuable as a practical problem.\nThe use of substitutes for pure paints is illuminating, at least. All the\nindustries of a community should be investigated from the standpoint of\na chemical survey, and pupils of the higher classes should have some part\nand responsibility in the work.\nThe use of commercial formulas for the frosting of electric-light bulbs\ncould profitably replace the old-time glass-plate fluorine-etching experiments. Other suggestions are the preparation of pure carbon from the\ndestructive distillation of sugar; the products resulting from the fractionatk\ning of oils; the study of flash points; and the preparation of salts, in crystal.\n\n"}
{"page": 716, "printed_page": "704", "text": "704\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Science\n\nthe making of chemical salts, mostly useful, with the attendant problems\nof atomic and molecular weights, balancing of equations, the weighing of\ningredients, the preparation and execution of the processes involved, the\npurification, crystallization, drying, weighing, bottling, and labeling, of\nthe finisht product, even to the name of the student, is an experience of rare\nvalue to young people. Photography, bleaching, tanning, and the study\nof baking powders are other good fields of practical work.\nSuch a program for chemistry would necessitate an increast timeallotment to seven or ten periods per week for two or three years. With\nthe coming of the senior high school this arrangement will be entirely\npractical. With the present tendency toward a few major subjects of three\nyears each, and several minor subjects for varied culture and information,\napplied chemistry would fill a need and furnish opportunities for boys and\ngirls who have no intention of attending college. Even with our present\ntraditional 8-4 plan, such a course for high-school pupils would be, not only\npractical, but a boon to those whom it would aid in finding themselves.\nBoys who are permitted by law to leave school at fourteen or sixteen years of\nage may now attend night school and obtain, by free election, valuable\ntechnical courses which would not be possible in the day-school program.\nMoreover, the tremendous appeal of the night school, thru its practical\ncourses, points the true method of retaining pupils in school. Hence I\nplead for changes in curriculum, such that courses and subjects may be\nprovided which shall be adapted to the practical needs and to the capacities\nand interests of high-school students of chemistry.\n\nMETHOD\n\nIN THE TEACHING\n\nOF CHEMISTRY— AN ABSTRACT\n\nW. G; whitman, science department, state normal school, SALEM, MASS.\n\nThe one important thing to be considered in any course of study is the\nneed of the pupil. The needs of the college-preparatory pupils and of\nthe vocational pupils are well taken care of in the chemistry courses offered\nfor these classes of pupils. But there is a third class — and this is the largest\ngroup — who finish their formal schooling with the high school, and who\nwish a general practical knowledge of chemistry as it touches their everyday\nlives.\nIt is for this third group that we need to reconstruct our high-school\nchemistry course. The chemistry of formulas, equations, laws, problems,\nand theories, which so delights the enthusiastic teacher chemist, frequently\narouses enthusiasm in the pupil; but the discourse on these subjects by\nthe pupil at home does not spread the contagion to the parents. Some\nteachers have dared to break away from tradition and are teaching a\nminimum amount of the abstruse chemistry and a maximum of the concrete,\npractical, living chemistry. Where we formerly taught experimentally the\n\n"}
{"page": 717, "printed_page": "705", "text": "Department]\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nSYLLABUS\n\nOF APPLIED\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\n705\n\nvolumetric and gravimetric composition of water, we now teach tests for\npurity of water, and treatment of contaminated water. Formerly, we\nnever studied milk in a chemistry course; now we not only make an extensive study of it as a food-product, but even have pupils use the Babcock\ntester to see whether the cow at home had better be sold to the butcher.\nWhere we formerly taught the principles involved in dyeing, we now teach\nhow to dye faded garments, ribbons, and neckties. Where we formerly\nheld strictly to pure science, we now admit — even strive — to coordinate the\npractical arts with the chemical principles.\nWe formerly outlined a severe course which no appeal could change;\nnow we court suggestions from outside our departments, and are governed\nto some extent by the attitude taken by the parents. It is a very good\ntest of a chemistry course, planned for the general student, to see whether\na pupil's account of what he is learning arouses the parent's interest.\nFor this practical and useful chemistry the project method of study\nseems most suitable, and it is already used successfully in a number of\nschools.\nTHE NEW\nWILLIAM\n\nYORK STATE\nJ. HANCOCK,\n\nSYLLABUS\n\nERASMUS\n\nOF APPLIED\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\nHALL HIGH SCHOOL, BROOKLYN,\n\nN.Y.\n\nPursuant to the meeting of the New York State Science Teachers'\nAssociation in December, 1913, a committee was organized to consider the\nrevision of the Science Syllabi. This committee decided to present two\nsyllabi to the State Science Teachers' Association, one on general chemistry,\nthe other on applied chemistry, and, if approved by the Association, to\nrecommend the syllabi for adoption by the New York State Department\nof Education.\nPractically no adverse criticisms of the Syllabus in General Chemistry\nhave been brought to my attention, but the so-called Syllabus in Applied\nChemistry has been highly commended by some and severely criticized by\nothers; I will therefore confine my remarks to this latter syllabus.\nThe content of the Syllabus in Applied Chemistry begins, as other\nchemistry syllabi have often commenst, with the topic \"Physical and\nChemical Changes.\" The notion of chemical change is far from being\neasy for many beginners to grasp. The idea of an element losing its identity\nby entering into combination with another element is new to them and\nthey feel that the oxygen, for example, of the compound must be in the\ncompound as oxygen.\nNext, quite an extended study of the compound, water, is suggested.\nDuring that study the pupil is expected to gain an apprehension of the\nmeaning of the terms \"chemical decomposition,\" \"element,\" '-'compound,\"\n\"solution,\" and \"suspension.\" He is also expected to acquire knowledge\nconcerning methods used for obtaining hygienically pure water, and for\n\n"}
{"page": 718, "printed_page": "706", "text": "7o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nincreasing the chemical purity of water. The preparation, properties, and\nuses of oxygen and hydrogen, the elements obtained from water, are next\nstudied.\nThe formation of a few oxids by the combination of such elements as\nmagnesium and sulphur with oxygen, by burning the elements first in pure\noxygen and then in air, is made use of to illustrate the formation of compounds bysynthesis, and to give the pupil reason to believe that air contains\noxygen. The topics combustion, slow oxidation, and spontaneous combustion follow the formation of the oxids by the direct combination of\nelements with oxygen. The condition necessary for burning to continue,\nand methods of putting out fires by the removal of one or more of the conditions necessary for combustion, give an extremely practical turn to the\ntopic of combustion. Next come heat-distribution, heat-appliances — such\nas the Bunsen burner, gas stoves, heating stoves, the kitchen range, etc.;\nlighting-appUances — such as the fishtail burner, the Welsbach burner, the\nacetylene burner, and the oil lamp.\nA student who has made a careful study of the construction of a kitchen\nrange and understands the scientific reason for each step taken during the\nbuilding and regulation of a fire in it, has acquired knowledge that evoke\nas much mental ability during its acquirement as the committal to memory\nof the customary equation for the reaction between copper and nitric\nacid.\nBut I must hasten on. The next portion of the syllabus has to do with\nweight relations, the law of definite proportions, the law of multiple proportions, atomic weights, molecular weights, valence, nomenclature, simple\nchemical formulas, equations, and problems involving weight relations.\nThen follows the replacement of one element by another, leading to\nthe notion of an acid as a compound containing hydrogen replaceable by a\nmetal. Hydrochloric acid is prepared and studied as a substance possessing\nthe characteristic properties of an acid.\nThe bases, sodium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide, are prepared and\nstudied as examples of soluble bases. An alkali is defined as a base or a\ncompound yielding a base in the presence of water.\nThe following topics are of a general nature and were selected because\nthey were closely related to everyday life. Common uses and methods for\ncleaning the household metals, aluminum, copper, silver, and gold, are to\nbe studied. A knowledge of protective coatings for iron, galvanized iron,\ntin plate, and enameled ware is expected. The alloys, brass, bronze,\nsolder, and fusible alloys are considered.\nThree allotropic forms of carbon and their uses are studied, and considerable time is devoted to the preparation and properties of carbon\ndioxid and carbon monoxid and the practical uses of these compounds.\nA study is to be made of substances used as fuels; of the textile fibers,\ncotton, linen, wool, and silk; of common cleansing agents, including soap,\n\n"}
{"page": 719, "printed_page": "707", "text": "Department]\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nSYLLABUS\n\nOF APPLIED\n\nCHEMISTRY\n\n707\n\nammonia water, washing soda, borax, and the grease solvents, gasoline,\nbenzole, and carbon tetrachloride. During this study the action of soap\nwith hard water is brought out.\nThe household germicides, hydrogen peroxide, h)^ochlorites, carbolic\nacid, formaldehyde, and mercuric chloride are mentioned because the\ncommittee felt that a knowledge of the nature of these substances would\ntend to decrease the large number of accidents that have occurred from a\nlack of such knowledge. The germicides mentioned are common ones,\nand the public should be educated concerning their use, reliability, and\nkeeping properties, and warned against the careless handling and storage\nof some of them.\nThe remainder of the syllabus — about one-tenth of it— ^has to do with\nfoods. The food requirements of the body, and a knowledge of what\nconstitutes a balanst ration — topics that are receiving more and more\nattention as the cost of living increases and the relation of food to health\nis becoming better understood — receive due consideration.\nIs the course merely an informational course ? I answer, most decidedly,\n''no.\" It contains material for all of the equation writing and problem\nwork that the average boy or girl of fifteen or sixteen years of age can\nmaster.\nLastly we come to the most vital question, How does the course work\nin practice? In answering this question, I can only cite my experience\nwith classes at the Erasmus Hall High School. The course has become\nestablisht so that it is one of the features of the school. During the last\nterm one teacher and one adult from outside the school were permitted to\nenter the class. These persons are today firm believers in the kind of\nwork being done.\nWe are conducting a college-preparatory course in chemistry and the\ncourse in applied chemistry. Of the two courses, I much prefer that in\napplied chemistry, but best results are obtained when the course in applied\nchemistry is followed by a course in physics, and this by the collegeentrance course in chemistry.\nThere is considerable enthusiasm over the making, and especially the\ndischarge, of a chemical fire-extinguisher. Pupils will handle equations\nand problems in connection with it that would not otherwise appeal to\nthem. When mother pronounces that a sample of baking powder made by\nJohnnie in the chemical laboratory is the best she ever used, chemical\nstock goes up in Johnnie's home, and Johnnie commits to memory the\nformulas for tartaric acid and cream of tartar, writes the equation for the\nreaction between sodium bicarbonate and cream of tartar, and calculates\nthe weight of one compound that reacts with a given weight of the other.\nThe alcohoHc fermentation of molasses can be used in connection with\nthe equations for the inversion of cane sugar and the production of carbon\ndioxid and alcohol from the fermentable sugars thus produced. Pupils\n\n"}
{"page": 720, "printed_page": "708", "text": "7o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nlike to test for carbon dioxid, and enjoy obtaining alcohol from the fermented*\nliquid.\nThe preparation of a soap that is pronounst good at home helps over\nthe difficult formulas for esters and the saponification equations. Later\nthe pupil comes to understand why certain waters are hard.\nWhen the pupil finds that he can detect the presence of cotton in a\npiece of flannel supposed to be wool, and learns to distinguish between\nsilk and luster cellulose, chemistry appears to be of practical value. And\nso we might continue with the large number of practical illustrations that\ncombine practical information with sound mental discipline. Yes, I\nbelieve in applied chemistry. May it live long, and prosper!\nWHAT\nCHARLES\n\nS. PALMER,\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCIENCE\n\nNEEDS\n\nFELLOW\nIN MELLON\nINSTITUTE\nRESEARCH, PITTSBURGH, PA.\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nSome twenty or thirty years ago we science people had a somewhat\nlively scrimmage with some of our shortsighted classical friends against\nwhom we have no grudge, for we have no quarrel with broad education.\nBut, in brief, we did succeed in establishing in the curriculum of preparatory and high schools this safe course, as a starter, namely: after one year\nof general introductory science, such as physical geography, or the like,\nthen one year each of elementary physics, elementary chemistry, elementary biology, or related work, and preferably in this order.\nNow this has workt well, but it is not all. We have still everything to\ndo, in advancing new standards, and in adopting our ideals to practical\nneeds and conditions. We are often hampered by local conditions, and by\nbeing \" sewed up \" between the limitations of public-school predicaments and\ncollege requirements.\nWe used to dream of more specialization in natural science in the preparatory and high schools — specialization such as that relating to Greek,\nLatin, and mathematics, where at least three years were devoted to each\nsubject, and they did get results. But we were not sure which science —\nphysics, chemistry, or biology — was the natural fundamental science; nor\ndid we know whether the time had come for such specialization. President\nEHot, of Harvard, used to tell me: \"Yes, you are right in looking ahead\nfor more specialization in science in secondary schools, but you will have\nto wait for another generation to see it generally adopted and accomphsht.\"\nAnd the prophet was right. Each age has its possibilities and its limitations\nin possible progress. Each age, after a safe, conservative growth is then\nready for further progress. It seems that just about now is the psychological moment for further advance.\nBut what is the special line of advance? What particular science is\nbest suited for intensive specialization of three years in the preparatory.\n\n"}
{"page": 721, "printed_page": "709", "text": "Department!\n\nWHAT\n\nELEMENTARY\n\nSCIENCE\n\nNEEDS\n\n709\n\nsecondary, and high schools ?— such speciaUzation as used to be applied to\nGreek, Latin, and mathematics, and such as is now coming to be practical\nalso in English, German, or French. Now, it has come as a vision to many\nof us in the last nervous awakening months of world-history that the first\nsubject of attack is the study of things, substances, and kinds of matter, and\nthat is chemistry. And our question is answered. From now onward we\nshould aim to specialize in chemistry, as the science of the secondary schools.\nFormerly we were in doubt. We did not wish to cut off all physics, tho\nbeyond the elements it does become too mathematical for high-school\nstudents.\nFor the student who goes on to college and university, we hear the clear\ncall, \" More chemistry.\"\nEqually — but a thousand times more insistently —\nfor the student who cannot go beyond the high school we hear the same\nill, \"More chemistry.\" Let us then be thankful that our problem is so\nLsily simpHfied. There is no conflict here between the interests of the\n)reparatory and the high-school student. Their claims are the same.\nBut, specifically, what do we mean by \" More chemistry \" ? Does it not\nlean the following scheme for a three-year high-school course everywhere ?\n1. A year of continuation and possible extension of our present course in\ngeneral elementary inorganic chemistry; lecture, laboratory, recitation.\n2. A year of the elements of good organic chemistry; lecture, laboratory,\nrecitation.\n3. A year of analysis, mainly qualitative, but just enough of a quantittive character toward the end to perfect the crude qualitative notions and\nlethods; lecture, laboratory, recitation.\nAnd over all, above all, and thru all must be given continual parallels\nid illustrations from the practical and useful side. This must be emphased. (Note the use of such books as Weed's Chemistry of the Home, as\n[valuable reading.)\nTheory and practice must go hand in hand in all this\ngeneral, analytical, and organic chemistry. With it all may well be given\n)me of the more definite and simple results of newer physical chemistry,\n10 most of that may well be left to the more mature and thoro college\nrork, which will then be in good shape, and free further to train students\nready started in the elements.\nBut some may say, \"Why all this general, organic, and analytical chem>try in the high school ? Why rob the college of its quota ? \" The answer\nsimple : College is already loaded and overloaded with its burden, growing,\nlot only out of inorganic, organic, and analytical advance, but also from the\nlany phases of physical chemistry. There is a vast field which the college\nlould cover. And the college must cover most of this to prepare the coljge student for his graduate work. If one doubts it, let him make a list\n>f subjects which now are not advanst work, but only elementary and\n)reparatory to research for the doctorate: spectrum analysis, crystallogiphy, pyrometry, electro-chemistry, catalysis, mass action, phase rule,\n\n"}
{"page": 722, "printed_page": "710", "text": "7IO\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\ndissociation, physical and chemical, argonoids and the periodic sequence,\ncolloids, radiography, x-ray, etc.\nWhat are we going to do about it ? Why, do the right thing about\nthe obvious duty for the obvious need. True, one mind cannot be welltrained and equally well- trained in all these Hues; but, in general, the\ngood Ph.D. student of the future must have a speaking acquaintance with\neach and all these subjects to be able to do his research work, and to be\nable to compete with other eflScient men in the modern competition of\ntheory and practice. And if the college man is tempted to go directly and\nprematurely into research work without previous adequate graduate\ntraining, all the more he needs college training far beyond what he gets at\npresent. Therefore I present these resolutions:\n1. That such a course as that outlined for three years in chemistry be\nrecommended as a tentative scheme.\n2. That this be so formulated and recommended as a part of the program of the next and all of the necessary succeeding years, as shall merit\nits due attention and speedy realization.\n3. That we all **get next\" to this idea and stay with it.\n\nTHE RELATION\n\nOF GENERAL SCIENCE TO LATER\nIN PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY\n\nLEWIS ELHUFF, GEORGE\n\nWESTINGHOUSE\n\nCOURSES\n\nHIGH SCHOOL, PITTSBURGH,\n\nPA.\n\nApproaching this subject from the standpoint of the teacher, I desire to\ndivide all teachers into two groups. These two groups are suggested by\nthe attitude which teachers take with respect to what is commonly known\nas \"general science.\" The first group consists of those teachers who teach\na subject or develop a subject from the standpoint of the subject itself, and\nmake the student conform to the subject-matter which the teacher thinks\nmakes an ideal course, because of the worth and beauty of the subjectmatter itself rather than the usefulness of the subject-matter to the student\npursuing it. This group of teachers desires students to be purposefully\nprepared for the courses which they teach. Under our present system of\nclass grouping of students, it is a great advantage to have the students\ngroupt according to their previous training. It is an advantage to the\nlearners, because under proper classification they will get more training\nduring a given period of time.\nThe physics and chemistry teachers of this first group expect their\nstudents to have been trained or drilled in some of the fundamentals of\nthese subjects and even expect them to know how to perform, in a prescribed way, experiments and write up notebooks in the form in which\nthis group of teachers want them — ^just as tho learning to do experiments\nand writing up laboratory notebooks were a business in itself. Here I will\n\n"}
{"page": 723, "printed_page": "711", "text": "Department]\n\nGENERAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAND\n\nLATER\n\nCOURSES\n\n711\n\nsuggest that the grandest laboratory of any high school is the whole community inwhich that high school is located. To use this laboratory requires\na different method from that used in many laboratories, and a different\nattitude on the part of the teacher toward his subjects and his learners.\nThis brings us to the second group of teachers, namely, those who\nteach from the standpoint of the student and make the subject fit the\nstudent so that it will give him useful training for both the present and\nthe future. This attitude requires the teacher to center attention on the\nlearner and study his characteristics and previous training, and then\nadapt the subject-matter to suit the circumstances which the teacher has\ndiscovered. Here again may I suggest that learners who are groupt\naccording to their previous training, will receive more training in a given\namount of time than if they are not so groupt. This attitude on the part\n)f a teacher requires the teacher, not only to know the subject being taught,\n)ut to know it so well that the subject can be adapted to the conditions in\nrhich the learner is found. The learner should be first in the mind of\nle teacher and the subject-matter second. Keep in mind that living\nluman beings are to be taught and not science subjects. Is this idea new ?\n[o, the great teachers of the past, both religious and secular, who stand\nmt in educational history had this conception of the relation of the subjectlatter to the learner.\nWhat should be taught in a general-science course given during freshlen year in high school, considering the age and training of students now\ncoming into our high schools? The answer is: \"Teach the student what\nle needs, what he can use.\" To do this the teacher must be a student of\n)ciology as well as of psychology and pedagogy, and must study the social\nenvironment of the students in order to. learn as much as possible about\nle students' experiences and the extent and nature of their observations\nmd previous school training. The previous school training that students\nlave received will largely determine the method which can be used at the\n)eginning of a general-science course or any other course.\nOf all the important things to which the general-science student should\n)e introduced, I suggest the following: (i) the students own health, (2)\nle health of the family from which the student comes, (3) the health of\nle community in which the school is located. These are to be treated\n)rincipally from the hygienic standpoint. The health of the family and\n;ommunity is reacht thru the health of the student. Some of the things\n^hich relate to health and are common to all communities are: habits of\nitudents in school, on the streets, in the home; the home, its heating,\nfighting, ventilation, and surroundings, including plants and animals;\ninitation in and around the home; cleanliness, nature, and kinds of food\n:onsumed; apparatus and chemicals used in the home; water-supply and\nits purity. These are to be studied in detail to the extent of their usefulness\nto the students concerned.\n\n"}
{"page": 724, "printed_page": "712", "text": "712\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[Science\n\nHow should we teach general science to prepare students for physics or\nchemistry or any other subject ? The answer is : *' Teach them in the same\nway as you would if they did not intend to take up a more advanst subject\n— in other words, \"Teach them how to live.\" We cannot teach a student\nhow to live by his cramming and parroting, but by drawing out and developing what capacities he has, that is, by leading the student to discover\nhimself or herself.\nA general principle of all teaching is to proceed from the known to the\nunknown. Every student has a quantity of experience which is sufficiently\nunderstood by him to be used as a foundation and also as a basis for helping\nhim to interpret new experiences and new facts. Every student also has a\nquantity of experience of which he understands a part. The part which\nhe does not understand must be interpreted in the light of those of his\nexperiences which are already clear and useful.\nThe laboratory work for freshmen should be largely outside of the\nschoolroom. It should be in the home to a maximum extent for two\nreasons: (i) the learner will see a practical value in the experiment and the\nexperiment itself will be practice; (2) it draws the parents into educational\nrelations with their children and the school. The habits of whole famiUes\ncan be changed by this method, thus producing a better environment in\nthe home of the student. This will go a great way in preparing a student\nfor future courses in physics and chemistry or in any other subject.\nNo laboratory experiment should be conducted in the school unless an\nimmediate application of the experience gained is made to life outside of\nthe school. Students, even Seniors, easily fall into the habit of thinking\nthat experiments have an end in themselves, and they fail to see the use of\nthe principles involved except to perform experiments. Students can easily\nconsume all their time learning the things for which they have immediate\nuse. Virtually they learn only those things which they use. When a\ngraduate starting in practical work says that he had to learn it all over\nagain, he means that he did not learn it while taking his course in school.\nBy a constant effort to teach only that which students can use immediately,\nand by teaching it thoroly enough so that they can use it, some mental\nprocesses are involved and developt which are very important, namely,\npower of selection, comparison, reason, and judgment.\nOne very important thing which I desire to impress upon your minds\nis to retain in general-science courses only the subject-matter which can be.\nadapted to the life of the student, and to do the same in physics and\nchemistry.\nLater courses in physics and chemistry will then contain only that\nwhich is of practical use to the student at the time the courses are pursued.\nLater teachers of physics and chemistry will also see that their subjects are\nfor the student's use, and not the students for the subjects. The first year\nof physics or chemistry in high school can be confined to the physics and\n\n"}
{"page": 725, "printed_page": "713", "text": "Department]\n\nBUREAU\n\nOF STANDARDS\n\nAND\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nRESEARCH\n\n713\n\nchemistry of the daily experiences of the students. This will mean the\nelimination of much that is now superficially taught in some schools, and the\naddition of material with which the student is already partially familiar.\nIf later courses in physics and chemistry become what I have suggested,\nthen how will general science be related to them ? The answer is at once\napparent, namely, that general science, when properly taught by adaptation\nto the life of the student, will have developt the student so that he will be\nable to think, judge, and apply information to new circumstances or\nconditions, and will have developt the habit of securing new information\nas needed to meet a new condition. These qualities in a student can be\nused in a home, on the street, on the farm, in studies pursued in the future,\n>r in remunerative labor. A student possessing these properties will never\nfail to be benefited by a course in physics and chemistry if these subjects\nire adapted to his capacity and immediate needs.\nWhat then should be the aim of the teacher of general science ? Only\nlis: Adapt the subject-matter to the student and teach him in such a\n^ay that he will be prepared for life now, and have no thought of preparing\nlim for any subject that is to follow, except the subject, \" To live, to live\n:ompletely, to live abundantly.\"\nLet this be the aim of physics and\nlemistry teachers also, and there will be unity, continuity, and cooperation\n>f the highest type.\n^HE RELATION OF THE BUREAU\nCAL RESEARCH AND TO THE\nFRANK\n\nOF STANDARDS TO PHYSITEACHING OF PHYSICS\n\nA. WOLFF, ASSOCIATE PHYSICIST, BUREAU\nWASHINGTON, D.C.\n\nOF STANDARDS,\n\nThe National Bureau of Standards was establisht by act of Congress\n1901, superseding the old Office of Standard Weights and Measures\n^hich, with its limited scope, its small force, and its very meager quarters\nid facilities, had been endeavoring to look after the matter of weights\nid measures in the greatly restricted sense which had been in vogue before\nlat time. It dealt with pounds, yards, gallons, bushels, etc., with their\niriegated multiples and submultiples; and with the corresponding standrds of the International Metric System, which had been legalized in 1866\n)r permissive use in the United States.\nIn 1894 the Chicago International Electrical Congress defined the\niternational electrical standards, and a few years later the Office of Standrd Weights and Measures made an attempt, in a necessarily limited way,\nestablish such standards.\nIn the fifteen years of its existence, the Bureau of Standards has grown\noccupy a very important position among the scientific bureaus of the\ngovernment. It now has over 400 employes of whom about two-thirds\nare engaged in scientific and technical work. The main laboratories are\n\n"}
{"page": 726, "printed_page": "714", "text": "714\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntScience\n\nlocated in the northwestern suburbs of Washington on a natural hill site\nof about sixteen acres.\nThere are, in addition, two branch laboratories outside of Washington,\none in Pittsburgh, Pa., for heavy-material testing and research work along\ncertain lines; the other at Northampton, Pa., for the testing of cement\nfurnisht to the government, principally for the Panama Canal.\nThe Bureau endeavors to make its work available to the general public\nthru four series of publications.\n1. The Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, now in its thirteenth\nvolume. In this the results of the purely scientific work are publisht.\nThe reprints of the individual papers, known as scientific papers, now\nnumber almost 300.\n2. Technological papers. These are not publisht in volume form,\nsince they include the results of work done along many technical hnes;\nthese papers are therefore of special interest to workers along corresponding\nlines. Of these, 79 have been issued ta date.\n3. Bureau circulars of information. These also are not publisht in\nvolume form. They are intended to furnish to the public information\nregarding various topics of general or special interest with which the\nBureau has to deal. Thus far 60 have been issued.\n4. Miscellaneous publications, including the annual reports of the\ndirector, weights and measures, conference reports, and so forth.\nWith the exception of the Bulletin^ for which a regular subscription\ncharge of one dollar per volume is made, the scientific papers, technological\npapers, and circulars are obtainable free on request by addressing the\nBureau, so long as the hmited stock lasts. All are enumerated in Circular 24, list of publications, where abstracts of each separate publication,\nto guide in making selections, may be found.\nTurning now directly to the subject assigned me, \"The Relation of\nthe Bureau of Standards to Research and Teaching,\" I think it can be\nasserted without dispute that the establishment of the Bureau of Standards\nhas had a far-reaching influence on the development of research work in\nphysics in colleges and in universities as well as in the industries. Boards\nof trustees and executive committees are not wiUing to appropriate funds\nfor buildings and equipment until they are convinst that they will serve a\nuseful purpose. The liberality of Congress in providing funds for research\nwork in physics, chemistry, and engineering has undoubtedly been of great\nweight in inducing college and university authorities to recognize the\nimportance of such work and to provide properly for it, and the same may\nbe said of industrial organizations. This influence has also made itself felt\nin greater liberality on the part of school authorities for better support to\nphysics teaching and laboratory work in the high schools.\nThe Bureau of Standards has also been of especial assistance to research\nworkers having need of precision measurements in their work. The\n\n"}
{"page": 727, "printed_page": "715", "text": "Department]\n\n!\n\nli\n\nBUREAU\n\nOF STANDARDS\n\nAND\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nRESEARCH\n\n715\n\nstandards in terms of which such measurements are made are referred\ndirectly or indirectly to the standards of the Bureau. In addition, the\nBureau undertakes to guarantee as far as possible an international basis by\nhaving its own standards checkt from time to time against those of foreign\nstandardizing institutions. The importance of international uniformity\nhas been recognized by us since the organization of the Bureau, and every\neffort has been made to bring about cooperation to this end.\nAnother way in which we have assisted research is thru arrangements\nmade to furnish materials of guaranteed purity or composition to investigators, who are thus enabled to check the accuracy of their apparatus\nand results. Among the materials furnisht may be mentioned standardanalyzed samples and pure materials for chemists, pure sugar for testing\npolariscopes, and sugar, naphthaline, and benzoic acid for combustion\nstandards. Arrangements have also been made to furnish samples of\npure metals for use in connection with the determination of fixt points in\nthe high-temperature scale.\nImportant contributions have been made in the direction of improved\nconstruction of secondary standards and measuring apparatus, and in the\ndevelopment of improved methods of measurement and testing.\nIn more recent years equally important contributions have been made\nto industrial research and technology. In this connection it might be well\nto consider the desirability of the cooperation of the Bureau of Standards\nand other scientific bureaus of the government with the various institutions\nwhich would be benefited if the Newlands bill now before Congress to aid\nindustrial research should become a law.\nThe Bureau of Standards endeavors to keep in touch with all the\ninterests it serves, and that includes, most of all, the research workers and\nthe investigators. This is done thru our publications, thru committee\nwork, thru correspondence, thru conference and consultation, and thru\nmeetings outside of Washington attended by members of the Bureau staff,\nand at Washington where an assembly room seating three hundred has\nbeen provided. Thus the regular spring meeting of the American Physical\nSociety is held at the Bureau, and from time to time we have entertained\nthe American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the American Electrochemical Society, and the local sections of various national scientific and\ntechnical societies, including the local branch of the Science Teachers\nAssociation.\nOn such occasions the laboratories are thrown open for inspection,\nand visitors are given the fullest opportunity for famiharizing themselves\nwith the work of the Bureau and with the methods and equipment\nemployed.\nAt various times we have entertained, as guests, scientific workers\nconnected with educational institutions who desired to conduct researches\non special lines, while on Sabbatical or on summer vacation.\n\nIk\n\n"}
{"page": 728, "printed_page": "716", "text": "7i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nEvery year we have received visits from a number of graduating classes\nof various institutions in the East.\nIn connection with one of the meetings of the Physical Society a\nmanufacturers' exhibit of scientific apparatus was arranged at the Bureau,\nthru which the manufacturer and the purchaser were brought together in\na way which was mutually beneficial.\nThe Bureau has been frequently called upon to assist in the revision\nof data included in physical tables, handbooks, textbooks, etc.\nThese are some of the ways in which we have tried to make ourselves\nuseful to science workers.\nThe subject may also be presented from a somewhat different standpoint. Each year the Bureau of Standards draws from the colleges and\nuniversities a considerable number of men to fill new positions and vacancies.\nNearly all entering the scientific and technical branches have just completed undergraduate courses, so that it is to their interest as also to the\ninterest of the service to encourage them to advance and to extend their\nknowledge. This is done thru journal meetings, general and special, held\nweekly and designed to keep these men, as well as the whole staff, in touch\nwith work done in the field of general physics and chemistry, thru the presentation ofthe results publisht in the scientific and technical journals; and\nalso thru weekly seminary meetings in which work on particular topics of\nspecial interest to the Bureau is collated and reviewed.\nIn addition, arrangements have been made for postgraduate courses,\ngiven outside of working hours, under the auspices of a committee composed\nof members of the Bureau staff. This work is arranged so that two years\nof a postgraduate course in physics may be completed in four or five\nyears, and already a number of universities have given credit for such\nwork as part requirement for the Doctor's degree. For the coming year\ncourses in *'Advanst Dynamics,\" \"Advanst Thermodynamics,\" and\n\"Electron Theory\" are announst, the instructors being drawn from the\nJohns Hopkins University, the Carnegie Institution, and the Bureau of\nStandards.\n\nROBERT\n\nAPPLIED\n\nSCIENCE\n\nH.\n\nSTATE\n\nSPAHR,\n\nIN THE COLLEGE\n\nDEPARTMENT\nOF\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nCOURSE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nEXTENSION,\n\nWith one or two exceptions science instruction has improved greatly\nduring the last decade and a half. One of these exceptions which is very\nfar from ideal is physics, a subject with which I am more famihar than\nwith any other subject in the science group, a subject frequently hated by\nboys and usually despised by girls in both high school and college. Many\ntimes I have observed the following attitude upon meeting girls in different\nparts of the country: \"Do you teach physics ?\"\n\n\"I hated that more than\n\n"}
{"page": 729, "printed_page": "717", "text": "Department]\n\n'\n\nAPPLIED\n\nSCIENCE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCOLLEGE\n\nCOURSE\n\n717\n\nanything I ever studied!\" — a most disastrous dash of ice-cold water upon\nany probable ambitions of a bachelor physics teacher.\nYet from experience I know that science, and especially physics, can\nbe made an interesting subject of study, not only for boys, but equally so\nfor girls. Any criticism which may be offered must of necessity cover\nespecially my early methods of teaching. Brought up, as most of you were,\nunder the \"learn by heart\" method, we were so thoroly drilled and redrilled\nthat I believe we could have given most of the so-called fundamental laws\nbackward as well as forward with Httle appreciation of what they meant,\nhow they applied to practical life, and how they workt in with other\nsubjects studied.\nThere is no doubt that any subject in science is both vitalized and\nhumanized for a large percentage of students by showing its application\nand usefulness in everyday life thru the use of \"man-sized\" illustrations.\nHow many of our educators forget that the adolescent mind cannot and\ndoes not associate the little sticks, toys, \"weightless beams,\" and \"frictionless pulleys\" used in a great many of our laboratories with real beams\nand working machines; I need not give you concrete illustrations. Then,\ntoo, with regard to the use of such units as the dyne, which is well enough\nfor scientific research, it would be interesting to know how many engineers\nmd other people in practical work have ever used it since they left the\nlassroom.\nWe must not forget that pure science likewise claims its place in the sun.\n>ur research people are extremely valuable; we must have them; but that\nloes not mean that the students should be forst to swallow bitter pills of\nleoretical \"dope\" when capsules of application seasoned with theory\nLn probably be prescribed, for a much longer period, rendering valuable\njsistance to the patient.\nI am not radical, for I believe that both applied and pure physics have\nrery important roles to play, with applied physics predominating for\n:tual usefulness and cash value to the student. All applied physics, and\nspecially that in the form of household physics for girls, is of very recent\n)rigin. To venture a personal allusion here. I had the pleasure of teaching\nclass of girls in household physics for university credit in 1911-12. With\nle exception of courses offered at the Kansas Agricultural and Mechanical\n'oUege, this was probably the first work of its kind recognized for credit\n)ward a degree in America. These girls may not now be able to explain\nle theory of cooling by evaporation; but I believe they do know, thru a\n^omely method, how to keep baby's bottle of milk cool and sweet on a hot\nly during an ice famine.\nI have attempted to enumerate some of the essential prerequisites\niiecessary to bring the high-school student to graduation with the ardent\nlesire to seek that which is beyond. Are the doors of our American\n)lleges and universities open to him, or are obstacles thrown across his\n\n"}
{"page": 730, "printed_page": "718", "text": "7i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n•\n\n[Science\n\npath in the form of grueling entrance examinations, and notifications to the\neffect that he has not pursued the proper courses of study in the high\nschool, that he must bring so many units of Greek, Latin, modern languages,\nhistory, EngHsh, mathematics, science, and perhaps others ? Concerning\nthe first of these obstacles, I am glad to say that as few as six of our colleges\nand universities do not accept certificates from recognized high schools in\nlieu of examinations, thus ehminating the worthless cramming process so\nwell known. A further step is that Yale, Harvard, and Princeton have\ndecided to modify their rigid entrance requirements and permit students to\nenter their freshman classes after passing an examination in four subjects\ninstead of the dozen or more heretofore designated. Certain of the specified\nunits for entrance, as well as requirements for graduation, in our institutions\nof higher learning, are rapidly disappearing, and more latitude is allowed.\nEspecially is this true of Latin and Greek. In 1895, 75 per cent of our\nleading colleges and universities required Greek for entrance to the A.B.\ndegree, while today this is true of only 5 per cent. In 1895, 97 per cent\nrequired Latin for entrance to the A.B. degree against 41 per cent today.\nIn more than 100 leading colleges and universities today neither Latin nor\nGreek is required for admission to a course leading to the A.B. degree.\nThe number of units required for entrance has not been decreast, but,\ncontraryivise, has been increast; in many cases practical, applied subjects\nare being recognized.\nThe high schools of our nation belong to all the people; therefore they\nshould be made to serve all the children of all the people. When we consider that the percentage of high-school students who go to college is very\nsmall, it is manifestly rank injustice to arrange the curricula to fit the few\nwho do go to college, since they are, as a rule, better prepared financially\nto buy bread and butter than the masses. Sometime ago President Eliot\nmade the following statement:\nIn a democratic nation spread over the continent, and in which secondary education\npresents local diversities, colleges and universities, if they would retain the national\ncharacter and influence, must be careful not to offer unnecessary obstacles to the admission\nof young men of adequate tho diversified preUminary training.\n\nTrue, the colleges have been slow to adjust entrance requirements,\nwhich in turn have had a wonderful effect upon the curricula of our high\nschools. Entrance by certificate practically eliminates the problem of any\ncollege's dictating to the high school just how and what shall be taught in\npreparatory physics so long as the proper time and study have been\nexpended. No man, no school, no college, has a divine monopoly of the\ncontents of any subject. Even where entrance examinations are yet\nrequired there is usually enough latitude to permit offering physics as an\nelective. Colleges and universities are coming to reaUze the tremendous\nvalue of applied physics. Every year brings forth many more announcements of practical applied courses in physics for both boys and girls from\n\n"}
{"page": 731, "printed_page": "719", "text": "Department]\n\nLOCAL\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nAND\n\nSCIENCE\n\nTEACHING\n\n719\n\nmany of our leading institutions. I know of nothing more needed, more\nuseful, than a practical, humanized course in physics for girls. Call it\n\"household physics\" if you like. Statistics bear out the contention that\nan interested student completing a practical applied course in physics will\ndo just as well, and many times better, when admitted to more advanst\nwork than when he has passively memorized the laws of pure theoretical\nphysics. A person thinks at his best when he is working out something in\nwhich he is vitally interested.\nA serious obstacle which must be overcome is the attitude of some of\nour college and university professors. They are so thoroly imbued with a\npurely theoretical spirit as almost to forget that there is a practical side.\nTheir ideal of a physics 'student is one who can derive formula after formula\nwith no appreciation or thought of use in practice. In fact, I have\nknown one (and there may be others) who estimated the worth of the\nstudent by his ability to derive and memorize formulas. I have heard\nhim remark, \"That girl is no good,\" basing his judgment entirely upon\nher physics record, even if she was a star student in other subjects.\nTransformation from the purely theoretical to the more practical is surely\ncoming.\nIt only remains to hasten the day.\nI offer, also, the following constructive suggestions :\nAdequate texts in applied physics must be obtained.\nBetter-qualified teachers are necessary to replace those who teach their\nstudents that acceleration exprest in centimeters per second per second is\nan error in printing.\nMethods of presentation should be improved. The teacher must discard his machine-like work and instead exhibit interest and enthusiasm\nwhich will be contagious.\nThe college instructor, where he has not seen the practical side, must\nbe converted to the dual possibilities of applied and pure physics.\n\nLOCAL\n\nINDUSTRIES AS A SOURCE OF ILLUSTRATIVE\nMATERIAL FOR SCIENCE TEACHING\n\nCLARENCE M. HALL, CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, SPRINGFIELD, MASS.\n\nThe necessity for using illustrative material in science teaching is\nbeyond question, but the value of such material is much enhanst if it be\ndrawn from the environment of the pupil. It is the purpose of this paper\nto indicate briefly some of the ways in which such material can be obtained\nand how it can be used in the classroom.\nThe city in which this work is being done is a thriving industrial community of some 100,000 inhabitants, with a fine public spirit. Its manufacturers are almost without exception very willing to cooperate with the\nschools to make the science work more valuable to the community, and to\n\n"}
{"page": 732, "printed_page": "720", "text": "720\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Science\n\nthis end they are glad to contribute the pieces of material and the information about them. The city directory will be found useful in getting a list\nof industrial plants to which to apply for material. The Board of Trade\nalso can be relied upon to furnish other information and to help in getting\nspecial sets of parts.\nVarious ways of using specimens will doubtless occur to many of you,\nbut we have found it convenient to mount them upon boards about 2 feet\nby 3 feet, having a green burlap background, and to cover them with glass\nbefore hanging them upon the walls of the laboratory. Before class, any\nexhibit is taken from the wall whenever we wish to call particular attention\nto it, for example, during some demonstration period. In the meantime\nthey remain in the laboratory performing the function of silent educators\nin applied science. All are carefully labeled, and often the business card\nof the donor appears, which seems unobjectionable, as the advertising value\nto the manufacturer is rather small. It is, moreover, a distinct advantage\nto have pupils familiar with the names and locations of some of the prominent industries of their native city. Photographs of interiors of local\nplants such as the electric-lighting station, and of interesting local physiographic features, are excellent, as are also specimens of the minerals in\nthe vicinity. Thru pupils who have relatives engaged along industrial\nlines, it is often possible to get worth-while parts illustrating processes.\nSince much of the illustrative value of industrial plants consists in the\nactual operations there conducted, it is advisable to make inspection trips\nto them. To accomplish this with the science classes on definite afternoon\nassignments has been found difficult; but the difficulty has, to some\nextent, been overcome by organizing a science club called the \"Cosmos\nClub,\" which makes trips every two weeks to industrial plants, to places\nof geological interest in the vicinity, and occasionally spends an evening\nat the 6-inch telescope in our high-school observatory. The club is addrest\nfrom time to time by the municipal milk-inspector, the sealer of weights\nand measures, and city engineers.\nIn closing let me sum up briefly the advantages of this method:\n1. The material is inexpensive.\n2. It adds much interest to the work in science.\n3. Pupils gain some knowledge of the industries of their own city.\n4. The collection of these materials brings the teacher into touch with\nmen in industrial lines, and he gains thereby a first-hand knowledge of\nmany applications which will increase his efficiency as a teacher of science.\nDISCUSSION\nRaymond B. Brownlee, Stuyvesant High School, New York, N.Y. — The question\nof the bearing of general science on later courses in physical science seems to me to be\none of interrelation. There are several aims possible in general science. One, which I\nbelieve is common to all courses, is the awakening and crystallizing of interest in science,\n\n"}
{"page": 733, "printed_page": "721", "text": "Departmentl\n\nLOCAL\n\nINDUSTRIES\n\nAND\n\nSCIENCE\n\nTEACHING\n\n721\n\nand the development of powers of scientific observation. Another is the presentation\nof an elementary body of scientific instruction reasonably complete in itself — essentially\na cultural aim. The preponderance of physiography in one of the books mentioned is\nreally a revival of the old-fashioned physical geography of our own school days, as opposed\nto first-year biology. This may be of particular value in cities and towns of such size\nand situation that physiographic features may be studied conveniently in the surrounding\ncountry. Under these circumstances such a course may be made to yield real scientific\ntraining in addition to its undoubted cultural value.\nTwo other aims are: (i) to furnish the pupil with a scientific basis of principles and\nfacts for the interpretation of his everyday experiences, and (2) to add science experiences\nas a foundation for future science study. The working out of these latter purposes is\nclosely knit with the science courses which are to follow in the curriculum. The addition\nand interpretation of science experiences is particularly necessary for the city boy and girl.\nThe Stuyvesant High School is a technical high school, whose graduates chiefly enter\nthe engineering field, either directly, or after taking engineering degrees at college. For\nthree years of the course a third of the time is devoted to mechanics-arts work in shop\nand draughting room.\nThe student body is so large as to require double sessions.\nWe have settled on five periods of elementary physical science for a group of twelve\nclasses in the first term. In the second term all boys take either two or three periods\nin practical physiology, including personal hygiene, infection and its prevention, foods,\nand kindred topics.\nThe pupils who take elementary physical science have two double periods and one\nle period each week for twenty weeks.\nThis arrangement of periods is due to the fact\nthat for these boys science takes the place of joinery. Two demonstrations are given\nleach week, one in physics and the other in chemistry, both considered particularly from\n[the applied point of view. Each demonstration occupies about half of a double period\nnd the remaining time is devoted to discussion of the experiments and the application\nf the facts and principles involved.\nWe keep in mind that many of the boys will drop\ny the wayside before the more formal study of physics and chemistry in later terms.\nThe topics in physics include properties of matter — impenetrability, ductility,\nalleability, tenacity, surface phenomena in liquids, capillarity.\nFrom two to three\neeks are given to this work. It is followed by the hydraulic press, Archimedes principle\nf flotation, atmospheric pressure, pumps and siphon, simple machines, and centrifugal\n:orce. In heat the experiments include various methods of producing heat, expansion,\neat transmission, vacuum bottle and fireless cooker, heat changes in evaporation,\nlution, crystallization, freezing mixtures.\nThe remaining topics are magnetism,\nilectromagnets and their application, heating and chemical effects of electricity.\nIn chemistry the following topics are given: water and solution, chemical combination\nd decomposition, replacement, acids and bases, conditions for burning, liquid fuels,\nrticularly the behavior of gasolene, gas flames and the Bunsen burner, blast lamps\nd blowpipes, oil lamps, gas lights, acetylene generators and burners, products of comustion and extinguishing fires. Hard water is made and softened, alloys made, prolective coverings applied to metals, and solid, liquid, and scouring soaps made.\nThe effect on the boys of introducing elementary physical science has been to arouse\neater enthusiasm for science and to increase their power in attacking the later courses,\nother very important result is that of attracting to the school various boys who already\nve a scientific bent. Many boys stay in school for the later courses who might otherhave dropt out; and boys who are obliged to go to work after two or three terms\nave had at least one term of physical science.\nThe introduction of general science in the first year should not, ih my opinion,\nmaterially alter the content of the later courses, altho it will somewhat shift the emphasis\non particular topics and permit a considerable enrichment of the course as a whole.\nLaboratory work should be left to the later courses in most instances.\n\nlb\n\n"}
{"page": 734, "printed_page": "722", "text": "722\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Science\n\nThe effect of the later courses in physics and chemistry on general science then is to\ndetermine the selection of material and the method of presentation, so that all the work\nwill be adapted to needs of the students concerned. The effect of the general science on\nthe later courses is to stimulate scientific interest and enthusiasm, to inculcate scientific\nhabits of observation and thinking, and to develop scientific power.\n\nTHE CONSERVATION\nLEON\n\nW.\n\nGOLDRICH,\n\nOF NATURAL\nEDUCATION\n\nPRINCIPAL, PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nRESOURCES\nNO.\n\nTHRU\n\n62, MANHATTAN,\n\nN.Y.\n\nThe greatest problem of the industrial and commercial world today is\nto find ways and means for ehminating all forms of waste. Chemists,\nnaturalists, and all other scientists are devoting their full attention to the\ntransformation of hitherto so-called \"waste products\" into the rich\nby-products of industries. Modern efficiency demands that all human\nand natural resources shall be either conserved, or transformed to the best\nuses for present and future generations. Modern education must train\nfor efficiency in life; and unless the content and the methods of education\nare so organized as to bring about maximum results with a minimum\nwaste of time and energy, the educator's work will be considered a failure,\njudged by the standards of our twentieth-century social needs.\nWe can no longer separate the welfare of society from the welfare of\nthe individual. Social demands, social needs, and social progress must\nbe recognized in the curriculum of our schools and colleges. The content\nof our courses of study must be fraught with social purposes, and the\ngreatest social need of America today is the conservation of our natural and\nhuman resources. The teacher in our American schools has, therefore,\nthe definite task of teaching the young the absolute necessity of eliminating\nall forms of waste in material, in time, in energy; of securing the greatest\nvalue from things now called \"wasteful\"; and of conserving for himself\nand for others those natural resources which are God-given.\nOur country has two kinds of enemies — those from within and those\nfrom without. To combat successfully the enemy from within, we need\nneither forts nor battleships, but an army of teacher conservators. Every\nschoolhouse must be a garrison and a recruiting station to aid in a campaign\nof conservation. America must be taught that society has an economic\nfoundation as well as an institutional foundation; that our economic\nfoundation consists of our natural resources, and is just as real and vital\nto the development and progress of our national life as are the institutional\nfoundations composed of constitutional laws and charters. If the natural\nfoundation be destroyed, the one reared by man will surely fall.\nNotwithstanding all the efforts of all the defenders of the forests and\nthe wild life already in the field, notwithstanding all the national and\nstate laws that have been enacted, and notwithstanding all the forest\n\n"}
{"page": 735, "printed_page": "723", "text": "Department)\n\nCONSERVATION\n\nTHRU\n\nEDUCATION\n\n723\n\nreservations and wild-life refuges that have been created, our forests and\nwild birds and quadrupeds are vanishing. Forests and wild life must have\nmore friends if they are to be saved from complete extermination. Speed\nis a factor of prime importance in the conservation of all our animate\nresources.\nIn view of the manifold dangers now threatening the very existence of\nour wild life and forests, it now becomes the duty of all educators to enter\nactively and permanently into the practical work of wild-life and forest\nprotection and increase.\nNatural-history teaching in the classroom is of great importance and\nvalue, but the teacher must now seek to carry the work afield into the\nhaunts of wild life and wild-life destroyers, into legislative halls, and even\ninto the courts.\nThe ethics of wild-life protection and the legitimate pursuit of game\nshould be taught by every teacher in America; because thru faulty ethics,\nor none at all, millions of game birds and thousands of game mammals\nhave been, and now are, being killed contrary to the principles that should\ngovern all sport with the shotgun and rifle. The enormous value of insectivorous birds to agriculture, horticulture, and forestry must be taught in\nevery school, college, and university in America; and every nature-study\nteacher should accept this duty as one of paramount importance.\nFour-fifths of all the forests in the country are privately owned. Only\none-fifth is owned by the public. Forests cannot persist without protection\nand management. Private forests are not protected and managed. They\nare slowly but surely deteriorating, and in many places the noble species\nof the past are giving way to culls and weeds, much the same as our former\nrich bird life is yielding to the English sparrow.\nThe enemies that are destroying the forests may be classified in the\norder of their destructiveness as follows :\n1. The sportsmen, heedless boys, and others who intentionally or\nthoughtlessly set fires and thus help to destroy each year over fifty million\ndollars' worth of forest property in this country.\n2. The lack of effective forest-fire laws in many states and the want of\n[public support in the execution of the laws that we now have.\n3. The lack of public appropriations properly to organize and protect\n[all forest property from fire.\n4. The cutting of the best timber from our private forests without\nregard for the crop that is to follow, altho present gains may be followed\nby future losses.\n5. Unjust tax laws which yearly levy a tribute on all standing timber,\nIthus forcing the owners to cut it before its economic maturity.\n6. The vast hoards of animal and plant parasites which make rapid\nand increasing inroads on all kinds of trees as soon as the forest is disturbed byman.\n\n"}
{"page": 736, "printed_page": "724", "text": "724\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\n7. The great lack of public education regarding the economic, recreational, and esthetic value of forests and how they can be conserved.\nThe enemies of wild life may be classified in the order of their destructiveness as follows:\n1. All wild-bird and quadruped-hunters who shoot eagerly and persistently, lawfully and unlawfully. In the United States each year about\nthree million armed men take the field, and most of them are licenst. In\n19 1 5 Pennsylvania turned out over 300,000, and New York over 125,000,\nlicensed hunters.\n2. The lack of really adequate game laws and law-enforcement thruout\nfully one-half the entire South from Texas to Maryland.\n3. The increase of hunting by negroes and poor whites in the South\nwho kill all kinds of birds for food, including our most valuable insectivorous birds; also boys both in the South and the North who kill song\nbirds indiscriminately for practice in shooting with .22-caliber rifles.\n4. The destruction of insectivorous birds for food by Italians, Hungarians, Poles, and other aliens.\n5. The financial impossibility of putting into any state a sufficient\nnumber of state game wardens to protect adequately all the wild h*fe in\nits haunts.\n6. In many localities all over the United States there exists traditional contempt for game laws and game wardens, which leads judges\nand juries to side with the law breakers and bring the wild-life laws into\nperpetual contempt — a very great evil.\n7. The destruction of cover and wild food for birds and quadrupeds,\nwhich results in easy slaughter by sportsmen in summer, and death by\nstarvation and freezing in winter.\n8. The stubborn unwillingness of sportsmen to stop hunting when their\nfavorite game approaches extermination, and to accord it a long closed\nseason.\n9. Finally, and worst of all, the almost entire absence of a code of\nethics calculated to give the wild creatures a square deal and save species\nfrom annihilation.\nThe following must be accepted and become a part of the living principles ofall American citizens:\n1. The forests and wild life of today are not ours to do with as we\nplease, and if we are honest we cannot ignore the rights of posterity to a\njust share of our natural resources.\n2. The extermination of a species, be it plant or animal, is a crime.\nMan never yet has added a single new species to the wild life of the world ;\nbut he has annihilated many.\n3. Every citizen of the state has a certain proprietary right in every\nliving wild creature within that state; now it is the duty of the citizen to\nconserve his property and see to it that it is not wastefuUy and wantonly\n\n"}
{"page": 737, "printed_page": "725", "text": "Department!\n\nCONSERVATION\n\nTHRU\n\nEDUCATION\n\n725\n\nexterminated. The sportsmen do not own the game of the country anymore than they own the schools. The state and the nation accord citizens\nthe privilege of hunting; and that privilege can be amended, or entirely\ntaken away, at any time.\n4. The teaching of the conservation of forests and wild life to children,\nand to adults also, has a strong and direct tendency toward making better\ncitizens thru the principles of justice, mercy, economy of resources, and\ngeneral square dealing. The man or boy who has no regard for the forests\nnor for the rights of wild life easily ignores the rights of man and becomes\na bad citizen. The boy who is cruel to wild creatures easily falls into still\nmore evil ways and becomes a criminal.\nThe teachers of America have in their keeping a tremendous educational force which they can exert in behaK of forests and wild life. Will\nthey use it ? This force can be exercised in every state, county, town, and\nvillage in one or more of the following ways :\n1. Teach children the great recreational and esthetic value of trees,\nand how respect and love for them with their great, overarching crowns\nand long, straight stems make for a better and more wholesome life.\n2. Teach children the great companionship value of the wild birds and\nquadrupeds, how interesting they are in their ways, and how much their\nways and needs are like those of human beings. Give each species a\npersonahty, as Thornton W. Burgess does in his Bedtime Stories.\n3. Teach children the great economic value of the forest, the place\nthat it holds in our national economy, and the necessity for conserving it in\norder that future generations may have wood and all the other products\nthat the forest produces.\n4. Teach children the great economic value of birds, and what great\nlosses by destructive insects are entailed upon our fruit, grain, vegetables,\nand trees by the destruction of our insect-eating birds.\n5. Teach all children to respect the forest and the rights of wild\ncreatures. Teach all boys the ethics of true sportsmanship, and what it\nmeans to hunt like a gentleman — to give the game a fair chance for its\nlife, and not to use unfair weapons. Also teach that it is the duty of the\ntrue sportsman to stop shooting when game becomes scarce, no matter\nwhether the law requires it or not.\n6. Teach children, and all men, the absolute duty to respect all forests\nand wild-life laws and obey them, and also aid in enforcing these laws, both\nby precept and example. Much needs to be said on this point, even to\njudges and juries.\nThe National Educators Conservation Society has been organized to\nachieve these ends. The creed of the society is \" Our American institutions\nare man-made; our natural resources are God-given; the perpetuation of\nthe former depends upon the conservation of the latter.\" The object of\nthe society is, \"to promote the active protection and increase of wild life\n\n"}
{"page": 738, "printed_page": "726", "text": "726\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nand forests thru the professional educators of America.\"\nThe society is\nnow working definitely for:\n1. Increase in the area of publicly owned forests until at least 50 per\ncent of all the forests of the country on non-agricultural land is so\nowned.\n2. Perpetual closed seasons for all species of wild life now threatened\nwith extermination.\n3. The estabUshment of communal forests accessible to every important\ncity and town in the United States.\n4. The establishment of publicly-owned wild Ufe refuges in every state\nin the United States where species now threatened with extermination can\nfind food and protection.\n5. The preservation of public and private forests from fire and destructive lumbering, and the encouragement of natural reproduction by natural\nmeans, and also by seeding and planting.\n6. The prevention of the killing of insectivorous birds for food and of\nall birds for millinery purposes; the stopping of the sale of wild game; the\nstopping of spring and late winter shooting, and the prevention of the use\nof automatic guns in hunting.\n7. The protection of all useful plants and animals from extermination.\nWe ask all teachers of America to join this society and help in the\ndefinite constructive work of conservation thru education.\nSTUDYING\nW. A. MURRILL, ASSISTANT\n\nFUNGI AS A PASTIME\n{Illustrated)\nDIRECTOR, NEW YORK\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nBOTANICAL\n\nGARDEN,\n\nIt is a recognized principle that man must have two occupations —\none for a living and one for enjoyment — and the enjoyment must not be\nentirely physical; the mind needs a change as well as the body. Walk\nin the woods, but have an object. And what could be more fascinating\nthan to study the frail, mysterious, highly colored, ephemeral forms found\namong the fungi! The popular and widespread interest in mushrooms of\nall kinds is almost phenomenal, and this is due, not only to the use of\ncertain kinds for food, but also to the beauty of their form and color and\nthe supposed mystery surrounding their origin and growth.\nEver since \"Lactaria deliciosa\" was painted on the wall of a house in\nPompeii, men and women have enjoyed hunting mushrooms and have\ngradually had their eyes opened to the wonderful variety, beauty, and\nadaptation shown in this humble part of Nature's domain. The use of\nmushrooms for food in this country is as yet very limited, being confined\nchiefly to our foreign-born population; and even in New York City many\nexcellent kinds go to waste every season.\n\n"}
{"page": 739, "printed_page": "727", "text": "Department!\n\nSTUDYING\n\nFUNGI\n\nAS A PASTIME\n\n727\n\nAll knowledge regarding the edible and poisonous properties of mushrooms isbased on experiments, either intentional or unintentional. The\nonly safe rule is to confine oneself to known edible forms until others are\nproved harmless. If the person is a beginner, he is like an explorer in a\nnew country with an abundance of attractive fruit near at hand, which\nmay be good or may be rank poison; he cannot determine unless he tries\nit, or unless some native, who has learned from his own and others' experience, shares his knowledge with him.\nThe writer on this subject undertakes a very responsible task, owing\nto the vast number of similar forms among the mushrooms which are distinguisht with difficulty by those not accustomed to fine distinctions;\nbut it should be possible with the aid of colored figures to describe a few\nstriking kinds in such a way that no serious mistakes will be made. If one\nknows the kinds that are perfectly harmless and as many as possible of the\nharmful kinds, he should be reasonably safe in collecting fungi for food.\nAs the use of mushrooms in this country for food becomes more general,\nthe practical importance of this subject will be vastly increast, and it may\nbe possible to discover perfect antidotes or methods of treatment which\nwill largely overcome the effects of deadly species. This would be a great\nboon even at the present time, and there will always be children and ignorant persons to rescue from the results of their mistakes. Another very\ninteresting field, both theoretical and practical in its scope, is the use of\nthese poisons in minute quantities as medicines, as has been done with so\nmany of the substances extracted from poisonous species of flowering plants,\nand even from rattlesnakes and other animals. Thus far, only one of them,\nthe alkaloid muscarine, has been so used.\nObserve, study, describe, photograph or paint, dry, label, preserve the\nspecimens, and consult your collection from year to year and show it to\nyour friends. Hardly any other subject can equal this in fascination, both\nfor yourself and for your neighbors. Mushroom delights are not limited\nto summer, but when the winter comes, the fungi are still with us, tho in\nwholly different, tougher forms able to withstand the roughest weather.\nIn the autumn and winter the bracket fungi flourish and may be found\nin abundance on trunks of trees and on dead wood of all kinds. These\nare mostly polypores with the fruiting surface composed of tubes, and are\nvery destructive to trees and timber. Some of them, however, are edible\nwhen young, one is medicinal, and several supply tinder. The Romans\nobtained tinder from fomes and lighted it by rubbing two sticks together.\nLater, flint and steel were used to make the spark. Before matches were\ninvented, the tinder box was in every home. Punk is still used by small\nboys on the Fourth of July.\nPolypores are very easily collected and preserved and they largely\nretain their character when dried — which makes them excellent objects\nfor class study during the winter months.\nMany of them, also, remain\n\n"}
{"page": 740, "printed_page": "728", "text": "728\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Science\n\nin place during the winter in perfect condition for collecting. As a group,\nthey lend themselves remarkably well to studies in gross and minute\nanatomy, variation, adaptation, and injurious effects on trees and structural timbers.\nDISCUSSION\nM. C. Leonard, Dickinson High School, Jersey City, N.J. — ^Like the textbook of\ntoday, the elementary-science text of tomorrow will be broad in scope and will seek to\narticulate school work with contemporary life, but it will possess several additional\nvirtues.\nEducators may produce a better book by following a more rational plan in producing\nit. I submit that the logical mode of procedure in constructing a textbook of the first\norder would be (i) to have experts draw up plans and specifications, somewhat as for a\nschool building; (2) to have the plans past upon by a second body of experts representing\na wider constituency; (3) to produce the manuscript; (4) to have the manuscript revised\nagain, if necessary, to make it meet the specifications; (5) acceptance and publication.\nA committee of educators, proceeding along these lines for a few years, should bring\nforth a book far superior to any science text that has ever appeared in this country — one\nedition adapted to the city and another to the rural high school.\nIn the brief space allotted to this paper, we can discuss but four specifications for\nsuch a book:\n1. The ideal text will not be merely a reading-book in science; it should be more than\na series of declarative sentences, interspersed with cuts. It must have a rather elaborate\nstructure, and should specifically provide for those intellectual processes, omitting which,\ninformation fails to become science. It must recognize the adolescent psychology of\nHall and Harris, and contain many type exercises for begetting those mental processes\nwhich are appropriate to boys and girls in their early teens. It will contain many classification exercises, logical definitions, and simple reasoning exercises based upon numerous\nconcrete illustrations by which the teacher may lead pupils by induction to simple conclusions. The authors of this text will seek to build brains, as well as to inform the\nmind.\n2. Under the theory that admiration for the noble traits of martyrs is a characterbuilder, the ideal text will contain more abundant material on the heroes of science, as\nrecommended in the report of our committee.\n3. The future text will provide for correlation with English, and will not be written\nentirely in prose, but will contain many appropriate passages of poetry and references to\nmany more, recognizing that no natural object yields up its highest value to us until we\nview it in its literary or symbolic aspect. Bryant's \"To a Waterfowl\" suggests nature's\ndevice for protecting the bird of passage from cold while it is making its sooo-mile journey\nthru the thin, cold atmosphere \"from the ice-bound desolate northern bays to the shores\nof tropical islands.\"\nAnd as a survey of the sweep of evolutionary processes during geological time, let\nthe book contain two or three stanzas of William H. Carruth's poem entitled \"Each in\nHis Own Tongue,\" the first stanza of which reads:\nA fire mist and a planet, —\nA crystal and a cell, —\nA jellyfish and a saurian,\nAnd caves where the cave-men dwell;\nThen a sense of law and beauty,\nAnd a face turned from the clod, —\nSome call it Evolution,\nAnd others call it God.\n\n"}
{"page": 741, "printed_page": "729", "text": "Department)\n\nMETHOD\n\nIN SCIENCE-TEACHING\n\n729\n\nLet us believe that the introduction of short passages of real poetry at appropriate\npoints, and the treatment of such passages as wholes, will cultivate a taste for good\nliterature as surely as the microscopic dissection and linguistic manicuring so common in\nhigh-school classes in English.\n4. The ideal text will emphasize some of the more obvious evidences that the world\nwe live in is not a chance world, but a thought-out world, and thus will prepare the mind\nof the learner for that most hopeful, most rational theory of the universe — theistic evolution— the theory so clearly set forth in the writings of John Fiske. It is a shame that\nteachers should plant seeds of atheism and agnosticism in the plastic minds of youths by\nremaining silent on great philosophical questions. The textbook should oblige the\nteacher to reveal his deeper thought about the scheme of the universe, and to lead boys\nand girls to see that the law of \"conservation of energy\" is an argument for immortality.\n\nMETHOD\nJOHN DEWEY,\n\nPROFESSOR\n\nIN SCIENCE-TEACHING\nOF PHILOSOPHY,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\n\"Method\" means a way to a result, a means to an end, a path to a\ngoal. Method therefore varies with the end to be reacht. Without a\nclear notion of the end, we cannot proceed intelligently upon the journey\ntoward it. When we try to state the end of science-teaching, we are,\nhowever, likely to find ourselves involved in such vague generalities that\nall might use the same words and yet differ radically about the actual\nmethod of procedure. It is therefore only to make clear my own point of\napproach and not to foreclose discussion that I say that the end of scienceteaching is to make us aware what constitutes the most effective use of\nmind, of intelligence; to give us a working sense of the real nature of\nknowledge, of sound knowledge as distinct from mere guesswork, opinion,\ndogmatic belief, or whatever. Obviously science is not only knowledge,\nbut it is knowledge at its best, knowledge in its tested and surest form.\nEducationally, then, what differentiates its value from that of other\nknowledge is precisely this superior quaUty. Unless it is so taught that\nstudents acquire a realizing sense of what gives it its superiority, something\nis lost. If we ask how this superior type of knowledge came into existence,\nwe find that men have been working their minds more or less effectively for\nmany thousand years, and that for a very long time it was less, rather than\nmore, effectively. But the most efficient ways of using or working intelligence have gradually been selected and cultivated. And science as a\npersonal power and resource is an equipment of those found most successful, most effective. A man may have a great deal of cultivation, a great\ndeal of information, correct information at that, about things, but if he\nhas never made a first-hand acquaintance at some point with scientific\nways of dealing with a subject-matter, he has no sure way' of telling the\ndifference between all-wool knowledge and shoddy goods. He has no sure\nway of knowing how, or when, he is using his mental powers most capably\n\n"}
{"page": 742, "printed_page": "730", "text": "730\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nand fruitfully. The ability to detect the genuine in our beliefs and ideas,\nthe ability to control one's mind to its own best working is a very precious\nthing. Hence the rightful place of science in education is a fundamental\none, and it is correspondingly important to see to it that methods of teaching\nare such as to fulfil its true purpose.\nWhen we pass from this generality, it seems to me that the first need is\nto discriminate certain stages in the educational development of science.\nThe first stage belongs, of necessity, to the elementary school; for I do not\nthink that any amount of pains and ability in the high school can make up\nfor a wrong start, or even a failure to get the right start, in the grades.\nThis is contrary in appearance to a common assertion of secondary teachers,\nthat they prefer that their pupils come to them without any science instruction at all — which is paralleled by a similar statement on the part of college\nteachers. I think the inconsistency is only in appearance. The remark is\nreally proof of the necessity of a right start. I do not believe that the\nproblem of successful science will be met until teachers in college and high\nschool exchange experience with those in the elementary school, and all\ntake a mutual interest in one another's work.\nAt this stage the purpose should be to give a first-hand acquaintance\nwith a fair area of natural facts of such a kind as to arouse interest in\nthe discovery of causes, dynamic processes, operating forces. I would\nemphasize the phrase **of such a kind.\" I think the chief defect, upon\nthe whole, in our present elementary nature-study is that, while it may\narouse a certain interest in observation and accumulate a certain store of\ninformation, it is too static, and hence too miscellaneous. By \"static\" I\nmean that observation is not directed to some active process. No amount\nof information of this sort can supply even a background for science. Space,\nhowever, forbids my dwelling upon this point, and its underlying point can\nperhaps be brought out by reference to something which lies within the\nhigh-school program, namely, so-called ' ' general science. ' ' Like the naturestudy movement, the tendency to general science courses is animated by a\npraiseworthy desire to get away from the specialized technicalities of a\nhighly matured science. I will not say that these reduce themselves, for\nthe average beginning student, to mere acquisition of a vocabulary, tho\nthere is danger of this. But, except with the few, this science of the\naccomplisht specialist remains, even when fairly well understood, just an\nisolated thing, a thing of a world superadded to the everyday world, when\nit ought to be an enlightening and an intellectual control of the everyday\nworld.\nAs an attempt to get back nearer to the world in which the pupil lives,\nand away from a world which exists only for the scientist, the generalscience tendency has, as I have just said, its justification. But I have an\nimpression that in practice it may mean two quite different things. It\nmay take its departure from sciences which are already differentiated, and\n\n"}
{"page": 743, "printed_page": "731", "text": "Department]\n\nMETHOD\n\nIN SCIENCE-TEACHING\n\n731\n\nsimply pick out pieces from them, some from physics, some from chemistry,\nsome from physiography, some from botany, etc., and out of this varied\nselection form something to serve as an introduction to sciences in a more\nspecialized form. Now this method I believe to be of the static type\nafter all. It gives scope for variety and adaptation, and will work with\nthe right teacher. But, urged as a general movement, I believe it retains\nthe essential mistake of any method which begins with scientific knowledge\nin its already-made form, while in addition it lends itseU very easily to\nscrappy and superficial work, and even to a distaste for the continued and\nserious thinking necessary to a real mastery of science.\nGeneral science may, however, have another meaning. It may mean\nthat a person who is himself an expert in scientific knowledge forgets for\nthe time being the conventional divisions of the sciences and puts himself\nat the standpoint of pupils' experience of natural forces, together with their\nordinary useful applications. He does not, however, forget the scientific\npossibilities of these experiences, nor does he forget that there is an order\nof relative importance in scientific principles — that is to say, that some are\nmore fundamental, some necessary in order to understand others, and thus\nmore fruitful and ramifying.\nWhile, then, he may take his subject-matter from any of the ordinary\nand more familiar materials of daily life, he does not allow that material,\nin its obvious and superficial form, to dictate to him the nature of the\nsubsequent study. It may be varnish, or cleansers, or bleachers, or a\ngasoline engine. But he never for a moment allows in his educational\nplanning that thing to become the end of study; when he does, we have\nsimply the wrong kind of elementary nature-study over again. To him,\nas a teacher, the material is simply a means, a tool, a road. It is a way of\ngetting at some process of nature's activity which is widely exemplified in\nother phenomena, and which, when graspt, will render them more significant\nand more intelligible. While the student's attention may remain, so far\nas his conscious interest is concerned, upon the phenomena directly in\nfront of him, it is the teacher's duty to see that he gets below the surface\nto the perception of whatever is scientifically in the experience. This\nneed not be labeled a principle or law — in fact, if it is so labeled at first,\nthe name \"principle\" or \"law\" will be merely a label. But if further\nmaterial is selected so that what the pupil got hold of before serves as a\nmeans of intellectual approach and understanding, it becomes a principle\nor law for him: a law of his own thinking and inquiries, a standpoint from\nwhich he surveys facts and attempts to reduce them to order.\nThis same method of procedure means, of course, that choice is made\nin fixing the kind of familiar material with which one sets out. The\ninterests and occupations of the environment will play a part. A farming\nenvironment would tend to provide one point of departure, a district in\nwhich electric apparatus were made, another, a railway center a third,\n\n"}
{"page": 744, "printed_page": "732", "text": "732\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nand so on. But in each case there will always be room for choice between\nmaterial which tends to begin and end in itself, and that from which something may be easily extracted which will give pupils a momentum to\nother things.\nMy point may perhaps be stated by saying that the right course lies\nbetween two erroneous courses. One method is the scrappy one of picking\nup isolated materials just because they happen to be familiar objects\nwithin the pupil's experience, and of merely extending and deepening the\nrange of the pupil's famiUarity, and then passing on to something else.\nNo amount of this process will make an introduction to science, to say\nnothing of science, for an introduction leads or draws into a subject, while\nthe scrappy method never, save by accident, gets the pupil within range of\nthe problems and explanatory methods of science. The other erroneous\ncourse is taken when the teacher's imagination is so Hmited that he cannot\nconceive of science existing except in the definitely segregated areas, concepts, and terms which are found in books under the heads of \"physics,\"\n\"chemistry,\" etc., and who is thus restricted to moving within these\nboundaries. Such a person forgets that there is no material in existence\nwhich is physical or chemical or botanical, but that a certain ordinary\nsubject-matter becomes physical or chemical or botanical when certain\nquestions are raised, and when it is subjected to certain modes of inquiry.\nWhat is desired of the pupil is that, starting from the ordinary unclast\nmaterial of experience, he shall acquire command of the points of view, the\nideas and methods, which make it physical or chemical or whatever.\nI return to what I said at first about the dynamic point of view as the\nreally scientific one, or the understanding of process as the heart of the\nscientific attitude. What are called \"physics\" and \"chemistry\" deal in\neffect with the lawful energies which bring about changes. To master\ntheir method means to be able to see any observed fact, no matter how\nseemingly fixt and stubborn, as a change, as a part of larger process or\nongoing. In this sense they are central (along with mathematics which\nonly deals with the fixt, the formal and structural side of the fact) in all\nscientific understanding. There is a sound instinct in the tendency to\ninsist upon them as the heart of the secondary course in science and to\nlook with jealousy upon whatever narrows their sphere of influence. But\nit does not follow that the material which is found in the texts which\nsegregate certain considerations under the heads of physics or chemistry is\nthe material to begin with. That is the fallacy against which I have been\narguing. Plant and animal life, the operations of machines, and the\nfamiliar appHances and processes of industrial life are much more likely to\nfurnish the actual starting material. What the principle calls for is that\nthe pupil shall be led in his study of plant and animal Hfe, of the machine\nand its operations, to the basic operations which enable him to understand\nwhat is before him — to be led inevitably to physical and chemical principles.\n\n"}
{"page": 745, "printed_page": "733", "text": "Department!\n\nMETHOD\n\nIN\n\nSCIENCE-TEACHING\n\n733\n\nNothing is more unfortunate for education than the usual separation\nbetween the sciences of Hfe and the physical sciences. Living phenomena\nare natural and interesting material from which to set out, especially in\nall rural environments. But they are educationally significant in the\ndegree in which they are used to procure an insight into just those principles\nwhich are not plants and animals, but which, when they are formulated by\nthemselves, constitute physics and chemistry. It is the failure to carry\nnature-study on to this insight which is responsible for its pedagogically\nunsatisfactory character, and the movement toward general science will\nrepeat the failure unless it keep the goal of physical and chemical principle\nsteadily in view.\nAn extension of the method I have spoken of should, in my judgment,\nconstitute the bulk of the secondary course in science, which ideally should\nbe continuous thruout the four years — or the six. We must remember\nthat, altho in school we are always treating pupils as embryonic scientists\nwho somehow are interrupted and cut off before they get very far, the\ngreat mass of the pupils will never be scientific specialists. The value of\nscience for them resides in the added meaning it gives to the usual occurrences of their everyday surroundings and occupations. None the less,\nwe want a high school which will tend to attract those who have a distinct\ncalling for specialized inquiry, and one which prepares them to enter upon\nit. I can only express my belief that there are many more such in the\npupil population than we succeed at present in selecting and carrying on;\nand that I beheve this is largely because we follow to so great an extent\nthe method of feeding them all from the start as if they were full-fledged\nminute specialists. As a result, large numbers who might otherwise be\ndrawn later into the paths of scientific inquiry now become shunted off\ninto the more concrete and appealing paths, of engineering, industrial\ninvention, and application, simply because they have been repelled by a\npremature diet of abstract scientific propositions, lacking in meaning to\nthem because abstracted from familiar facts of experience.\nI beheve there are scores, if not hundreds, of boys, for example, who\nnow go from courses of abstract physics into automobile factories and the\nlike, who, if they had begun with the automobile under a teacher who\nrealized its scientific possibihties, might have gone on into abstract\nphysics.\nI can sum up by saying that it seems to me that our present methods\ntoo largely put the cart before the horse; and that when we become aware\nof this mistake we are all too hkely to cut the horse entirely loose from the\ncart and let him browse around at random in the pastures without going\nanywhere. What we need is to hitch the horse of concrete experience\nwith daily occupation and surroundings, to a cart loaded with specialized\nscientific knowledge. It is not the duty of high-school science to pack the\ncart full — that will come later. It is its part to make such a good job of\n\n"}
{"page": 746, "printed_page": "734", "text": "734\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nthe hitching that every pupil who comes under its influence will always\nfind in himself a tendency to turn his crude experiences over into a more\nscientific form, and to translate the bare science he reads and hears, back\ninto the terms of his daily life. When we do this we shall find, I am confident, the crop of scientific speciahsts increast, not diminisht, while we\nshall have a citizenship of men and women really intelligent in judging\nthe affairs of life.\nTRAINING\nI.\n\nC. H. ROBISON,\n\nOF SCIENCE\n\nNORMAL\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nTEACHERS\nUPPER\n\nMONTCLAIR,\n\nNJ.\n\n\"Taking a year off \" is serious business for an indifferently paid publicschool teacher. The year is nearly always one of suspended earning power.\nThe student is nearly always a candidate for the Master's degree and\nusually gets it. Too many, however, are not given what they most wish\nor need. Too many have set so strongly before them the idea that the\ndegree is the great goal, that their sense of relative values is dulled. Some,\nvaluing the degree for home consumption, seem to see baked clay under the\noutside glitter.\nAs a working basis let me maintain (i) that from one-half to two- thirds\nof a well-balanst year of graduate study should be along the line of primary\nteaching interest; (2) that so-called research work should consume not\nover one-fourth the time, and might better be incidental to an advanst\ncourse; (3) that at least a fourth of the time be devoted to pedagogy, preferably ofscience-teaching.\nA grounding in general educational theory is a real problem with the\nteacher whose college days antedated well-organized departments of\neducation, much more so than with present undergraduates. A real need\nexists for a single synoptical course in which the one-year graduate student\ndeficient in pedagogy, can touch the high spots in history and principles of\neducation, in educational psychology, and methods of classroom-management. No less real is the need for genuine courses in special methods of\nteaching the sciences, conducted by persons acquainted with the general\nfield of education as well as of science, and with experience in high-school\nteaching. Trying to keep up with demands, college science instructors are\ntoo often offering' courses in methods without knowing present tendencies\nin educational theory, else we should hear fewer and less extravagant\nclaims for supposed disciplinary values; without knowledge of the highschool pupil, else we should see entirely different sorts of textbooks written\nby college men.\nAs little question will be raised about the science courses, which should\nbroaden the horizon and deepen the scholarship. Many of the newly\ndevelopt courses in industrial science should serve these ends better than\nmost courses designed for the college professor of tomorrow and little\n\n"}
{"page": 747, "printed_page": "735", "text": "Department]\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF SCIENCE\n\nTEACHERS\n\n735\n\nrelated to the affairs of actual life. But unfortunately the former kind is\nrelatively unavailable. A resulting fault in high-school teaching is the\noften-deplored perpetuation of the miniatures of college courses, similar\nto them in approach and method, but attenuated in content and interest.\nTo gain breadth would not a teacher, fifteen years from her undergraduate\ndays, gain more from repeating a course in general chemistry or biology\nwith a view to learning of their recent magnificent progress? Yet how\ndifficult it is to convince the average college registrar of this fact. For we\nmust keep in mind the type of teacher who has so many classes or subjects\nto teach that she cannot find time to read even a small part of the endless\noutput of monographs. Such a general course, to be really helpful, should\nbe for graduate students and not largely taken by lower classmen.\nThe requirements for this degree tend to differ in the institutions of the\nEast as opposed to the larger ones of the West and Middle West. The\neastern trend has long been toward attainments in general and broadening\ncourses rather than in highly specialized problems, and toward reserving\nresearch work for the doctorate. Many western and near- western institutions apparently lacking candidates for the Doctor's degree, have inflicted\nthis work on the only class of ad vans t students they had. This was brought\nout twenty years ago by an investigating committee of the Federation of\nGraduate Clubs. Signs of a survival of this presumable viewpoint still\npersist too frequently; and its appearance in certain prominent eastern\nuniversities has followed the importation into their science departments of\nwestern men. Too many one-year graduate students fall victims of a\nmania of science staffs for sending forth from their laboratories an\nimpressive multitude of \"preliminary notes\" or \"reports\" on matters\nof negligible scientific importance except as by-products of some large\nproblem.\nThe value of research per se is not called into question. The value of\nsuch research as a one-year graduate student can, or should do, both to\nscience and to the student, both absolutely and relatively, has been greatly\noverestimated. That is why so many teachers entering a school system\nmust serve a year or two of apprenticeship before they are good for much.\nIt often takes longer for a teacher to cast her useless mental luggage overboard. Organizations of public-school science teachers should compile a\nblacklist, and boycott college professors and departments of science that\nwaste, in the manner indicated, the few precious months at the disposal of\ntheir students.\nII. THOMAS M. BALLIET, DEAN, SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nThe teaching of science has past thru three stages within the memory\nof teachers still in the service. The first stage was characterized by textbook teaching, supplemented occasionally with illustrative experiments\n\n"}
{"page": 748, "printed_page": "736", "text": "736\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Science\n\nmade by the teacher. The second stage was characterized by individual\nlaboratory work, following the laboratory manual as a guide. The student\nmade his own experiments under the teacher's guidance, observed the\nresult, formulated his own generalizations, and copied them in his notebook. No applications, except a few traditional ones, were made.\nThe third stage improved upon this second stage by leading the pupil,\nafter formulating his generalization, to apply it to the facts and phenomena\nof nature. This is where the science- teaching of most schools is today.\nBut we must advance to a fourth stage, and some of our best schools\nare taking this step. We must not only apply scientific generalizations\nafter they have been made as a means of making their significance clearer,\nbut make the explanation of the facts and phenomena of nature — the\ninterpretation of nature — the very goal of science-teaching. We must find\nour problems in nature out of doors, bring them into the schoolroom to be\nsolved, and use the laboratory experiment only as a means of determining\ntheir meaning. The problem found in nature must determine the experiment, and the experiment, the apparatus. I have known the reverse process to be followed, beginning with the apparatus, and we have all known\ncourses in physics and in chemistry prescribed for high schools by the\ncolleges in terms of so many specific experiments.\nScience-teaching must begin out of doors by finding its problems there,\nand end out of doors by making the generalization of the laboratory explain\nas many phenomena as possible. The educational value of science — the\ntraining in thinking which it gives — lies in the explanation of nature, not\nin the mere making of experiments that are prescribed by the teacher or\nby the laboratory manual; and the drawing of inferences from them, also\nguided more or less by the teacher, requires but a minimum of mental effort.\nIt is the discovery of problems out of doors, the invention of ingenious\nexperiments to solve them, and the application of the resultant generalizations in the explanation of similar phenomena, that train in scientific\nmethod and in scientific thinking. There is more educational value in\nformulating one generalization and making a hundred applications of it\nthan in making a hundred generalizations and simply copying them into\na notebook.\nIt is seldom that a phenomenon in nature can be explained by a single\nscience. Nature is complex. Hence the necessity of what has come to be\ncalled \"general science\" as the first course in high-school science.\nBut this fact has a very important bearing on the training of science\nteachers for secondary schools, and, I should say, for the first two years of\ncollege, which are a part of secondary education. I refer, not to the undergraduate-training icollege,\nn\nwhich is under any circumstances inadequate,\nbut to the training in the graduate school of the university. The degree of\nPh.D. is professedly awarded only to students who have made an important\nresearch. This requires narrow specialization to a degree that is often fatal\n\n"}
{"page": 749, "printed_page": "737", "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nIMPORTANCE\n\nOF\n\nVISUAL\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\n737\n\nto later success in secondary schools. Such training, if really thoro, fits\na man to teach in a university, where a high degree of specialization is\nabsolutely essential; but it fails to give him that broad knowledge of the\nwhole field of the natural sciences which enables him to draw illustrations\nfrom them all in teaching any one of them, which is so vitalizing in the\nteaching of immature minds.\nHigh-school instruction is, after all, extremely elementary, viewed from\nthe standpoint of real scholarship. The perennial interest in secondary\neducation lies in the teaching of children, not in the teaching of subjects.\nAny teacher at all gifted can easily master in college and in the graduate\nschool all the natural sciences sufficiently to enable him to teach any or all\nof them effectively in a high school. This indicates what the character of\nhis training should be. It is not the highly specialized work in one phase\nof a single science which is required for the Ph.D. degree that is wanted, but\na broad general training, which shall, however, in all cases include training\nin scientific method.\nAs students properly desire a degree which places upon them the\nimprimatur of the university, it has long been a conviction of mine that\nthe A.M. degree, which is now almost a meaningless half-way flag station\non the road to Ph.D., should be rescued and given a new dignity equal\nto that of Ph.D.\nIt should stand for this broad training here suggested, should require\nas long a course as that for the Ph.D. degree, and should be distinctly the\nteacher's degree. I suspect that most professors in the universities would\nlook askance at such a suggestion, as very few of them have any comprehension of the problems of secondary schools. It remains, therefore, for\na body like this to enlighten the universities, and press upon them a welldevised plan by which the preparation of secondary-school teachers can\nbe more effectively provided for in our graduate schools.\n\nTHE IMPORTANCE\nEDWARD\n\nOF VISUAL\n\nW. STITT, DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT\n\nINSTRUCTION\nOF SCHOOLS, NEW\n\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nIn the Schools of Tomorrow, the recent inspiring book by the Deweys,\noccurs this sentence: ''The school, like other human institutions, acquires\ninertia and tends to go on doing things that have once got started, irrespective ofpresent demands.\" In my judgment, this tendency to tradition\nis still shown in the desire on the part of so many educators to make instruction a pouring-in process, in which the teacher becomes a sort of personal\nphonograph. She talks, talks, talks, so that she really makes a conversational ''record\"; the child is forst to listen, and his instruction becomes\nentirely too ear-minded.\n\n"}
{"page": 750, "printed_page": "738", "text": "738\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nThe Department of Science Instruction of the National Education Association has therefore wisely created the Committee on Visual Instruction, and\nthis gathering today is to emphasize the fact that in the future the province\nof the teacher shall include the realm of the eye as well as that of the ear.\nLater, the committee intends to prepare a report which shall emphasize\nthose features in all phases of school work, from the kindergarten to the\nconclusion of the high school, in which the various ways which appeal to\nvisualization shall accomplish more effective results than by former methods.\nThe following are suggested as useful ways to enlarge the plan and scope\nof the work: (i) lantern slides for instruction purposes; (2) educational\nmotion pictures; (3) stereographs for work in science, history, and geography; (4)display of maps, charts, and models in classroom; (5) greater\nuse of the blackboard by both pupils and teachers; (6) illustrations in\nreading-books and textbooks generally; (7) souvenir post-cards and pictures\nfrom magazines and newspapers; (8) school exhibits displayed in accordance with approved methods; (9) educational museum in some central\nbuilding, and distribution of visual aids by municipal or state bureaus;\n(10) clay-modeling, molding in sand trays, etc.; (11) homemade apparatus\nin elementary science work; (12) visits to museums, art galleries, libraries,\netc.\nTwo hundred and sixty years ago Comenius — one of the greatest of\neducational reformers — emphasized the value of pictures to illustrate the\nidea symbolized by the word, and set the first real standard for visual\ninstruction. A century later Pestalozzi advanst beyond the picture stage\nby insisting that teachers must either bring things into the school for study,\nor else take the children out of the school to see them. Thus further\nemphasis was placed upon the visual side of school work.\nThe advance of science has brought to the aid of the teacher modern\nmethods of visualization of which the teachers of the past never dreamed.\nThe wonders of the stereoscopic pictures, by which objects stand out in\nthree dimensions and seem to be solids as in nature, show a wonderful\nadvance over the ordinary pictures of textbooks. The marvels of motion\npictures, bringing into the schoolroom actual reproductions of scenes from\nreal life, mark a still further advance. The next step in progressive pedagogic development, however, will be a release from the passive reception of\nthe wonders of film reproductions, by enlisting the active energies of the\npupils so as to awaken their self-activity.\n\n"}
{"page": 751, "printed_page": "739", "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nMUSEUM\n\nAND\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\n\nTHE\n\nMUSEUM\n\nAS\n\nTHE\nNEW\nFORCE\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nHENRY\n\nFAIRFIELD\n\nOSBORN,\nPRESIDENT,\nAMERICAN\nHISTORY\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nIN\n\n739\n\nPUBLIC-SCHOOL\nMUSEUM\n\nOF\n\nNATURAL\n\nThere is a new educational force which is especially exerted and manifested inour large cities, where great museums of natural history and art\nare beginning to use every means possible to extend their treasures to the\nchildren of the public schools.\nThe new definition of the purpose of a museum is : \"To bring a vision of\nthe world to those who otherwise can never see it.\" Children are wonderful\nobservers; as a rule they see things even more quickly than their parents,\nwhose powers of observation have been largely dulled thru disuse. The\ninvaluable childish powers of wonder, surprise, and reverence are all\ncultivated in a museum. This inspirational movement is, perhaps, the\nmost precious outcome of the extension of the museum to the school, for\nthose who can never travel and to whom a journey even from a distant\npoint in the city to a museum, where are brought together all the wonders\nand marvels of nature in its various forms, is of itself a great event.\nThe American Museum of Natural History of New York was one of\nthe pioneers in this movement, under the leadership of the late Albert S.\nBickmore, who in 1880 inaugurated a series of lectures for the teachers of\nNew York City, which during the next decade was so extended as to\nembrace the teachers thruout the state. It was not until 1904, however,\nthat the first lectures to the public-school children themselves, designed to\nillustrate and supplement their work in the schools, were given at the\nmuseum, and still later, in 19 14, that the Museum arranged to give series\nof lectures at the schools, especially in the crowded districts of the city\nwhere the transportation of children to and from the Museum was difficult.\nIn 1902, when nature-study was first introduced into the city schools,\na system of sending out to the public schools small nature-study collections\nwas instituted which reacht annually no less than 1,200,000 pupils. In\n1906 the plan was adopted for providing instructors for public-school\nclasses visiting the Museum, in order that the teachers and pupils might\nutilize their time to the best advantage. In 19 15 the Museum began the\nsystem of loaning to the pubHc schools its lantern slides, derived from\nexplorations in all parts of the world.\nAnother advance in the Museum's educational work was the provision\nin 1909 for instruction to the blind. Classes for blind children from the\npublic schools are held regularly at the Museum, at which opportunities\nare ajfforded for actual contact with the specimens; and this work has since\nbeen extended, thru special endowment, until now courses of evening\nlectures are given for the adult blind. The system of placing in the\npublic libraries special exhibits on various subjects of travel and exploration\n\n"}
{"page": 752, "printed_page": "740", "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\n740\n\nwas inaugurated in 1907, with the result that there is a very great demand\nfor books on these topics. This system was extended in 19 15 to the regular\ncirculation of the Museum exhibits among the branch libraries of the\ncity. A similar movement was begun in 1887 by the Milwaukee Public\nMuseum.\nStep by step measures of extension similar to those taken by the\nAmerican Museum have been adopted by other institutions, and the movement has gradually extended over the entire United States; for example,\nin the Commercial Museums of Philadelphia, the Field Museum of Natural\nHistory, Chicago, the Charleston Museum, Charleston, S.C., the Museum\nof Fine Arts of Boston, our own Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Art\nMuseum of Worcester, Mass., and that of Toledo, Ohio.\nThe American Museum is now visited daily by hundreds and sometimes\nby thousands of children; and the arrangement of all the collections in\nthe more abstruse as well as in the simpler fields of natural history is\ndesigned to be self-explanatory and educational. The great principles of\nnatural science, the elucidation of which represents one hundred and\nfifty years of exploration and research, which were first set forth by the\ngreat French naturalist Buffon thru his popular expositions of scientific\ntruths in Paris in the year 1739, are made clear not only in the text of the\nlabels accompanying the specimens but in the arrangement of the objects\nthemselves. This arrangement calls for the highest and rarest gifts of the\nmuseum exhibitor; for the truth as well as the beauty and harmony of\nthe laws of nature must be evidenst. In fact, the reason the Museum\nhas become the great new force which it is in pubhc education is that the\nold conception of a museum as a storehouse of curiosities has been entirely\nabandoned and replaced by the newer and truer conception of illustrating\nthe underlying principles of the laws of nature.\nThe practical aspects of this new museum movement in art and science\nare no less important. In art, all the beauty which has been created by\nthe mind of man is brought together in orderly form as an inspiration to\nesthetic development and individual achievement. In nature, the book\nwork of the classroom and the experimentation of the laboratory are\nsupplemented and filled out by the intensive study of exhibits of the best\nthat has been found thru the centuries. As an example , the studies in\nbotany in several of the high schools of New York are followed by direct\nobservations in the Hall of Forestry, originally arranged under the direction of Professor Charles S. Sargent, author of Silva Americana. The\nschool studies in biology and zoology are rendered real by visits to the\nwonderful Darwin Hall, with its vistas of life on the land and in the sea,\noriginally planned by two of the most talented zoologists of this country.\n\n"}
{"page": 753, "printed_page": "741", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nVALUE\n\nVALUE\n\nC. G. RATHMANN,\n\nAND\n\nAND\n\nIMPORTANCE\n\nIMPORTANCE\n\nASSISTANT\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF THE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nMUSEUM\n\nSCHOOL\n\n741\n\nMUSEUM\n\nOF SCHOOLS, ST. LOUIS, MO.\n\nNearly 300 years ago Comenius wrote: \"As far as possible men are to\nbe taught to become wise, not by books, but by the heavens, the earth,\noaks and beeches; that is, they must learn to know and examine things\nthemselves, and not merely by the testimony and observations of others\nabout the things.\" This doctrine, forgotten for centuries, is being recognized again and is rapidly finding its way into the schools of our country.\nWe are moving away from the idea that all teaching must be done in\nthe schoolroom. The school excursion is becoming an important factor\nin our school life. Teachers take their pupils to field and forest, to river\nbank and quarry, to shops and public institutions, to the zoological garden,\nthe museum, and the art gallery to observe the work of nature and man.\nWe are being freed from the idea that the textbook is the only means of\nteaching, the only source of information. We are beginning to supplement\nthe textbook by the photograph, the lantern slide, the stereoscope, and\nthe motion picture. Lately we have begun to add to the pictorial representations ofthings, the things themselves, mounted specimens from the\nanimal world, plants, minerals, products of the soil and the industries\nfrom all parts of the world.\nWe are beginning to realize that to make the child acquainted with\nthe world in which he lives we must bring him into personal contact with\nthe world.\n\nWe must, as O'Shea says in his Education as Adjustment^\nthe world or bring the world to him.\"\ninto\n\" him\nItake\nI I. We can do this thru the school museum with a stock of well-selected\nInd carefully arranged material.\nI In home geography, for example, we must give the child adequate\nloncepts of facts, conditions, and processes in his physical and human\nenvironment and experiences, leading to a better understanding of them\nu his observation and study of concrete material. We must do this\nther by taking him to the material or by bringing the niaterial to him.\nfar as possible we should do the former.\nOpportunities to study the physical conditions are offered in park,\nId, and\nthemof which\nwe' findwill\nroadbeds,\nslopes,\nhills, tobrooks,\nponds,\nthe forest.\ncareful In\nstudy\nenable the\nchildren\npictureand\nto\ni^iemselves the earth's principal land and water features. For the study\nl^k human environment, man and his wants, his industrial and commercial\n\"pursuits, opportunities are found in abundance in the immediate neighbortyiood of every schoolhouse in the cities. Shops, houses in the course of\nlB>nstruction, foundries and quarries, etc., should be visited, and the actual\nRrork and conditions observed and studied, not in the vague, inaccurate\nway in which the children may have lookt at them before, but with a\nconscious and definite aim.\n\nII\n\n"}
{"page": 754, "printed_page": "742", "text": "742\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nOn the other hand, many things with which the children must become\nacquainted in home geography must be brought into the schoohoom, for\ninstance, the materials for fuel, for food, for clothing. Some of them may\nbe supplied by the children and, whenever possible, should be furnisht\nby them.\nMathematical geography and physical geography in the higher grades\nare considered by nearly all teachers the most difficult parts in the whole\ndomain of geography to present to the children intelligently and intelligibly.\nWe cannot make the children thoroly understand the rotation of the earth,\npoints of the compass, change of seasons, cloud-formation, the cause and\ndirection of the wind thru text and verbal description; the children must\nsee these processes by means of simple apparatus, and make the experiments with such apparatus under the guidance of the teacher. The\nSt. Louis School Museum has twenty-five different sets of such apparatus\nwhich ard sent to the schools with the necessary information and directions.\nOf seacoast, erosion, volcanic action, geysers, divides, canyons, falls\nand cataracts, glaciers, plains and deserts, no text or verbal description\ncan give concepts sufficiently clear and strong. This should be done by\nthe lantern slide or the stereograph; and these pictorial illustrations should\nbe furnisht in well-selected sets by the school museum.\nHow can the museum help in imparting to the child more interest in\nand more adequate knowledge of foreign countries ? After considering on\nthe relief map the location, the physical conditions, climate, and rainfall,\netc.; after determining what parts of the country will lend themselves to\nagriculture, herding, mining, lumbering, manufacturing, and the various\nother occupations of man, the children should be transported, figuratively,\ninto the country by means of the photograph, slide, and stereograph.\nIn local geography — the geography of the city and state in which the\nchildren live — they should be made acquainted with the leading industries\nof their city and state.\nNature-study should be taught as far as possible outdoors, in park, field,\nand forest; but when taught in the schoolroom, living specimens should be\nused for illustration whenever they can be secured. The surroundings of\nevery city afford ample means of illustrating plant and insect life and the\nmineral world.\nThe children know, as a rule, but few of the birds they see around them\nevery day. Thru the judicious study of the mounted specimens supplied\nby the museum in the schoolroom we can awaken their interest and encourage them to find the living birds in their proper surroundings, to observe\ntheir life, their song, how they procure their food, how they build their\nnests, how they protect themselves, and give the results of their observations to teacher and classmates.\nElementary physics should have a place on the program in the higher\ngrades of the grammar schools. Without the proper apparatus, however,\n\n"}
{"page": 755, "printed_page": "743", "text": "Department)\n\nVALUE\n\nAND\n\nIMPORTANCE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nMUSEUM\n\n743\n\nsuch teaching is valueless, a waste of time. The school museum should\nfurnish the apparatus. The museum in St. Louis sends to the schools the\nnecessary material, such as iron, copper, and platinum wire, glass tubes,\nalcohol lamps and Bunsen burners, microscopes, sonometers, organ pipes,\nmagnets, dry batteries, force and lifting pumps, air pumps, small steamengines, etc.\nThere should be much visual instruction in history. Thru photograph,\nstereoscope, lantern, and motion picture, the children should be transported into the situations to be studied and should be given clear and convincing pictures of important historical events.\nThe school museum may be of great help in the teaching of music. In\nSt. Louis many of the schools have graphophones, by means of which the\npupils become acquainted with the best in music, and are made to love\nand appreciate good music. The museum furnishes the records for the\ninstruments.\n2. What should a school museum contain, and how should the material\nbe used in the schoolroom ? There should be nothing in a school museum\nwhich cannot be used in direct connection with the work in the schools.\nIt should contain no mere curiosities, no abnormities nor freaks of nature.\nIt should not be a \" cemetery of bric-a-brac, but a nursery of Hving thought.\"\nThe school museum must have a stock of material quantitatively and\nqualitatively sufficient to illustrate important tj^es of the work in the\nifferent subjects of the curriculum. This is necessary to give the children\nivid and concrete images, to teach them to observe and to discriminate,\nunderstand the objects, phenomena, processes, and conditions of their\nivironment, and to gather educative experiences.\nLet me present a few concrete examples. Teacher and pupils have\nifore them the rice-exhibit from the museum to be used in a nature-study\nssson or to make the children acquainted with one of the chief products\nthe southern states or of other countries. The collections contain the\nice in the plant, the rice unhuUed, hulled, and bleacht, rice flour, rice\nirch, rice paper, a number of stereoscopic views and lantern slides, and\nlarge colored chart showing the rice plant and its parts.\nThe pictures take the children into the rice fields of South CaroHna,\n[icaragua, Mexico, Japan, the Philippines, Siam, and Madagascar. The\nlildren are led to discover and develop thru their own observation the\n)llowing facts and processes: The soil in which the rice is grown is low\nid marshy. In some of the countries the rivers overflow their banks and\n>ver the fields for miles. People actually sow the grains in the water,\nid when the floods go down the seed sinks into the soft mud at the bottom\nid springs up there.\nBy means of the objects and pictures the children are also made to see\n)w the rice is harvested, hulled, whitened, packt and sent to all parts of\nle world; how rice flour, rice starch, and rice paper are made. The\n\n"}
{"page": 756, "printed_page": "744", "text": "744\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Science\n\nStereographs and (in the review lesson) the lantern slides make the children\nacquainted with the people who are engaged in growing rice, with their\nmanner of life, their homes, and their state of civiUzation.\nThe material in the Educational Museum in St. Louis consists of:\nFood products. — Cereals in the plant and the grain and their products;\ncoffee, tea, sugar, cacao, in the various stages of production; spices, etc.\nMaterials for clothing. — The various animal and vegetable fibers of the\nworld and the fabrics made of them.\nTree products. — Domestic and foreign woods; rubber, gutta percha,\ncamphor, cork, etc., in all processes of preparation; materials for dyeing\nand tanning, etc.\nIndustrial products. — Showing the various stages in the manufacture\nof glass, paper, leather, ink, the pen, the pencil, the needle, paper made of\nrags and pulp, the screw, the pocketknife, the broom, the electric lamp,\nthe shoe, terra cotta, etc., besides such products as are made from the\nmaterials mentioned in the former groups.\n3. How should the material be made accessible to the schools? A\nschool museum must be a traveling museum with a well-planned system of\ndelivery. The teacher must get what she needs to illustrate a lesson when\nshe needs it. She must not be compelled to postpone a lesson because the\nmaterial is not at hand when the program calls for the lesson. The program\nmust not adapt itself to the museum, but the museum to the program.\nNaturally, in many cases, different schools will want the same material at\nthe same time, and therefore there must be a sufficient number of dupHcate\ncollections. In order to supply the teachers of a large school system with\njust what they need at the time they want it, a well-working system of\ndelivery must be establisht.\nWe have found the plan which has been followed in St. Louis for a\nnumber of years efficient and satisfactory to the schools. Each teacher\nhas a catalog on her desk from which she orders what she needs to illustrate\nher work. The material is sent to the schools by a large automobile truck\nexclusively in the service of the museum. The schools of the city are\ndivided into five groups, each of which has a delivery day once a week, the\nsame day every week.\n4. How can a school museum be establisht? Now, if it is valuable,\nwhat is the best way of securing a school museum ? It is not as difficult\nas you may imagine. In cities in which there is a public museum, opportunities for the systematic use of its material in the schools should be given,\nand are given in many cases. The piuseums of our country have in\nlate years extended the scope of their work of disseminating knowledge\nto a field where it is of inestimable value. They have opened their\ngreat storehouses of information to the pubhc schools, and they ask\nthe teachers to make use of the wonderful things from all parts of\nthe world.\n\n"}
{"page": 757, "printed_page": "745", "text": "Department]\n\nVISUAL\n\nAIDS\n\nTO INSTRUCTION\n\n745\n\nThe museum whose guests we are today (the Museum of Natural\nHistory of New York) has for years cooperated with the schools of this\ncity by sending them collections of carefully selected illustrative material.\nThe Field Museum of Chicago thru its Harris Public School Extension,\nthe Commercial Museum of Philadelphia, the pubUc museums of Milwaukee,\nCharleston, S.C., Buffalo, and other cities, are doing the same valuable\nwork. But even in places where there is no public museum the establishment of a school museum is not so difficult a matter as is generally supposed.\nSt. Louis has no pubUc museum. The United States Departments of\nAgriculture and Forestry suppHed us with plants, fibers, woods and tree\nproducts, and descriptive literature; and the National Museum in Washington, with minerals and fossils. Owners of mines and quarries all over\nthe country sent us minerals, rocks, and ores. Commercial firms in the\nUnited States and abroad presented to the museum natural and industrial\nproducts, such as cotton, wool, silk, flax, hemp, jute, coffee, tea, cacao, the\nvarious spices, rubber, cork, glass, aluminum, carborundum, etc., and\nexhibits showing the various stages in their development. We gathered\npictorial illustrations from magazines and from railroad and steamship\nadvertisements, and arranged and classified them. Teachers and pupils,\npatrons and friends of the schools helpt enthusiastically in adding to the\nmaterial.\nThe Board of Education of St. Louis appropriated for the publicschool museum this year, the eleventh year of its existence, the sum of\n$13,500, that is, 14 cents a pupil. The institution has now 2000 individual\ncollections of illustrative material and 15,000 duplicate collections, each\ncollection consisting of from 4 to 10 objects. The pictorial illustrations\nconsist of 7000 lantern shdes, 10,000 stereographs, 2000 photographs,\n1000 large colored charts, and a large supply of descriptive literature in\nbooklets and pamphlets. Motion-picture apparatus was placed in six\nschools last year. The museum is now making arrangements to furnish\nthe films for them.\nVisual instruction, as made possible by a good school museum, is\nbecoming an important factor in our school work. I hope that the time\nis not far away when every school system of our country will have a wellstockt and well-arranged school museum.\n\nCOLLECTION, ORGANIZATION, AND CIRCULATION OF VISUAL\nAIDS TO INSTRUCTION BY STATE BUREAUS\nA.\n\nW.\n\nABRAMS,\n\nCHIEF,\n\nVISUAL INSTRUCTION\nDIVISION,\nDEPARTMENT, ALBANY, N.Y.\n\nSTATE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nA State bureau of visual instruction in the preparation of a loan collection may properly have in mind the two general purposes of pictures,\nnamely, entertainment\nand serious instruction. The latter purpose.\n\n"}
{"page": 758, "printed_page": "746", "text": "746\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIScience\n\nhowever, should unquestionably have first consideration. Other agencies\ncan be counted upon to provide entertainment rather abundantly.\nIt does not fall within the scope of my subject to discuss the pedagogical\nprinciples underlying visual instruction, tho I must necessarily imply some\nof them in considering the selection, organization, and circulation of a\nstate collection.\nThe acquisition of knowledge thru the eye is not a new method. Visual\ninstruction is essentially a very old process. What we do have new in\nthis line today is the greatly increast means of bringing the world to the\nlearner thru pictorial representations. We are indeed highly favored in\nthis respect. Advantage should surely be taken of the means offered; on\nthe other hand, the laws governing the principles of observation, which is\nthe kernel of visual instruction, have in no way been modified; and any\nuse of pictures that fails to recognize the necessity for voluntary attention\nand genuine mental reaction must be devoid of true educational results.\nIt would be unfortunate indeed if the general introduction of visual instruction should become an end in itself, and should increase the number of\nexercises in an already overcrowded educational program. The use of\npictures should be treated rather as the substitution of a more direct and\neffective means of instruction for a too-exclusive dependence upon words,\nwhich are merely symbols of ideas.\nIn preparing a loan collection of pictures, a state bureau may well be\nexpected to maintain a high standard and to consider relative values.\nFirst of all, a picture should be authentic; it should stand for something\ndefinite and specific. Visual instruction is chiefly an inductive method of\nstudy, and the right attitude of approach should be early acquired.\n\" What ?\" \" When ?\" and \" Where ?\" are essential questions for consideration in an inductive study that is scientific and orderly.\nAttractiveness is a desirable quahty in a picture, but a picture should\nrarely be selected merely because of its striking effects. There are abundant opportunities to secure the beautiful in combination with the\nimportant. In selecting pictures, the aim should be to secure the best\nrepresentation of types, characteristic views, and essential steps in processes,\nto the exclusion of pictures of what are merely incidental, occasional, or\nunimportant features, and hence tend to confuse and obscure larger\nvalues.\nThe quality of pictures provided by a state bureau should unquestionably be of the highest order. The increast cost of making shdes and\nprints of higher excellence is little more in the long run than that of inferior\nones. In the matter of quality, many of the lantern shdes that are offered\nto educational institutions and the general pubUc are on the order of\nchromos and song slides. They are crudely colored, poorly constructed,\nand printed with little or no regard for good composition; the entire work\nis slovenly executed. Half-tones and various crude prints are freely\n\n"}
{"page": 759, "printed_page": "747", "text": "DepartmentI\n\nVISUAL\n\nAIDS\n\nTO INSTRUCTION\n\n747\n\nreproduced; photographs that were poor at the start have been copied\nand recopied until detail and gradation of light and shade are almost\nwholly lacking. Unfortunately, we continue to tolerate such pictures in\nlantern shdes and also in books, tho we object to a book if the paper is\npoor, the type is dirty, or the binding is loose.\nThe surest way for a state bureau to build up a satisfactory collection\nof pictures and to be in a position to multiply copies and meet the increasing\ndemands of numerous borrowers is to procure its own negatives and to\nmake its own pictures. These negatives should be made directly from\nthe original objects, should be of superior quahty, and should be sufficiently\nlarge for contact prints as well as for shdes. It is entirely practicable to\nprocure such negatives. In the long run it is cheaper to do so than to\ndepend upon the trade. This procedure goes far toward making the\nadministration of a large collection effective and practicable.\nShall pictures, specifically lantern shdes and prints of various kinds,\nbe filed and circulated in fixt sets, or shall they be filed according to a\nscientific system of classification? It should not be necessary to offer\narguments for the use of a scientific basis of classification of a state collection of pictures intended for general use.\nIf a state bureau aims to do anything better than to provide, for general\npurpose entertainments that have no special relation to each other and\nno serious educational ends, it must classify its material on a scientific\nbasis. Under such a classification the popular illustrated lecture is entirely\npossible for those who want it, but under a grouping of material by fixt\nsets, a scholarly use of the collection is altogether impossible.\nShall prepared lectures be fumisht with lantern shdes ? My answer is\ninvolved in what I have already said. If a bureau is to furnish lecture sets\nof sUdes, it is but logical that it should provide the lectures; but there is\nreally no place in a sound system of visual instruction for \"canned\" lectures, written by one person to be read or recited by another.\nThe method of circulation is naturally determined quite largely by\nthe character of the collection and by the primary purposes for which the\ncollection is maintained. In the case of the New York State collection, as\ntime has gone on the character of the material and the purposes of its use\nhave gradually changed.\nAny institution that desires to take advantage of the state collection\nfor its own use or for the use of its patrons is furnisht with catalogs of all\navailable material and with official application blanks. The pictures\nwanted must be separately listed by call number. The burden of selection\nrests with the borrower. In principle this practice is regarded as sound,\ntho in the case of small organizations just beginning to use the collection\nsome unusual aid may be given.\nWhen an individual or an organization, not entitled to borrow directly\nfrom the bureau, asks for pictures, a handbook of information is sent and\n\n"}
{"page": 760, "printed_page": "748", "text": "748\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Science\n\nthe party is referred to his local library or school. As time goes on each\ncity or village comes to have its local institution thru which full service\ncan be received. The local school or library is not compelled to cooperate\nwith the state bureau. It is, however, supported by the local community\nand has an obligation, usually recognized, to the public from which support\ncomes. The local school or library is regarded, not as doing the work of\nthe state bureau, but rather as receiving from the state an important\naid in carrying out its own efforts to render the community larger\nservice.\nA plan that is carried out in some states is to route pictures, usually\nfilms or lantern slides, in fixt sets. Such a plan is inconsistent with the\nfundamental conceptions now underlying the preparation and circulation\nof the New York State collection. It means that all borrowers receive the\nsame combinations of pictures, tho evidently the purposes and immediate\nneeds of different borrowers should, and actually do, vary; it means that\nthe pictures are received by a particular community at a time determined\nby the routing order, when generally it would be better to have them at a\ntime chosen by the borrower. Under the routing plan, having pictures\nfor use tends to become an end in itself, while under the arrangement above\ndescribed, they are selected and used as a means to an educational purpose\nlocally determined. Routing gives a partial service, is less universal in its\nadaptation, and fails to respond to a scientific and orderly plan of\ninstruction.\nPictures intended for use with school classes or with larger groups of\npersons are most advantageously studied when projected upon a screen.\nFor this purpose certain apparatus is required. It would seem to fall\nproperly within the functions of a state bureau to determine the relative\nadaptabihty of various types of projection apparatus for the purposes it\nregards as most important to subserve. The bureau should possess the\nfacihties and trained employes to make such a determination of the most\nsuitable types of apparatus and to aid the estabHshment of proper standards.\nToo much projection apparatus now in the schools has been procured with\nthe proceeds of candy sales and various entertainments, or earned in voting\ncontests conducted by fairs or newspapers, and has been selected to satisfy\nthe inexperienst judgment of an individual, or has been purchast on the\nadvice of the sales agent.\nThe apparatus feature of visual instruction will be satisfactory only\nwhen projection apparatus is purchast by the board of education the same\nas other equipment intended for the serious work of the institution. To\nproceed in any other way is to admit at the outset that visual instruction\nis without oflGicial recognition.\nPotentially, pictures are a very important educational agency. They\nmay be made a remarkably interesting, accurate, and effective means of\nexpressing ideas and material facts. Much needs yet to be done to develop\n\n"}
{"page": 761, "printed_page": "749", "text": "Department)\n\nVISUAL AIDS TO INSTRUCTION\n\n749\n\njudgment in selecting them and to establish a pedagogical method for\ntheir use.\nDISCUSSION\nClarence M. Abbott, assistant secretary, Nation Board of Review of Motion\nPictures, New York, N.Y. — It will be well for me, I believe, to speak very briefly concerning the work of the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures. The National\nBoard is composed of a very large number of men and women, many of them chosen from\nchurch, civic, and social organizations in New York City, who voluntarily pass upon the\nproduct of film-manufacturers. The Board views the motion pictures made by all\nAmerican companies making regular releases. It estimates that it sees 99 per cent of\nall pictures exhibited in this country. Such pictures as it sees, it passes as a whole, or\ncondemns, or passes subject to eliminations. Most pictures are of such character that\nthey can be past without any change, but in a considerable number eliminations requested\nby the National Board are made by the manufacturers, and the films are then circulated\nfor public use.\nIn addition to this criticism of pictures, the National Board also does constructive\nwork thru its children's department and in connection with the \"Better-Films Movement.\"\nAltho computations show that 85 per cent of the individuals attending motion-picture\nperformances are adults, it is important to provide amusement for children in motion\npictures of a kind which can be subject to no criticism. In furthering this object the\nNational Board selects pictures which are especially valuable for children, and also\nstimulates the organization of special performances for them. In order that there might\nbe adequate reason for the selection of pictures for children, the National Board sent a\nquestionnaire to over two hundred child psychologists, educators, and others working\nwith children, asking them definite questions with reference to the reaction of motion\npictures upon children, and invited their discussion of the general subject. The replies\nreceived were then condenst by the National Board into what it calls \"Principles for the\nselection of children's pictures.\" These principles are elaborate, but explicit, and every\npicture viewed by the review committees of the Board is voted upon with reference to its\navailability for children. In addition, fifty members of the review committee are specially\ncharged with the selection of these pictures. As the Board is in a very strong position to\nmake both a wide and a wise selection of pictures, its recommendations are of value.\nThe pictures which are chosen are listed in a monthly bulletin which is available for use\nupon request to the National Board.\nThe \"Better-Films Movement,\" which is being sponsored by the National Board,\nmeans the selection of pictures which are especially good for the family circle of father,\nmother, and children. These pictures are also chosen by committee members and are\nlisted monthly. In addition, the National Board has printed a catalog called A Garden\nof American Motion Pictures, which contains a very wide selection of films of especially\nfine character. Included among them are many educational pictures.\nThe National Board will be very glad to supply these pamphlets upon request and\nto correspond with any person or organization who may be interested in educational, or\nespecially fine, films.\n\n"}
{"page": 762, "printed_page": "750", "text": ""}
{"page": 763, "printed_page": "751", "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF CHILD HYGIENE\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident— LmiJAEVS N. Hines, superintendent of schools\nCrawfordsville, Ind.\nVice-President — Lewis M. Terman, associate professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior\nUniversity, Stanford University, Cal.\nSecretary — C. Ward Crampton, director of physical training, city schools. . .New York, N.Y.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, July 6, 19 17\nThe meeting was called to order by the president at 9:30 a.m., in the Sage Foundation Building.\nPapers were presented as follows:\n\"The Work of the New York City Bureau of Child Hygiene\" — S. Josephine Baker,\nM.D., director, bureau of child hygiene, department of health, New York, N.Y.\n\"Social Aspects of School Hygiene\" — Donald B. Armstrong, director, department of\nsocial welfare. New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor, New\nYork, N.Y.\n\"A Practical Course of Study in Hygiene\" — Francis M. Walters, State Normal\nSchool, Warrensburg, Mo.\n\"Child Hygiene, First Aid to the Uninjured\" — ^Woods Hutchinson, president,\nAmerican Academy of Medicine, New York, N.Y.\nThe session closed with the appointment by the president of a committee on nominations.\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Saturday Forenoon, July 8, 1916\n\nA joint meeting with the American School Hygiene Association was opened in the\nSage Foundation Building, at 9:30 a.m., by President Hines.\nThe following themes were presented:\nMass.\"Schoolhouses and the Fire Hazard\" — Frank Irving Cooper, architect, Boston,\n\"The Teaching of Home Nursing and the Care of Children to Elementary and\nHigh-School Pupils\" — ^Isabel M. Stewart, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Physical Care of Rural-School Children\" — ^Taliaferro Clark, surgeon, United\nStates Public Health Service, Washington, D.C.\n\"Cooperation in Health Administration\" — ^Willard S. Small, principal, Eastern\nHigh School, Washington, D.C.\n\"The New York System of School Hygiene\" — ^I. H. Goldberger, M.D., assistant\ndirector of educational hygiene. Department of Education, New York, N.Y.\nPresident Hines then appointed the following committee to cooperate with similar\ncommittees of other organizations to prepare a report on the \"Minimum Essential of\nPhysical Education\":\nWalter S. Cornell, M.D., director of medical inspection in the public schools, Philadelphia, Pa.; Lee L. Driver, county superintendent of schools, Winchester, Ind.; Francis\nM. Walters, professor. State Normal College, Warrensburg, Mo.; Willard S. Small,\nprincipal. Eastern High School, Washington, D.C; Thomas A. Storey, M.D., College\nof the City of New York, New York, N.Y.\n\n"}
{"page": 764, "printed_page": "752", "text": "752\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\nUpon recommendation of the Committee on Nominations, the following persons\nwere re-elected for the ensuing year:\nPresident — ^Linnaeus N. Hines, superintendent of schools, Crawfordsville, Ind.\nVice-President — ^Lewis M. Terman, associate professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal.\nSecretary — C. Ward Crampton, director, physical training, city schools. New\nYork, N.Y.\nThe meeting then adjourned.\n\nPAPERS\nTHE WORK\n\nC. W. Crampton, Secretary\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nOF THE NEW YORK CITY BUREAU\nCHILD HYGIENE\n\nOF\n\nS. JOSEPHINE BAKER, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF CHILD HYGIENE,\nDEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nThe New York City Bureau of Child Hygiene was the first to be establisht\nin the United States. It was created in 1908, and stands as a recognition\nof the poUcy that health in childhood is a government function, ranking\nin importance with compulsory education during childhood. This policy\nis no longer an isolated one, for at the present time at least five states and\na large number of cities and towns have organized bureaus of child hygiene,\nunder control of boards of health.\nThe fundamental pohcy of the New York City Bureau of Child Hygiene\nhas been, since its inception, (i) that it should include supervision of all\nactivities relating to the health of all children of the city, from birth to\nadolescence, in so far as a municipahty can control such conditions; (2)\nthat these activities be so coordinated and correlated as to provide continuous and adequate supervision of child life and child health; (3) that\nthe fundamental basis of all efforts of the bureau must be educational and\npreventive, that its prime object must be not only to keep children well,\nbut to assure to them such vigorous health that they may become healthy\nadults; consequently corrective measures must be used only as temporary\nexpedients; (4) that the social aspect of public-health work, in relation to\nchildren, is of primary importance and must be developt to the utmost\nextent.\nIn all health work for children there are two points which must be\nemphasized: First, the recognition that we are dealing with an age group.\nUntil such children were dealt with in a class by themselves, practically\nall health activities had a specialized object; that is, certain organizations\nwere devoted to the control of tuberculosis, others to the reduction of\ninfant mortality, and still others to the supervision of food-supplies or the\n\n"}
{"page": 765, "printed_page": "753", "text": "i\n\nDepartment!\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nBUREAU\n\nOF CHILD\n\nHYGIENE\n\n753\n\ncontrol of sanitation in general; but the formation of the Bureau of Child\nHygiene in New York City was the first recognition that the early period of\nlife is of supreme importance from the point of view of health.\nThe starting-point of such health work is the child, and not the environment; and all work in the Bureau of Child Hygiene has been based upon\n[' adapting environment or surroundings to fit the child's needs rather than\ntrying to reconstruct the child to fit an environment created particularly\nfor adults.\nThe second, and perhaps the more important, object of treating the\nchild's life as a whole rather than in specialized parts, has been the growing\nrecognition that public-health work, in order to be effective, must be preventive, and not corrective, in its activities. It is a practical impossibihty\nto carry on real preventive health work with adults whose habits are\nalready fixt and whose status of health has usually been determined. The\nonly persons who respond to true preventive work are children, and even\nhere we find that the value of true preventive work in health lines is successful inproportion to the early date of its inception. The healthy baby\nusually becomes a healthy child (at least, it is far better fitted to resist the\ndiseases that pertain to childhood), and the healthy child furnishes the\nmaterial for the healthy adult.\nIn the Bureau of Child Hygiene the test of efficiency has been based,\nnot upon the number of children who live, but upon the number of children\nwho grow up well and strong. Thus, while New York City has had a\nremarkable reduction in its infant-mortality rate, ranging from 159 deaths\nof infants under one year of age per thousand children born in 1905, to 90\ndeaths under one year of age per thousand births for the first six months\nof 19 16, the value of its work is more truly reflected in the fact that for\nthe last five-year period, as contrasted with the previous five-year period,\nthe reduction in the death rate of children between one and two years\nof age and between two and five years of age has been greater than the\nreduction in the death rate under one year of age. So also, the lessened\nnumber of babies dying in the first year of life has been due in large measure\nto the efforts made in the line of instruction of expectant mothers, a work\nwhich assures to the baby its natural birthright of health and vigor.\nThruout the entire life of the child the functions of the Bureau of Child\nHygiene are continuous and coordinated. Starting with the supervision\nof midwives and of foundling babies boarded out in private homes and the\ninstruction of expectant mothers, it carries on its work for the reduction\nof infant mortality during the first year of life by the provision of sixty\ninfants' milk stations and of a large number of doctors and nurses for home\ninstruction of mothers.\n\nI\n\nThe next step in the care of the child between infancy and school age\nfalls under various branches, including the sanitary supervision and medical\ncontrol of day nurseries, the supervision of institutions for dependent\n\n"}
{"page": 766, "printed_page": "754", "text": "754\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIChUd Hygiene\n\nchildren, and finally, and perhaps the most direct method, the examination\nand supervision of the children from two to six years. This is done by\nusing the infants' milk stations as welfare centers where such children may\nbe brought and kept under control. This \"preschool-age work\" is of\nparticular importance because, in the entire field of the control of child\nhygiene, it has been the one period of life which has been most neglected.\nIt is difficult to reach these children. The birth certificate affords an easy\nmeans of access to the baby, the school provides an easy means to reach\nthe child of school age, but the child \"in between\" has been in danger of\nbeing lost. We now keep many of these children under control, thus completing the continuous supervision of the child.\nNext to the supervision of the child during infancy and the preschool\nperiod, the most comprehensive part of the bureau's activities lies in the\nsupervision of the health of children of school age. I have used this term\nadvisedly, for I feel that in the past too much emphasis has been laid upon\nthe so-called \"school child\" rather than upon the \"child of school age.\"\nHealth-supervision in schools was not instituted primarily for the purpose\nof helping children to pass examinations, nor should it be pursued because\nof that reason. It may be maintained, without fear of contradiction, that\na healthy child is more receptive and has a chance of showing better scholarship than the child who is not healthy; but the real object of so-called\n\"school medical inspection\" should be the health of the child as a child,\nnot in its relation to its school surroundings nor to any other part of its\nenvironment, but as a unit, with a desire to place the child in such good\nphysical condition and so to teach it the value of health measures and\nsanitary surroundings that it may reach adult life in normal physical condition and be prepared to withstand the diseases incident to middle or later\nlife.\nThe term \"school medical inspection\" is also a misnomer. The term\n\"health-supervision\" should take its place, and the system should form,\nnot an isolated instance of the community's desire to protect the welfare\nof the child, but simply a part of a well-rounded plan to conserve child\nlife from birth to puberty.\nThe system of \"heajth-supervision\" or \"school medical inspection\"\nin the New York City public schools is carried on under a special division\nof the New York City Bureau of Child Hygiene, under the Department of\nHealth. The control of contagious diseases has been successful because of\ninsistence upon early exclusion. In other words, we do not wait until the\ndisease has developt before excluding a child from school attendance, but\nsend him home from school if he shows any symptoms of illness of any form.\nDiagnosis is later made at the home by the school doctor. In this way it\nhas been possible to avoid school epidemics. Special attention is paid to\nclassrooms where more than one case of any disease is found to have occurred\namong the children of the indicated class. Under this system of supervision\n\n"}
{"page": 767, "printed_page": "755", "text": "Department]\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nBUREAU\n\nOF CHILD\n\nHYGIENE\n\n755\n\nit has not been found necessary to close any public school in New\nYork City in the last six years on account of an epidemic of contagious\ndisease. Similar, but even more definite, results have been achieved with\nthe contagious eye and skin diseases. This is particularly true with regard\nto the elimination of ringworm and scabies — diseases which have become\npractically extinct in the New York City public schools.\nThe school authorities are especially concerned with the general health\nof the child, that is, the so-called '^ supervision for the prevention and correction ofphysical defects. \" We may assume that the standards of progress\nin the education of the individual are based upon the assumption that the\nchild in question is in normal mental and physical condition. The school\nprogram is formulated for the normal child.\nWithout considering the question of the mentally defective child, the\nnumber of children with physical defects in our public schools is so great\nas to present an enormous problem. The conditions in New York City\nare not different from the conditions thruout the country as a whole.\nSeventy per cent of the children examined show some hitherto undetected\nphysical defect. The defects to which I refer are those which are not\npredominant enough to have been detected by the parents or the teacher.\nThe more noticeable physical defects, such as blindness, deafness, or lameness, are so obvious in their nature that it has been the practice to provide\nspecial classes, with particular methods of instruction, for these groups.\nSimilar action has been taken, to a certain degree, with regard to children\nwith markt malnutrition. Here the open-air or, better still, the openwindow class, has shown excellent results; but the great mass of children\nin the school are not visibly handicapt by the defects which are of such\na nature that their effect upon the general health of the child is insidious,\nbut none the less serious.\nThe prevention of these physical defects lies, not in the period after\nthe child has entered school, but primarily in the period of infancy and\npreschool age. During school life, however, no new defect should develop,\nand here the school and the home bear an equal responsibility. The school\ndoctor and the school nurse have performed only part of their function\nwhen they have cared for the child in school. Probably the more important\npart of their work is done in the child's home. The readjustment of the\nchild's daily life, so that its health needs may be met, is primarily the work\nof the school nurse, and I cannot too often record my appreciation of her\nvalue as a public-health oflScial.\nIn New York City the system of prevention of these defects, with their\ndetection and correction if they occur, has resulted in a markt diminution\nin the number of children in the public schools who are suffering from defects\nof this nature. Among the most prominent defects I may state that\ndefective vision has been reduced from an incidence of 13 . i per cent in\n1909 to 9.9 per cent in 1915; defective nasal breathing, which means the\n\nII\n\n"}
{"page": 768, "printed_page": "756", "text": "756\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIChUd Hygiene\n\npresence of adenoid growths, has been reduced from i8 . i per cent in 1909\nto 10 per cent in 1915; enlarged tonsils, from 22 per cent in 1909 to 11 .6\nper cent in 1915.\nThe most important problem we have at present is that connected\nwith malnutrition among the children. Serious cases are easily recognized,\nbut the more subtle forms of the disease often pass unnotist, and many\nsuch children are considered normal, because they form so predominant\na group among certain racial types. In the control of this class of cases\nit is necessary, not only that the home and the school unite, but that every\npossible aid be appHed from both sources. Open- window classrooms, school\nlunches, better hygiene and food for the child at home, and proper medical\ncare are requisite, but here again the time to prevent malnutrition in school\nchildren is during the period of infancy.\nThe final method of control of the school child comes at the time when\nhe leaves school for the purpose of going to work. In this state, between\nthe ages of fourteen and sixteen years, such children must obtain employment certificates from the local board of health. It has been possible,\nthru the establishment of the Bureau of Child Hygiene, to make this work\ncontinuous with the supervision of the child during his or her school life.\nWe consider adequate physical examination of these children to be of the\nutmost importance, and no child is allowed to receive an employment\ncertificate unless perfect health can be shown. The children who are in\nobvious need of health-supervision are kept under control.\n\nSOCIAL ASPECTS OF SCHOOL HYGIENE\nDONALD B. ARMSTRONG, DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WELFARE, NEW\nYORK ASSOCIATION FOR IMPROVING THE CONDITION OF THE\nPOOR, NEW YORK, N.Y.\nThe New York City Department of Health budget request for 19 15\nincluded an item of approximately $27,000 for additional dental clinics.\nThis was justified on the ground that the 19 13 records of medical inspection of the school children showed that about 59 per cent of the school\nenrolment were in need of dental care and that there were about 524,000\ncases of dental defects in the city schools. But, the request failed of\napproval, altho the Board of Education devotes about $3,000,000 annually\nto the re-education of children held back in their classes probably in part\nat least, by incapacitating, tho preventable and curable, physical and\nmental defects. The sum of $27,000 refused for prevention, $3,000,000\nauthorized for re-education, part of which is for ineffective cure!\nThere are many things to be realized in a complete consideration of\nthe social aspects of school hygiene of which only those of apparently\ngreater importance can be considered here.\n\n"}
{"page": 769, "printed_page": "757", "text": "Departmentl\n\nSOCIAL\n\nASPECTS\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n757\n\nIt is estimated that in the year 1914 there were probably about 950,000\ncases of physical defects among the school children of New York City.\nThis indicates, not only a tremendous loss in efficiency, a great economic\nwaste, an extremely poor conservation of human resources, and a severe\nhandicap upon the workings of the educational system, but it is placing\nan unnatural and an unnecessary limitation upon the social and economic\nwelfare of a vital part of our national structure — the children, our potential\ncitizens. Much of this disability is preventable or curable. Ought we\nnot to realize that this is not only possible but worth while ?\nThe contrast between wise and unwise health expenditures is no more\nclearly illustrated than by the appropriations for health departments,\nparticularly in some of our smaller cities and towns. Here is seen most\nclearly the necessity for popular education which shall make possible\nrational value judgments concerning matters of health importance. The\nschool hygienists, struggHng for health-department funds, frequently\nmeet in battle with the plumbers and nuisance-abaters before the august\njudges clothed with appropriating powers, and almost as frequently go\ndown in defeat. In Auburn, N.Y., in 1913, out of a health appropriation\nof $12,320, $7000 or 57 per cent was spent on garbage-disposal, leaving\napproximately $5000 for such measures as the control of communicable\ndiseases, anti-tuberculosis work, infant-welfare work, and school hygiene.\nIn 1913 Elmira appropriated $6000 for health and spent $1200 for plumbinginspection. At the same time Elmira is credited with having no schoolinspection. This $1200 spent on pipes and drains would be immensely\nmore effective if devoted to the removal of defects in human plumbing,\nsuch as the adenoids and tonsils of school children. It is a contest between\nsoil pipes and windpipes, with the odds aU in favor of the non-human\nvariety.\nOn the distinctly social side of the question there are various points,\nmany of which are generally applicable to all health work and a few of\nwhich are of special significance in school hygiene. Perhaps we can briefly\npresent the more important of these as follows:\nI. In all health work in the prevention of physical defects among school\nchildren, it is essential that we be not blinded to the underlying, indirect,\neconomic, and social factors in the etiology of our problem. Frequently\nthose interested, suffering from an almost inevitable myopia association,\nwith close contact with the details of a problem, fail to see it in its entirety;\nthey do not see the necessity for the correction of such predisposing factors\nas the inadequate family income, lack of adequate instruction regarding\neconomic expenditures for, and the proper use of, foods, our unimaginative,\nindividualistic, competitive system of industrial organization, .the economic\ndependence of the mothers of the school children, the effects of bad breeding on the racial stock, and the necessity for healthy soil in which to sow\nthe seeds of education.\n\nli\n\n"}
{"page": 770, "printed_page": "758", "text": "758\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\n2. Health work in the schools may perhaps be outhned from one point\nof view somewhat as follows:\na) The detection, isolation, and suppression of communicable disease;\nb) The discovery and correction of non-communicable physical and\nmental defects;\nc) The encouragement of strength and resistance to infection and the\ndevelopment of healthy normal bodies and minds.\nIn great part the types of health work we have been used to in the past\nhave been of an eliminative, suppressive character. In school hygiene,\nfor instance, there was first attempted the control of communicable diseases.\nThis was health work of a suppressive character. Of late, however, we have\nbeen giving increasing attention to the more constructive phases of school\nhygiene. We are now attempting, tho indeed with grotesquely inadequate\nmeasures, the elimination of non-communicable defects and the prevention\nof improper and insufficient feeding and the resultant malnutrition by the\nestablishment of lunches in the schools — an experiment in itself of great\nsocial importance, significant as a demonstration of the economic and social\nvalue of group-feeding. We are now going still farther in the use of prophylactic dental clinics, dental nurses, to say nothing of the comprehensive\nprogram for physical training and development.\nThis constructive element in modern health work is exceedingly promising and is to be found in all phases of health activity. In the factories,\nfor instance, where industrial dusts and disease are associated, not only are\nshower baths provided where the dusts may be washt off and industrial\ndisease supprest, but there is added to the equipment bathing pools where\nhealth and resistance to industrial disease may be constructed.\nThus modern, constructive, creative health work presents a previously\nlacking social content. In school work it indicates the realization of the\nsocial value of healthy children. It is attempting there to lay a firmer\nphysical foundation upon which the world may hope to see constructed\na finer social state. It realizes that without a physically sound substratum\nsocial evolution is bound to be abortive. It is from this point of view that\nschool-health work is of very high significance when socially interpreted.\n3. The foundations of health education must be laid in the schools.\nThis is of particular importance in the light of our modern conception of\nhealth work. In our more advanst communities we scarcely need speak\nlonger of public-health work. It is possible now to drop the word \"public\"\nand to talk of health. This means that personal health, personal hygiene,\nis to be the keynote of modern sanitation. The schools are, beyond comparison, the most valuable instruments for the instruction of society's\nmembers in the matters of hygiene.\nA great deal is said regarding the use of the school as a social center.\nIndeed, there is seen on all sides the increasing use of the schools as centers\nfor community life, and in no field is this development of greater importance\n\n"}
{"page": 771, "printed_page": "759", "text": "Department)\n\nA PRACTICAL\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIN HYGIENE\n\n759\n\nthan in the dissemination of knowledge regarding infection and healthpreservation. Special literature on various municipal health problems is\nbeing constantly prepared and presented to the children. Health days of\nall kinds are set aside for special observance. Recently, indeed, a plan has\nbeen proposed for the development, in connection with school communitycenter work, of a self-supporting medical center for meeting the sickness\nand health needs of the school neighborhood.\nSuch potential channels for education as the school-lunch system, not\ndesigned originally for special educational use, is now employed for the\nenhancement of knowledge regarding sanitary, dietary, economic, and\nculinary food values. If the schools are to serve a further socio-hygienic\npurpose, every effort must be made to bring to perfection the physical\nequipment, so that it may serve during school hours as an example to the\nchildren of the essentials of a hygienic and sanitary environment.\n4. While it is customary for us to classify disease, according to its\norigin, as environmental or constitutional, one can, with justice, say that\nall the former and most of the latter class are of distinct social origin,\ndepending upon social habits and customs for their transmission or development, and to be combated by social instruments.\nThis conception of\ndisease is certainly applicable to the affections of school life, and, as the\nchild is the ward of the state, society has here a most urgent obhgation to\nmaintain healthful conditions. This society is doing to the extent to which\nthere has been developt a sense of social responsibility. There is the additional necessity for this basis of health in the schools of the educational\nI system is to bear its best fruits. A physical foundation is essential to the\n.successful and economic working of the educational mechanism.\nThe\nfpouring of pure wine into crackt vessels was ever a wasteful and futile\n[process. An active social consciousness will make possible the avoidance\n[of such tremendous wastes as are involved in an educational system which,\nbecause it refuses to use well-known and tested preventive measures, turns\nput annually an army of incompetents, misfits, physical defectives, and\nsufferers from mental inadequacy, all of whom will serve society abominably and exactly after the manner in which society has met its own\n[obligations to them.\n\nA PRACTICAL\nFRANCIS M. WALTERS,\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nSTATE NORMAL\n\nIN HYGIENE\n\nSCHOOL, WARRENSBURG,\n\nMO.\n\nIn matters of health knowing and doing are widely separated. Knowledge influences, but does not determine, action. We are largely controlled\n[thru an automatic nervous mechanism which reacts to the influences by\n[which we are surrounded, and only slightly controlled by conscious effort,\n'he excited will can for short intervals govern the body, but this instrument\n\n"}
{"page": 772, "printed_page": "760", "text": "76o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntChUd Hygiene\n\nonly too readily succumbs to our instincts, appetites, desires, and habits.\nThese are always on the job, and they do not easily take orders from the\nhigher authority. Why does the young woman persist in her use of\nunhygienic clothing and footwear when she knows better ? Why does the\nlaborer continue to overwork when he realizes each day its harmful effects ?\nWhy does the obese patient disobey the injunction of his physician and\novereat ? Why does the victim of delirium tremens go on using alcohol ?\nWhy do we all put into practice much less hygiene than we know ? It is the\ncompeUing nature of the forces that automatically determine the course of\nlife. Our main problem, as I see it, is to adjust, and to some extent reconstruct, for the pupil his controlling mechanism. We must implant in his\ninner nature habits, tendencies, desires, ideals, and prejudices which will\ncause him to do, without very much thinking, what is best for his health,\nand we must so strengthen his will that it shall be able to regulate and\nsupplement his lower controlling mechanism. While methods for the\naccompHshment of this essential purpose may vary with the teacher, there\nare certain aims which should be kept in mind by all.\nThe pupil must be brought into an understanding of the nature and\nvalue of his instincts, appetites, and natural inclinations, and also of their\nlimitations. He must know to what extent it is advantageous to follow\ntheir leadings and in what respects they fail to be a true guide. I may\nillustrate this point by reference to the sensation of fatigue. While positive\nfatigue resulting from prolonged muscular exertion truly calls for rest,\nnegative fatigue, which results from slight exertion when one is not used\nto exercise, and chronic fatigue, which results from constitutional causes,\ncall just as loudly for rest, altho exercise instead of rest is frequently needed\nfor their relief.\nPerversions of the automatic system should also be understood, and\nip their study I believe that we may improve greatly upon our usual presentation ofstimulants and narcotics. Instead of a detailed study of the\neffects of alcohol and nicotine upon the body, expecting thereby to establish a deep and abiding prejudice against their use, I would suggest the\ngiving of a few illuminating lessons upon the effects of these and other\nsubstances upon the automatic mechanism of control, showing how they\nrender it unreliable as a guide for the admission of materials into the body.\nWe would then not be required to argue the question as to whether tea,\ncoffee, alcohol, tobacco, soft drinks, or anything else, appreciably affects\nthe health of this one or that. Our great concern is their effect upon our\nmechanism of control. The point is thus easily made that drug habits are\nto be broken, not so much on account of their immediate effect upon the\nhealth as for their effect upon one's ability properly to manage his body.\nIt is useless to talk about controlling health until we are able to shape the\ngrooves along which the life-forces expend themselves. Man must be\nmaster of his habits. To demonstrate this principle, and as exercise in\n\n"}
{"page": 773, "printed_page": "761", "text": "Department]\n\nA PRACTICAL\n\nCOURSE\n\nOF STUDY\n\nIN HYGIENE\n\n761\n\ntraining the will, I insist upon my pupils breaking what some consider\ntrivial habits, such as tea- and coffee-drinking, habits that waste their\nnervous energy, wrong habits of work, and habits of an antisocial nature;\nand upon their substitution for these, habits that lead in the right direction.\n2. We must supply for the pupil an impelling motive.\n3. We must provide actual drill in the application of hygienic principles. These are both problems which greatly tax the skill and ingenuity of the teacher. In my own work I have found a valuable aid in\ntheir solution in the requirement of corrective work on the part of the\npupil. Advantage is taken of the fact that perfect health is seldom\nattained, to place before the student the general problem of putting his\nhealth upon a higher plane. He is told that he will receive a grade upon\nhis health, based largely upon his ability to control and improve his physical condition, which will be averaged with his other grades in determining\nhis final standing in the subject. When, at the close of the course, the\nphysical tests and measurements are repeated, inquiries into bodily conditions are again made, and the health account with each student is cast\nup, the results are most encouraging.\nFor example, in our two hygiene\nsses for the spring term of this year, in which 57 students were enroled,\nfollowing results were obtained:\nNumber who made noticeable improvements in health, 55. Number\nose health was the same on entering and on leaving the class, i. Number whose health was not so good on leaving as on entering the class, i.\nOf the 55 who improved in health, 15 increast in weight, this being a desira! ble change, and 8 who had had an excess of weight were able to make perceptible reductions, one girl losing 15 pounds and another 13. Twenty-one\nj made substantial improvements in posture, while 32 of the girls showed\nr ^p improved condition of the muscles. Nine cases of constipation were\nI^Bred and an equal number secured decided improvement.\nTen of the\n\"Students were able to rid themselves of mild nervous disorders, such as headI ache, insomnia, nervousness, and the tendency to worry. Nine of the girls\nimproved their complexions, a large number stopt drinking coffee, and one\nI of the boys broke the tobacco habit. Twenty with blood-pressure above\n1 the average for young people succeeded in lowering it, the fall varying in\ndifferent individuals from 5 to 25 millimeters.\nSeven having a disturbed\nI circulation (too much blood moving toward the head and too little toward\n; the feet, indicated by chilliness of the extremities) obtained rehef, and 10\nI having pulse rates of above 85 were able to secure advantageous reductions.\nI Thirty-seven increast their lung capacity, the greatest increase being 40\nI^ubic inches. From the results obtained with the hundreds of students\nH^o have taken this course, I feel justified in suggesting that much subject-matter relating to the use of exercise, posture, diet, proper methods of\neating, nervous conservation, etc., as a means of correcting bodily ills and\ndefects be included in the course.\n\nlb\n\n"}
{"page": 774, "printed_page": "762", "text": "762\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\n4. The subject-matter of a practical course in hygiene must be carefully selected, arranged in logical sequence, and simply presented. Truths\nwhich require daily application must be exprest in phraseology easily\ntranslated into action. Such a course, to be sure, will include much subjectmatter relating to diseases caused by germs. Every person should, in\nkeeping with our militaristic tendencies, be a good fighter of germs. He\nshould know how to fight them offensively and defensively. He should\nunderstand the simple methods of preventing germ invasions thru the\nskin and the mucous linings, and of dislodging such of his invisible enemies\nas have entrencht themselves upon his body domain. He should know how\nto intercept germs in their passage from one to another, how to destroy\nthem outside of the body, and how to keep his environment from supplying\nharboring and recruiting stations for his bacterial foes.\nTo understand the operation of the forces that influence health we must\nunderstand something of the nature and plan of the body, and this necessitates the teaching of some physiology and anatomy. This, however, must\nbe subordinated to hygiene, and taught for the purpose of illuminating it.\nIn the past we dragged in so much physiology and anatomy that little time\nwas left for hygiene. Today, in some places, teachers are going to the\nopposite extreme of asking pupils to accept and apply the laws of health on\nfaith. We need to strike the happy mean of supplying enough physiology\nand anatomy to make health laws understandable, while avoiding technical\nand unimportant details.\nIt is up to the teachers — those who teach thru the press and from the\nplatform, as well as those who toil in the classroom — to bring about this\ncondition. But I would not overlook the reaction of work of this character\nupon the teacher himself. It is a constant reminder to him of the necessity\nfor keeping up health and efficiency. He is made happy by expressions of\nappreciation from pupils, parents, and school officers. He realizes increast\npower from functioning in a new field. And he ceases to be merely a\nteacher, but becomes teacher, preacher, physician, and general adviser\ncombined.\nCHILD\nWOODS\n\nHYGIENE,\n\nHUTCHINSON,\n\nFIRST AID TO THE\n\nPRESIDENT, AMERICAN\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nUNINJURED\n\nACADEMY\n\nOF MEDICINE,\n\nIf the World- War rid us of militarism and of the drill-sergeant idea in\nthe schoolroom, it may be worth all it costs. Modern war calls for science,\nand science is precisely what our present system of education doesn't give\nas yet. Military training in the schools may prove the great emancipator\nfor whom we have been waiting to free our system of education from the\nclerical shackles and classical absurdities of the past, and place it upon a\nhygienic, rational, and scientific basis. Instead of deploring it, we should\n\n"}
{"page": 775, "printed_page": "763", "text": "Department)\n\nCHILD\n\nHYGIENE,\n\nFIRST\n\nAID TO THE\n\nUNINJURED\n\n763\n\nmeet it half-way and see whether we cannot easily obtain in the name of\nwar what we have not been able to obtain for the bodily welfare of the\nchild in the frivolous name of play. Instead of a hard-won and barely\ntolerated section on school hygiene, we may be able to make all schooling\nhygienic and all education improving to the body and health of the child\nas well as to his mental development. To paraphrase Scripture, if we seek\nfirst the kingdom of Mars and its efficiency, all other things may be added\nunto us.\nModern military ideals can be made to work a real transvaluation of\neducational values. It would do us no harm to reverse our ideals for a\nfew decades, for there is no danger of our being dragged too far out of\nthe rut.\nFirst and foremost the war-school curriculum demands and aims at a\nigorous, healthy, well-balanst and well-trained body, \"a fust-class fighting\nn,\" or, what is equally important, fighting woman — a real militant.\nt that under modern conditions and you also get all the brain power\nand all the beauty that the individual was born with. Scholars can be\nmade in any kind of a cell or garret, but soldiers must be manufactured in\nI the open air. This solves the problem of ventilation, also of eyestrain,\nLwid of crooked backs from too much desk work.\n^B The things that the soldier must do, the things that the engineer must\n^o, the things that the munition worker, the hospital nurse, and the army\ncook must do, are the very things that children of both sexes. are most\neenly and intensely interested in — the very things on which they get no\npractical information in the present curriculum. We have so-called\nscience courses in the schools, but they begin at exactly the opposite end\nfrom the child's interest. They are making him hate science almost as\nI much as he now hates good literature. The war point of view would\nverse all this and solve the great pedagogic problem of interest.\nModern war is not just pulling the trigger or lunging with the bayonet.\nis electricity, it is aeronautics, it is chemistry, it is machinery of every\naginable\nsort and description — motors, submarines, telephones, helioa:\nIypphs, mines, dams, cement work, road-building, house-building, blackii\njsminithing, every art and craft of modern civilization. Not only so, but\n^ne half of modern war is fought in factories, and another fourth on raill^ftads and in supply departments.\nEvery soldier on the firing line requires\n^0 support him there and keep him supplied, three men and four women,\nh©n the railroads, in the munition works, in the equipment-factories, in\nl^pe hospitals, and on the farm. Education for modern war would solve\n^^ery problem of vocational training. Conscription covers, not merely\n^very possible soldier, but every worker, both male and female, in the\nl^^tire nation, and assigns to each one his or her place in the team. We\n\"re\nall enlisted for this war. As the old traditional discipline, both in the\niscn\nschoolroom and on the drill ground, tried to crush out individual differences,\n\nM..\n\nli\n\n"}
{"page": 776, "printed_page": "764", "text": "764\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\nto reduce us all to one monotonous similarity, the new discipline looks out\neagerly for differences and proceeds to utilize each one and fit it for its\nown special \"hole\" or gap in the great picture puzzle.\nWar, terrible and pitiable as it is, may be the hammer which is smashing\nthe way for a new era, for the long-delayed triumph of science and commonsense over tradition. Already it gives a new feeling of interest in life, a\nnew sense of solidarity with one's kind. Commonplace duties, prosaic\ntasks, menial services even, become interesting and worth while and\ndignified in the name of the safety of the nation and the protection of the\nhomeland. Rich and successful business men, fashionable society women,\nhighbrow scholars and professional men, high-school girls and college boys,\nare all eagerly drilling, and camp-draining, and tent-pitching, and hiking\nacross country, and cooking, and taking first-aid courses, and learning to\nsupply their own wants, and protect their health, and work with others\nfor the safety and happiness of the community in a way that they never\ncan forget as long as they live, in a way that augurs most happily for the\nfuture. The \"democracy of the dog tent,\" of the munitions-factory, of\nthe hospital ward may be the forerunner of a new and happier state, when\nonly those things that make for true manhood, true womanhood, will count,\nand all other distinctions be wiped out.\n\nSCHOOLHOUSES\nFRANK\n\nAND\n\nTHE FIRE HAZARD\n\nIRVING COOPER, ARCHITECT,\n\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nEvery day in the year two and one-half schoolhouses are on fire in the\nUnited States, but in the face of this fact the state legislature of Massachusetts has shown this last winter that it will risk the lives of its school\nchildren in fire-trap school buildings until another legislature meets, and\nthis state of affairs will probably continue as long as you permit the legislative mind to consider dollars as of more value than the lives of the school\nchildren. Believing in the old adage that Hghtning never strikes twice in\nthe same place, the Massachusetts legislature will continue to hazard the\nchildren in school buildings of a past generation that are carefully built\nfor quick burning. The Massachusetts legislature has said to its bodies of\npetitioning citizens, to its state chief inspector of school buildings, even to\nthe governor of the state, that it will do nothing to safeguard the hundreds\nof old school buildings which, for two hundred days in the year, its children\nare, by law, forst to attend.\nThe legislature closes each day's session with the petition, \"God save\nthe commonwealth of Massachusetts,\" but its members turn away from\nthe state commissioner of education when he asks them for laws which\nshall protect the children and safeguard the old buildings, while it listens\n\n"}
{"page": 777, "printed_page": "765", "text": "Department]\n\nSCEOOLHOUSES\n\nAND\n\nTEE\n\nFIRE HAZARD\n\n765\n\nwith solemnity to the head of an institution who asserts that the fire-stops\nwhich would make his building safe will injure it as a show piece of\narchitecture.\nOne school officer declared that he was convinst from his long experience\nof fifty years that there was no fire hazard, that there was nothing that\nrequired the attention of the law, and yet twenty-one little school children\nwere burned to death in the front vestibule of a school building without\nfire-stops in the town of Peabody, Mass., on the twenty-eighth day of last\nOctober. The official report states that the building was a substantial,\nlarge, and roomy structure, and the egresses were thought to be ample for\nthe number of children who occupied it. Many times at the sound of the\nbell it had been vacated in a minute and a half, the children were well\ntrained and disciplined, but they had only been trained to leave the building\nby way of the two exits prepared for them, and unfortunately on the day\nin question this line of march led directly to a vestibule into which the\nsmoke and flames were pouring. While the egresses provided were all the\nlaw required, it now appears evident that there should have been additional\nexits.\nThe state of Massachusetts was deeply stirred by this repetition of the\nschoolhouse fire in CoUinwood, Ohio, where the loss of life occurred from a\nsimilar cause. Public meetings were held, committees were appointed,\nand the usual investigations were made. In the city of Boston on November ninth, following the Peabody fire, a conference of officials of the cities\nand towns of the commonwealth and of citizens distinguisht in various\nlines of work connected with schools, met at Faneuil Hall to consider\nmethods of safeguarding the old school buildings. This conference was\nopened by the governor of the state. A state- wide committee was appointed\nat this meeting to consider what measures should be taken to safeguard\nexisting schoolhouses and insure the proper construction of new school\nLUMuses.\nI^B Its report, which was publish t by the Massachusetts fire-prevention\ncommissioner, advised in part that in basements all ceiUngs be plastered\non metal lath; that any wood partitions be replaced with masonry, or\nI covered with fire-resisting material; that in rooms used for cooking or\nI manual training or in other places where elements of danger were introduced,\nj sprinklers should be installed for fire protection. It advised that special\n! care be taken to fire-stop all openings, that stairways be freed of any inclosed\n\\ space under them, that they be shut off with partitions of metal lath, and\n' plastered, and stairways entered thru fireproof, spring-closing doors. It\n; advised that such inflammable material as waste paper, oils, etc., be placed\ni in metal receptacles and be kept in plain sight. It also advised that first! floor rooms have exits directly to the outside, a most important recommendation, as children from first-floor rooms would then not congest the main\n1 exits, and, moreover, such exits would provide a way out from the center\n\nli\n\n"}
{"page": 778, "printed_page": "766", "text": "766\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\ntChUd Hygiene\n\nof the building if the other exits became blockt. It advised that the 4-4\nsignal recommended by the fire chiefs be universally adopted for the fire\nsignal. This signal is given by four distinct rings followed after a slight\npause by a second four distinct rings. It was also recommended that fire\ndrills be an accustomed exercise, the time taken to be considered as a\nperiod for a lesson in order and discipUne.\nThe report of this state-wide committee brought favorable comment,\nand soon a demand arose for legislation to prevent a repetition of the\ntragic fire at Peabody. The state-wide committee took up this work,\nand that this proposed legislation for the control of existing school buildings\nshould fully meet requirements, the committee solicited opinions of officials\nand educators from all parts of the commonwealth.\nWhile absolute data were not available it was shown that the basement of a school building was the danger point, as from the records consulted over 90 per cent of the schoolhouse fires originated in that part of\nthe building; that the spread of fire was due chiefly to lack of fire-stopping\nand other means of preventing draughts into corridors and stairways; and\nthat the loss of life in schoolhouse fires had been due largely to smoke and\nfire gaining entrance to the stairways and vestibules which are the means\nof exit. Professor Breed, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,\ntestified that there had never been a loss of life in a schoolhouse fire where\nthe fire did not start in the basement.\nAfter many meetings a bill was drawn up and presented to the legislature. The committee to whom it was referred gave a single pubhc\nhearing. I will quote from the newspaper account, ''The remonstrants\ntalkt almost entirely on the question of dollars and cents which this legislation to prevent deaths of school children might cost.\"\nAltho urged to report the bill favorably by a strong body of representative citizens, including fire chiefs, architects, school commissioners, a\nrepresentation from the trustees of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the Massachusetts commissioner of education, and many others,\nthe committee reported the bill adversely.\nGovernor McCall, dissaproving the adverse report, offered a substitute\nbill. The legislature refused to substitute and side-stept its responsibility\nby referring the bill to the next general court, thus risking its children for\nanother nine months in schoolhouses which it obliges them by law to attend.\nThe United States spends over a hundred million dollars every year\nfor new school buildings and the greater part of this large amount of the\npeople's money is spent without expert advice on the subject of protection\nfrom the fire hazard. Moreover, this great sum is spent mostly, says Mr.\nBaldwin — business agent of the Massachusetts Board of Education — by\ncommittees who have no knowledge as to whether the architects they\nemploy work on economic principles, because there are no authoritative\ndata.\n\n"}
{"page": 779, "printed_page": "767", "text": "I\n\nDepartment!\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF\n\nHOME\n\nNURSING\n\nIN\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n767\n\nFew authorities have investigated the percentage of floor space in\nschool buildings of a known number of rooms that should be allowed in\neach case to corridors, schoolrooms, clothing flues, walls, etc. A plan\ncalled a model, lately brought to my observation, had less than 40 per cent\nof the floor area devoted to the working space of the building. Consequently ifthe building cost $100,000, only $40,000 of the taxpayers' money\nwas spent for the pupils' actual requirements. Would men at the head of\na business allow such a waste ? Should not school authorities have the\nsame care over the expenditure of school funds for school buildings as\nthey exercise in the employment of teachers or the purchase of suppUes ?\nExcept the United States Bureau of Education, the National Education Association is the only body which deals with country-wide problems,\nwhich has direct connection with all communities, and the recommendations ofwhich have influence and a degree of authority.\nI earnestly suggest that you consider the school-building problem and\nthat you establish standards of planning, construction, costs, fire protection,\nheating, ventilating, and sanitation in school buildings.\n\n^E TEACHING\nOF HOME\nNURSING\nAND\nTHE\nICHILDREN TO ELEMENTARY- AND HIGH-SCHOOL\nISABEL M.\n\nSTEWART,\n\nCOLUMBIA\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nCARE OF\nPUPILS\nN.Y.\n\nI am using this term, \"home nursing,\" because there seems to be no\ntter one. It is not an apt expression, because it can be interpreted in\nso many ways, but the sense in which it is popularly used is fairly well\nunderstood. Like \"home carpentering\" and \"home dressmaking,\" \"home\nnursing\" is applied to the work of the amateur as distinguisht from that\nof the professional, or expert. The term \"home care of the sick\" is preferred bymany, but this narrows the subject down to the consideration of\nsickness only, while \"nursing\" in its original and broadest sense means the\ncare of the well and the prevention of illness quite as much as the care of\nthe sick. According to Florence Nightingale, \" the very elements of what\nconstitutes good nursing are as little understood for the well as for the sick.\nThe same laws of health, or of nursing (for they are, in reality, the same)\nprevail among the well as among the sick. The breaking of them produces\nonly a less violent consequence among the former than among the latter.\"\nShe called this art, \"health nursing,\" and insisted that it should be a part\nof every woman's education. The problem before us is whether we desire\nto teach anything of this kind in public schools, whether such courses are\ndesirable or advisable. Such courses are already pursued in divers schools,\nsocieties, and clubs in all parts of the country. In the bulletins on Education for the Home J prepared by Dr. B. R. Andrews for the Bureau of\nEducation in 1914, it is stated that out of 163 colleges imparting instruction\n\nli\n\n"}
{"page": 780, "printed_page": "768", "text": "768\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[Child Hygien e\n\nin home economics, 35 had distinct courses in home nursing, and 10 in the\ncare of children; 42 elementary schools had courses in home nursing and\n37 in the care of children; and practically every one of the hundreds of\nhigh schools where the household arts are represented includes under this\ngeneral title similar instruction. This is only a fraction of the number of\ncourses provided by outside clubs and societies, and tho the numbers of\nthese are not known, there is every evidence that the demand is increasing\nrapidly.\nIt is not only society ladies with a passion for the more dramatic and\nsensational excitements of \"war\" nursing, who are clamoring for Red\nCross courses in home care of the sick and first aid; requests come from\nall kinds of groups, from school children and college students, camp-fire\ngirls and boy scouts, factory girls and women's clubs.\nThen, too, in spite of the multiphcation of hospitals and dispensaries,\nand the extension of visiting-nurse services, there are still many famihes\nwhere expert nursing care is an economic impossibiHty, and where more or\nless heavy responsibility must be borne by sisters, mothers, and other\nmembers of the family. This is especially necessary in long, chronic\nillnesses, in convalescence, and in the minor diseases of childhood. Even\nwhere there is no economic problem, on farms, in camps, and rural settlements, situations may arise at any time which require prompt and inteUigent\ncare if life is to be saved.\nIn order to get various points of view on these matters, and to balance\nup my own observation and experience with that of others, I have gathered\ntogether the opinions of a number of representative teachers, physicians,\nnurses, and other citizens, which will be summarized in the discussion\nfollowing. The general opinion seems to be that the dangers of overzealous and injudicious use are more than offset by the dangers of ignorance. ,\nPractically every person consulted agrees that there is a distinct need for\ninstruction in home nursing, first aid, and the care of children, and that\nsome place should be found for it in the regular scheme of education.\nOne or two disapprove of home nursing unless the courses are to be handled\nby professionally trained instructors, a few would confine such instruction\nto especially selected groups, and one objects strongly to any responsibihty\nfor child-care or assistance in illness being put on any elementary- or\nhigh-school pupil.\nA few, mainly teachers, suggest that such courses should also help in\npreparing specially qualified girls to act as children's nurses, mothers'\nhelpers, or convalescence nurses. This vocational t3^e, of course, will be\ndiscust later, but in the meantime we will speak only of the general informational course.\nIt is assumed by those who are familiar with the school system that\nthe teaching of hygiene will have been begun in the kindergarten and\ncontinued up to about the sixth grade in the form of incidental and informal\n\n"}
{"page": 781, "printed_page": "769", "text": "II\n\nDepartment!\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF HOME\n\nNURSING\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\n769\n\nteaching rather than thru set textbooks and exercises. By the time the\nchild is twelve years of age he should have formed habits of personal\ncleanliness and routine physical care, and should know something of the\nessentials of home and community health. At the age of thirteen or\nfourteen many children will be helping at home in the care of younger\nbrothers and sisters, and often will be depended on for much more responsible duties in cases of a mother's illness or special family emergencies.\nThis condition of things may be abnormal and altogether undesirable, as\nsome people maintain, and the school may seem to be encouraging a form\nof child labor by assuming that such duties are to be expected of twelyeto fourteen-year-old boys and girls.\nIt seems to be the consensus of opinion, however, that since the vast\nproportion of elementary-school pupils never reach the high school, if\nthey are to have any systematic instruction at all, it must come before\nthey graduate from the grammar school. Moreover, among our great\nforeign population particularly, the only way to reach the parents seems\nto be thru the children.\nInstead of formal topics, such as \"infant-feeding\" and \"common diseases and disorders of childhood,\" the school child should be considering\nsome such concrete problem as \"how to help in keeping a baby well in\nsummer,\" or \"how to help when there is sickness at home.\" . The ordinary\nmatters of bathing and dressing and sleep, etc., both for the baby and for\nthe slightly ill person, the making of a bed or a child's cot, keeping the\nroom fresh and clean, the cooking of a few simple invalid foods, and the\nmethods of making people comfortable in bed — these are not compHcated\nnor technical matters, and can well be graspt by seventh and eighthgrade pupils.\nIt seems to be the general opinion that in the elementary school this\nteaching will necessarily be handled largely by the grade teachers, since\neven where school nurses are employed it would be impossible to take\ntheir time from more pressing duties.\nToward the end of the high-school period, when the girl has covered\nsome elementary work in science and has reacht a stage at which she may\nsafely be intrusted with wider knowledge and more responsibility, the\nconsensus of opinion is that a second course should be given which would\nbe based on good, sound physiology, with some knowledge of bacteriology,\nsanitation, and dietetics. Whether this course is called \"Home Care of\nthe Sick,\" or \"Home Economics\" or \"Applied Biology\" does not matter\nso much ; but it is important that the information given be soundly scientific,\nand that any procedures taught should be actually carried out in as careful\nand thoro a manner as possible. Such a course might include.the planning,\nfurnishing, and care of the sick room, the making and changing of a bed\nfor a sick person, devices for comfort and relief in passing ailments, bathing\nand attention to ordinary physical needs, the giving of medicines and\n\n"}
{"page": 782, "printed_page": "770", "text": "770\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\ncommon treatments, such as the simple enema, a mustard plaster, and\ncold and hot applications, the observation of important symptoms, and\nfirst-aid treatment in fractures, sprains, cuts, burns, and common injuries.\nThe primary object, however, is to make the pupil understand and\nappreciate the whole problem of sickness, not only as it affects her and her\nhome, but as it affects the community and state. This is the time to show\nher the results of ignorance and quackery, and to give her sound facts\nregarding the various causes which produce ill health, and the measures\nwhich have proved most effective in safeguarding human life. All this\ncan be made concrete and dramatic, supplemented by actual studies of\nconditions in her own community. If the much-discust subject of sex\nhygiene is to be taught, there is no place where it can be brought in more\nnaturally than in such a course as this; but the prejudice of some parents\nhas to be considered.\nA visit to very carefully selected departments of an up-to-date hospital\nto point out the elaborate precautions that must be taken, and the compHcated services employed in caring for sick people, not only impresses\nthem deeply with the highly technical and responsible nature of a real\nnurse's work, but also shows them the vocational possibiUties in that profession ina concrete, and usually an attractive, way.\nThe brain work must be done largely in the school or college building,\nwith a simple equipment for demonstration, and a laboratory where each\nmember of the class can carry out each procedure as far as possible. The\ncost of such an equipment will depend on the number of students in the\nclass and the method employed. It might range all the way from $50 to\n$300. The lecture and demonstration can be carried on with a class up\nto about 40 members, but for practice the number should not exceed 12 to\n16 or at most 20. For demonstrations it is best to secure a \"live\" patient\nor subject, but a large doll can be used fairly satisfactorily for many\nprocedures. Students usually use each other for subjects as far as possible,\ntho this has its disadvantages because so much time is likely to be wasted.\nA two-hour period is almost necessary, and in many cases a three-hour\nperiod is not too long.\nIt is not necessary to repeat procedures here to the point of high\nefficiency, since the purpose of the practical work is more to enable the\npupil to grasp the idea of the thing and to apply the principles than to\ndevelop skill. A simple textbook on home nursing, such as that which is\npubUsht under the auspices of the Red Cross, is helpful if the teacher is\ninexperienst, but a more satisfactory way is to assign readings from a\nvariety of sources and have pupils take notes on the nursing procedures.\nFrequent quizzes are needed to clear up misconceptions and fasten important facts in mind.\nThe question, ''Who should teach these courses?\" cannot be settled\narbitrarily, as so much depends on where the course is given and the people\n\n"}
{"page": 783, "printed_page": "771", "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nCARE\n\nOF\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n771\n\nwho are available. It is generally recommended that physicians teach\nfirst aid, since this is a form of amateur medical practice. Courses in the\ncare of children are given by domestic-science teachers, physicians, and\nnurses. I am inclined to say that for very elementary courses the teacher\nwho has had special instruction in the hygiene and care of children could\nquite safely teach the subject, supplemented, perhaps, by one or two\ntalks by a nurse. The high-school course on children demands a wider\nknowledge and greater skill, and, on the whole, would be more satisfactorily handled by a woman physician or a nurse. Every city and town\nhas medical organizations and nursing organizations which would gladly\nadvise and assist in working out a practical and safe course of this kind.\nHospital training schools, visiting-nurse associations, boards of health, or\nRed Cross organizations, can also be of distinct assistance, and their\ncooperation could, I am confident, be readily secured.\nFinally, I will suggest that a joint committee be appointed from representatives ofthe National Education Association, the American Medical\nAssociation, and the National League of Nursing Education, with the\nidea of studying this whole question, making recommendations as to its\nhandhng, and working out a course of study which will be suggestive and\nhelpful for those who are considering the introduction of such work in the\npublic school, or in outside clubs and organizations.\n\nTHE PHYSICAL\nTALIAPERRO\n\nCLARK,\n\nCARE\n\nOF RURAL-SCHOOL\n\nSURGEON,\nUNITED\nSTATES\nWASHINGTON, D.C.\n\nPUBLIC\n\nCHILDREN\nHEALTH\n\nSERVICE,\n\nThe value of a maximum efiiciency of the individual citizen as a national\nasset has become more apparent than formerly during these days of widespread interest in national preparedness. It is of interest, therefore, to\nknow how this may be secured. Just as it is wiser during peace to prepare\nfor war, so it is better, if good results are to be attained, to institute measures\nto promote individual efficiency at an early age of development rather than\nlater in life when these processes have slackened or come to a standstill.\nIn this respect health-supervision of school children is an effective instrument, because the school offers such ready opportunity for the institution\nof measures designed to promote normal development.\nThe need for more extended supervision of the health of school children\nis shown by the large number of individuals revealed by physical examinations who have not attained the highest physical development by reason of\ndefects and abnormalities of growth that are preventable, or at least control able intheir incipiency. Experience has shown that the' greater number of such defects have had their origin in childhood, at a period when their\nearly recognition gives greatest hope of correction.\n\n"}
{"page": 784, "printed_page": "772", "text": "772\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n(Child Hygiene\n\nFor example, a table, compiled from the records of the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, United States Navy Department, for the year ended\nDecember 31, 19 14, shows that, of the 72,410 applicants for original enlistment in the Navy and 20,674 in the Marine Corps, 76 per cent of the former\nand 82 .4 per cent of the latter were rejected for physical and mental disabilities; and that, during the year ended December 31, 19 15, there were\n73,028 applicants for original enlistment in the Navy and 21,676 in the\nMarine Corps, of whom 75 .4 per cent were rejected by the Navy and 83\nper cent by the Marine Corps for like causes.\nFurthermore, other observers have stated that, in the case of volunteers\nfor military service, rejections because of physical unfitness were in direct\nrelation to the number of years spent in school. It follows as a corollary,\ntherefore, that unhygienic school buildings and failure to provide for medical\ninspection of school children might be responsible in a measure for a large\nproportion of the adults in the general population who have not attained\nthe highest physical efficiency.\nThe physical care of school children demands serious attention in every\ncommunity. Intensive studies of rural-school conditions conducted by the\nPublic Health Service have revealed a special need for health-supervision\nof rural-school children because: (i) they constitute 60.7 per cent of the\ntotal school enrolment of the country; (2) they are largely denied medical\nattention by specialists, such as may be had in hospitals and cUnics in\ncities; (3) they cannot be protected en masse by health laws as is the case\nin urban communities; (4) and they are more unduly affected by endemic\ndiseases which diminish vital resistance and exercise an unjurious influence\non physical and mental development, such as malaria, hookworm, and\npellagra.\nThe school itself should be made a place in which the healthy child\nmay grow in a normal manner, and where the best development of the\nweakened child may be secured. In this connection we have recently\ncompiled the physical averages obtained during an intensive survey by\nthe Public Health Service of all the rural-school children of a county in a\nmiddle western state. It was found that the relative physical development ofboys and girls varied at different age periods in a manner not entirely\nin accord with that recorded by a number of other observers in other\nlocalities.\nVariations in the growth of the child call for great expenditures of\nphysical and mental energy at certain age periods. Great care must be\nexercised in the school at this time to maintain correct postures, to provide\nsuitable exercises, and to adapt the curriculum to the special needs of the\nchild in order to secure the best physical development.\nThe important consideration in connection with the physical underdevelopment, observed in the rural-school population of this county was\nto determine the cause. Malaria and hookworm are not present in this\n\n"}
{"page": 785, "printed_page": "773", "text": "Department]\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nCARE\n\nOF RURAL-SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n773\n\ncommunity, pellagra is unknown, and there is but a limited prevalence of\ntuberculosis and typhoid fever. These diseases, therefore, are eliminated\nas causative factors. On the other hand, our observations tend to show\nthat the habitual diet of these children was largely responsible. For\nexample, the breakfast of 40 per cent of them was composed almost exclusively of carbohydrates, and but 60 per cent of them had a mixt diet of\ncarbohydrates and proteids. Furthermore, 57 per cent used coffee, only\n15 per cent drank milk, and i . 16 per cent did not habitually eat breakfast.\nThe need is plain, therefore, for the general establishment of domesticscience classes in the schools, and the teaching of food values and food\npreparation.\nFurthermore, no suitable facilities for play were provided, and no\nsystematic physical exercises were practist at any of the rural schools of\nthe county. The beneficial influences of these on health and physical\ndevelopment are now matters of common experience. Their absence may\naccount in part for the subnormal physical development of a number of these\nchildren.\nRanking in importance with measures intended to increase vital resistance thru maintenance of the normal physical development of a school child\nare those directed to the discovery and correction of physical defects.\nPhysical defects among rural-school children are potentially of more serious\nconsequences than those among children in cities. This is due to the limited\nmedical facilities in most rural districts, and in part to poorly constructed\n;and equipt school buildings. Many examples illustrative of this observation have come under our personal notice. Witness the case of a small child\nbetween six and seven years of age who, figuratively speaking, was standing,\non the edge of a threatening volcano, so far as Hfe was concerned, by reason\nf a neglected inflammation of the middle ear. The otoscope revealed in\nthis case a slit in a very congested eardrum thru which pus was oozing in\neat quantity. Neglect of such a condition leads to deafness and not infreiquently to death. The parents of this child were unaware of the danger.\nMany cases similar to this occur in rural schools and remain unrecognized\nru the lack of medical supervision until too late to prevent destructive\nanges.\nOur investigations in the rural districts have revealed an almost comlete disregard of visual prophylaxis. The faulty illumination so freuently observed in rural schools is largely responsible for much of the\npaired vision encountered.\nRecent measurement of the desk-illumination\nf an eight-room school on a cloudy day showed that the illumination of\nmore than half of the desks in a number of the classrooms was less than onethird of that demanded by the minimum standard. The effect of such\nfaulty illumination is to promote eyestrain and to increase nearsightedness.\nThe illumination of these classrooms could have been doubled by the proper\ntinting of reflecting surfaces; but the school authorities were without\n\nII.\n\n"}
{"page": 786, "printed_page": "774", "text": "774\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Child Hygiene\n\ncompetent advice in this important detail of school-construction. The\nneed for such advice is largely responsible for many of the undesirable\nfeatures of rural-school life.\nFurthermore, a number of rural-school children had never been refracted\nand were sorely in need of glasses. The rural-school child cannot step\naround the corner to an eye clinic and secure the free services of a specialist.\nThese children are frequently found wearing glasses entirely unsuited to\nthem, as was a girl with one eye hyperopic and the other myopic, who was\nwearing a farsighted lens in front of the nearsighted eye.\nThe rural-school child is greatly in need of instruction in the care of the\nteeth and in need of adequate dental service. This is shown by the fact\nthat 49.3 per cent of the children had defective teeth, 21 .1 per cent had\ntwo or more missing teeth, and only 16.9 per cent had dental attention.\nFurthermore, 14.4 per cent of these children never used a toothbrush,\n58.2 per cent used one occasionally, and only 27.4 per cent used one\ndaily.\nWe have collected data relative to the occurrence of communicable\ndiseases among rural children while attending school. The compilation\nof this material has not yet been completed. Sufficient evidence has been\nadduced, however, to indicate that the school is a factor in the spread of\nthese diseases in rural communities, owing largely to the fact that the children of individual famihes are rarely in intimate contact except in school.\nAn undue prevalence of these affections is measurably responsible for an\nincrease in the number of children with impairment of the organs of special\nsense.\nThe field investigations of the Public Health Service show certain\nproblems of rural schools which require special consideration. For example :\nWhat is the remedy for the conditions just enumerated? How can the\nphysical efficiency be increast? How can hampering physical defects be\navoided? How is the control of communicable diseases to be brought\nabout ? How is improvement in rural school-construction to be secured ?\nThe answer is: (i) by abolishing school districts and establishing a county\nunit of school administration; (2) by establishing an efficient system of\nhealth-supervision of school children; (3) by consolidating rural schools.\nLet us consider these three facts further.\n1. Educators have long advocated the aboUtion of separate school\ndistricts for administrative purposes, and the substitution therefor of the\ncounty unit. By so doing uniform school facilities can be provided for the\ncounty as a whole, which would include courses of study, requirements of\nteachers, duration of school term, and the pro rata distribution of school\nfunds. In the absence of such a system of administration, generalized\nhealth-supervision of school children is well-nigh impossible.\n2. Measures for the health-supervision of school children are of\nprime importance for educational purposes and the protection of health.\n\n"}
{"page": 787, "printed_page": "775", "text": "Department!\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nCARE\n\nOF RURAL-SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n775\n\nUnfortunately, only a small part of the rural-school population of the\ncountry enjoys the benefits of such supervision.\na) The interest of rural communities in the matter of medical inspection\ncan best be secured thru intensive school-surveys. The value of this procedure lies in the fact that, by calling attention to unsuspected physical\ndefects in their children and school conditions requiring attention, the necessity for some form of health-supervision is brought home to parents. We\nhave had practical experience of the educational value of such investigations\nthru reports of an increast number of children seeking relief following surveys\nof this character.\nb) The medical inspection of schools in rural districts is accompanied\nby a serious handicap, owing to the impossibility, under existing conditions,\nof securing the services of a person properly qualified for this position.\nc) The restricted financial resources of most rural communities preclude\n'the offering of a salary commensurate with the attainments of a desirable\n'school-inspector. This difficulty can be overcome, in great measure, by\n^combining the duties of the school physician with those of the district,\ncounty, or local health officer, with a salary equivalent to the combined\n[salaries of the two positions. The trend of recent practice is to place the\n[health-supervision of school children under the direction of the health\n[authorities. Indeed such is the case in a number of our largest cities>\nEnamely, Baltimore, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Cincinnati, Detroit, New\n[York, Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh. By so doing it becomes possible for\nlese communities to secure the full-time services of a trained sanitarian\nfor health work and school-inspection.\n3. The possibilities of rural-school consolidation for the protection of\n[the health of the children is an important consideration in the adoption of\n[this measure. The sanitary requirements of school-constructions can more\nreadily be secured in the larger buildings of this type and the child thereby\n)laced in a more healthful school environment.\nLastly, no system of health-supervision will be effective without the\n:ooperation of the parents. This can be secured thru the employment of\nLctful school nurses to do follow-up work. The practical application of the\n)rinciples of sanitation by an efficient nurse in time of sickness will do much\ntoward educating parents regarding measures for safeguarding the health\n)f their children. In addition, the cooperation of social workers and the\nformation of civic leagues and of home- and school-improvement asso'ciations among rural-school children lead toward a better understanding\nof good citizenship and of the obligations of the individual to the community\nwhich, in time, should bring about improved social conditions and an\nincreast efficiency of the individual.\n\n"}
{"page": 788, "printed_page": "776", "text": "776\n\nNATIONAL\n\nCOOPERATION\nWILLARD\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIN HEALTH\n\nS. SMALL, PRINCIPAL, EASTERN\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\nADMINISTRATION\nHIGH SCHOOL, WASHINGTON,\n\nD.C.\n\nWithin the last year the United States Bureau of Education has collected\na large body of information with regard to health-teaching agencies in the\ncountry. The number and variety of such agencies are truly amazing.\nThey are both official and voluntary, commercial and philanthropic, single\nin their aim — to promote health — and merely incidental to the main purpose of the institution to which they are auxiliary. A few illustrative\nexamples will suffice: department of health, state, county, and local;\ndepartments of education, state, county, and local; insurance companies;\nindustrial corporations; department stores; labor organizations; fraternal\norganizations; an ti- tuberculosis associations; safety-first associations;\nmedical societies; social-hygiene organizations; Youngs Mens' Christian\nAssociations; charities organizations; boys' and girls' clubs; schools,\ncolleges, and universities; bureaus of the federal government; and many\nothers. Needless to say there is overlapping, duplication, and waste\nmotion.\nBeginnings have been made in cooperation and coordination. Mostly\nhowever, these attempts at cooperation have been voluntary or quasiofficial, and consequently of doubtful permanency. A typical example of\ncooperation of the quasi-official sort is the Minnesota Public Health Association organized in March 19 14. It was an independent organization\nfinanst by voluntary contributions. It served as a coordination center for\ninvestigation and propaganda and had recognized relations with the State\nBoard of Health, the State Department of Education, the State Federation\nof Womens' Clubs, and other voluntary organizations. The salary of the\nexecutive secretary was paid in part by the State Board of Health for his\nservices as publicity agent for the board. In the first year of its existence\nit performed valuable service in school-health work, both in the way of\ninvestigation and in the dissemination of information.\nIn the second year of its existence, however, its efficiency was greatly\nreduced on account of lack of funds and the breaking of the quasi-official\nrelations with the State Board of Health. This illustrates aptly the tenuous\nnature of all such coordinations.\nQuite generally the supporting agency for such cooperation is the pubHc\nschool. By reason of its universality and its specific organization, it\nnaturally serves as a means of coordination. Too frequently the part played\nby the school is that of a complacent distributing agency for properly\nauthenticated propaganda and for alien health-supervision. There is,\nhowever, a rapidly increasing tendency for the public school to become the\neffective coordinating agency — to organize cooperation. This, of course,\nis markedly the case in communities in which the health-supervision of the\nschools has been assumed by the educational authorities; but there are\n\n"}
{"page": 789, "printed_page": "777", "text": "Department]\n\nCOOPERATION\n\nIN HEALTH\n\nADMINISTRATION\n\n777\n\ncases of well-organized cooperation in cities in which health-supervision is\nstill managed by the health department.\nIt should be recognized that the promotion of health is at bottom an\neducational problem the effective solution of which demands the most\ncomplete and sympathetic cooperation of the public-health and the publiceducation organizations. Volunteer organizations of all kinds will play\nimportant accessory roles; but it is these governmental agencies upon which\nwill rest the real responsibility. There has not been as complete cooperation of spirit and coordination of effort between health and school departments as there should be. Indeed, too often there has been mutual suspicion and misunderstanding. In the last few years there has been rather\na markt tendency for the schools to take over the administration of phases\nof educational hygiene including \"medical inspection.\" It is not at all\ncertain that this tendency is permanent in character. As the supervision\nof the public health becomes better developt, it becomes evident that the\ncontrol of health before school age is quite as important as the control of\nhealth during the school period. This phase of public-health work obviously\nmust be administered by the health authorities. It is not at all improbable\nthat \"efficiency and economy\" may require continuous administration of\n\"child hygiene\" by the health authorities, as is already the case in New\nYork. At present the locus of administrative authority is largely a local\nquestion. In reality it is not important; the only matter of importance\nis that the highest possible efficiency be secured.\nThere is one modification, however, of administrative machinery that\ncould easily be made, and, if made, would be a long step toward effective\ncooperation between school and health authorities. If the executive officer\nof every health board — state, county, local — were a member of the corresponding educational board, and vice versa, if every school superintendent —\nstate, county, and local — were a member of the corresponding health board,\nthere would be set up an effective legalized addition to the administrative\nmachinery that could not fail to produce results in mutual understanding\nand unification of effort. It hardly need be said that a full-time health\nofficer is necessary for the complete success of this plan.\nThere is one other opportunity for cooperation that is big with possibilities for the development and improvement of health work in the pubhc\nschools. The federal bureaus that have to do with health and education\nshould have the equipment and the resources to meet the growing demands\nthat are being made upon them for information, advice, and guidance by\nlocal communities all over the United States. The Pubhc Health Service\nshould have the resources to make many such surveys as that described\nby Dr. Clark in his paper this morning. The Bureau of Education should\nhave the resources to give adequate information and advice with regard\nto plans of administration whenever and under whatever conditions such\nadvice and information are askt — and the requests are very numerous and\n\n"}
{"page": 790, "printed_page": "778", "text": "778\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[ChUd Hygiene\n\nvaried. The fields are distinct and the lines of cooperation equally clear.\nAt present neither bureau can perform the necessary services. In the\npublic-health service more adequate support of work well begun is required;\nin the Bureau of Education the crying necessity is the creation of a division\nof educational hygiene, which now is entirely lacking.\n\nTHE NEW\nI. H. GOLDBERGER,\n\nYORK\n\nSYSTEM\n\nASSISTANT DIRECTOR\nMENT OF EDUCATION,\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\nOF EDUCATIONAL HYGIENE, DEPARTNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nViewed from the standpoint of health, the New York System of\nSchool Hygiene has for its purpose the protection and preservation of the\nhealth of school children and teachers from the deleterious influences which\nfrequently accompany school life. To accomplish this the Department\nof Hygiene has served in part as follows:\nr. Consultation with the Department on Care of Buildings regarding\nthe proper form of seats and desks; provision of lights, and the conservation\nof suflGicient light in dark rooms; resurfacing of worn blackboards; sanitation of swimming-pools; prevention of dust; regulation of temperature,\nventilation, and various other sanitary conditions in school buildings;\nmethods of disinfecting; methods of cleaning, care of blackboards, boardrubbers, etc.\n2. Consultation with the Supply Department on the color and texture\nof paper, type of textbooks, type standards, crayons, sanitary floor-dressing,\nsoap, and towels.\n3. Consultation with the Department of Health on medical inspection,\ndental hygiene, Gary schools, sanitation of school buildings, nuisances,\njoint publications on hygiene, joint investigations, and methods of hygienic\ncare of children, etc.\n4. Cooperation with eleven different outside agencies supporting special\nhealth work.\n5. The provision of definite sets of instruction to teachers on the hygienic\ncontrol of pupils in the classroom, with a series of instructions on the conduct of the daily morning hygienic inspection, health day, observations for\nevident physical disabilities, symptoms of illness in children, and the provision ofa pamphlet to be given to parents on How to Safeguard the Health\nof the Child.\n\nA system of instruction in hygiene, which gives simple counsel on all\nimportant health matters, has been provided. The method pursued in\nteaching the old hygiene was that of mere instruction. Children were\nassigned lessons from books on anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, and then\ntold how to care for their health on the basis of this knowledge. This was\nall very well, but the instruction started from the structure of the bones,\n\n"}
{"page": 791, "printed_page": "779", "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n779\n\nthe heart, the lungs, etc., proceeded to the function of the same, and finally\narrived at the care of the health — a logical method, but wasteful and\nineffective, as it expected children to think as adults, with full reasoning\npowers.\nThe recently adopted course of study in hygiene emphasizes the practical\naffairs of daily life, such as keeping the scalp and hair clean, brushing the\nteeth, attention to clothing, study, play, and rest. The children are taught\nto apply the lessons of personal hygiene to the neighborhood, the school,\nand the city. Alert to note all matters affecting health, pupils work in\nsanitary squads, and attend with profit lectures on hygiene, demonstrations\nand exhibitions of pure food, temperance leagues, anti-tuberculosis and\nfirst-aid-to-the-injured societies and anti-cigarette leagues. The formation\nof good hygienic habits by daily practice is illustrated by the \"Daily\nRoutine,\" which pupils make out, under the direction of the class teacher,\nto take home for constant reference. The following is a typical program:\n\nli\n\n1. Rise promptly.\n2. Take breathing and setting-up exercises appropriate to the grade.\n3. Wash (warm water and soap) hands, face, neck, and chest. Cold splash on face,\nneck, and chest. Clean finger nails.\n4. Clean the teeth. Brush the gums and the whole mouth and rinse the mouth.\nDrink a glass of water.\n5. Dress with inspection of clothes as to cleanliness.\n6. Eat slowly at breakfast and chew well.\n7. Attend the toilet and wash afterward.\n8. Prepare for school. Books and clothes, clean, and in order.\n9. Observe regulations as to entering school.\n10. Care for outer clothing. Attend to order of desk and prepare for daily morning\nhygienic inspection.\n11. Keep correct sitting and standing posture in school.\n12. Drink water at recess. Use individual drinking cup.\n13. Return home for lunch without loitering. Wash hands before limch. Eat slowly.\n14. Play in fresh air after school.\n15. Study. Pay attention to lessons and finish the work.\n16. Wash and prepare for the evening meal.\n17. Prepare for bed early. Attend the toilet, wash, put clothes in order, and open\nwindow.\n\nThe new course of study in hygiene allows ten minutes a day for a daily\nmorning hygienic inspection, the purpose of which is: (i) to inculcate\nhabits of personal cleanliness and pride in the pupil's personal appearance\nby an individual inspection, (2) to discover early signs of illness and to prevent contagion, (3) to establish cooperation between the home and the\nschool, and (4) to establish a close cooperation between the school medicalinspection service and the class teacher for the benefit of the health of the\nchildren.\nTooth-brush drills are practist thruout the term, and time is spent in\ndrilling the child how to brush the teeth properly, instead of spending hours\non the anatomy and physiology of the teeth. There is no queston as to\n\n"}
{"page": 792, "printed_page": "780", "text": "78o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(ChUd Hygiene\n\nthe effectiveness of the former method. The child is told to do things.\nHe is taught to clean the teeth before breakfast and before going to\nbed. He learns that it is important to use his own toothbrush, that a\ndentist should examine his mouth at the beginning of each school term,\nthat a small cavity should be filled before it grows into a large one, and that\nthe need for artificial teeth for young people should never arise. At the\nbeginning of the term a prescription for tooth powder, written on the blackboard, iscopied in the pupil's home-lesson book for the information of\nparents as well as for the child's own instruction.\nInstruction in the New York System of Hygiene is not based on simple\ncleanliness alone. Even more important are the prophylactic measures\ncarried out by the class teachers in an attempt to counteract and eliminate\nthe health-depressing influences of school life. At the beginning of the term\nthe teacher pays special attention to seating pupils with regard to height,\nand defects in vision and hearing. Not later than two weeks after the\nbeginning of the term, seats are adjusted by the janitor, so that the pupil\ncan sit with hips well back, the thighs resting on the seat, and the feet\nflat on the floor. The desk and seat are so adjusted that the proper writing\nposition may be taken, i.e., hips back, body straight, inclined forward\n(never flext nor twisted), forearms resting on the desk near the edge. These\nprecautions are instrumental in preventing orthopedic deformities, particularly spinal curvature. With the aid of the school medical-inspection\nservice, defects in vision and hearing are discovered early, so that affected\nchildren may be placed at a proper distance from the blackboard and\nteacher's desk. Vision defects are guarded against by adjusting window\nshades so that sunshine does not fall upon the book or work, and care is\ntaken not to have two connective periods of close eye work. Coughs and\ncolds from overheating are minimized by maintaining the room temperature\nbetween 65° and 68°F., when artificial heat is used. An accurately registered thermometer is attacht to each teacher's desk and an hourly record\nof the room temperature is made. If the temperature is not satisfactory,\nthe principal is notified at once. Good ventilation is maintained by having\nthe room open on at least two sides. Transoms are kept in repair for this\npurpose. Fatigue is guarded against particularly among the younger\nchildren by an alternation of tasks, standing to recite, group and blackboard work. The day's work is punctuated by \"two-minute drills\" as a\ntonic to relaxt muscles, and for the refreshment of the heart and lungs\na period of vigorous exercise is given everyday. Pupils are not restrained\nfrom leaving the room to go to the toilet, unless the teacher suspects that\na pupil is abusing the privilege.\nEvery child receives instruction in safety-first measures, emergency\nmeasures, and first-aid-to-the-injured, in an endeavor to minimize the large\nnumber of street accidents. Of the 659 persons killed last year, 44 per cent\nwere children.\n\n"}
{"page": 793, "printed_page": "781", "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nSYSTEM\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nHYGIENE\n\n781\n\nIn using the text of the new syllabus in hygiene, teachers are supplied\nwith special bulletins and circulars of instruction issued by the New York\nState and City Departments of Health, and other health agencies. When\nnecessary, pupils are furnisht with circulars of instruction to parents on the\ncare of the nose, the care of the mouth and teeth, the care of children's\nhair and scalp, the care of the eyes, all of which are supplied by the New\nYork City Department of Health.\nThe New York System of Hygiene includes a plan whereby teachers\nshall make certain simple tests to discover whether children have defective\nvision, hearing, teeth, nasal breathing, and nutrition. The adoption of this\nprocedure has become necessary because of the large number of children in\nour schools who have undiscovered and uncorrected physical defects.\nDuring the school year just completed, a cooperative experiment with the\nBoard of Health has been in progress. This work brought the officials of\nthe two departments in closer personal contact, and has done much to\nestablish a more friendly relationship between the two. During the course\n)f this experiment, 234 teachers were instructed by means of clinical conferences as to the methods of discovering evident physical defects of eyes,\nLrs, teeth, nasal breathing, and nutrition. Five or six typically defective\nises were demonstrated. The use of the Snellen chart in discovering\nicuteness of vision was illustrated and the method of recording acuteness\n)f vision and other physical defects was explained. The need for constant\nid careful classroom observation to discover cases of evident physical\nlefects was emphasized.\nThe clinical conferences were followed by practice work by teachers on\n)ur or five children in other classes. A conference quiz was held with the\nLchers, based on the subject-matter of former clinical conferences, on\nleir practical experience, and on the difficulties that they met in testing\nlildren. This conference was found very valuable. Difficulties or\nicertain points were explained and the path was made clear for a satisLctory health day. A health day was held in each of the four experimental\n:hools during the week of October 18, 191 5. The teachers, with the\nexception of the kindergarten teachers, were able during the day to examine\ntheir pupils for these five defects and fill out the notification blanks for\nle home. About 10,316 children were examined. Before the notification\nflanks were sent home to the parents, the findings of the teachers were\nipervised by the assistants to the principal and a department of health\nphysician, to eliminate any gross errors. The notification blanks were\n;nt out for limited groups of classes at time, care being taken not to flood\nle neighborhood dispensaries.\nIt is of interest to note that in the section of the school in' which the\njachers were not only to examine their pupils, but also to follow up\ntheir defects to treatment and cure, 900 children received treatment as a\nresult of health day. This indicates that nearly one-third of the children\n\n"}
{"page": 794, "printed_page": "782", "text": "782\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[Chfld Hygiene\n\nwho needed treatment have either been improved or cured as the result.\nIn justice to our teachers it may be added that they have shown a sufficient degree of accuracy in their work to make the experiment worth while.\nThe instruction in the new hygiene endeavors to be practical. It is\nan everyday affair. It provides a personal and objective method of instruction rather than a didactic, and, above all, considers health in a positive,\nprophylactic, and corrective phase. Should it develop to the extent of its\npromise and intent, health should become a habit for every child. The\nchildren of today will be sound and vigorous, and the inheritance of health\nwill insure a sturdy America for tomorrow.\n\n"}
{"page": 795, "printed_page": "783", "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SCHOOL PATRONS\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Mrs. Louis Hertz, Council of Jewish Women\nSan Francisco, Cal,\nTice-President — Mrs. Phillip N. Moore, trustee, College for Women, University of the South,\nSt. Louis, Mo.\nSecretary — ^Mrs. E. L. Baldwin, state chairman, department of school patrons, San Francisco, Cal.\n\nFIRST SESSION— Friday Forenoon, July 7, 1916\nThe department convened in the BaUroom of Hotel Waldorf-Astoria, at 9:30 a.m.,\nHelen Varick Boswell, New York, N.Y., in the chair.\nP. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education delivered a brief address on\n\"Community Interest in the Public Schools.\"\nThe following papers were read:\n\"The Teacher's Responsibility as a Civic Factor in the Community\"— Frances E.\n'Harden, president. League of Teachers' Associations, Chicago, 111.\n\"Education of the Immigrant\" — Elsa Alsberg, secretary, department of inmaigrant\naid, Council of Jewish Women, New York, N.Y.\n\"Report of Committee on Education, Council of Jewish Women\" — Fannie Saxe\nLong, Wilkesbarre, Pa.\n\"Report of the Southern Association of College Women\" — Virginia S. McKenney,\nvice-president, Southern Association of College Women.\nThe following officers were elected:\nPresident — Hattie Hoover Harding, Chicago, HI.\nVice-President — May L. Cheney, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.\nSecretary — Sarah F. Clarke, Public Schools, Scranton, Pa.\nLouise Fargo Brown, Secretary, pro tern\nSECOND\n\nSESSION— Friday Afternoon, July 7, 1916\n\nThe department met in joint session with the Department of Physical Education in\nthe Ballroom, Hotel Waldorf-Astoria, at 2:00 P.M., Vice-President Posse presiding.\nThe following program was presented:\n\" Sex Morality or Social Hygiene \"—Mabel L. Uhrich, M.D., St. Paul, Minn.\n\"Social Service in the Public Schools\" — Elizabeth McManus, chairman, clinic\ndepartment, Los Angeles Federation of Parent-Teacher Associations, Los Angeles, Cal.\n\" Administration and Method in High-School Physical Training for Girls ' ' (illustrated\nby a class of 20 girls) — ^Josephine Beiderhase, assistant director of physical training, public\nschools. New York, N.Y.\n\"The Boy Scouts of America\" — ^James E. West, chief scout executive. Boy Scouts\nof America, New York, N.Y.\nCharlotte Stewart, Secretary pro tern\n783\n\n"}
{"page": 796, "printed_page": "784", "text": "784\n\nTHE\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nTEACHER'S\n\nFRANCES\n\nE. HARDEN,\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nRESPONSIBILITY AS A CIVIC FACTOR\nTHE COMMUNITY\nPRESIDENT, LEAGUE OF TEACHERS'\nCHICAGO, ILL.\n\nIN\n\nASSOCIATIONS,\n\nThe school year that has just closed has been full of significance in its\neducational tendencies. This is particularly true of the administrative\nside of the public-school system. There seems to have been a widespread\nand very determined movement on the part of administrative officials to\ncontrol teachers along lines where heretofore they have had a considerable\nmeasure of freedom.\nThis movement has been going on along several lines. In some places\nit has been an attempt to disrupt teachers' organizations already formed,\nor to prevent the formation of organizations among the unorganized\nteachers. In other places teachers' tenure of office has been threatened or\ntaken away, leaving their positions subject to the dictation of pohtically\nappointed school boards with all the train of evils which follows such a\nsituation. Again, the attack has been on teachers' pensions, where efforts\nare being made to take the control of pension funds from the contributors\nand vest it in boards of education who are neither contributors to, nor\nbeneficiaries of, these funds, and who have no interest in their conservation,\nbut may use this power of control over the pension to keep teachers in a\nproper state of servility.\nThe most important of all, perhaps, is the tendency to deprive teachers\nof freedom of speech and action. This is more apparent in the colleges\nand universities than in the grade schools, but when such an educational\nleader as Dr. Scott Nearing is forst out of his position as an instructor in\na university because he dared to teach the truth as he saw it, it is time for\nall teachers to awake and to reahze that if we are to be the teachers of the\nchildren of a free people, we must ourselves be free; for children taught\nby subservient teachers will never develop into citizens with well-balanst\nideas of justice and honor, such as a, true democracy needs, but will themselves become either subservient or tyrannical.\nHow far are we ourselves at fault in bringing about this condition?\nHave we not blindly followed tradition handed down from an age long past\nwhere conditions were not at all those of the present day ? Have we not\nshut our eyes to the many forms of oppression and economic injustice all\nabout us ?\nThis condition, I have no doubt, grows largely out of the fact that for\nhundreds of years those who sought an education went to the great universities and libraries and there spent years poring over books and manuscripts, listening to lectures, and absorbing great quantities of predigested\n\n"}
{"page": 797, "printed_page": "785", "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHER'S\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nAS A CIVIC FACTOR\n\n785\n\nknowledge oblivious to the great throbbing world of life and labor all about\nthem. They were not only without knowledge of this life, but were not\nin sympathy with it. Out of these universities came men and women of\nlearning and of culture, but out of touch with the dominant life-forces\nabout them. From this group came the teachers holding fast the standards\nand traditions set for them. These standards are slowly but surely changing. Little by little we are realizing that education is not all to be\nfound between the covers of books, but that the greatest of all books,\nthat of life itself, is spread wide open all about us; and that to be\ntruly educated we must have, not only a knowledge of this great book\nof life, but a profound understanding of the economic principles which\ngovern the conditions and control the lives of the people whose children\nwe teach.\nGovernment statistics show that 60 per cent of the wealth of this nation\nis owned and controlled by 2 per cent of the population. In other words,\nunder our present economic conditions, if $100 were to be divided among one\nhundred men, two of the men would receive $60 while the remaining 98 men\nwould have to content themselves with $40.\nThe children of the 2-per-cent class, as a rule, are educated in private\nschools, hence our problems lie with those of the 98-per-cent class. Under\nwhat conditions are these children born and in what kind of homes do they\nlive ? How are they clothed and fed ? What opportunities have they for\nnatural play ? Are their social and moral surroundings good, and have they\nbeen given a square deal ? If we are to be the real teachers of children, all\nthese problems become our problems, and the solving of them in the right\nway just as much a part of our duty as following the course of study and\nputting the children thru the grade.\nWhat is the best way in which to work toward a solution of these problems ? How can we best cooperate with other forces in a community working toward the same end ?\nWe can do but little alone. We must unite with others. We as teachers\nshould become a part of the social, civic, and political movements which\nhave for their purpose the bettering of living conditions.\nAn increast income always means a higher standard of living, better\nhomes, and more nourishing food. It means that the children are kept in\nschool instead of being sent into shops and factories to add their Uttle mite\nto the family's revenue. It means that the mothers are able to stay in the\nhomes and give to the children the care they need.\nThousands of children are forst into industry at an age when they should\nbe in school or at play. They must take the burden of life on their shoulders\nall unprepared, with bodies immature and minds undevelopt, with moral\nand social ideals in a chaotic state. The only occupations open to these\nchildren are those which call for the hardest work and pay the lowest wages\nwith almost no chance for advancement.\n\n"}
{"page": 798, "printed_page": "786", "text": "786\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nWhen economic conditions are such that the mothers are compelled to\nleave the home for long hours at a time and spend those hours at hard\nlabor, the children are denied their birthright of sound bodies, normal\nminds, and the physical care and moral guidance that every child should\nhave. The teachers are the ones who must take the children as they come\nout of these homes of poverty and degradation, underfed and insufficiently\nclothed, and try to build on such a foundation the structure of human life\nand happiness.\nWe are the ones who should know that an injustice done to the humblest\nman or woman reacts upon the entire fabric of society, and that, therefore\nan injury to one should be the concern of all. We are the ones who touch\nmost nearly the lives of the people and who should understand most clearly\nthe power and influence our teaching has in the life of the community. We\nshould use all this influence so to change conditions as to make it possible\nfor all children to be given the opportunity to grow naturally and happily\ninto the best possible men and women.\nIf this be our purpose and we are to accomplish it, we must put away\nmany of the traditions of the past and catch step with the present. We\nmust give up worshiping at the shrine of the \" God of things as they are,\"\nand start a campaign with \"Things as they should be\" for our slogan. We\nmust demand that teachers be given the rights of citizenship, of organization, of freedom of speech and poHtical action. We must work for tenure\nlaws that will protect the teachers in the positions for which they have fitted\nthemselves by years of training, which will make it possible for them to do\ntheir work undisturbed by changing poUtical administrations, and which\nwill protect the children against being subjected to a corps of teachers who,\nin order to retain their positions, are forst into a condition of servility. We\nmust work for poUtical freedom in order that our influence and our votes\nmay be used to help secure the enactment of much-needed legislation. We\nmust work for the right to organize and to unite with other organizations\nand for freedom of speech. We must have vision and understanding and\nsee to it that our teaching of today will make it possible for the teachers of\ntomorrow to walk without servility, with heads erect, and unafraid.\nEDUCATION\n\nOF THE IMMIGRANT\n\nELSA ALSBERG, SECRETARY, DEPARTMENT OF IMMIGRANT\nJEWISH WOMEN,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nAID, COUNCIL\n\nOF\n\nA reaHzation of the responsibiUty of governmental agencies for the\neducation of the adult immigrant is a matter of comparatively recent consciousness on the part of the pubUc. With this consciousness there arose\nthe consideration of methods — of ways and means of reaching the adult\nalien, to interest him, to ascertain his educational needs, and to devise ways\nof suppl)dng them.\n\n"}
{"page": 799, "printed_page": "787", "text": "Departmentl\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF THE\n\nIMMIGRANT\n\n787\n\nThe various processes of immigrant education are mainly processes of\nassimilation. They include a knowledge of our customs and institutions,\nboth social and economic. But these are processes fundamentally dependent on a working knowledge of the English language and upon some command of the three R's. As distinct, therefore, from the broader subject of\nAmericanization, which includes educational questions concerning vocational training and a study of civics and American history — of citizenship —\nI shall confine myself to that phase of immigrant-education which deals with\na study of English and elementary subjects with special reference to girls\nand women.\nWithout this knowledge of our language the foreigner cannot have that\nsocial contact with the native-born that takes him out of the isolation of\nhis \"foreign quarter\" and introduces him to American customs and ways\nof living. Without English he cannot have access to that great Americanizing influence — the daily newspaper.\nOn the economic side also, the non-EngUsh-speaking alien is at a great\ndisadvantage. He is unable to learn of opportunities offered. In competition with the English-speaking employe he must be able to understand\norders given in English by his \"boss,\" to read signs of warning in factory\nand streets, printed poHce and safety regulations, and quarantine placards\nin the tenement house in which he lives. His industrial advancement\ndepends in a large measure on his ability to speak and understand English\nand on his having at least a rudimentary education.\nFormerly it was taken for granted, and is still by many, that the public\nnight school was the proper and only possible medium, under the supervision of local boards of education, thru which the immigrant could be taught\nEngHsh and simple academic subjects. In most of our large industrial\ncenters the masses of immigrants are not reacht by the public night school.\nIn New York as in other large cities an absurdly small percentage of the\nnon-Enghsh-speaking residents attend night school. It has been conceded\nthat this is not a proof of any shortcomings on the part of the ahen, but on\nthe contrary shows that the night school as at present conducted, does not\nmeet his needs.\nClasses should be adapted to the immigrant, and not the immigrant\nto the classes. A large proportion of our immigrants consists of girls and\nwomen — a fact thus far insufficiently emphasized in considering ways and\nmeans of educating the alien — and there is a larger percentage of ilhteracy\namong them than among the men. Moreover, few of our foreign women\nhave ever dreamed that they would become United States citizens upon the\nsame terms as men. A little spreading of this knowledge would be a great\nincentive to women to learn English and to educate themselves for citizenship.\nThat the public night schools as at present conducted do not meet the\neducational needs of all immigrants is now generally conceded. It is shown\n\n"}
{"page": 800, "printed_page": "788", "text": "788\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nby the irregularity of attendance, which is quite general, and by the comparatively small numbers enroled in the schools. To get the ahen into\nthe school in large numbers and to keep him there, a system of publicity is\nadvocated. It plans to bring to the attention of the ahen the advantages\nof the school thru printed placards in factories, thru the foreign-language\npress, and thru groups of men and women speaking English, but Hving\nin the \"foreign quarter.\" It seems to me that such pubHcity might well\nincrease school-attendance but it is very doubtful whether it will succeed\nin keeping up this attendance thruout the school term.\nVarious facts account for the failure of the public night schools. Discouragement isone of them. An immigrant has arrived in this country,\nsay in April. He is ambitious and eager to learn English. He immediately\nenrols in the night school and finds himself in a class of students of various\nages, many of whom have been there for some time. These have acquired\nso much English that the latest newcomer cannot compete with them and\nis at once discouraged and drops out of the class — and girls whose famihes\nhave never considered the need of their education and who have therefore\nlittle desire for it, are the most easily discouraged. A girl immigrant decides\nto enter school. She has workt at a power machine for ten hours of the day\nand returns home to help the family to get supper and wash dishes; sometimes she does her own laundry work. In spite of her fatigue she plucks up\ncourage, summons her energy, goes to school and enters her classroom.\nThe desks and benches are small and uncomfortable and she feels crampt\nand unhappy.\nThe class does not see her the next day.\nA third immigrant girl comes home from a long and tedious day of\nenervating work, gets her own supper, and starts out for school. She\npasses her friends going to the \"movies,\" but she resists. Perhaps she\nmeets her young man who urges her to go for a stroll, but she puts him off\nuntil Saturday evening. Nevertheless she longs for excitement and entertainment, which is the natural craving after a deadening and monotonous\nday. In the classroom she meets a teacher who, after a day of wearying\nteaching, is too tired to be able to infuse that interest and enthusiasm into\nthe lessons that bring the needed response from her equally tired pupil.\nThe next night the girl goes to the \"movie.\"\nSometimes the teacher who is accustomed to instructing children cannot adapt her methods to the teaching of adult aliens and cannot secure\ntheir interests. As a result the class attendance drops.\nIrregularity of attendance is also accounted for, in part at least, by\nthe fact that the classes are usually not well graded. Grading by nationality, by previous training and education, or by age have all been advocated.\nClasses of mixt nationahty often show the best results, but previous education should be taken into consideration in order to separate the Hterate\nfrom the ilHterate. It may be feasible to make several gradings on the\nbasis of previous education. Together with this, however, should be\n\n"}
{"page": 801, "printed_page": "789", "text": "Department]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nIMMIGRANT\n\n789\n\ncoupled the consideration of age. Older people quite naturally prefer\nstudying with others of about the same age and, being more fixt in their\nhabits of mind, often find it difficult to keep up with the younger and more\nplastic mind. Among the younger immigrants there is a greater enthusiasm,\na spirit of wholesome competition. The social stimulus to a class composed\nof both young men and young women would be a great asset in retaining\ntheir interest.\nA third consideration in the grading of classes, and one I beUeve to be\nparticularly important, is by trades. What the immigrant wants is a\npractical working knowledge of English that will help him to advance both\nindustrially and socially. He desires to learn about his trade and to be able\nto apply at once what he has learned each evening. Aliens employed in the\nsame trades have like interests. The teaching, if patterned on these interests, will do much to keep up class attendance.\nIn addition to the elements of discouragement on the part of the immigrant, and the lack of proper grading of classes, there is that of the qualifications ofthe teacher herself. Teachers who have been working all day\nare usually too fatigued to give their best efforts to the night school. Moreover, teachers who have been specially trained for, and experienst in, the\nteaching of children find it very difficult to adapt themselves to the totally\ndifferent problem of teaching the adult foreigner. It is now generally recognized, but has not yet been generally acted upon, that the public nightschool teacher of adults should be specially equipt for this highly specialized\ntype of teaching and that she must also possess, to an unusual degree,\npersonality, sympathy, and a keen understanding of her pupils in their\ndaily lives and national characteristics.\nAnother point in the failure of the night school is the short term of\ninstruction. It is not enough to offer the immigrant facilities for learning\nEnglish during the winter months only. Why should the immigrants,\nwho arrive in largest numbers in the spring and summer, be compelled to\nwait until the following fall or winter before they have an opportunity to\nlearn English? To supply the need of such immigrants as are employed\nat night (and there are many of these) why cannot we have day schools like\nthe very successful Jones School in Chicago ? This school has three grades,\na large and regular attendance, and its classes are made up of about eighteen\nnationalities, of both men and women, and of ages ranging up to fifty years.\nWhy cannot we also introduce more extensively late-afternoon classes for\ndaytime and part-time workers ? Short day sessions particularly designed\nfor immigrant mothers with their special interests might also be profitably\ninaugurated.\nAll these suggestions for the improvement of the public night school\nare, however, designed to meet only the needs of immigrants employed in\nenergizing trades. Such immigrants are usually stimulated by their daytime work, frequently possess considerable technical skill, and are ready for\n\n"}
{"page": 802, "printed_page": "790", "text": "790\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nconcentration upon studies at night. They will therefore be attracted to\nthe public night school.\nTo meet the need of the masses of our immigrant population mostly\nemployed in enervating work, much more radical changes in the public\nnight-school system would have to be brought about. The great numbers\nof men and especially girls who are employed in enervating work thruout\na long and monotonous day quite naturally and legitimately crave excitement, relaxation, and the contrast of social pleasures. They are unwilling\nto add to their fatigue by confining classroom study during their only\nleisure time for relaxation.\nIf the school is to attract this class of immigrant it must meet his desires\nand needs in this direction. In a measure at least it must compete with the\nappeal of the moving-picture entertainment, the parks, and the dance halls.\nThis means that the entire teaching content, the very nature and constitution of the class, in fact the entire atmosphere of compulsion must be\nchanged. With careful thought this can be done, and the classroom thus\nadapt its teachings to the needs of the worker. Only in this way can attendance at, and interest in, the night school be assured as far as the majority\nof our immigrants is concerned.\nTo secure the desired regular attendance at the public night school,\ncompulsory attendance has been advocated and tried in some communities.\nIt has generally been conceded however, that this is a very unsatisfactory\nmethod of securing the desired end. First, it is most difficult to enforce\nsuch a law, since truant officers can hardly be employed; secondly, if the\nadult is not interested, is physically and mentally fatigued, or considers\nenforst night-school attendance an infringement of his personal liberty,\nhis presence in the class will not bring very satisfactory results.\nUnless, then, our public night-school system for the education of adult\naUens can be so developt and re-formed as to meet the needs of all classes\nof immigrants, some other system of education for those doing enervating\nwork all day, must be devised. Various experiments in this direction have\nbeen tried. Among these the continuation classes, and in some instances\nthese in conjunction with the cooperative classes, seem to offer the best\nsolution.\nContinuation classes presuppose the employer's willingness to give a\npart of the time of his employes as well as the classroom and its equipment.\nThe local board of education contributes the teacher, books, and supphes.\nFrequently, especially when trade training is involved, the trade union is\naskt to cooperate. With this arrangement the employe, who could rarely\nafford to pay anything toward his own education, loses no part of his wages.\nIn comparatively few trades have continuation classes been conducted.\nHere in New York it has been most difficult to enlist the cooperation of\nemployers, especially for classes in English and purely academic subjects.\nA few contmuation classes designed to increase the workers' technical skill,\n\n"}
{"page": 803, "printed_page": "791", "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nIMMIGRANT\n\n791\n\nand a number of classes in hotels and department stores have been establisht successfully. Unless, however, the big manufacturers' associations\ncan be interested, there is little likelihood that continuation classes can be\ngenerally introduced into the unskilled trades. The alternative that will\nehminate unfair competition between manufacturers in the same trade and\nlocality seems to be compulsory continuation classes for immigrant employes\nwhose daily work is unskilled and of an enervating nature, and whose educational needs the public night school therefore does not meet.\nThe introduction of continuation classes presupposes a thoro and careful investigation to ascertain the hours during which the worker can best\nbe spared, to ascertain what subjects and methods will best supplement the\nwork of the employe and make for his greater general eflSciency, and to\nascertain the type of teacher best fitted to conduct the particular class in\nquestion. It may, in fact, be necessary to vary class methods, not only as\nbetween different trades, but also in the different processes in the same trade\nand shop.\nSuch continuation classes might advantageously be supplemented by\ncooperative classes conducted during the slack season when the employe\nworks part time or not at all. These cooperative classes might be conducted\nin the public schools and be designed to dove-tail with the continuation\nclasses.\nThe continuation-class idea, furthermore, might be extended to meet\nthe need for educating the imi^iigrant mother. Little emphasis has been\nplaced thus far upon this phase of immigrant-education. It was generally\ntaken for granted that it was unnecessary for the mother to know EngHsh\nand something of American customs and institutions so long as her children\nwent to the public school which, in time, would make of them patriotic\ncitizens. If, however, we are to succeed even partially in overcoming that\npitiful condition now existing between the younger and older generation,\nwhere we find on the one side an unjustifiable arrogance and on the other\nthat helpless resignation due to sheer ignorance of language, we must offer\nattractive facihties to the immigrant mother to learn Enghsh. The immigrant mother's ignorance of all things American does more to disturb the\nnormal healthy family life of our immigrants, to send the children into\ncourts and institutions, than has generally been recognized.\nSome immigrant mothers may be induced to attend short day-school\nsessions if they are designed especially for them. In San Francisco a system\nof home teaphers is now in force. Competent teachers visit in. foreign\nhomes where they teach English while imparting simple principles of sanitation and home economics. The Nashville Section of the Council of Jewish\nWomen has had good success in inducing the Americanized daughters of\nforeign-born parents to teach the latter at home. For mothers with infants,\nwho cannot leave home, the district nurses and settlement workers have done\nmuch in this direction. Another suggestion is that a specially qualified\n\n"}
{"page": 804, "printed_page": "792", "text": "792\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nteacher be assigned to teach in one apartment all the mothers living in one\nentire tenement house. This makes of the tenement house a school and\nhas the advantage, from the mother's point of view, of sociabiHty and proximity, and thus can hold her interest. Whatever method be adopted, it is\nevident that we no longer can afford to ignore our responsibility for educating the immigrant mother.\nTo summarize, the public night schools as generally conducted do not\nmeet the needs of the immigrant. Propaganda, proper grading of classes,\nspecially qualified and trained teachers, adequate classroom equipment,\ndaytime classes for adults, and day and night classes conducted thruout\nthe year will develop the present system to the extent of meeting the needs\nof immigrants employed in the energizing trades and those unusually\nambitious and physically robust. It can hardly hope to meet the educational needs of the majority of our immigrants, who are employed in enervating work and require excitement, relaxation, and entertainment in their\nleisure time. To meet this demand the public night school would need to\nchange its entire teaching attitude and make the classes socially attractive\nand relate them to the daily interests of the pupils. Classes for girls,\nespecially, would have to be occasions of pleasure.\nIf the night school is not developt along these lines an entirely different\nsystem must be evolved. Of the systems experimentally tried thus far,\nthe continuation class seems most nearly to fill the requirements. Since,\nhowever, it is difficult to secure the voluntary cooperation of the employer,\nsuch continuation classes in the factory and shops employing unskilled\nimmigrant labor should be made compulsory.\nDaytime classes conducted in the public-school buildings during the\nslack seasons might supplement the continuation classes. To counteract\nthe present tendency toward the alienation of the child from the mother,\nmeans should be provided for the latter to learn EngUsh, and if possible\nwithin the home itself.\nThe immigrant of either sex wants and needs a working knowledge of\nthe EngHsh language and some appreciation of our American customs and\ninstitutions. It is time that we not only recognize this fact, but take active\nmeasures to supply these needs in acceptable and reasonable form.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION,\nJEWISH WOMEN\nFANNIE\n\nSAXE LONG, WILKESBARRE,\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nOF\n\nPA.\n\nThe recently pubUsht Program of Work of the Council of Jewish Women\nfor the Triennial Period of 1914-17 is, in nine chapters, the story of the\nJew's appetite for learning, his passion for social reconstruction, his fret\nfor justice, his mania for spending himself in service, and his keen common-\n\n"}
{"page": 805, "printed_page": "793", "text": "Department!\n\nREPORT\n\nOF COUNCIL\n\nOF JEWISH\n\nWOMEN\n\n793\n\nsense in method. Each one of the nine standing committees of the Council\ncontributes a chapter, a record of work done, a line of attack, and a newobjective, yet one entirely within human powers of attainment.\nNever before has it been so difficult to Hst the exact work of each committee and hold the educational department in a fixt groove. The Council\nprogram is, from cover to cover, a textbook on education. Spilled over\nthe outlines of activities in religion, reUgious schools, immigrant aid, peace\nand arbitration, and the rest, is the single standard of \"service with sense''\n— that sense which comes only after an intensive study of a given situation,\nits spring, its statues, its solution. \"Loving hearts and willing hands\" have\ntheir places, but this program deals with the superstructure, the humanopragmatic preparation for service and then the \"go-to-it\" and \"this-wayout! \" In fact there is nothing in heaven nor on earth not dreamt of in this\nphilosophy.\nIf you are askt what relation this philosophy of the Council bears to\nthe work of the Council I should say, \" Could all the work which is being\ndone by the 70-odd sections and the nearly 20,000 workers in the Council\nbe assembled in one place, you would see a humanitarianism entirely superhuman, for somehow and somewhere, each point that a quickened finger\nmay reach on the rising thermometer of Ufe-standards is being scored in\none or another Council section, or it somewhere plans to be.\" The sections\nhave mounted the latest and most approved models of socio-educational\nband wagons with Americanization in the lead, with vocational guidance,\npeace and arbitration, exceptional children's classes, big brotherhoods and\nsisterhoods, health and social hygiene, and all the other standard and\nexperimental social antitoxins in their kits.\nLast year our report called your attention to a special work which this\norganization was entering upon — that of big-sistering any case of any need of\nany kind of any Jewish child in the whole school system. There is no need\nwhich has not a card awaiting it in the catalog of some one of our committees.\nToo much tonsil, too few overshoes, too much movies, a lack of violin\nlessons, may illuminate the meaning of the calls made upon the Council\nand its readiness to serve. In no community where this \"Follow-up\"\nfriend serves, has anything but the most cordial and useful relation between\nschool, child, and organization been establisht. In no way has the supersensitive \"prerogative\" of school officials been agitated. It has developt\ntact in the school friend, perhaps a keen appreciation of the teacher's\ndifficulties. Surely the child profits. Moreover, after the first suspicion,\nthe school men and women have heartily approved of an effort on the part\nof \"outsiders\" to do, or at least to offer to do, something that smacks of a\nnew and desirable kind of busybodyness. In this day of- professional service this apparent harking back to the dark ages of \"volunteer\" softheadness and sof t-heartedness is not at all real. The wise \" visiting teacher \"\ndoes handle well the same problems here presented, but with the new\n\n"}
{"page": 806, "printed_page": "794", "text": "794\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\ntSchool Patrons\n\nache in each community for a useful, satisf)dng outlet for the talent as well\nas the training of so many capable college-bred women, this activity of the\nCouncil blesses both him that gives and him that takes. Conscientious,\nintelligent work and a salary are no longer, of necessity, one and inseparable. In the same friendly spirit have the school authorities received\ncopies of a special calendar, one which gives the dates of the important\nholidays of the Jewish religion, with sufficient quotations from the Bible\ntext to make their inspirational content clear and to justify the request\nthat no important examination nor task be set for that particular day.\nIn most instances this dignified request has been met by a courteous\nresponse.\nYou are surely interested to ask what the Council of Jewish Women\nbelieves right in the matter of reading the Bible in the school, singing sectarian hymns, studying the Merchant of Venice and Ivanhoe and like problems. The Council of Jewish Women is, and aims increasingly to be, the\ngreat unit of fellowship among Jewish womanhood. It joins all the tints\nand shades, with exquisite inseparableness,of the whole rainbow of orthodoxy\nand reform Judaism. The Council therefore cannot, upon any question\nof outward form, consistently formulate an opinion that would be acceptable to all its members. Some believe, without possibility of argument,\nthat the Bible has no place in the American ideal of public education.\nOther members hold that the Bible, rescues itself from any situation.\nSome hold that hymn- and carol-singing outrage American religious liberty.\nOther members believe that a distinction between music and noise is made\nat the throne itself, that lip and lung have a separate service from the\nheart, even according to a recent Massachusetts court decision.\nAs for the great Shylock and Isaac of York, some hold that Scott and\nShakespeare surely provide an unlimited choice for literary dissection, and\nbeg to have spared the sort of soul-vivisection of these Jewish children.\nOther members, however, see here a real opportunity for the just-minded\nteacher to allay some hoary, stupid, unbrotherly gibes and if not that, then\nthey choose the purging fire bath for these children's souls while it is yet\npossible, within the home circle, to soothe them and to interpret for them\nthe rebuffs and discriminations that will surely come to them later. The\nJew very generally has little fear that any god can be placed before the\ngreat Jehovah; his fear is of godlessness and man's inhumanity to man.\nAnd so it is that each Council section must consider these questions in the\nlight of its own dominant opinion and according to the seriousness of the\nparticular situation. You may expect that each section will curb its\nopinion until, in righteous wrath, it is moved by some real violation. A\ncase in point is the demand of one teacher that all her pupils kneel for\nmorning prayers. Tho hymns may be voice culture, genuflexion is a\nflying in the face of Jewish interpretation of \"Thou shalt not bow down\nthyself, etc.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 807, "printed_page": "795", "text": "Department]\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nWOMEN\n\n795\n\nIt is perhaps just a little inopportune, in these days, to put the loud pedal\non any issue that deals with a group. It is perfectly true that the Council\nof Jewish Women does, fundamentally, plan its service for Jewish children,\nbut there are practical reasons — a matter of pure science. It is easier to\nlift a part than to move the mass; to raise a social unit before essaying\na heterogeneous collection. First, there is never enough money to meet\nthe whole demand; here the demand can very surely count on financial\nsufficiency. Secondly, there are never enough workers for the whole\nsituation; in this field a kind of Cadmus teeth is sown and an equipt force\nrises to attack the need. Again, there is never enough single-minded\nenthusiasm to cover a whole community; here it is easily possible to move\nas a body.\nBut altho the Council works thru and for the Jewish people, it holds all\nclassifications man-made — ^finite and artificial boundaries — and therefore\na very large part of the service recorded as important in its program is the\nmodest but vigorous \"co\" in cooperation with general community activities\nfor compulsory education and other educational legislation, school bond\ncampaigns, free textbooks, public lectures, extended use of school plants,\nestabHshment of special classes, settlements, community centers, and\nrecreation, etc. ; and with it all the program enjoins each group to undertake an academic study of new standards and methods, sometimes the end\nbeing their application, sometimes merely the pursuit of wisdom. It hopes\nto help accommodate all the members of its own faith to their new level\nof American advantages and obligations; to smooth the raw edges which\nthey show, to temper the raw edges which they meet.\nThe Committee on Education, in fact the whole Council, hopes to have\na balance of sensible service to the country to offset the problem that its\ncoreligionists bring here. It hopes that thru this group-training it may\nfix the focus as to need, provide the functioning information as to method,\nand then be quite swallowed up in the bigger groups, parents' associations,\nschool patrons, and communities that take up the burden. By working\nfor some of the people all the time, and all of the people some of the time,\nit can sense the occasion, without fooling even themselves, upon which we\nall can work for all the people all the time.\n\nREPORT\n\nOF THE SOUTHERN ASSOCIATION\nWOMEN\nVIRGINIA\n\nS. MCKENNY,\n\nOF COLLEGE\n\nVICE-PRESIDENT\n\nThe educational work of the Southern Association of College Women\nhas been carried on this year as usual by its Committees on Patrons,\nScholarships, College Days, and Standards of Colleges.\n\n"}
{"page": 808, "printed_page": "796", "text": "7^6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nThe Patrons Committee of the Association, thru local committees, has\nstriven especially to promote interest in the investigation and elimination\nof illiteracy in all the states represented in the Association. Copies of the\nIlliteracy Circular ^ compiled by the women of Alabama, were sent to all\nPatrons-Committee chairmen. Directly or indirectly the committee has\nbeen able to stimulate interest in the betterment of illiteracy conditions in\nMississippi and Kentucky. It has also cooperated further in the work\nalready in progress in Alabama and North Carolina.\nThe Committee on Scholarships, working thru scholarship committees\nin the various local branches, has circulated information among high-school\nteachers and pupils concerning the seventy standard college scholarships\noffered thru the Association. Data secured from each college as to its\nrequirements, dates of examination, etc., have been printed in leaflet form\nand put into their hands. These seventy scholarships vary in value from\n$75 to $300, and the Association may also nominate candidates for the\n$600 Pulitzer scholarship at Barnard College.\nThe College-Day Committee has continued to urge the observance of\n\"college day\" by the local branches in order to interest students in going\nto college. This year extension work was begun along college-day lines.\nMembers of college-day committees were urged to arrange for ''college\ndays\" in high schools in towns where no branches of the Southern Association of College Women existed. The extension work was successfully\ncarried out in several towns in Alabama and Louisiana. Some branches\nhave found that repeating their \"college-day\" programs before parentteacher associations had more effect than the original presentation to highschool students. This appeal to parents is found to be a great help in\nhaving the high-school course of the prospective college student planned\nwith reference to college entrance.\nPerhaps the most far-reaching educational work of the Association is\nthat connected with the investigation of the standards of southern colleges.\nTo her two pamphlets of former years. The Improvement in Standards of\nSouthern Colleges, and The Approximate Value of Recent Degrees in Southern\nColleges, Elizabeth Avery Colton, president of the Association, has this\nyear added a third. The Various Types of Southern Colleges for Women.\nThis pamphlet has been publisht as one of the regular bulletins of the Association. Itis intended primarily to give full information to high-school\nstudents concerning the standards and standing of the many institutions\nin the South bearing the title \"College.\" Classification is made under the\nfollowing heads: \"Standard Colleges,\" \"Approximate Colleges,\" \"Normal\nand Industrial Colleges,\" \"Junior Colleges,\" \" Unclassifiable Colleges,\"\n\"Imitation and Nominal Colleges.\" The main facts about each institution named under the foregoing headings (gathered from catalogs and\nannouncements) are noted in concise form — location, foundation, recognition by various educational organizations, endowment, volumes in library,\n\n"}
{"page": 809, "printed_page": "797", "text": "SOCIAL SERVICE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nDepartment]\n\nI\n\n797\n\nnumber of college students, number of special students, etc. With this\ndefinite information at hand, the southern high-school girl should be able\nto make an intelligent choice of institutions according to the type of training she desires. The pamphlet is one more step forward in the Association's work of research and publicity in connection with the standards of\ncolleges. As this work progresses it is becoming harder for the nominal\ncollege, which advertises falsely, to secure students.\nThe organized work of the Association along these lines is carried on by\nthe Committee on Standards of Colleges. This committee works thru the\nlocal committees to secure discussion of standards of colleges and general\npublicity calculated to emphasize the importance of genuine standards in\nthe institutions of the South. This committee is fast becoming a bureau\nof information as to the work and standing of southern institutions.\nInquiries come from examiners and deans of some of our largest and best\nuniversities, from branch members, and from outsiders totally unknown to\nthe committee. Often smaller institutions come to the committee for\nadvice as to the improvement of their curriculum and catalog. The committee isalso gratified to note that the work that the Association began\nand has carried on thru the Standards of Colleges Committee is being\nreinforst more and more by the cooperation of outside agencies. This\ncommittee reports that a number of individual institutions have shown\nevidences of progress during the year, and that others near the bottom of\nthe Association's list have been discontinued or merged with other schools.\n\nSOCIAL SERVICE\nELIZABETH\n\nMCMANUS,\n\nFEDERATION\n\nIN THE PUBLIC\n\nCHAIRMAN,\n\nOF PARENT-TEACHER\n\nCLINIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nDEPARTMENT,\n\nASSOCIATIONS,\n\nLOS\n\nLOS\n\nANGELES\n\nANGELES,\n\nCAL.\n\nWe live under a government we call democratic, founded indeed that\nall men might have an equal chance of life, liberty, and the pursuit of\nhappiness; for equality of rights is the very Hfe-blood of democracy. But\nno hopes nor dreams can produce a race of men born equal. Democracy\ncan be achieved only thru an equality of opportunity which shall counterbalance the inequalities of birth. Today we are a heterogeneous people.\nImmigrants have come to us by millions, not only from widely differing\nraces, but from classes whose standard of living is far below our own, men\nwho have been aptly called \"the beaten of beaten races.\" Rapidly our\nnation has grown away from its democratic form. Classes have arisen\nand distinctions of caste have come to separate our people. But still in\nour hearts lives an ideal, the realization of which means welding these\ndiverse elements into one race. It is with this thought that I proceed\nwith my subject.\n\n"}
{"page": 810, "printed_page": "798", "text": "7q8\n\nnational education association\n\n[School Patrons\n\nAn attempt to outline a system for carrying on social service in the\nschools would cripple my purpose from the start by placing limitations\nwhere they should not exist; for each city, district, and school must,\nnecessarily, work out its own problems, as no system could adequately\nmeet the needs of all.\nHowever, I do maintain that under existing conditions in most cities\nthe school is the center that touches the greatest number of homes, and\ntherefore is in a better position than any other public agency for understanding social problems and helping to solve them.\nOriginally the state regarded the teaching of reading, writing, and\narithmetic, with an occasional flourish thrown in, as the essentials necessary\nto citizenship, but gradually an awakening has come and we are asking\nourselves over and over again, \"What is the purpose of education?\" Is\nthe system turning out citizens of the highest caliber ? In what have we\nfailed, and how can we remedy our system that we may turn out a higher\ndegree of citizenship ?\nWe are coming to know that there is not a problem which touches the\nhuman race that cannot be solved by proper education.\nIf this is true, to what lengths should the state be willing to go to\ndevelop its children ? I believe that only the strictest economy is practist\nwhen we give to the child the best that can be obtained, and when we have\nleft nothing undone in developing him into the highest type of citizenship.\nThis can be done only by intelligent study of the child and by a careful\nadjustment of the system to meet the needs of the child, instead of forcing\nthe child to fit the system, as has been the rule in the past, and is in many\ninstances of the present. Education in the past has consisted in gathering\ntogether, out of books, a number of facts, and the child with the best\nmemory on examination day was considered the brightest pupil.\nThe teachers of tomorrow will be those chosen because of an understanding and reverence for life, and because they are the true ministers of\nthe race. Like the artist, the poet, and the musician, they will appeal to\nthe inteUigence, and will endeavor to inspire by striking at the keynote of\nthe soul, rather than at externals. They will go back to the original\nmeaning of the word \"education,\" and will, as the word indicates, endeavor\nto draw out the latent powers of the individual.\nThis larger and broader view of education is related to the social work\nin our schools, and as I am a resident of Los Angeles, CaL, and know only\nof the work being carried on there, I shall confine myself to telHng you\nof that.\nI will commence with the ungraded room, which was one of the first\ndevelopments added to the school system, and which is founded on the\ndual proposition that, first, there is something the matter with some of\nthe children which renders them misfits, and secondly, there is something\nwrong with the grade-school system which makes it inadequate to reach\n\n"}
{"page": 811, "printed_page": "799", "text": "Department)\n\nSOCIAL\n\nSERVICE\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n799\n\nevery child.\n\nThese special rooms are a step in the right direction; for in\n\nthem the child is much less Ukely to be \"machine made.\"\nThe teachers must consider such children as individuals; for, as the\nword \"ungraded\" indicates, the children are of different ages and at\ndifferent stages of development, and therefore the regular routine work done\nin the graded room naturally is left out. In Los Angeles we have six\ntypes of ungraded rooms, classified in the following order i\n1. For children considered normal or nearly normal and who, for any\ncause, are working at a serious disadvantage in the regular classes. In\nthis type of ungraded room the maximum enrolment is from 20 to 24 to a\nteacher. Some rooms are primary, some advanst, and such rooms serve\nas a center for a group of different schools.\n2. Ungraded rooms known as special schools, open to truants and\nincorrigibles, with a maximum enrolment of 15.\n3. Permanent ungraded rooms, open to pupils who are extremely dull\nor queer, with an enrolment that runs in some cases as high as 30.\n4. Classes for defective children manifesting enough intelligence to\nplace them above the institutional cases.\n5. Parental schools where children, without adequate parental control\n— usually those who have made a start in juvenile vice and crime — are\nentered.\n6. Deaf classes, both primary and advanst, using lip methods only,\nand enroling seven pupils to each teacher. Another step in the right\ndirection is the work being done by our Health and Development Department. At present we have a staff of eleven physicians and seven nurses,\ndoing the examination work in our schools, making physical, and some\nmental, tests and giving in our high and intermediate schools lessons 'in\nhygiene.\nAt the Parent-Teacher Clinic, which was started by the Federation of\nParent-Teacher Associations, but which is now largely supported by the\nschool department, we have dentists and physicians who administer to\nthe children that are sent to them by the schools, and these dentists and\nphysicians also give such care as is necessary to establish the health of\nthe child.\nIn this \"clinic\" (which name is a misnomer, for it really is not a clinic\nin the common understanding of the word, inasmuch as no students ever\npractice there) we have the following departments: dental, eye, ear, nose,\nthroat, general medicine, osteophathic, and a class for the correction of\nspeech defects, such as stammering and so forth.\nWe are soon to move into a new building — a gift from one of our\nphilanthropists — and shall then endeavor to do even broader work; for\nwe hope to have lectures to mothers on hygiene, dietetics, care of children's\nteeth, etc., as we realize that the most important task we can accompUsh\nwill be along practical lines.\n\n"}
{"page": 812, "printed_page": "800", "text": "8oo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nWe have a special type of school known as \" the neighborhood school,\"\nwhere the particular needs of the neighborhood in which the school is\nlocated are lookt after.\nIn some of our neighborhood schools you will find such social work as\nthe following: the day nursery, with a competent woman in charge looking\nafter any number of little children who are not yet old enough to enter\nkindergarten, but> who must be lookt after while their usual caretakers —\ntheir older brothers and sisters — are in school. Their mothers cannot\ntake care of them because most of these women are forst to go to different\nparts of the city during the day to work.\nIn the day nursery you will find a group of happy children who are\nbathed and fed, and provided with little beds to sleep in, and a sand pile\nand blocks and games to play with. Surely, a reliable, true melting-pot is\nthis day nursery, where children of all nationahties are properly taught\nAmericanism. Another interesting and useful phase of the day nursery\nis the training many high-school girls are receiving; for they take turns in\nassisting at the nurseries and gain by actual experience the lessons on how\nto care for a baby.\nThe penny lunch is another constructive part of our school system.\nHere the child is provided with a bowl of warm, nourishing soup, and as\nmuch bread as he can eat, for one penny, any deficit that may occur being\nmade up by the school department. If the child has no penny he is given\nthe soup and bread.\nOften this meal is the only one provided. What sense or economy is\nthere in trying to cram a hungry child with rules and regulations when he\nis in need of food ? What sense is there in trying to hold the attention of\na child who has an ulcerated tooth and can think of nothing but the pain ?\nWhat sense is there in educating, in the regular way, a hopelessly tubercular child, or a child who is approaching blindness or deafness ?\nIn the neighborhood schools may also be found cooking classes and\nsewing classes, where not only the children of the school are taught, but\nwhere the mothers of the neighborhood are gathered in and taught how to\ncut garments and how properly to prepare the kinds of food they like best.\nMost of this work is done by the teacher, whose classes are dismist at two\no'clock and who must remain until three. This hour and one which the\nteacher contributes as her offering to society afford the time for this work\nand the teaching of English, etc.\nAnd in these schools too, not only are the children taught to wash and\niron, but the mothers are permitted on certain days and hours to do their\nfamily washing. The school gardens, where boys and girls may get out\nin the open and learn so many of the lessons of nature, have already proved\na boon to many a fortunate child, who has been able to avail himself of\nthis opportunity for self-discovery. Besides, the results which are in\nevidence, even in the poorest of homes, where tiny little plots are planted,\n\n"}
{"page": 813, "printed_page": "801", "text": "Department!\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR GIRLS\n\n8oi\n\nclearly indicate that the object-lesson of the school garden has been\nlearned.\nIn Los Angeles we have come to a full realization of the great importance\nof the leisure time of our boys and girls.\nWe know that our schools employ only a very small share of the child's\ntime, and we feel that the unoccupied time is almost, if not fully, as important as his occupied time.\nTo meet this great problem we have organized night schools; summer\nschools, running thru six weeks of the summer months; the extended\nschool day, and other departments to take up the slack time of our boys\nand girls. The night schools have been running only a few years, yet the\nenrolment for the year just closed ran into the thousands, and the courses\nof study offered in these schools covered all the subjects offered in the\nregular day schools. Our summer schools last year enroled hundreds of\nboys and girls who workt industriously and with enthusiasm during the\nentire term. It is an interesting fact to note, in connection with the\nsummer schools, that the number of students taking advanst work was\nmuch greater than the number who were studying to make up back credits.\nWe have an agricultural high school, a marine high school, and a\ntechnical high school, and, of course, the regular classical high schools.\nWe have the intermediate school to bring the high and elementary schools\ncloser together. In our elementary schools we have special departments\nfor music, drawing, cooking, sewing, manual training, and agriculture.\nAnd all these, the specialized high school, the intermediate school, and\nthe special elementary-school departments, have been organized in the\ninterests of the child, endeavoring, not so much to give him a groundwork\nfor entering life after he finishes school, but to bring him in touch with life\nas it is while he yet is in school, with the thought that if he is to be a\nmechanic we will provide him the training for a mechanic and not the\ntraining for a lawyer; and if he is to be a lawyer or a doctor or a farmer\nwe may provide him the right training for his life-work. Such a plan is\nnot only specializing — it is vitalizing.\nWe maintain that everything which helps to create a sound mind in a\nsound body belongs to, and is a part of, the pubUc-school system.\nADMINISTRATION\nJOSEPHINE\n\nAND METHOD IN HIGH-SCHOOL\nTRAINING FOR GIRLS\n\nBEIDERHASE,\nASSISTANT DIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL\nPUBLIC SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nPHYSICAL\nTRAINING,\n\nIn the short time allotted to me for this paper, it is not possible to cover\na subject of such wide scope as my title implies; I will, however, endeavor\nto give a brief outline of the methods used in New York City to interest\nour high-school girls in such vital topics as health and strength.\n\n"}
{"page": 814, "printed_page": "802", "text": "802\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nOn entering the high school the girl finds herself in a new environment.\nShe now has a teacher who teaches only physical training — a teacher who\nis vitally interested in this important subject and who is giving her entire\nlife for the physical and moral welfare of those girls who come under her\ndirection. The girl enters, perhaps for the first time, a well-equipt gymnasium with locker rooms, shower-baths and examination room. She is\nimprest with the business like air of the entire department; she is required\nto get a trim gymnasium costume consisting of black bloomers, plain white\nmiddy blouse, black tie, black stockings, and black gymnasium shoes. All\nthis interests the girl; she returns to her home and talks about it; the\nmother is thoroly famihar with the name of the \"gymnasium teacher\" and\nher demands before she has even heard the names of the other teachers who\nnow instruct her daughter. This is the psychological time for making a\ngreat impression on the enthusiasm of the adolescent, and I can safely say\nthat the women high-school teachers of physical training in New York\nCity are doing their utmost to make the 25,000 girls whom they instruct,\nhealthy, happy, and efficient.\nPhysical education is a broad term and includes first and foremost\ninstruction in right hving, such instruction to be given in part thru talks\non personal hygiene. The individual advice for establishing correct habits\nof personal hygiene is based on the results of the physical examination and\nroutine inspection; these the girl receives on her entrance to high school\nand at stated times thereafter; the inspection is strictly followed up, and\neach girl is required to report to the nurse or physical-training teacher until\nall temporary disturbances are cleared up.\nOn pp. 803 and 804 is a copy of the card used for physical training and\nhygiene record and physical examination.\nPhysical training is compulsory, and a passing mark is required for\npromotion and graduation. Two forty-minute periods a week during\nthe entire course of four years has been the requirement for both\nboys and girls; according to the new state law this time will be greatly\nincreast.\nA graded and uniform course of study is in operation in the high schools\nin New York City; this work has been carefully planned by the teachers\nthemselves in conference with the director and assistant director of physical\ntraining. The program includes:\n1. Marching, running, skipping, and tactics.\n2. Formal gymnastic exercises which include freehand exercises, those\ndone with light apparatus, and those on fixt or heavy apparatus.\n3. Dancing, including folk, natural, and classical.\n4. Gymnastic games.\n5. After-school athletics and athletic games, including walking, swimming, field hockey, horseback-riding, tennis, basket-ball and indoor baseball.\n6. Special classes for the correction of faulty posture.\n\n"}
{"page": 815, "printed_page": "803", "text": "Department]\n\nHIGH-SCHOOL\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nGIRLS\n\n0\nQ\nC/3\n\n3\n\nuUiw\n0\n\n'\n\nI\n0)\n\nO\n\n1«\n\n5 ^\n■1\n\n1\na\n\nto\n\nu\n\n6\n\n1 s1\n\n!\n\ni I\n\nCO\n\n1\n\n0\n\n1■\n\n1 1\n\n>>\n\n1\np\n\n1\n\n1\n3\n\n<\n\n1\n\n•11 1\n\n§\n0\n\nc\n\n.a\n\nC/3\n\nc\n\n1\n1\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 816, "printed_page": "804", "text": "8o4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\n:aaoD\nuop^jado\npaAOJduinin :-\n\npa^oauoo jo pajno i^\n\n:o\n\nl^^naQ :a\n\n:xNawi-vaHi, ao aNra\n\n^NOixvNmvxa-aH no aNnoj xiasan\na\nH\n\no\n\n1\na\n\n1\n4J\n\n2\n1\n\nI\n\nij\n\n1\n\nH\n\ng 8\n\n•9\n\n1\n\n11\n\nn\n\ni\n\n(^\n\nt\n\nI\n\nii\n\nt\n7^\n-1\n\n1\n\n1\n1\n1\n\n0\n\n1\n\nc\n2\n\ni\n\ns\n\nf\n\ni\n\nE\n\n3\n\ni5\n\ni\n\nC\n\nf\n\nc\n\n^\nE\n\n■1\nh\n\n^\n\n5\n\n•\nc5\n\n>\n\n,\n\n"}
{"page": 817, "printed_page": "805", "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nBOY\n\nSCOUTS\n\nOF AMERICA\n\n805\n\nThe various phases of physical training enumerated under i, 2, 3, and\n4 are combined in a forty-minute lesson in such a way as to be at once'\ninteresting and effective. The plan combines both neuro-muscular training and vigorous exercise.\nIn this lesson plan, which was devised by C. Ward Crampton and which\nis in use in the high and elementary schools of New York City, there are\ntwo fundamental ideas, namely, simplicity and purpose. The exercises\nare preferably simple and well known, and the purpose of each exercise is\nthoroly understood by the pupil as well as by the teacher.\nThe lesson is divided into five parts:\n1. Introductory exercises: for mental and physical preparation for the\nlesson.\n2. Corrective exercises: elevation exercises to develop good posture;\nraising chest and head, straightening trunk.\n3. Educational exercises: for alertness, inhibition, and accuracy.\n4. Hygienic exercises: vigorous exercises done to rhythm, designed to\nstimulate the action of the heart and lungs and to train in endurance.\n5. Recreative exercises: for informal educational training and hygienic\nresults.\n\nTHE BOY SCOUTS\nJAMES E. WEST,\n\nCHIEF\n\nOF AMERICA\n\nSCOUT EXECUTIVE, BOY SCOUTS\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nOF AMERICA,\n\nI am particularly appreciative of the opportunity for addressing this\ngroup in connection with the great National Education Association Convention on the work of the Boy Scouts of America. Here in New York\nand indeed thruout the whole country the organization of the Boy Scouts\nof America has been greatly aided by men who are leaders in physical\neducation.\nAiming as we do to supplement the work of existing agencies, it is\nlogical for all interested in physical education to take an active and definite\n)art in promoting our program.\nThe reports from the War Department show that of the state militia\nIrafted for federal service in the present emergency, from 15 per cent to\nI5 per cent of the men from various states sent to the border have been\nrejected because of lack of physical fitness. Again the records of the\nrnited States government show that of the men who apply for enhstment\nthe marine corps, 90 per cent are rejected because they are not physically\nit, the percentage in New York City alone being as high as 97 per cent plus,\nMe in Los Angeles, Cal., it is 66 per cent plus. These figures are based\nipon records made by United States ofiicials and cover the United States\n[arine Corps recruiting service for the entire country. Other facts\n\n"}
{"page": 818, "printed_page": "806", "text": "8o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\nmight be cited to show the serious lack of physical development and fitness\nof the average American citizen.\nBecause of the European war and recent Mexican developments, the\ncountry is alarmed and aroused, and an earnest effort is being made by\nmany well-meaning people to impose the burden of miUtary preparedness\nupon our schools and upon the boys in their \"teen\" age. It is true that\nmuch of the agitation and resulting hysteria shows a lack of knowledge of\nwhat is properly covered by the term \"military training,\" nevertheless\nit does show an earnestness and patriotism on the part of those who are\nadvocating this or that method for correcting existing conditions which\nmust be reckoned with.\nAgain, if those who are leaders in physical education would come forward with a definite program of instruction which would greatly improve\nthe physical condition of the product of our public schools and colleges, I\nfeel confident that the most radical advocates of the technical military\ntraining would be satisfied with it as a preliminary program and would be\ncontent to have their strictly military program commence at a more mature\nage and at the point where the physical training left off. It is because so\nlittle has been done that those who are concerned about our country's lack\nof preparedness are advocating the introduction of what is unfairly called\n\"military training\" in our public schools.\nAs a matter of fact, in the programs of many of our most progressive\nschools as well as in the program of the Boy Scouts of America, a great\ndeal of what is practically understood as military training is given very\neffectively. Indeed I am told by many of our people who have been to\nPlattsburg that a great proportion of the program of the Plattsburg and\nother strictly military training camps is included in the program of the\nBoy Scouts of America.\nIt is just as important that boys and girls be taught how to live and\nhow to care for themselves and what to do in emergencies in order to prepare\nthem to be good school teachers, stenographers, bookkeepers, accountants,\nclerks, to engage in any of the trades, or to work as a day laborer on the\nstreets, as it is to prepare them to withstand the test of army service in\ntime of war.\nThose things which make for discipline, obedience, loyalty, endurance,\ninitiative, alertness, good health, knowledge of how to care for oneself, etc.,\nshould not be considered distinctive military training, but should be given\nto all boys and girls in order properly to prepare them primarily for their\nlater responsibilities as home-makers, wage-earners, and citizens. It was\nupon this theory that Lieutenant General Sir Robert S. S. Baden-Powell\nformulated the program which is being followed the world over by regularly\norganized boy scouts.\nThe purely technical military training, which experience shows is\nunwisely given to groups of young boys as cadets, simply occupies valuable\n\n"}
{"page": 819, "printed_page": "807", "text": "Department]\n\nTEE\n\nBOY\n\nSCOUTS\n\nOF AMERICA\n\n807\n\ntime and crowds out a program of other activities which would, in the\njudgment of those promoting scouting, prove more effective and beneficial\nin securing the desired results.\nGeneral Baden-Powell in speaking on this subject recently said:\n\nI\n\nMy own experience as a soldier includes having served as a cadet, having commanded\ncadets, and having seen them in most of the overseas dominions; but this experience does\nnot lead me to think that, under their usual organization and training, they are of supreme\nvalue for military purposes. In my own territorial division, when I suggested the formation of Cadet Corps as feeders to the various battalions, not one of the commanding\nofficers of those battalions desired to have them.\nThe difficulty of obtaining really first-class officers and instructors to train boys is\nvery great, and unless you have them you are likely to do more harm than good from the\nmilitary point of view. More than one officer has told me that he would rather have\nraw recruits to train than ex-cadets, since, as a rule, these have so much to unlearn.\n\nAside from the exceptional instances where school buildings are equipt\nwith gymnasiums, athletic fields, and other facilities for physical training,\nthe school authorities' opportunity for official action is limited to the brief\nperiod with the boys under the direct control of the schools. Manifestly\nthis is not adequate. Plans must therefore be considered to reach the boy\nduring his leisure time thru some form of recreational activity which will\nresult in bringing about physical preparedness. This is where the Boy\nScouts of America, the playground movement, and other kindred movements\nvery definitely provide a supplement to the work of the directors of physical\neducation and the school work proper.\nAlready important steps have been taken because of the necessity for\ndefinite action. New York State has created a so-called military- training\ncommission, consisting of three men who have complete and absolute\npower to develop a program of training of not more than three hours in\neach week to be given to all boys, over the age of fifteen who are not\nemployed. Undoubtedly other states will enact legislation to meet the\nsituation.\nIt is for us who believe, as I hope all here do, that physical preparedness\nis the greatest need of America, actively to interest ourselves in seeing to\nit that whatever legislation of this character may be enacted will be along\nlines calculated to secure the best results for our country. We should all\ncooperate with those to whom authority is given, and aid in the development of programs which will give the boys proper physical development as\nwell as the proper point of view as to their patriotic duty.\nThe Boy Scouts of America must frankly confess that, notwithstanding\nthe fact that at present we have over 42,000 men who are performing\nvolunteer service in various parts of the country in order to make our\nprogram available to 190,000 boys who are registered as scouts, as an\norganization we cannot reasonably expect to provide sufficient leadership\nto reach all the boys of the country of the teen age for whom something\nshould be done outside of this school. We believe, however, whenever it\n\n"}
{"page": 820, "printed_page": "808", "text": "8o8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(School Patrons\n\nis possible to have scout troops organized, that boys who are under proper\nleadership following the prescribed scout program should be excused from\nparticipation in any other compulsory form of training for preparedness.\nThe simplicity of the plan of organization of the Boy Scouts of America\nmakes it possible for troops to be organized just as rapidly as competent\nleadership is available. Commissions are granted to men of good character\nupon the recommendation of three or more accredited representatives of\nthe institution who are citizens of the community; and, in case the troop\nis to be organized in a large community, upon the additional recommendation of the proper officials of a chartered local council.\nThe appeal to the boy's imagination thru the word \"scout,\" the recognition of the principle of self-government, and the placing of a boy on his\nhonor have all been very effective. Likewise the total absence of the use\nof the word \" don't\" or anything of a negative character has been effectively\ncared for by placing emphasis upon \"do.\" As a scout, the boy willingly\nadopts as real and vital the universally accepted principles of right living\nas set forth in the scout oath and law. This effectively influences the boy's\nnature and character so as better to prepare him for that work which the\nchurch can best do. A scout promises upon his honor to do his duty to\nGod and to his country, to obey the scout law, to help other people at all\ntimes, and to keep himself physically strong, mentally awake, and morally\nstraight.\nIn scouting, the boy does not stand still. The opportunity and incentive for progress are always at hand. He first becomes a \"tenderfoot,\"\nthen a \"second-class scout,\" and then a \"first-class scout.\" After this\nthe whole sphere of the scout program is made available by the boy's own\napplication to qualify himself to pass tests for the various merit badges,\nwhich cover a wide range of interesting and practical subjects. We find\nthat a boy takes up a hobby with the same zest with which he plays tennis\nor football, and that this hobby, under proper leadership, may guide him\nto the realization of the thing he is best fitted to do as a life-work. In\nother words, we transfer the efforts of the boy from idle play or harmful\nmischief to vital achievements.\nOf course, all here understand that the scout program is built around\nthe out-of-doors. All that is necessary is the out-of-doors, a group of\nboys, and a leader. Not only are nearly all the requirements for the first\nthree degrees based on the out-of-doors, but the same is true of 90 per cent\nof the subjects for which we give merit badges, some of which are athletics,\ncamping, conservation, cooking, cycling, forestry, life-saving, pathfinding,\npersonal health, physical development, pioneering, public health, swimming, etc.\nTo obtain a Merit Badge for Personal Health, a scout must:\nI. Write a statement on the care of the teeth, and show that his teeth\nare in good condition as a result of proper care.\n\n"}
{"page": 821, "printed_page": "809", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nBOY\n\nSCOUTS\n\nOF\n\nAMERICA\n\n809\n\n2. State a principle to govern in eating; and state in the order of their\nimportance five rules to govern the care of his health.\n3. Present satisfactory evidence that he has not been absent from\nschool or work for a period of at least six months as a result of his failure\nto observe these rules.\n4. Tell the difference in effect of a cold bath and a hot bath.\n5. Describe the effects of alcohol and tobacco on the growing boy.\n6. Tell how to care for the feet on a march.\n7. Describe a good, healthful game and state its merits.\n8. Describe the effects of walking as an exercise.\n9. Tell the dangers of specialization and overtraining in the various\nforms of athletics, and the advantages of an all-round development.\nCongress has just past a bill, which was approved by President Wilson,\ngranting a federal charter to the Boy Scouts of America. In the bill for\nreorganizing the army a provision was included prohibiting the use of\nuniforms, any part of which is similar to the United States Army uniform.\nException was specifically granted, however, to the Boy Scouts of America.\nAs a result of these two laws the use of the uniform, badges, and insignia\nof the organization is limited to regularly registered members of the Boy\nScouts of America, and any unauthorized use of the name of the organization, of the term \"boy scouts,\" or of our badges and insignia for purposes\nof commercial exploitation or other private interests, is made unlawful.\nThe movement has, since the date of organization, received the support\nof the foremost citizens of the country, financially and otherwise, and at\nthe present time it has, as its honorary president, the president of the\nUnited States, and as honorary vice-presidents, the two ex-presidents of\nthe United States. A large number of governors of the states serve as\nhonorary members of the National Council, and in all our large cities a\nselected group of representative citizens give direction and leadership to\nthe movement.\nWe differ from other attempts to do organized work for boys in that\nwe maintain standards. Our insignia for tenderfoot, second-class, and\nfirst-class scouts, and our various merit badges are awarded under very\ncarefully safeguarded conditions. This helps in maintaining the respect\nand active interest of boys and is an important element in our success in\nestabUshing the movement on a permanent basis.\nEvery step in the scouting program is for character-development and\ngood citizenship. The variety and interest, as well as the practical knowledge insured by the tenderfoot, second-class, first-class, and various meritbadge tests are, after all, but a means for holding the interest of the boy,\npledged to the scout oath and law, under such leadership as will bring\nabout character-development. The form of troop-organization, the\nscoutmaster, and his assistants, the local council, and indeed the National\nCouncil and all its officers are but means to this end. This character-\n\n"}
{"page": 822, "printed_page": "810", "text": "8io\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[School Patrons\n\ndevelopment manifests itself in health, efficiency, chivalry, loyalty, patriotism, good citizenship, and joyous living. Time will not permit a detailed\ndescription of the plan of organization and methods of procedure, but free\nbulletins can be had on inquiry at the National Headquarters, 200 Fifth\nAvenue, New York City.\nThe Boy Scouts of America maintain that no boy can grow into the\nbest kind of citizen without recognizing his obligations to God. The recognition of God as the ruling and leading power of the universe, and the\ngrateful acknowledgment of his favors and blessings are necessary to the\nbest type of citizenship, and are wholesome in the education of the growing\nboy. No matter what the boy may be — Catholic or Protestant or Jew —\nthis fundamental need of good citizenship should be kept before him.\nThe organization of the Boy Scouts of America therefore recognizes\nthe religious element in the training of the boy, but is absolutely nonsectarian in its attitude toward that religious training. Its policy is that\nthe religious organization or institution with which the scout troop or the\nindividual scout is associated should give definite attention to the boy*s\nreligious life.\nIn thus making available to boys of all classes a common meetingground where they may play and compete and learn to know that the other\nfellow is not much different from themselves, the boy-scout movement is\nperforming a distinctive and important patriotic service, and the observance\nof the scout law, the tremendous cumulative value of the required daily\ngood turn, and the creation of better feeling among millions of scouts in our\nown and other lands constitute a latent, but powerful and rapidly growing,\nfactor for universal good-will and the brotherhood of man.\n\n"}
{"page": 823, "printed_page": "811", "text": "DEPARTMENT\n\nOF SPECIAL EDUCATION\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\nOFFICERS\nPresident — Elizabeth E. Farrell, inspector of ungraded classes, Department of Education,\nNew York, N.Y.\nVice-President — Lewis M. Terman, associate professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior\nUniversity, Stanford University, CfJ.\nSecretary— FzAHSCES E. Cheney, teacher of special classes\nSpringfield, Mass.\n\nGENERAL\n\nMEETING\n\nA general meeting was held each day, following the several group meetings, in Public\nSchool No. 27, at which Elizabeth E. Farrell presided.\nWednesday, July 5\nof Welcome — Gustave'Straubenmiiller, acting superintendent of schools.\nNew Address\nYork, N.Y.\n\"Delinquency and Mental Defect\" — Katherine Bement Davis, chairman. Parole\nCommission, New York, N.Y.\nThursday, July 6\nAddress of Welcome — ^Andrew W. Edson, associate superintendent of schools. New\nYork, N.Y.\n\"The Mis-Fit Child \"—Thomas W. Salmon, M.D., medical director. National Committee for Mental Hygiene, New York, N.Y.\nThe following Committee on Nominations was appointed by the chair:\nAda M. Fitts, Boston, Mass.\nElizabeth Walsh, New York, N.Y.\nFrances E. Cheney, Springfield, , Mass.\nFriday, July 7\nAddress of Welcome — Ira S. Wile, M.D., Board of Education, New York, N.Y.\n\"Child Labor and Its Relation to Illiteracy\" — A. J. McKelway, southern secretary,\nNational Child-Labor Committee, New York, N.Y.\n\"Prevention of Delinquency\" — Woods Hutchinson, M.D., New York, N.Y.\nThe following officers, as recommended by the nominating committee, were elected:\nPresident — Daniel P. McMillan, director, department of child-study and educational\nresearch, Public Schools, Chicago, 111.\nVice-President — Elsie M. Seguin, Seguin School, Orange, N.J.\nSecretary — ^Nellie A. Goodhue, director, child-study laboratory, Seattle, Wash.\nGROUP MEETINGS\nBlind Children\nWednesday, July 5\nMay E. Angus, Public School No. 44, New York, N.Y., chairman.\n\"The Status of the Blind Individual in a Community\" — C. Rudolph Dieffenbach,\nmember of the New Jersey State Commission for the Blind.\n811\n\n"}
{"page": 824, "printed_page": "812", "text": "8i^\n\nl^ATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nDiscussion — W. I. Scandlin, field agent of the New York Association for the Blind,\nNew York, N.Y.\n\"Educational Work of a State Commission\" — Marion A. Campbell, secretary,\nNew York State Commission for the Blind, New York, N.Y,\nDiscussion — Lucy Wright, general superintendent, Massachusetts Commission for\nthe Blind, Boston, Mass.\nClassroom demonstration— pupils of public schools for blind children.\nThursday, July 6\nAgnes M. Blakeley, Public School No. 30, New York, N.Y., chairman.\n\"History of the Education of the Blind — Methods and Ideals\" — Lydia Y. Hayes,\nsupervisor, New Jersey State Work for the Blind, Trenton, N.J.\nDiscussion — Eben P. Morford, superintendent. Blind Men's Industrial Home,\nBrooklyn, N.Y.; Charles B. Hayes, director of work of the blind, Brooklyn, N.Y.\n\"Education of Blind Children with Special Reference to the Public Schools of\nthe City of New York\" — Andrew W. Edson, associate superintendent of schools. New\nYork, N.Y.\nDiscussion — Katharine A. McCann, principal, Public School No. 17, New York, N.Y.\n\"Public Libraries for the Blind\" — Lucile C. Goldthwaite, librarian for the blind,\npublic schools. New York, N.Y.\nDiscussion — Ida M. Bahr, department for the blind, public schools. New York, N.Y.\nFriday, July 7\nGertrude E. Farrell, Public School No. 171, New York, N.Y., chairman.\nDemonstration of physical training, in charge of Adele Smith, supervisor of physical\ntraining of handicapt children, public schools. New York, N.Y.\n\"Saving the Sight of School Children\" — Gordon L. Berry, acting secretary. National\nCommittee for the Prevention of Blindness, New York, N.Y.\nDiscussion — M. B. Beales, M.D., Department of Health, New York, N.Y.\nClassroom demonstration — sewing, knitting, crocheting, tatting, Braille reading and\nwriting.\nCrippled Children\n\nN.Y.\n\nJulia F. O'Bieme, president. Association of Public School Teachers of Crippled Children, New York, N.Y., chairman.\nDemonstrations — In charge of Grace M. Anderson, Public School No. 162, Brooklyn,\nWednesday, July 5\n\n\"Charitable Organizations Help\" — Babette Goldman, principal, East Side Free\nSchool for Cripples, New York, N.Y.\nLecture — Charlton Wallace, M.D., professor of orthopedic surgery. Hospital for\nthe Ruptured and Crippled, New York, N.Y.\nThursday, July 6\n\"Industrial Work for Crippled Children\" — Mary M. Perry, Boston, Mass.\n\"The Work of the Widener Memorial Industrial Training School for Crippled Children\"— Mrs. D. B. Creamer, head of academic department, Widener School, Philadelphia, Pa.\nFrtoay, July 7\n\"Cooperation between Educators and Physicians in Classes for Cripples\" — Henry\nLing Taylor, M.D., professor of orthopedic surgery. Post Graduate Hospital, New\nYork, N.Y.\nDeaf Children\nWednesday, July 5\nCarrie Wallace Keams, principal, Public School No. 47, Day School for the Deaf,\nNew York, N.Y., chairman.\n\n\"The Problem\"— Carrie Wallace Keams, New York, N.Y.\n\n"}
{"page": 825, "printed_page": "813", "text": "Department]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n813\n\n\"Introductory Explanation of the Analytic Synthetic Method of Teachmg Reading\nto Deaf Children\"— D. Frances Kauffman, assistant to principal, Public School No. 47,\nDay School for the Deaf, New York, N.Y.\n\" Explanation of the Correlative Language Work for the Deaf, Taught in Connection\nwith Reading\" — D. Frances Kauffman, assistant to principal, Public School No. 47,\nDay School for the Deaf, New York, N.Y.\nR.L \"Rhythm\"— Pattie Thomason, Rhode Island Institute for the Deaf, Providence,\nDiscussion— Mary A. Aymar, Public School No. 47, Day School for the Deaf, New\nYork, N.Y.\nThursday, July 6\nman.\n\nAndrew W. Edson, associate city superintendent of schools, New York, N.Y., chair-\n\nOpening address — Andrew W. Edson, New York, N.Y.\nDemonstration — Pupils of Public School No. 47, Day School for the Deaf, New\nYork, N.Y.\n\"Teaching of Language\" — Harris Taylor, principal. Institution for the Instruction of\nthe Deaf, New York, N.Y.\nFriday, July 7\nD. Frances Kauffman, assistant to principal, Public School No. 47, Day School for\n^e Deaf, New York, N.Y., chairman..\n*\"The Physical Side of the Deaf Child\" — George B. McAuliffe, special physician,\nl^dblic School No. 47, Day School for the Deaf, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Utilization of Residual Hearing \"—John Dutton Wright, Wright Oral School,\nJ!^ew York, N.Y.\nDiscussion — Miss Connery, Buffalo, N.Y.; Miss B. N. Leonard, Northampton,\nMass.; Harris Taylor, New York, N.Y.; Elbert A. Gruver, Rome, N.Y.; Richard O.\nJohnson, IndianapoUs, Ind.; Miss Hinkley, Richmond, Va.\n\" Measurement of Efficiency in Schools for the Deaf \" — Richard O. Johnson, superintendent, State School for the Deaf, Indianapolis, Ind.\n\"The Pintner Tests \"—Walter M. Kilpatrick, American School for the Deaf, Hartford, Coon.\nDelinquent Children\nWednesday, July 5\nOlive N. Jones, principal. Public School No. 120, Probationary, New York, N.Y.,\nchain^an.\n^*The Juvenile Court of New York City \"—Franklin C. Hoyt, chief justice. Children's\nOwrt, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Delinquent\" — Edgar Dubs Shimer, district superintendent of schools, chairman. Board of Parole, New York, N.Y.\nDiscussion — Bernard J. Fagan, acting chief probation officer. Children's Court,\nNew York, N.Y.\n\"The Girl Delinquent\" — Amy S. Everal, superintendent, Lancaster School for\nGirls, Lancaster, Mass.\nDiscussion — Jessie B. Colburn, president. Association of Women Principals of Public\nSchools, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Big-Sister Movement\" — Mrs. Sidney C. Borg, Jewish Big-Sisters Movement,\nNew York, N.Y.\nDemonstration — Pupils of Public School No. 120, Probationary, New York, N.Y.\nThursday, July 6\nLucille Nicol, Public School No. 61, Brooklyn, N.Y., chairman.\nDemonstration — School exercise by teachers and pupils of Public School No. 61,\nProbationary, Brooklyn, N.Y.\n\"Organized Charity and the Delinquent\" — Siegfried Geisman, superintendent,\nBrooklyn Hebrew Orphan Asylum, Brooklyn, N.Y.\n\"The Preservation of the Home and the Family\" — Grace Strachan, district superintendent ofschools, New York, N.Y.\n\"Preserving the Family\" — ^Joseph V. S. McClancy, superintendent, parochial\nschools, Diocese of Brooklyn, Brooklyn, N.Y.\n\n"}
{"page": 826, "printed_page": "814", "text": "gl4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\n\"The Social Worker\"— Henry W. Thurston, director of child welfare, School of\nPhilanthropy, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Work of the Visitmg Teacher\"— Ruth True, Children's Bureau, Washington,\nFriday, July 7\nRobert R. Todd, principal, Parental School, Flushing, N.Y., chairman.\n\"The Work of the Bureau of Attendance, New York City Schools\"— John W. Davis,\ndirector, Attendance Bureau, New York, N.Y.\nFresh-Air Class\nWednesday, July $\nIsabelle E. Sanders, supervisor, fresh-air classes. New York, N.Y., chairman.\n\"History of the Fresh-Air Classes in New York City, 19 10-16\" — Ogden Woodruff,\nM.D., medical inspector, open-air classes, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Need of Fresh-Air Classes in Public Schools \"—Harriet A. Tupper, principal,\nPubHc School No. 58, New York, N.Y.\nSpeech-Improvement\nWednesday, July 5\nDennis J. McDonald, M.D., professor of rhinology and laryngology, New York\nPolyclinic School and Hospital, New York, N.Y., chairman.\n\"Speech-Improvement\" — Dennis J. McDonald, M.D., Fellow of Academy of Medicine, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Mission of the Speech Specialist\"— James S. Greene, M.D., director, New York\nInstitute for Speech Defects, New York, N.Y.\n\"What is a 'Speech Clinic '?\"— Walter B. Swift, M.D., special clinic for speech disorder, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Mass.\n\"The Clinic, Its Place in the Correction of Speech Defects\" — Mrs. E. W. Scripture,\nneurological department, Vanderbilt Clinic, New York, N.Y.\n\"Tone and Hearing \"—George B. McAuliffe, M.D., New York, N.Y.\nDiscussion — Dennis J. McDonald, M.D., member, Board of Education, New York,\nN.Y.; Walter B. Swift, M.D., Boston, Mass.; John F. Reigart, principal. Public School\nNo. 166, New York, N.Y.\nThursday, July 6\nJohn F. Reigart, principal. Public School No. 166, New York, N.Y., chairman.\n\"Speech-Improvement in the Chicago Public Schools\" — Miss Lyon, department of\ncorrection of defective speech, public schools, Chicago, 111.\n\"Speech Work m the Detroit Public Schools \"—Mrs. Frank A. Reed, prmcipal,\nReed School, Detroit, Mich.\n\"The Need of Speech Work in the High Schools \"— Ahna M. Bullowa, Hunter College,\nNew York, N.Y.\nDiscussion — Samuel S. Curry, president. School of Expression, Boston, Mass.\nFriday, July 7\nJohn F. Reigart, principal. Public School No. 166, New York, N.Y., chairman.\n\"Speech-Correction as a School Problem\" — ^John F. Reigart, New York, N.Y.\nDemonstration — Public School No. 166, New York, N.Y.\n\"Games and Exercise to Develop the Sense of Rythm\" — ^Elsa Katz, Public School\nNo. 166, New York, N.Y.\n\"What the Teacher Should Know of the Speech Organs\"— Otto Glogan, M.D., nose\nand throat department, Vanderbilt Hospital, New York, N.Y.\n\"Oral\nD J).S.,\nNewDeformities\nYork, N.Y.in Their Relation to Defective Speech\"— Vethake E. Mitchell,\nSaturday, July 8\nIra S. Wile, Board of Education, New York, N.Y., chairman.\n\"The Economic Value of Speech-Correction\"— Ira S. Wile, M.D., member, New\nYork City Board of Education, New York, N.Y.\nDiscussion — Mrs. E. W. Scripture, in^charge of speech work, neurological departraent, Vanderbilt Clinic, New York, N.Y.; Walter B. Swift, M,D,, special dini<: iQX\nspeech disofde?, Massachusetts G^n^al Hospital, Boston, M^ss.\n\n"}
{"page": 827, "printed_page": "815", "text": "Department]\n\nDELINQUENCY\n\nAND\n\nMENTAL\n\nDEFECT\n\nUngraded Classes\nWednesday, July 5\nBarbara Spofford Morgan, New York University, New York, N.Y., chairman.\n\"The Principal's Point of View of the Selection of Children for Special Classes\" —\nMargaret Knox, principal, Public School No. 15, New York, N.Y.\n\"The Binet Scale and the Diagnosis of Feeble-Mindedness \" — ^Lewis M. Terman,\nprofessor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal.\nDiscussion — Samuel B. Heckman, College of the City of New York, New York,\nN.Y.; Arthur C. Jelly, M.D., department of special classes, Boston, Mass.; Frederick W.\nEllis, director, social research department, Neurological Institute of New York, New York,\nN.Y.; Robert J. Melville, director, psychological laboratory, school of pedagogy. Board\nof Public Education, Philadelphia, Pa.; Maximilian P. E. Groszmann, Plainfield, N.J.\nThursday, July 6\nAda M. Fitts* supervisor, special classes, Boston, Mass., chairman.\n\"Training of Teachers for Special Classes\" — James G. Riggs, principal, State Normal\nand Training School, Oswego, N.Y.\n\"The Work of the Teacher of the Special Class\" — Samuel B. Allison, district superintendent incharge of special schools, Chicago, 111.\nDiscussion — Ruth G. McGray, district superintendent of schools, New York, N.Y.;\nBenjamin Viets, district superintendent of schools, New York, N.Y.; Elizabeth E.\nFarrell, inspector of ungraded classes, New York, N.Y.; Barbara Spofford Morgan, New\nYork University, New York, N.Y.; A. Leila Martin, psychological laboratory, school\ndepartment, Rochester, N.Y.; Elizabeth A. Walsh, assistant inspector of ungraded\nclasses. New York, N.Y.\nFriday, July 7\nFrances E. Cheney, committee for the study of the feeble-minded, Springfield, Mass.,\nchairman.\n\"The Necessity for After Care of Children Discharged from Special Classes\" —\nHoward J. Banker, Eugenics Record Office, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.\n\"How to Fill the Gap between the Special Classes and Institutions\" — ^Ada M. Fitts,\nsupervisor of special classes, Boston, Mass.\nDiscussion — Mrs. McGrew, Burlington, Iowa; Arthur C. Jelly, M.D., Boston, Mass.;\nMiss Buck, New York, N.Y.; Catherine Ryan, New Britain, Conn.; Elizabeth E. Farrell,\nNew York, N.Y.\n\"A Study of 600 Children Discharged from Ungraded Classes in New York City on\nBecoming Sixteen Years of Age\" — Elizabeth E. Firrell, inspector of ungraded classes,\nNew York, N.Y.\nDiscussion — Howard J. Banker, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.; Miss Alexander, New\nYork, N.Y.; Jane Shaw, Brooklyn , N.Y.\n\"After-Care Work in Springfield, Mass.\" — ^Frances E. Cheney, special-class teacher,\nSpringfield, Mass.\nFrances E. Cheney, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nDISCUSSIONS\n\nABSTRACTS\n\nDELINQUENCY\nKATHERINE\n\nBEMENT\n\nAND\n\nDAVIS, CHAIRMAN,\n\nMENTAL\n\nDEFECT\n\nPAROLE COMMISSION, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nThe organized work for handicapt children is exceedingly praiseworthy.\nIf this work had been begun twenty-five years ago there would have been\nless for me to do. A peculiar problem confronted me upon my appoint-\n\n"}
{"page": 828, "printed_page": "816", "text": "8i6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nment as superintendent of the Reformatory at Bedford Hills, N.Y., in 190 1,\nwhere I was expected to organize an educational institution and training\nschool for women, many of whom had the physical age of adults, but the\nminds of children, and with no more control than could be expected of\nchildren in the primary grades.\nExperimental work was begun by Eleanor Roland, psychologist in\nMount Holyoke College, who gave up a summer vacation in order to come\nto Bedford Hills to study a group of thirty-six selected inmates: one-third\nof these were so defective mentally that there appeared to be no hope for\ntheir permanent cure; one-third were problem cases — those who could not\nbe clast as physically defective, insane, or mentally defective; and the\nremainder consisted of those who appeared to be the most nearly normal.\nAn outcome of this and other studies was the promise of funds by a\nprivate citizen to erect a group of buildings where further study could be\nmade. Field workers were employed to go out into the homes and schools,\nand to ascertain facts from other social agencies in order to get as complete\na history as possible of the lives of these girls, with their social setting.\nPsychological and pathological laboratories were establisht, and a course\nof education outlined.\nThe latest development of this group will be the opening, on August i,\n19 1 6, of a pyschopathic hospital or cottage for twenty-four patients, all\nunder thirty years of age — girls \"having a distinct mental twist, who are\nalways problems in institutions and in the world at large.\nEdith R. Spaulding, M.D., is to be the scientific director with the assistance of a resident psychiatrist. Here will be provided all medical aids for\nthe restoration of the patients to normal mental health — trained nurses,\nhydrotherapeutics, electrical treatment, also industrial and educational\nopportunities.\nThis school work might be so organized as to prevent the development\nof this t)^e of girl and her subsequent commitment to an institution.\nThe following is Dr. Spaulding's threefold classification of the inmates\nof the Reformatory:\n1. Those who are feeble-minded, or insane, or have such markt criminal\ntendencies as to make permanent custodial care necessary.\n2. The so-called border-line cases who may, after prolonged care and\ntreatment, under an indeterminate sentence, be placed on probation in the\ncommunity, and for many of whom a permanent cure may be hoped.\n3. The mentally normal.\nFor the last two groups educational methods are being devised (i)\nwhich shall teach the girls to think and reason, and so to learn the law of\ncause and effect when applied to conduct, as to make the connection between\nwrongdoing and its inevitable consequences; (2) which shall train their\nminds and fingers together; and (3) which shall make the practical application tolife of the things which they learn, thus carrying out the ideals of\n\n"}
{"page": 829, "printed_page": "817", "text": "Department]\n\nCHILD\n\nLABOR\n\nAND\n\nITS RELATION\n\nTO ILLITERACY\n\nDr. Flexner and Dr. Dewey — that school may be life, and not simply\npreparation for life.\nTHE MIS-FIT CHILD\nTHOMAS\n\nW. SALMON,\n\nMEDICAL DIRECTOR, NATIONAL COMMITTEE\nHYGIENE,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nFOR MENTAL\n\nThe theory that the education planned for the average child is adequate\nfor all children is passing; the present aim is to determine the need of each\nindividual child and to provide a curriculum suited to that need. There\nare two groups of children with imperfect or impaired nervous systems,\nwhose inability to adjust themselves to home and school Hfe, and later to\nadult life, is due: (i) to a lack of structural integrity in the brain itself;\n(2) to a lack of power in the brain to function properly. An environment\nto which each of these groups could adjust itself should be provided.\nThe first group is now receiving special class training of the type provided in our best institutions. The extension of this work is imperative.\nThe second group, which has received comparatively little attention,\nthe psychopathic children with no structural brain defect, but with functional defect only, should receive early and careful attention. This type\nof child is often obsest with fear, or it may substitute an unreality for a\nreaUty, or show other signs of psychosis, and is often found in our schools\nand children's courts. These abnormalities of thought and action should\nbe probed until the cause is found; the remedy should be sought, often in\na change of environment, which will right the mind itself.\nSince the school should be the greatest factor in the preservation of\nmental as well as physical health, it should deal with these children when\nthey are young, for it is too late when they leave school after puberty.\nThe closest cooperation between the school and the medical profession\nshould exist, in order that each may help the other in diagnosis as well as\ntreatment for the prevention of mental breakdown.\n\nCHILD\nA.\n\nJ.\n\nLABOR\n\nMCKELWAY,\n\nAND\n\nSOUTHERN\n\nITS RELATION\n\nTO ILLITERACY\n\nSECRETARY,\nNATIONAL\nMITTEE, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nCHILD-LABOR\n\nCOM-\n\n1. The purpose of child-labor legislation is to secure to the child the\nopportunity for proper, balanst, normal development. The child-labor\nproblem cannot, therefore, be separated from the educational; to protect\nthe child without providing for his education is impracticable.\n2. The pubHc-school system of this country should be directed toward\ncreating in its pupils genuine American citizenship and providing for an\n\n"}
{"page": 830, "printed_page": "818", "text": "8i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nall-round development, in particular on its social side, which must naturally\ninclude vocational efficiency. No pupil should be regarded as predestined\nto enter industrial or commercial pursuits, but his natural aptitudes should\nbe studied with every care. No matter tho the outlook be slender for a\nfuture corresponding to his natural bent, there should never be the presumption that this future will be frustrated by poverty- or other unpropitious circumstances. Vocational guidance should seek to achieve\ncongruity between the vocation actually followed and natural fitness.\n3. Students of industrial conditions have repeatedly shown that, with\nthe possible exception of agriculture, there is very little opportunity for\nvocational training in the jobs now open to children under sixteen years of\nage. We believe that the age limit for employment should be gradually\nraised to sixteen years, so that children expecting to enter industry may\nobtain the full benefit of the prevocational education which the schools\nshould provide. We believe that the period of control should be extended\nby the school authorities for purposes of education and training at least\nto the eighteenth year. We believe that the most efficient training for\nany industrial career can be consummated only thru a system which,\ncombines classroom education and employment, whereby each supplements\nthe other, rather than by a complete exclusion from industry. The child\nin industry should continue his education, the time set apart for his schooling being taken from his regular work hours. Teachers and employers\nwould thus cooperate to secure his best development, and the employer as\nwell as the teacher should be considered a servant of the public. The\nchild's welfare rather than his earnings should be made the objective, and\nwhile under wise management such employment may be profitable to\nboth the child and the employer, the conditions of employment should be\nunder public control. Specifically there should be applied such reasonable\nrestrictions as are now embodied in the proposal for federal legislation,\nto wit: the sixteen-year age limit for employment at dangerous occupations,\nthe fourteen-year age limit for ordinary occupations, and, for children\nunder sixteen, the eight-hour workday and prohibition of night work;\nthere should also be requirement of physical fitness, knowledge of reading\nand writing English, geography, American history, and the fundamentals\nof arithmetic; and wherever local conditions permit, as for example at\npresent in Ohio and some other states, the fifteen-year minimum should be\nestablisht.\n4. For young persons who have already started to earn their Hving\nwithout the benefit of this systematic training, the pubUc school should\nafford an opportunity to promote further their education in the theory\nand practice of their vocations and in citizenship and social development.\n5. The change in the direction of the standards set forth in the preceding paragraphs of this statement should be made thru adjustments\ngradual enough to give the schools a chance to meet the situation.\n\n"}
{"page": 831, "printed_page": "819", "text": "Department]\n\nHISTORY\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATIONAL\nMARION\n\nA. CAMPBELL,\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION\n\nWORK\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nOF A STATE\n\nBLIND\n\n819\n\nCOMMISSION\n\nSECRETARY, NEW YORK STATE COMMISSION\nBLIND, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nFOR THE\n\nThe first educational work of a state commission for the blind must\nbe to carry on the effort of the blind man in the community to be rightly\nunderstood, with the emphasis upon his normal characteristics rather\nthan upon his handicap. The staff of home teachers who are themselves\nwithout sight are the means thru which a commission accomplishes this.\nAnother educational duty with which a commission should charge itself\nrelates to the precautions against necessary blindness, to which the general\npublic is only now beginning to assume an attitude which makes it possible\nfor the conscientious physician to work with the laity in preventive medicine.\nSo long as the public looks upon the state school for blind children as\nan asylum, and classifies it as charitable rather than an educational institution, itwill be difficult to secure justice to the blind man in his community.\nUntil the medical profession is willing to label a physician's neglect of\nbabies' sore eyes as criminal, and to punish him for it, it must be the\nprovince of a state commission to take the part of the bUnd child and to\nsecure adequate attention to this large source of the blindness which state\ncommissions are created to investigate.\n\nHISTORY\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nEDUCATION OF THE\nAND IDEALS\n\nLYDIA Y. HAYES, SUPERVISOR,\n\nBLIND— METHODS\n\nNEW JERSEY STATE WORK\nTRENTON, N.J.\n\nFOR THE BLIND,\n\nAs we scan the pages of history for facts regarding the blind we realize\nhow deplorable has been their condition. Thruout the centuries . they\nhave been clast among the outcasts of the nations and have been found\nsitting in the market places and at the city gates appeaHng to the pitying\ncharity of the passers-by. Even the immortal Homer, who was presumably bhnd, could not rise above this beggarly degradation, for of him\nit is written, \" Seven cities claimed the Homer dead thru which the living\nHomer begged his daily bread.\"\nThru the efforts of a Frenchman, Valentine Hauy, who was destined\nto bring light to them that sit in darkness, the first institution for the\nblind was establist in 1784 at Paris. While, in teaching the bhnd, Hauy\nmade use of the agencies previously employed by individuals in their\nacquisition of knowledge, yet to him alone is due the perfection, extension,\nand arrangement of the methods by which the subsequent work has been\ndone.\n\nII\n\n"}
{"page": 832, "printed_page": "820", "text": "820\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nHauy's first pupil found he could detect by touch letters on a freshly\nprinted sheet. Experiments followed which resulted in the method of\nprinting by enlarged raised type, which, when set up, is electrotypt. Then\nimpressions are made on sheets of tough, damp paper which, when dried,\ngive a clear, distinct type.\nThe blind and their friends were baffled until 1834 by the need of means\nfor epistolary correspondence; in that year Louis Braille, a pupil of the\nParis school, invented a system by which the blind could write and then\nread what they had written. Braille is a system of dots made with a stylus\nand a frame on a sheet of paper. It is adaptable to different languages,\nmusical notation, and letter-writing. A modification of this system, known\nas New York Point, was introduced in America between i860 and 1870.\nInstitutions similar to that of Hauy's at Paris were establish t on the\nContinent, and at the beginning of the nineteenth century there were in\nthe United Kingdom four such asylums for the blind.\nJohn D. Fisher, of Boston, while completing his medical studies in\nParis, became interested in the work of Valentine Hauy, and on his return\ninterested his friends. Dr. Howe, W. H. Prescott, and others in the education of the blind of New England. Consequently, on March 29, 1829, the\nMassachusetts legislature granted a charter for the establishment in Boston\nof the New England Asylum for the Blind. Dr. Howe was persuaded to\ntake charge of the school, and went to Europe where he made a careful\nstudy of the methods then used in training the blind. He returned to\nthis country in 1832 and gathered six pupils about him in his father's home.\nThus was founded the first school for the blind on the western continent.\nAlmost simultaneously with the founding of this school. New York and\nPhiladelphia started schools in their respective cities. The institutions of\nthe Old World were charitable places of refuge for the amelioration of the\ncondition of the blind, but those establisht in the United States are purely\neducational, recognizing the inalienable right of the individual to an\neducation, whatever his station or condition.\nEDUCATION\n\nANDREW\n\nW.\n\nOF BLIND CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL\nERENCE TO THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF THE\nCITY OF NEW YORK\nEDSON, ASSOCIATE SUPERINTENDENT\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nOF\n\nREF-\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nThe education and training of the bhnd make an unusually strong appeal\nupon the sympathies of all interested in physically handicap t children.\nThese young people of normal mentaUty, but grievously handicapt, are\nsure to be a burden upon the family and upon society, and to grow despondent over their great deprivation unless they receive an early training that\nwill lead them to be happy, self-respecting and, in a measure, self-supporting.\n\n"}
{"page": 833, "printed_page": "821", "text": "Department!\n\nSAVING\n\nTHE\n\nSIGHT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n821\n\nIt is a sound pedagogical principle that every child is entitled to all the\neducation that he is capable of receiving. And this applies with special\nforce to the child who is seriously handicapt physically or mentally.\nThe bHnd child is likely to be specially sensitive, to have the power of\nconcentration unusually well developt, and to have an excellent memory.\nAs a consequence he will often outstrip, in school work, his companions,\nwho are favored with good eyes. In several instances blind children in\nour elementary and high schools have led their classes. A short time ago\nthe valedictorian at the DeWitt Chnton High School was a bhnd boy.\nHe not only led his classes in all subjects, but he completed the course in\nless than the prescribed time of four years.\nThe sphere of activity of the bhnd is necessarily limited, but under\nwise direction these persons may become happy and useful members of\nsociety.\nPUBLIC\n\nLIBRARIES\n\nIDA M. BAHR, DEPARTMENT\n\nFOR THE\n\nFOR THE BLIND\n\nBLIND, PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nN.Y.\n\nThe value of the Hbrary to our pupils cannot be overestimated and the\nspirit of good-will in providing us with what we need and want along our\nschool lines has been all that could be desired. Since our organization the\ninfluence has been felt in all grades of the work.\nIn the lower grades interesting stories from the library have been used\nfor supplementary work. In this way the child learns that there is an\noutside source upon which to draw for recreative reading. Many pupils\nwho have heard a book read in the grade will ask to have it sent to them\nfrom the library that they may read it for themselves.\nMany pupils have borrowed duplicates of our school books so that they\nmay be saved the annoyance of carrying back and forth daily in crowded\ncars the large volumes needed in classroom work. The library has aided\nnobly in extending time in these books.\nIn furnishing books in other types the libraries of both our Brooklyn\nand New York branches have been generous in their selection of those best\nqualified to help a beginner in the reading of a new type. It is among our\nhigh-school students, however, that the cooperation of the library is most\nlargely felt.\nSAVING\nGORDON\n\nL.\n\nTHE SIGHT OF SCHOOL\n\nBERRY,\nACTING\nPREVENTION\n\nOF\n\nCHILDREN\n\nSECRETARY,\nNATIONAL\nCOMMITTEE\nBLINDNESS,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nThe problem of saving the sight of school children is divided into three\nparts: (i) methods of bringing into being a system of medical schoolinspection, (2) the education of the child in matters of hygiene, and (3) the\n\n"}
{"page": 834, "printed_page": "822", "text": "822\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\neducation of the parent to a realization of the dangers, and the necessity\nfor early preventive treatment. When education in these matters shall\nhave been accompHsht, most of the stumblingblocks now in the way of an\nefficient development of school-inspection will have been removed.\nWith regard to the beginnings of medical school-inspection in a community, without exception there will be found some individual or some\ngroup eager to take up this matter. It may be yourself, perhaps a teacher,\nor principal, frequently a parent-teachers association, a women's club, or\nsome civic or social organization. Such an interest, if exprest and put into\nactual practice thru the smallest beginning, may have sight-saving or lifesaving potentialities far beyond the thought of those responsible for its\ninitiation.\nWe are told that three-quarters of our 20,000,000 school children are\nbelow par physically, and that one-quarter — 5,000,000 — have defects of\nvision; and we know that these conditions are responsible for both inefficiency and waywardness on the part of the pupils, who are, moreover, a\ncontinual drag upon the class and the teacher. These early defects in\nvision may also be the warning of serious impairment of vision in later years,\npossibly ending in total blindness. And yet we know that most of these\nconditions can be corrected if dealt with in time. Laying aside for the\nmoment the possibility of blindness ensuing, let us consider what it means\nto be on the border line, so to speak, to have a certain percentage of vision,\nand yet not enough to earn the wages of the normal man in complete possession of all his faculties. Take nearsightedness for instance. Unless recognized and dealt with in time, it may progress to the period where the young\nman or young woman is just on the threshold of life, ready to step out with\nthe ranks of our professional and industrial armies; and yet, because some\nschool superintendent has thought that a vision- test made by the teachers required more of their time than could be spared from the arithmetic hour or\nthe language class ; or because some city council could not, in their own blindness, see the economic significance to the individual and the community\nin the expenditure of funds to provide adequate medical inspection, clinics,\netc. ; or, perhaps, because the parents themselves, in spite of the warnings\nreceived where medical school-inspection was in force, were callous to the\nneed — because of these chief hindrances John and Mary are unable to\ncomplete their work, are debarred perhaps from the public schools because\nof some defect of vision which might so easily have been corrected, or\nbecause of the result of some eye disease which might have been prevented\nor cured.\nIt would seem imperative that from early years children should have an\nunderstanding of the dangers of disease and the way to avoid contagion\nby the adoption of sanitary methods in their own day-to-day living. This\ninformation must be given in much the same way as is the geography\nlesson, and be made both instructive and interesting. In this matter of\n\n"}
{"page": 835, "printed_page": "823", "text": "Department]\n\nSAVING\n\nTHE\n\nSIGHT\n\nOF SCHOOL\n\nCHILDREN\n\n823\n\nthe education of the child in hygiene, let me recommend a study of the course\nin hygiene prepared for use in the public-school system of New York City\nunder the direction of Dr. C. Ward Cramp ton, director of physical training.\nWith reference to conservation of vision. Dr. Crampton includes, from\nthe early grades, instructions for the teacher relative to seating, light, and\ndiscovery of symptoms of defects of vision thru a daily morning inspection.\nExplanation is given of local symptoms to be noted, which can be diagnosed\nby the teacher as indicative of need for further examination by the school\nnurse or inspector — for instance, scowling, squinting, headaches, reading\nmatter held at an improper distance from the eye, inflammation, pusformation, inability to see the blackboard clearly, etc. The annual\nvision-test thru the use of the Snellen chart must be given, and the evidences of eyestrain, such as cross-eye, weariness after study, bloodshot\neyes, or crusty lids, must be carefully noted and recorded in a report to the\nproper authorities.\nThe children are to be instructed from Class iB upward in the care of the\neyes: cleanUness and infection, bathing corners every morning; dangers\nof dirty towels; use of separate handkerchiefs, etc. As we go on to the\nhigher grades we find more complete instruction advised than in the classes\nof the little folks. The necessity for consulting a physician, instead of\nbuying advertised \"cures,\" the explanation of causes of disease, instruction in how to study, and the reasons for securing proper lighting conditions— all these round out the course and are of material benefit to the\nchild.\nIn Grade 7A, for instance, comes the explanation of the function of\neyehds, lashes, and tears, the reasons for wearing eyeglasses, and the\nexplanation of color blindness, etc. It is imprest upon the child how great,\nfor economic reasons is the necessity for keeping the eyes in good condition.\nThe only suggestion which I wish to make in addition to the foregoing is\nthe desirability of beginning early to explain to the child the functions of\nthe eye, the dangers from lack of care, and the methods of prevention.\nEven in the lowest grades this can be taught, thru the story method or\nthru pictures, and it is remarkable how much a tiny little chap of five or\nsix will absorb and make his own permanently. Many of the lessons\ntaught in earUest years are the ones which make the deepest impression upon\nthe mind, to bear fruit in years following. The method of presentation is\nexceedingly important. It is gratifying to find a health board in the\nSouth — the State Board of Health of Louisiana — ^printing at frequent\nintervals during the year a special bulletin for the education of the child.\nSpecial pictures, cartoons, and little rhymes make the four pages as interesting reading to the child as would the perusal of Little Women or Little Lord\nFauntleroy. This bulletin is sent free of charge to any child or family in\nthe state. A children's health code is frequently furnisht to be pasted on the\ninside cover of the textbook.\n\n"}
{"page": 836, "printed_page": "824", "text": "824\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nLantern-slide lectures by local oculists and physicians, social workers,\nand visitors from other cities should be given whenever possible. Such\ncooperation can frequently be provided by the National Committee for the\nPrevention of Blindness or the state representative of the Committee on\nConservation of Vision of the American Medical Association. Our collection of slides, numbering some five hundred, on various phases of preventable blindness, and stock lectures are loaned gratuitously upon request, and\nhave been used during the last four months in twenty-seven states.\nFinally, the education of the child in health matters may be materially\nassisted by the introduction of traveling school exhibits, sent out by the\nstate or local boards of health. I have at the present time in course of\npreparation a series of school exhibits on trachoma and common eye diseases,\nimproper illuminating conditions, industrial accidents, and the prevention\nof infantile blindness, five panels to the set for each, which after September i\nwill be available for permanent use in any city at the cost of postage alone.\nMore than two thousand communities have this spring been observing\nBaby Week or Health Week. If your community has not as yet had such\na week, try it next year and see the amount of interest which will be shown\nby the general public. Popular health talks, slides, and exhibits may be\nsecured free or at small cost from any of the national and state health\norganizations. In the endeavor to reach the rural population, the last\ntwo years have witnest the inclusion of health exhibits as a part of the program of many county-fair organizations.\nIn the carrying-out of any or all of these suggestions let me offer you\nthe heartiest cooperation of the National Committee for the Prevention\nof Blindness in the hope that you will take generous advantage of that which\nwe have to offer. A card addrest to us at 130 East Twenty-second Street\nwill be the only introduction needed.\nDISCUSSION\nM. B. Beals, M.D., Department of Health, New York, N.Y.— I heartily indorse all\nthe measures described by Mr. Berry for saving the sight of school children. My criticism\nis that the work is being carried on almost exclusively by laymen and consequently not\nalong scientific lines, as is shown by the attempt to teach children the cause of color\nblindness, when as a matter of fact the cause of this disease is not known.\nLikewise, very little attention is being given to the lighting of schoolrooms, as is\nshown by the poorly lighted study rooms of some of our latest schools, there is also no\nsuggestion of research work to determine disputed questions as to the most effective\ntreatments for syphilitic eye conditions, trachoma, etc.\nI object to the suggestion that inexperienst ocuHsts be allowed to refract school\nchildren, because school children are the most difficult of all persons to fit properly with\nglasses, and much harm can be done by incorrect glasses.\nAs an example of the importance of refractive errors I will cite the fact that I have\nrefracted one hundred of the habitual \"Left Backs,\" showing refractive errors, in one\nlarge school in this city, with the result that 98 per cent were promoted on the first regular\nschool examination about two months later, many skipping one or more grades.\n\n"}
{"page": 837, "printed_page": "825", "text": "Department]\n\nCHARITABLE\n\nCHARITABLE\nBABETTE\n\nGOLDMAN,\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\nORGANIZATIONS\n\nPRINCIPAL,\nEAST\nSIDE FREE\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nHELP\n\n825\n\nHELP\nSCHOOL\n\nFOR\n\nCRIPPLES,\n\nI know of no better way to introduce this subject than to tell you of\nthe work I have been engaged in during the last fifteen years at \"The\nCrippled Children's East Side Free School,\" which is today one of the best\nexamples of cooperation between public interest and private charity.\nFormerly crippled children were not provided for in our pubUc schools;\nthey were neglected by their parents who, in the struggle for a livelihood,\nconsidered them nothing more than a burden upon the family, and expended\nno care nor thought upon the problem of their sufferings.\nThey were either confined to their homes or else left to wander about\nthe streets to get along as best they could, leading a miserable existence.\nSuch was the condition when the Guild for Crippled Children was\nformed and auxiliaries were opened in various parts of the city. Auxiliary\nII, now \"The Crippled Children's East Side Free School,\" which I represent\nand of which I want to tell you, had its quarters, consisting of two rooms,\non Madison Street. There we gathered together about twenty children\nand gave them the care and attention that every child craves. Kindergarten games and songs were taught the Uttle ones, and we instructed the\nolder children, as best as we knew how, in reading and writing. Each day,\nas we past thru the down-town districts, we gathered the youngsters from\nthe streets; but soon our settlement became known and was sought by\nboth parents and children, and before many months had past we had to\nturn away eager applicants.\nSo we workt and labored until we succeeded in convincing Dr. Maxwell\nand his associates in our contention that crippled, as well as normal,\nchildren had a right to a public-school education and deserved recognition,\nwith the result that since 1906 the elementary work of our institution has\nbeen entirely under the supervision of the board of education.\nPrivate philanthropy serves transportation to and from school, thereby\nmaking attendance possible for every crippled child. Can you picture\nthe happiness of those poor youngsters who, in many cases, saw the light\nof day for the first time ?\nProper nourishment, in the form of a hot noonday meal, is served,\nbesides an ample supply of milk, twice daily, all of which is absolutely\nessential to the amelioration of the condition of cripples such as are admitted\ninto our institution. We have also establisht a summer home for the\nrecreation and recuperation of the children, who spend from three to ten\nweeks in the country, according to their individual needs.\nAnother important aim of our efforts has been the manual training of\nour pupils, which is solely in the hands of the society. Thru the courtesy\nof the Department of Public Education, it has been arranged to devote\n\n"}
{"page": 838, "printed_page": "826", "text": "826\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nseveral hours to this work in every class, beginning with the youngest\nchildren who, no matter how deformed, become most proficient in every\nkind of needlework and in the use of their hands generally.\nIn order to create a place for such cripples who, upon graduating from\nschool, could not possibly hold their own in a shop or factory because of\ntheir infirmities, we organized a workroom about ten years ago. At the\npresent time from thirty to forty girls and a few boys are employed in the\nmanufacture of every description of needlework and embroidery.\nThe working-out of the numerous problems which I have indicated\ndepends to a high degree upon cooperation between the public-school\nauthorities, who, in time, should assume the physical care, as well as the\neducation of the crippled child, and private organizations, to whom must\nfall the industrial development.\n\nTHE\nMRS.\n\nWORK\nOF THE\nWIDENER\nMEMORIAL\nINDUSTIUAL\nTRAINING SCHOOL FOR CRIPPLED CHILDREN\nD. B. CREAMER,\n\nHEAD\n\nOF ACADEMIC DEPARTMENT,\nPHILADELPHIA,\nPA.\n\nWIDENER\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nThe Widener Memorial Industrial Training School for Crippled Children, situated in the suburban district of Philadelphia, was founded by Mr.\nP. A. B. Widener in 1916.\nThe school curriculum exactly follows the graded course of the public\nschools of Philadelphia. Certificates are granted to those who have satisfactorily completed the prescribed academic and trade courses.\nThe pupils begin manual training when they enter the third grade, and\ndevote to it six hours a week for four years. The girls learn sewing,\nbasketry, burnt-leather work, raffia, and ornamental brass work. The\nboys complete an advanst course in sloyd, learn caning, and keep in repair\nall the chairs and couches in the school.\nMechanical drawing is begun when a pupil enters a trade class. Freehand drawing is taught to both boys and girls irrespective of the intended\nvocation. Before graduation all girls receive instruction in millinery,\ndressmaking, cookery, and laundry work.\nThe school's interest in the welfare of those who are graduated does not\ncease with the giving of a trade certificate but every endeavor is made to\nplace them as advantageously as possible.\nSixty per cent of our graduates are holding positions, and in every\nway seem able to cope with their physically more fortunate fellow-workers.\n\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 839, "printed_page": "827", "text": "Department!\n\nCOOPERATION\n\nCOOPERATION\nHENRY\n\nLING\n\nBETWEEN\n\nBETWEEN\nIN CLASSES\n\nTAYLOR,\nM.D.,\nGRADUATE\n\nEDUCATORS\n\nAND\n\nEDUCATORS\nAND\nFOR CRIPPLES\n\nPROFESSOR\nOF\nHOSPITAL, NEW\n\nORTHOPEDIC\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nPHYSICIANS\n\n827\n\nPHYSICIANS\nSURGERY,\n\nPOST\n\nSystematic work for the education of crippled children was begun by\nspecial societies in New York City about twenty years go. Many of\nthese children were hidden away and neglected, but when gathered into\nclasses it was found that they were glad to go to school, took much interest\nin their work, and were as bright as normal children. When this work\nbecame a demonstrated success it was taken over by the Department of\nEducation. Experience shows that crippled children are easily fatigued,\ntherefore the periods and sessions should be short and the work varied;\ntransportation to and from the classes should be furnisht; the classrooms\nshould be light and airy, and easy of access without stairs. The nutrition\nof the child should be attended to, and special lunches furnisht, if necessary.\nAn undernourisht child is a dead weight in any class. It has been found\nthat individualization, such as is possible only in small classes, is necessary\nfor the best results, and the most successful teachers have the definite\nidea of making the children happy in their work and recreations, and in\nthe human relations between them. Manual training in the lower, and\nvocational training in the higher classes is not only valuable in itself, but\nis a help in getting a right point of view.\nPractically all the things which have been found beneficial in classes\nfor cripples are just as good in classes for average children, and one of\nthe choice and unexpected results of this work for cripples is the important\nadvance in the hygiene of teaching that has come directly from it.\nOther things being equal, many cripples are better off in the regular\nclass; but when cripples are numerous, as in large cities, the more helpless\nones at least should be given the advantage of free transportation and the\nspecial facilities of the classes for cripples. Some cripples are too ill to\njoin the classes with advantage, and many applying to the schools need\nhospital treatment first. Children with discharging sinues, serious internal\ndisease, or pulmonary tuberculosis should not be admitted to the classes.\nIt is obvious that the physician of each pupil should be consulted on\nthese and other points. In the New York schools each pupil is given a\ncard to be filled out by his physician. Exercise, which may be easily\noverdone, is a matter upon which the physician should give detailed\ndirections. The writer is opposed to class gymnastics for cripples; any\nexercises given, or games played, should be neither strenuous nor prolonged. There is much danger in allowing tuberculous children to be too\nactive.\nTeachers in the regular classes should be alert to detect the beginnings\nof crippling and especially of spinal affections, which are shown by poor\n\n"}
{"page": 840, "printed_page": "828", "text": "828\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nposture, gradually becoming worse; doubtful cases should be reported to\nthe school physician.\n\nTHE PROBLEM\nCARRIE WALLACE\n\nKEARNS, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 47, DAY SCHOOL\nFOR THE DEAF, NEW YORK, N. Y.\n\nThe world has progrest since the days of the Greek when preparedness\nof the nation was more important than the individual, and the handicapt\nchild was cast aside as a nuisance. I need not tell you of the slow but\nsteady change in opinion as regards the deaf child. He is no longer denied\nconsideration. Great good was accomplish t when the good Abbe de le\nPee began his instruction of the deaf child. It was the first step in preparing the deaf for a place in society. Still greater was the gain when the\ndeaf child learned to read the lips and to speak, and thus to find a broader,\nfuller place among his hearing associates. When people outside the school\ncome, or when I go to see people about work for my pupils, these people\nask the following:\n1. Can he understand me when I speak? This is usually the first\nquestion. How are we meeting it? How much do we do to test our\npupils ? In a test made some time ago to see just what our pupils could\ndo in reading the lips, we discovered: {a) in our effort to have the pupil\nunderstand, we were inclined to exaggerate our expressions; {h) in our\nhaste to accompUsh much in a short day, we were too ready to help the\nchild by accepting a disjointed word or two, or by repeating more often\nthan was necessary.\n2. Can he speak so that I can understand him? What a big demand\nthis is, and yet we must meet it to the best of our ability. Here again\nwe tested our pupils and ourselves fairly and critically. In these tests\nwe found that we teachers constantly lookt at the children as they\nanswered, and therefore, unconsciously read the lips and were not good\njudges of the child's speech. When we lookt away from the child, or when\nwe stood behind the child, we did not understand all he said.\n3. Does he understand the meaning of what I say ? How we teachers\nhave labored over this question of language! Yet, very much has been\naccomplisht.\n4. What can he do ? Here comes in the whole industrial field. I have\nnot seen many statistics as to the work of deaf children after they have\nleft school. I have tried to collect a few of my own which may be of interest.\nA post-card was sent to every pupil whose address was known to us. These\nwere the questions askt: What is your name ? Where do you live ? Where\ndo you work? How much do you earn? How long have you workt\nthere ? What kind of work do you do ?\n\n"}
{"page": 841, "printed_page": "829", "text": "Department]\n\nTEACHING\n\nREADING\n\nTO DEAF\n\nCHILDREN\n\n829\n\nThere were 70 returns. Three boys are in hearing high schools, where\nthey have never failed in a single subject. Eight pupils are at home.\nSeven of these are girls who do not need to work; one is a boy who has\nserious heart trouble. Only three are not working. The average wage is\n$7.15 per week. Most of those who have been in a place less than six\nmonths have left school to go to work this term.\nThis is, after all, the great test: What becomes of our pupils after they\nleave us? Has our preparation made them good, useful citizens of this\ngreat country where everyone has a chance ?\nWe must convert the business world to the possibiHties in our children,\nand then we must prepare the pupils to meet the conditions of life. I\nfound my children had no idea of the long hours of work. They complained\nof it. So we had a talk with those who were still in school. We explained\nthe hours of work, the coming-on time, the marking of time, etc., and we\norganized an early-morning class. Every morning for the past eight weeks\na dozen boys came at eight o'clock, signed their time, and workt quietly\nin the shops until school opened at nine. I thought this would die out\nwhen the newness wore away, for many came long distances and had to\narise very early. But the number has increast and the interest has not\nflagged.\n\n\"This is just a bit of preparedness.\"\n\nINTRODUCTORY EXPLANATION OF THE ANALYTIC\nSYNTHETIC METHOD OF TEACHING READING\nTO DEAF CHILDREN\nD. FRANCES\n\nKAUFFMAN, ASSISTANT TO PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC\nSCHOOL\nDAY SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF, NEW YORK, N. Y.\n\nNO.\n\n47,\n\nThere are recognized standards in methods and principles of teaching\nhearing children. I feel that the oftener we successfully introduce these\ninto the work for deaf children the more we are counteracting their handicap\nand the nearer to the normal we are making them.\nSome years ago the analytic-synthetic method of teaching reading was\nintroduced into the public schools. Modern educators regard it as far\nin advance of the old-fashioned synthetic method. The basic idea is that\nthe instinctive love of a story shall make the child desire to learn to read.\nHence the story is presented as a whole, and thru the interest in it eventually\nmastery of technique, or phonic power, is secured without deadening\nmechanical drills. From the beginning thought-getting rather than wordmastery is the motive.\nThere are various excellent books based upon the analytic-synthetic\nmethod of teaching reading. A good book should have a content of\nsustained and vital interest, written in language within the comprehension\nof the children who are to read it. (Deaf children beginning this work\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 842, "printed_page": "830", "text": "830\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nare two or three years older than the hearing children.) Nursery rhymes,\nanimal stories, fables, stories concerning familiar occupations, or those\nduplicating the children's experiences furnish suitable material. There\nshould be sufficient rhythm and repetition to aid the memory in a narrative\ncontaining several incidents. There should be a strong appeal to the\nimagination and to the sense of humor. The book should contain attractive\npictures which suggest, rather than tell, the story. Such a combination\nwill foster the dramatic instinct and accordingly develop imagination.\nWithout working especially for it, we have found that this work has greatly\nimproved the memory of all the children, particularly the slower of the\ncongenitally deaf children.\nAt present we are using the Story Hour Books since they combine the\nrequisites of the analytic-synthetic method in a well-graded series, written\nwithin the comprehension and experience of our deaf children. They\ncontain much usable language. This is especially true of the first book\nwhich is based upon the \"Mother Goose\" rhymes. Much of the language\nof these rhymes is woven into the stories, hence from the beginning the\nchildren meet familiar friends.\nAs the manual which accompanies the book fully explains the method\nand contains many helpful devices and suggestions, I shall give but a\nbrief outline.\n1. The basic \"Mother Goose\" rhymes are taught in an earlier grade.\n2. The story is told simply, vividly, dramatically, in the exact language\nof the text.\n3. After the telling of the story, the children dramatize it.\n4. Reproduction of the story follows with as little aid from the teacher\nas possible until the order of incidents is establisht and the exact language\nof the text fixt. The desire to \"play\" the story has aroused even the\nduller children, and they ask to be allowed to take the books home, in\norder to study the parts. At first the slower and more timid children take\nparts that necessitate pantomime only, but as soon as they so desire they\nare allowed to impersonate characters who speak. We have been encouraged in this work by the improvement shown, in consequence of it, by slow\ncongenitally deaf children.\n\nRHYTHM\nPATTIE THOMASON,\n\nRHODE ISLAND INSTITUTE FOR THE DEAF,\nPROVIDENCE, R. I.\n\n\"In the beginning there was rhythm.\" The word \"rhythm\" comes\nfrom the Greek word \"rythmos,\" which means \"to flow\"; thus, by development, we get the idea of the measured flow of movement, or beat, in verse,\nin music, or, by analogy, in other connections.\n\n"}
{"page": 843, "printed_page": "831", "text": "Department!\n\nRHYTHM\n\n83 1\n\nThe early critics of prosody distinguisht three elements of which\nrhythm was composed — the spoken word, the tune in music and song, and\nthe bodily motion.\nDr. Sears, of Clark University, says:\nWhile the Greeks may have made rhythm an altogether too important element in\nthe education of their youth, we, on the other hand, have erred in not appreciating the\nfact that all life, mental and physical, is perfect in porportion to the perfection of its\nrhythm. Brain activity is not made of currents of force, but rather of rhythm among\nthe brain cells. Lack of appreciation of the part that rhythm plays in the processes\nof life has prevented child life in home and in school, from rising to the heights it should.\n\nSo we teachers of the Deaf should set for ourselves the very high aim\nof leading in an educational movement. Let us recognize rhythm as a\ntremendous factor in the development of the individuality of the child,\nand this is, in its last analysis, the end sought in all teaching.\nIf rhythm is to be an important element in the intellectual development\nof the child, then it must be considered in a broader sense than that exemplified by clapping, marching, and beating time, since rhythm has its\norigin, not in mathematics, but in poetry.\nWe should train the child's powers of observation and understanding\nso that he will spontaneously respond to all the \"rhythms of life\" — such\nas \"human rhythms,\" \"nature rhythms,\" \"bodily rhythms,\" \"cosmic\nrhythms,\" and \"musical rhythms.\" By giving a child this kind of education, which certain psychologists regard as emotional rather than as a\nperception in character, we awaken within him sensations of mind, heart,\nand body which make up a composite feeling. The child is thus made\nbetter able to interpret his material and immaterial needs and to adjust\nhimself to the conditions of nature surrounding him.\nThe work in rhythm consists in developing the rhythmic sense in\ndeaf children by the correlation of voice-training, physical training, and\nlanguage.\nThere are two physical agents by means of which we appreciate sound\nand rhythm. They are the ear as regards the first, and the whole nervous\nsystem as regards the latter. I proceeded, therefore, to give my pupils\na vibratory education by tuning the whole nervous system to perceive\nsound and rhythm images. This is what Dr. Currier aptly terms \"waking\nthe deaf child up.\" This waking is necessary to convey to him the real\nmeaning of sound and of spoken language. It is vitalizing speech and\nlanguage to the deaf child.\nSince deafness is the natural state of the new-born infant, and hearing\nan acquired faculty, we should educate him to perceive tone tactually so\nthat the effect upon him will be, as nearly as possible, analogous to that\nof hearing.\nThe first step in vibratory education is to give the child a vibratory\nexperience. His whole body should first be made sensitive to vibration.\nHe then should be trained to distinguish between crude noises and musical\n\n"}
{"page": 844, "printed_page": "832", "text": "832\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nsound. He should be made sensitive to these ** unmusical noises,\" so that\nhe may come to dislike them and, in time, stop making them. On the\nother hand, he should be so charmed by musical tones that he will welcome\nthem and, in time, be able to reproduce them. This training is given\nthru a series of exercises with the piano, guitar, drums, bells, and the\nteacher's voice, which fixes the child's attention upon modulations of sound.\nThis develops the ability to appreciate relative pitch and that distinct\nfaculty which appreciates quality of tone.\nDISCUSSION\nMary A. Aymar, Public School No. 47, Day School for the Deaf, New York, N.Y. —\nI shall speak briefly this morning on rhythm as an aid to voice-training, and the value of\nrhythm in speech. G. Stanley Hall tells us that all energy is probably rhythmic. Rhythm\nis the first aspect which is so emphasized in all music, which seems to have a tune, tune\norigin. Its chief features are repetitions, cadences, stresses, time-markings, etc.\nWe have long accepted the theory that the development of the race is in a way represented in the child Among all primitive peoples the drum seems to have been the first\nmusical instrument, and it is the first one that attracts young children. This is because it\nis a purely rhythmical instrument.\nDeaf children show all the impulses of a normal child. They like to make a noise,\nbeat upon things, march, etc. Of course they do not perceive the sound, but they do\nenjoy the vibrations caused by the sound.\nPsychologists say that even a very young child is capable of rhythmic stimuli long\nbefore it is capable of any other act of attention. So I begin with these little people, as\nsoon as they have elements developt enough to make the combination boom. I begin\nwith the babbling part of it first as, hu, bu, bu, bu, boom. Then I show a picture of a\nchild beating a drum. I then take them to the piano and let them feel the vibrations\nwhich I play — a little simple exercise representing the roll and beat of a drum.\nAfter this muscular memory is somewhat awakend and developt, we all say with the\npiano, \"Boom, boom, boom, boom, boom.\" The purpose of this exercise is for the resonance and bringing the voice forward. Good voices depend on good bodily and good\nphysical conditions. Someone has said that a fine voice does not hold us spellbound by\nthe tonality alone, but by the thought and feeling exprest.\nRhythm in speech then is the coordination of thought and feelings as well as tonality.\nRhythmic activity helps for freedom of mind and body and organs of speech, and gives\nan opportunity for the imagination to act.\nAfter the boom exercise I show the children a picture of a dog and I say, \"Now I am\ngoing to tell you something. A dog says *bow, wow, wow.'\" Now what happens?\nWell, every child for a few moments is a dog sa)dng, \"Bow, wow, wow.\" You see the\nimagination is at work. I ask the children to write it on the board. Then I write it\nlike this, bow, wow, wow. They go to the piano and we sing it to a simple exercise.\n\nTEACHING\n\nOF LANGUAGE\n\nAL, INSTITUTION FOR TI\nDEAF, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nWhat is ordinarily known as the Barry Five Slate System of introducing\nlanguage was originated by Abbe Sicard, and was brought to this country\nby Lauret Clerc more than a century ago. The system, or the scheme,\n\n"}
{"page": 845, "printed_page": "833", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nPHYSICAL\n\nSIDE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nDEAF\n\nCHILD\n\n833\n\nwas avowedly introduced in order to straighten out the language of children\nwho gained their first ideas thru the sign language. As you doubtless know,\nin the early days of the education of the deaf the pupil was first taught the\nsign language as a means of conveying ideas and developing thought, and\nall written language was translated from this into English or the vernacular,\nwhatever this may have been.\nWhen methods improved, the sign language ceast to be the medium for\nthe development of thought, and children were taught directly in English,\nwithout such a medium, because such a device as the Five Slate System\nwould seem to have ceast to exist. So it did, for a while, but eventually it\nwas resurrected and put to use in the Pennsylvania Institution and elsewhere, and since its revival has gained currency until now it is in popular\nuse in practically every school for the deaf. Its resurrection was not with\noral classes, but with manual classes; by manual classes I mean classes\ntaught without speech, that is, by finger spelling or the sign language.\nIts transference to oral classes was coincident with the transference of\nmanual teachers to oral classes in a school for the deaf in which both silent\nand oral methods were at that time in use.\nI believe that by a more rational system, one conforming more nearly to\nmethods by which hearing children learn language, practically fifteen\nmonths of a child's school life could be saved. We must get away from the\nidea that grammar was invented before language, and impress upon ourselves the fact that grammatical principles in the beginning must be learned\nunconsciously if we expect the deaf child to use language with the readiness\nthat is possible under the most favorable conditions.\n\nTHE PHYSICAL\nGEORGE\n\nSIDE OF THE DEAF\n\nCHILD\n\nB. MCAULIFFE, M.D., SPECIAL PHYSICIAN, PUBLIC SCHOOL, NO. 47,\nDAY SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nNo longer is the deaf child sent to institutions to be instructed by\nattendants, but the stream of pedagogy is turning its best branches into\nthis training.\nThis work has been fostered greatly by the Department of Education\nin School No. 47, which has grown beyond its original scope in a short\ntime. The exigencies of financial stringency have hampered as yet the\nbetter housing of the pupils and their proper medical care, but an effort has\nbeen made by some of the commissioners, as Dr. McDonald, to facilitate\nthe betterment of the physical side of the pupils and thereby to increase\ntheir efl&ciency.\nThe field of instruction is a very large one and necessitates a better\nspecialization of the pupils. There are brought to the school those who are\ncongenitally deaf; those who have ac(^uired deafness thru systemic dis-\n\n"}
{"page": 846, "printed_page": "834", "text": "834\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\neases; those who are partially deaf; those who are slightly defective, in a\nmental fog, and appear to be deaf; those who are defective and deaf; and\nthose who are defective and ignorant.\nIt is a hard problem to weed them out without appearing unjust.\nEven in the proper sphere of deafness there are many specific differences\nthat necessitate specific training. This specialization is a development of\nthe future. How can a teacher or principal determine the physical and\nmental status of the applicant ? Does it not imply, therefore, the absolute\nnecessity for proper medical inspection ? The doctor should be an integral\npart of the staff in every school for the deaf.\nIn the year 1915-16, in an analysis of 293 cases of deaf children — 159\nboys and 134 girls, almost one-haK — 123 — were found to be totally deaf, 8\ncould distinguish words at short distances, and the balance — 162 — could\nhear loud sounds. About 100 were congeni tally deaf, 103 acquired deafness between infancy and three years, 51 between three and six years,\nwhile the balance — one-seventh — became deaf after six years.\nOn receiving these statistics we find the sexes are fairly divided; that\nall but eight are practically hopeless, as regards aural improvement; that\nmore than two- thirds have no word or sound memories; that congenital\ndeafness forms the largest number, with that form, cerebrospinal meningitis\nnext, followed by catarrh, scarlet fever, and injuries, in the order named.\nIt is painful to be compelled to give a bad prognosis as to hearing in so\nmany. Parents go from one doctor to another with the hope of a cure.\nThey feel sure that their children hear better, and relate instances to prove\ntheir statements. They have the adenoids and tonsils removed, the nose\ncorrected, and spare no money, if they have it, upon quackeries from\nvibrations to unknown radium therapy.\nAs alluded to in another paper, the deaf develop an appreciation of\nvibrations that practically amounts to another sense. A great many of their\njudgments are based on the association of vibrations. Inasmuch as lip\nreading constitutes the basic instrument of instruction, it implies the best\neyesight possible.\n\nTHE UTILIZATION\n\nOF RESIDUAL\n\nHEARING\n\nJOHN BUTTON WRIGHT, WRIGHT ORAL SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nThe fact that many of the pupils of our schools for the deaf possess\nsome residual hearmg is well known to everyone connected with the education of the deaf.\nThe extent to which this imperfect hearing can be made of service to\nthe pupils is not so well known, and in the vast majority of cases no effort\nis made at present to develop and educate this residual hearing.\nThis failure to utilize a valuable aid to mental development and\nlanguage- and speech-teaching is due primarily to the lack of the necessary\n\n"}
{"page": 847, "printed_page": "835", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nUTILIZATION\n\nOF RESIDUAL\n\nBEARING\n\n835\n\nhelpers to do the work. Most of the auricular training, in order to be\neffective, requires the services of at least one teacher for each two pupils\nreceiving instruction at the same time. During the five hours of the school\nday, one teacher could, under the most favorable conditions, give a minimum\nof necessary instruction to twenty pupils, allowing half an hour to each\ntwo pupils. Nothing less than this would be worth doing. In a school\nmaintaining three hundred pupils there would certainly be found fifty who\ncould be really benefited by intelligent auricular training. That would\nrequire from two to three additional teachers, unless some other work was\nsacrificed in order to supply the time and teachers required for the education or re-education of residual hearing.\nThe second reason for the general failure of the schools to do an adequate\namount of this auricular training is the lack of a true appreciation of the\npossible benefits to the pupils. If all those in authority in our schools fully\nrealized what could be accomplisht, they might find a way of providing\nthe time and the teachers to do the work.\nLast year 61 per cent of the pupils in my school received daily auricular\ntraining and 42 per cent benefited very greatly from it. The difference in\nthe percentages is because some of the pupils are so young — four years of\nage — that just what the ultimate benefit may be cannot be definitely\nstated at the end of the first year.\nWhat should be the standards of the amount and the character of\nsound-perception required in order that the benefits from auricular training\nmay be an adequate return for the time and effort expended ? First of all\nI would suggest that, as the principal object of auricular training is to\nenable the pupils to understand spoken language thru the ear, and to clarify\nand improve their own speech, it is necessary that the islands of residual\nhearing should lie within the range of the speaking voices of men and\nwomen.\nThe ability to perceive shrill sounds, Hke whistles, or very low sounds,\nlike the organ bass, is of some value, undoubtedly, but unless accompanied\nby other islands of hearing in the range of human tones, I have not felt that\nthe precious educational hours of the deaf child should be used in auricular\ntraining.\nIn my own work, unless I can develop the power of discriminating with\n90 per cent of accuracy between at least five vowels when shouted within\nhalf an inch of the ear, I have not considered it advisable to devote further\ntime to auricular training. I spend, however, from two to six months in\nthe endeavor to teach this degree of discrimination before abandoning\nthe effort, since the brain can be taught to hear just as it can be taught to\nadd or multiply, provided there is an avenue of approach.\nI test every pupil who comes to me, for ability to determine, first, how\nmany times a sound is made near the ear. The sounds used at the start\nare those of a vibrating whistle, a bell, and clapping of the hands. If the\n\n"}
{"page": 848, "printed_page": "836", "text": "836\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nproduction of these sounds a foot from the ear can be perceived, I go on to\ntest the abihty to tell how many times the vowel a (ah) is uttered very near\nthe ear. If this can be done, then tests of increasing difficulty are given\ntill the utilizable extent of hearing is approximately determined.\nIt is impossible at this time or place to go into the details of the process\nof building up in the brain of the child a working comprehension of language\nthru the ear. Our task this morning can only be the directing of attention\nto the very great and helpful possibiUties that lie at our hands in the existence of residual hearing in the cases of many of our pupils.\nDISCUSSION\nElbert A. Gruver, Central New York Institution for the Deaf, Rome, N.Y. —\nWhere shall we draw the line between a school for the deaf and one for the hard-of -hearing\nchild ? What degree of deafness qualifies a child for a place in a school for the deaf ? I\nhave given considerable thought to these questions in recent years. At one time I felt\nthat no child with sufl&cient hearing to receive instructions thru the ear had any place in a\nschool for the deaf. My opinion has changed in this respect, and now I think that any\nchild whose hearing is so dull that he is unable to receive instructions easily belongs in a\nschool for the deaf. I think it very necessary and proper that the children be given as\nmuch instruction thru the ear as possible, even if it is necessary to raise the voice.\nThe general use of oral methods in nearly all our schools has been a leading factor\nin the rapid advancement, in the development of residual hearing. These methods are\nalmost entirely natural methods of education and have brought the hard-of-hearing child\nmore closely in touch with the school for the deaf than in former years, and has also had\nits lasting effect upon our attitude toward the mentally slow child; for often our hard-ofhearing pupils are of this class. This has led me to another change of opinion. It has\nbeen generally conceded that the dull deaf child can be developt best thru a free use of a\ncombination of all methods, and particularly that the mentally deficient deaf child is in a\nsorry plight when it is attempted to teach him in an oral school.\n\nMEASUREMENT\nRICHARD\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\nIN SCHOOLS\n\nFOR THE DEAF\n\nOTTO JOHNSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF THE INDIANA\nFOR THE DEAF, INDIANAPOLIS, IND.\nEDUCATION\n\nSTATE SCHOOL\n\nMEASUREMENT\n\nNever in educational history has there been so much uncertainty as to\nvalues in the educational field as at present, never such aggressive dissatisfaction and earnest protests concerning the educational methods prevaiHng in schools ranging from the kindergarten to the university. This\ncondition is the one great fact easily discernible by all who give the matter\nthought and reading; and another great fact is that at no time in the world\nhave the people been more willing to give and more bountiful in giving,\nthan now, to the cause of education.\nWith such thoughts in mind, the writer began an educational survey\nof the Indiana School which was, in efficiency, fully abreast of the best\n\n"}
{"page": 849, "printed_page": "837", "text": "Department]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIN SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF\n\naccredited curricula and methods of similar schools thruout the United\nStates and Canada. This survey was later merged into that of schools for\nthe deaf generally now being conducted by the committee referred to below\nwhich is seeking some sort of standardization of efficient methods, measurements, etc., to be completed and publisht at a later date. While the compass of this paper will not permit of going into details of the Indiana27 survey,\nit will be of interest to refer to one part thereof — the pupilage, and to an\nage and grade classification as workt out, and therein, of retardation, etc.\nOf the thirty-two pupils admitted during the year 1914-15, the information issuppHed in the accompanying table.\nBirthplace\n\nIndiana\nKentucky\nFlorida\nWest Virginia\nMaryland\nMichigan\nMissouri\nNew York\nHungary\nRussia\nAustria\nEngland\nUnknown\n\nFathers\n20\n3\n\nMothers\n22\n3\n\nPupils\n\n3\nI\n\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\n2\n\nI\n\nOf the parents, one father and two mothers are dead; five cases of\nseparation or divorce occur; in one case only are either of the parents deaf\n(in this case both father and mother), but deaf relatives are shown in six\ncases. In three cases either the parents or grandparents were related\nbefore marriage. In a number of the families the history discloses tuberculosis (7), cancer (4), scrofula (i), epilepsy (i), feeblemindedness (i), and\nparalysis (5), with two of these defects occurring in the same family in one\nor two cases. In six instances there was difliculty at birth, instruments\nbeing used in two cases. Of the whole number, seven were weakly in infancy, three show a deranged nervous system, two physical malformation,\nor physical weakness, and thirteen were born deaf (40 .6 per cent). Of the\noffspring of families disclosing cancer, three of the four were congenital\ncases, as were three of the seven with tuberculosis; and the two from families\nshowing scrofula, epilepsy, and feeblemindedness were both adventitious\ncases. Of the seven reported as sickly babes, five were congeni tally deaf;\nand of the five possessing deranged nervous system or malformation and\nphysical weakness, all were adventitiously deaf.\nThe total number of children born to the parents were 146, including\nthe deaf (32), who constituted 21.9 per cent, and those who died (24),\nwho constituted 16.4 per cent, thus leaving 61.7 per cent (90) living and\nreported as not deaf and well. Of the children who died, fourteen died at\n\n"}
{"page": 850, "printed_page": "838", "text": "838\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nbirth (6) or under six months of age (8), or 9 . 6 per cent of the whole number.\nThere is no doubt that other deaf pupils will yet be presented from some of\nthese same families.\nAmong the thirteen congenital cases, one had a deaf father and a deaf\nmother; one had grandparents who were first cousins, both the mother and\ngrandmother dying of paralysis; three had deaf relatives, in one case congenitally so; and two were of premature birth. Among the nineteen adventitious cases, one (brain fever) had grandparents related, who also had\ndeaf relatives; one (spinal meningitis) had consumption and deaf relatives;\none (spinal meningitis) had epilepsy and feeblemindedness in the family\nhistory; one (measles) lost two grandparents by paralysis; and one in\n(pertussis) the maternal grandparents were first cousins and both died of\nparalysis.\nIn several cases no definite report could be had of family ailments and\ndiseases, or as to deaf relatives, etc. One child was born in a county poor\nasylum and no record of any kind can be furnisht of his parents or grandparents or of causes, etc.; and this same ignorance is shown in several\nother cases where it would seem the parents should know.\nCOMPARISON\n\nWITH\n\nOLDER\n\nPUPILS\n\nThe average intelHgence of the 32 new pupils may be stated as good,\nscaling from several very high, down to one in whom it is very slight. While\ntheir chronological ages vary from six to twenty, their mental ages vary from\nthree to fourteen. Their individual mental quotients, a combination of the\ntwo ages, range from 42 to 100 with 67 as the median, and indicate the ratio\nof the mental to the chronological age. With those at their normal level,\ni.e., close correspondence of the two ages, the value is assumed as 100, which\nis figured downward or upward as retardation or acceleration may demand.\nThis estimate of the intelligence and mental age was made by the teachers\nafter careful study, for no just test has yet been devised whereby these\nfaculties may be correctly measured for the deaf, if for any. In this connection itmust be borne in mind that \"Retardation\" as used in connection\nwith the deaf child does not carry with it the same significance as if it were\nappHed to a hearing child. In the latter case the retardation, if sufficiently\ngreat, and according to general tests as now devised, would signify mental\nturpitude or deficiency; in the former case, while these elements may\nnaturally enter to some extent, till it largely represents a backwardness\ndue to an enforst lack of experience and social intercourse with hearing\npeople and their daily affairs. It is a term, as used with the deaf, for comparing the deaf child with a normal hearing child of the same chronological\nage, and generally indicates, not so much mental retardation, as it does a\nnatural retardation due to the lack of opportunity and a chance to succeed\nas does his more fortunate hearing brother — each is normal according to his\nopportunity. And in this connection it may be well to add that the ten-\n\n"}
{"page": 851, "printed_page": "839", "text": "Department]\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nIN SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF\n\nyear-old backward normal child who grades at six years is greatly superior\nto the ten-year-old moron who grades at eight years; there are certain\ncharacteristic traits, noeds of maturation and sensorymotor reactions that\nmust be given consideration — the one is mentally normal, altho retarded,\nthe other is mentally abnormal or mentally diseased, with his whole being\naffected. Deafness and mental defects are not necessarily associated —\nthey are seldom associated at all. There is no more connection between\ndeafness and mental defect than there is between lameness or blindness and\nmental defect. When children, deaf thru heredity or congenitally so, are\nmentally defective, the cause is not the deafness but some condition which\ncauses both the deafness and the other defect.\nIn certain tabulations made the girls are slightly older chronologically\nand mentally, higher in their mental quotient, in their progress, and in their\nintelligence, while their retardation is the same as that of the boys; the\noral pupils are younger chronologically and older mentally than the manual\npupils, higher in their mental quotient and intelligence, in their progress,\nand decidedly less in retardation; the percentage of the congenitally deaf\nin the oral classes is more than double that in the manual classes where the\nadventitious outnumber slightly the congenital deaf as they do in much\ngreater proportion in the oral classes; the \"fair\" and \"good\" among the\nadventitious cases are sHghtly greater than among the congenital; the\ntotally deaf exceed the partially deaf in the manual classes, but in a much\nsmaller proportion than is true of the reverse in the oral classes; the \"fair\"\nand \"good\" among the partially deaf is slightly greater than among the\ntotally deaf. Summarizing, while the difference is not great, in all ways\nthe girls seem to be doing better than the boys, the oral pupils than the\nmanual, and the adventitious and partially deaf than the congenital and\ntotally deaf.\nIn the beginning, now seventy-two years ago, the deaf child was not\nreceived as a pupil until twelve years of age or over and he was allowed but\nfive or more years in school. Later, the entering age was lowered from time\nto time and his continuance in school was increast, until now the general age\nof admission is seven and he may remain generally for ten to twelve years,\nthus approximating the privileges and rights of the hearing child. The\nvarious state schools for the deaf have been divided generally into ten to\ntwelve grades and it was presumed that a first-year class was in the firstyear grade, and so on upward seriatim; or that the highest class should\nbe known as the first-year class and so on downward seriatim. The trouble\nwith such division and practice is that there results such a lack of uniformity\nin grading and curriculum as to make a just educational comparison almost\nimpossible. In view of this condition, the writer has undertaJien to devise\na normal age and grade distribution for this school.\nIt has been accepted by common consent of schoolmen that certain\nages shall be considered as \"normal ages\" for hearing children in classifying\n\n"}
{"page": 852, "printed_page": "840", "text": "840\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nthe grades — seven for the first grade, and with yearly increase to fourteen\nfor the eighth grade. Now, in view of the fact that the deaf child, in\ncomparison with the hearing child, displays a natural retardation of about\nthree years (probably four years) due to enforst lack of experience and social\nintercourse with hearing people and their daily affairs, the \"normal years\"\nassigned the deaf must be increast over those of the hearing child. This\nhas been done by fixing ten as the normal age for the first primary grade,\nfourteen for the fifth, sixteen for the second intermediate (seventh grade),\nand nineteen for the third advanst or, tenth and final grade.\nDuring the past twelve years (273 cases) the average age of the nonattendants (those dropping out) on leaving was 15.7 years, their average\nyears in school was 5 . 5 years; and 75 per cent were from the introductory\nand primary classes — 8 per cent, introductory; 23 per cent, first and second primary; and 45 per cent, third, fourth, and fifth primary.\nTwo years ago the Conference of Superintendents and Principals of\nAmerican Schools for the Deaf, meeting in conjunction with the Convention\nof American Instructors of the Deaf in Staunton, Va., declared the following\nas a basic principle in the education of the deaf:\nThe education of the deaf child — which is claimed as a matter of right, not of charity —\nwhile a part of the general educational movement, is a distinct and highly specialized\nbranch of the work and, as such, requires the services of expert educators of the deaf —\nthose who know, not only the commonly applied principles of general pedagogy and\npsychology, but who, al^o, thru special training, active experience, and thoro research\nwork, know the possibilities, the peculiarities, and the limitations, of the deaf child — who\nclearly know what is possible and practicable as opposed to the impossible and theoretical.\nThis is a knowledge not possest even by those who proclaim themselves masters, theoretically or otherwise, of the work with the hearing child who, as a matter of fact, receives his\neducation largely at the hands, not of his school teachers, but of the thousands with whom\nhe comes in contact outside the schoolroom, and thru the thoro acquisition of his mother\ntongue with its vocabulary and expression which come to him naturally and easily from\nthe very day of his birth — and all of which is denied the deaf child. With this special\nknowledge of deaf-child nature as referred to above, acquired thru years of study of, and\nexperience with, the deaf, one may readily perceive that the problems presented are not\nordinary ones, that they are indeed complex, and further, that the ordinary curricula,\ntextbooks, grade divisions, and modes of procedure adapted to the hearing child must be\nvery decidedly modified with the deaf child. To those who are not engaged in the work\nof educating the deaf this knowledge does not come and they are ill-prepared to criticise\nmethods, progress, and results which necessarily must be seen and judged from a viewpoint\nentirely different from their own.\nMEASUREMENT\n\nOF EFFICIENCY\n\nWithout entering into a discussion at this time of the various phases of\nthe work, the writer will state briefly and generally that among the tentative\nconclusions reacht, after careful correlation, are those which indicate that\nthe deaf child is three to four years behind the hearing child in learning\nability, as tested by the rapidity and accuracy of forming associations\nbetween numbers and forms; that the deaf boy and the deaf girl are equal\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 853, "printed_page": "841", "text": "THE PINTNER\n\nDepartment]\n\nI\n\nTESTS\n\n841\n\nin learning ability, which is not the case with the hearing boy and the\nhearing girl, the latter being the superior; that the deaf boy, however,\napproximates more closely the hearing boy than does the deaf girl the\nhearing girl; that there is practically no difference between the learning\nability of the congeni tally and the adventitiously deaf; and that the test\nresults indicate a high correlation, or correspondence, between the four\nstate schools taken separately and for each of the tests appUed in each of\nthe schools. Variations, of course, occur in the curves plotted for the\nseparate schools and between those for classification in each school, but\ngenerally they approximate each other closely. The curves for girls are\nmore irregular and variable than those for the boys, but in no case are\nthe variations uniform and constant excepting in two instances, i.e., in\nthree schools the girls at eleven years of age show a pronounst drop in\nattainment while the same occurs in lesser degree for boys at fourteen years\nof age.\n\nWALTER\n\nM. KILPATRICK,\n\nTHE PINTNER\n\nTESTS\n\nAMERICAN\n\nFOR THE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDEAF, HARTFORD,\n\nCONN.\n\nDr. Pintner, associate professor of psychology in the Ohio State University, and Mr. Paterson, an assistant of his in that department and a son\nof deaf parents, might justly be called the Livingstone and Stanley of that\nhitherto Darkest America, the field of the special psychology of the deaf.\nEarlier attempts at exploration have been made, but only in isolated spots\nin this country. The present is the first determined, concerted attempt\nat a broad continental drive. Certain abiUties of selected groups of deaf\nchildren have been tested and deductions made from the findings, notably\nthe valuable work of MacMillan and Bruner with pupils of the Chicago\nDay Schools for the Deaf some years ago.\nIt is sufficient to say, in a general way, that three lines of undertaking\nhave been made, namely, with Binet-Simon tests, with form boards, and\nwith substitution tests; but Pintner pins his faith to the last named.\nThe Binet tests are discarded with scant praise after an attempt with a\nsmall selected group of pupils in the Ohio School for the Deaf, on the ground\nthat such tests involve an understanding of, and ability to use, the Enghsh\nlanguage, hence are unsuited for testing the intelligence and mentahty of\ndeaf pupils as compared with normal ones.\nThe form board used by our experimenters seems to have been of a\npattern devised by themselves, hence, tho similar in type to standardized\nform boards of others, for which pubhsht norms are obtainable, it will be\ndifficult to compare results in testing other deaf children. This is a misfortune, since it is in reducing the number of variations of merely similar\ntests and increasing the number of identical or comparable ones that real\nnorms are estabHsht and the tests themselves well standardized. We all\n\n"}
{"page": 854, "printed_page": "842", "text": "842\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nknow, and Pintner found it true likewise, that form-board tests are valuable\nwith beginning classes of deaf children, as an aid in winnowing the chaff\nfrom the wheat.\nThe substitution test used by Pintner is really two tests of closely\nrelated abilities — the symbol-digit and the digit-symbol tests. They consist of the numerical digits arranged with a series of corresponding symbols,\nfor example, a square, a triangle, a circle, and so on. The test is to require\nthe subject to substitute the corresponding symbols for a given list of digits,\nor vice versa, and his speed and accuracy in thinking and writing the substitutions are compared with the norms of the hearing for those abilities,\nage for age, sex for sex, etc.\nIt is called by the experimenters a test of learning ability only, and,\nas such, is an interesting and valuable aid for our work. It does not\nfurnish, in the estimation of many, an accurate index of the learning progress\nnor mental development of our pupils, hence its chief value will be for\ndiagnostic and classification purposes in the early stages of a pupil's school\nlife, and it begins to lose its effectiveness as he approaches the more advanst\ngrades. You see we cannot get away from the language feature there, nor is\nit desirable to do so.\nThis test has been applied to more than a thousand deaf pupils in several\ndifferent states, and the work is still going on in other schools, hence it is\nreasonable to say that fairly accurate norms have been establisht for deaf\nchildren in this particular abiHty. To quote from a preliminary report of\nthe \"Efficiency Committee'' of the Conference of Superintendents and\nPrincipals, under whose auspices the test was made by Pintner:\nAmong the results obtained after careful correlation are those that indicate that the\ndeaf child is about three years behind the hearing child in learning ability, as tested by\nthe rapidity and accuracy of forming associations between numbers and forms; that the\ndeaf boy and the deaf girl are equal in learning ability, which is not the case with the\nhearing boy and the hearing girl, the latter being the superior; that the deaf boy, however,\napproximates more closely the hearing boy than does the deaf girl the hearing girl; and\nthat there is practically no difference between the learning ability of the congenitally\ndeaf and the adventitiously deaf.\n\nTHE JUVENILE\nFRANKLIN\n\nCOURT\n\nOF NEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nC. HOYT, CHIEF JUSTICE OF THE CHILDREN'S\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nCOURT,\n\nAs many of you are aware, it was sixteen years ago that the first children's court was actually estabhsht. Its creation was the logical outgrowth of various experiments which had been made from time to time,\nin more than one city or state, to protect the delinquent child from the\ncontamination of association with the criminal classes, both in places of\ndetention and in the courts. While some of these efforts resulted in the\npassage of certain admirable laws, which are still in force, the idea of a\n\n"}
{"page": 855, "printed_page": "843", "text": "Department)\n\nTHE\n\nJUVENILE\n\nCOURT\n\nOF NEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\n843\n\nseparate tribunal to hear and determine all cases involving neglected or\ndelinquent children, did nOt develop into permanent existence until the\nyear 1899, when the Juvenile Court of Chicago was successfully establisht.\nThe creation of courts in other cities followed rapidly, notably in Denver\nin 1901 and in New York City in 1902, until at the present time the movement has spread, not only throut all this country, but to many of the\nEuropean nations as well.\nIt seems almost impossible to realize that here in New York City, only\nfourteen years ago, children were being tried as criminals, and were handled\nin all the courts together with the most hardened offenders. Going farther\nback, it staggers our credulity when we read that in England, early in the\nnineteenth century — not even one hundred years ago — four little boys of\nabout twelve or thirteen years of age, were tried for stealing a cheap shawl\nand other trifling articles from a shop window and were condemned to be\nhanged. That inhuman order was never carried out, as a public uproar\ncompelled the authorities to commute the sentence to penal servitude, but\nconsidering what penal servitude meant in those days, perhaps it would\nhave been better for those little children if they had been hanged instead.\nAs I have said, the Children's Court of New York City has been in\nexistence only fourteen years, but it bears Uttle resemblance at present\nto the children's court of ten, or even five, years ago. This new court,\nwhich came into existence on the first day of July, 1915, has five parts,\none court being located in each of the counties comprising Greater New\nYork, namely. New York, Kings, Queens, Richmond, and the Bronx.\nIt has a presiding judge and four associate justices; a complete probation\ndepartment, including a chief probation officer, two deputy chiefs, and\nforty-one salaried probation officers, besides an administrative force consisting ofa chief clerk, five court clerks, one for each county, their deputies,\nand a large staff of clerical employes, stenographers, and attendants. It\nalso has a new building in Manhattan, the best of its kind in the world,\nwhich will enable it to conduct its business in the most satisfactory manner,\nand which will permit it to introduce and put into effect new methods of\nprocedure never before tried.\nSince the first of the year, two justices have been assigned to sit continuously inthe Manhattan Court, so that twice as much consideration\ncan be devoted by the judge to each case as was possible under the old\nconditions. Under the new system, we are using two rooms for the hearing\nof cases. The main court room, the larger of the two, is the place where\nall new cases, with a few possible exceptions, receive their first hearing.\nAll continued cases, however, such as those put over for investigation and\ndecision, as well as for probation, come before the Judge in the smaller\ncourt room.\nThe first hearing in the main court room, we believe, will impress the\nfact upon the child and its parents that the rights of the community must\n\n"}
{"page": 856, "printed_page": "844", "text": "844\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nbe respected, that each dhild, as well as his parents, owes an obligation to\nsociety which cannot be overlookt, and that in each case there must be\nconsidered, not only the welfare of the child himself, but the effect of\nhis act upon others. In the second hearing, because of its informality\nand intimacy, less emphasis is laid upon these aspects of the case, and the\ninterest of the court in the individual will be brought into even stronger\nrelief.\nFifteen thousand children pass thru our children's courts in New York\nCity each year. It is hard to realize how large a throng this 15,000 represents. Of course these children are not all delinquent. About one-half\nare neglected and are brought before the court because their parents have\nsinned, either actively or passively, and because they have been denied\ntheir inherent right of a normal and decent home.\nMost people seem to have the idea that the Children's Court considers\nonly offenses committed by children. If this were true, our work would\nbe far simpler and our problems far less complex. I often say that, in\nreality, three classes of offenders stand morally arraigned before its bar\nin almost every case — the child, its parents, and the community. I have\nno hesitation in saying that of these, the child is generally the least responsible.\nIf I were to pick out a text to illustrate the court's endeavors, I think\n• I would take it from the twenty-ninth chapter of Job: \"I delivered the\npoor that cried, and the fatherless, and him that had none to help him —\nThe cause which I knew not, I search out.\"\nThat, I think embodies the true idea and purpose of the Children's\nCourt. Today much less importance is attacht to the offense itself than\nto the cause of the offense and the child's character and environment.\nThe Court never attempts simply to punish a child, altho it is always ready\nto employ discipline wherever it may be necessary. The main purpose is\nto restore the child to his natural balance by the kindliest and most efficient\nmethods.\nThe Court has been called by some the ''world's largest life-saving\nstation.\" Others have likened it to a clinic for the treatment and care of\nneglected and delinquent children. It might also be regarded, very\nproperly, as a school of instruction for those charged with the duty and\nresponsibility of child-training, for scarcely a case arises which does not\nhave something to teach us in this respect.\nVocational training is but another phase of individual treatment, the\nvast importance of which we are just beginning to comprehend. It is\na subject which deserves the earnest consideration of our entire nation,\nfor only by its practice and development can we succeed in making the\noccupations and future careers of our children congenial to themselves as\nwell as useful and beneficial to society at large. Heretofore we have been\ncontent to find the child a \"job,\" not caring in the least whether he was\n\n"}
{"page": 857, "printed_page": "845", "text": "DepartmentJ\n\nTHE DELINQUENT\n\nat all fitted for the position in question, or whether the work would be\ncongenial to him.\nFurthermore, instruction should be continued while children are first\nengaged in occupations. At present, in many instances, we allow all\neducation to cease for children reaching fifteen years of age, and then expect\nthem to progress in their assigned vocations without further aid. New\nYork City, I am glad to say, is at last beginning to awaken to the importance of this need.\n\\\nEDGAR\n\nTHE DELINQUENT\nDUBS\n\nSHIMER,\nDISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS,\nBOARD OF PAROLE, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nCHAIRMAN,\n\nGoethe, in his Wilhelm Meister, declares his belief that it is impossible\nto find any boy, however delinquent or degenerate, in whom we cannot\ndiscover some germ of good that may be developt.\nThe very substance of the things hoped for by us, in this forward movement to reclaim lost souls, lies in our unwavering faith that such reclamation ispossible and that we can help to make it actual.\nThere will be no true cooperation, look for it as we may, unless first\nand foremost all those who have to deal with children are unalterably\nfixt upon the fundamental faith, as exprest by Ralph Waldo Emerson,\n\"In the muck and scum of things, there is something always sings.\" Are\nour ears attuned to this singing ? Do we hear the song ? What message\ndoes it bring to us ?\nThe term of commitment of delinquents under our regimen is two years,\nbut any delinquent with a satisfactory record for one-third of that time,\nor eight months, is entitled to consideration for parole. He understands\nthat he has earned this right by good behavior.\nThere are about one million children of school age in New York City\nwho are under the compulsory-education law. Our present accommodations intruant schools do not allow us to care for more than four hundred\nand fifty committed delinquents. This is less than one in every two\nthousand of the school population.\nNevertheless the pressure for room in the truant schools is so great\nthat we have been compelled to venture upon a scheme of recommending\nparole for six months' satisfactory record.\nIt is then, especially, that their hopes rest fondly, first upon the principals, and next upon the teachers, to whom the paroled pupil is intrusted\nfor completion of cure.\nWere it not for the numerous principals and teachers, whose passion\nfor perfection prompts them unerringly toward the reconstruction and\nsalvation of the imperfect, the Board of Parole would indeed have a vain\ntask.\n\n"}
{"page": 858, "printed_page": "846", "text": "846\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\n\"If it had not been for a deep experience of my own last year,\" said\na teacher, \"I should not have had the patience to bear with this boy.\"\nShe had herself been transformed by the renewing of the mind, and to the\nwonder of all she had, with persistent, loving interest found and developt\nthe germ of good in her Wilhelm Meister, fairly and fully transforming\nhim into a new being.\n\nTHE GIRL DELINQUENT\nAMY S. EVERAL, SUPERINTENDENT, LANCASTER SCHOOL FOR GIRLS,\nLANCASTER, MASS.\n\nThe problem of the delinquent girl is distinct from that of the dependent\nor neglected child. According to the Massachusetts statutes a delinquent\nchild is one between the ages of seven and seventeen years who violates\nany city ordinance or town by-law, or commits an offense not punishable\nby death nor imprisonment for life. A large proportion of delinquent\ngirls become such because they lackt proper home influences and wise\nguidance and control at the age when girls crave amusement and will surely\nfind it on the street if the home offers no attraction. The actual offense\nfor which the girl is committed, therefore, is the inevitable result of a\ncondition of physical and! moral neglect, and lack of schooling and good home\ninfluences. The whole question of delinquency is closely allied with home\nand environment. Poor homes and environment .are important contributing causes to delinquency. A large percentage of delinquent girls come\nfrom broken homes, either thru death of one or both parents, or on account\nof drunkenness, domestic unhappiness, or the mother having to work away\nfrom home. Most delinquents come from large famihes, the members\nliving either in a small house or in a few rooms in a crowded tenement.\nThe location of the house is usually unfavorable, being as a rule in the\ncongested quarters of large cities where ideals and the moral atmosphere\nare not high. The father's occupation is in practically all cases that of\nunskilled labor, meaning a small income. Poverty is a contributing cause\nto delinquency, in that it deprives a girl of the coveted personal posessions\nand the good times essential to her moral growth.\nFeeble-mindedness is responsible for from one-third to one-haK of all\ncases of delinquency. Those lacking in normal intelligence are almost sure\nto fail to meet the problems of life without resorting to undesirable conduct.\nThe perpetuation of feeble-mindedness thru heredity means further increase\nin deUnquency and crime. We cannot hope for an adequate solution of the\nproblem of dehnquency until feeble-mindedness and its consequences are\nproperly met.\nThere are various things which you teachers might do to help prevent\ndelinquency— look after the health of the children, and report cases where\n\\ M\n\n"}
{"page": 859, "printed_page": "847", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE GIRL DELINQUENT\n\nyou suspect adenoids, defective sight, and nervous conditions. All these\ndefects are hkely to lead to truancy, and truancy to delinquency.\nI have talkt with many mothers and realize that, while there is no lack\nof parental affection, there is a great lack of intelligence. If every girl\nhad an intelligent mother there would be much less work for reformatories,\nsince there are now so many broken homes and so many mothers who have\nnot the inteUigence to train their children.\nThru failure to tell the truth to children in answer to honest inquiry,\nthe whole subject of sex has been relegated to the field of curiosity and the\nimagination, and instruction from the worst sources. Now happily the\nharm of all this is being seen. Many intelHgent parents are bravely experimenting with a different attitude and method, and confidence is growing\nthat the truth can be told to the young to their great advantage.\nThe impure mind is almost universal. The mode of modern training\ntends to this result — the concealment of the facts of sexual life, the sense\nof shame which is so commonly attacht to them, and their usual acquirement\nfrom unworthy and misleading sources. When this state of mind has been\nacquired, the sensuous in life is constantly appealing to and strengthening\nit, and while it is still possible to implant high ideals, they do not have the\nsame controlling influence as in another mind. But the mere imparting\nof information would not be a satisfactory solution of our problem. The\ngreat object of sex education is less the imparting of knowledge than the\ncreating of the right ideals. Of course it is very important that the right\nkind of instruction be given, for teaching may do harm as well as good.\nI have heard it said that the condition existing in some of our public\nschools is most shocking. I wonder whether it can be possible that teachers\nare wholly unconscious of such a state of affairs ? Or is not their failure\nto report cases to the proper authorities due in part to their reluctance to\nbe drawn into the affair ?\nWhen a girl has so offended that it is necessary to bring her into court,\nthere are three courses open to a judge: (i) to send her back to the same\nenvironment, under the care of a probation officer; (2) to place her in a\ngood home under the supervision of some child-placing agency; (3) To\nsend her to a training or industrial school.\nIt does not seem, on the face of it, as if the first course — returning her\nto the old environment — would as a rule be wise. If her offense has been\nslight, a good home found by a child-placing society would be far better.\nIf a girl has become morally tainted, the best place for her is an institution,\nwhere she can receive moral training. It is no more fair to put such a girl\ndirectly into a family and run the chance of her contaminating others,\nthan were she infected with a contagious disease.\nWe all agree that the ideal environment for every child, is the home\npresided over by the good father and mother. This is the natural atmosphere where a child comes face to face with life's actual daily problems\n\n"}
{"page": 860, "printed_page": "848", "text": "848\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nand is taught to meet them, guided and directed by loving, understanding\nparents. An institution should aim to realize the ideal of a good parent,\nthat is, a complete development in body, soul and spirit. For this reason\nit is very important that we have a high standard of officers to work with\nthe unfortunate children ,we get. They must be refined, patient, sympathetic, forgiving, and motherly. They take a mother's place to many\nwho have not known what true mother-love is.\nI shall briefly outline to you the training the delinquent girl receives\nat the Massachusetts State Industrial School, where we aim to carry out\nthe ideals mentioned above.\nAfter her arrival at Lancaster, each girl is given what to many a girl is\nher first real bath and a shampoo. She is then taken to a room which she\nis told is her own. She does not have to share it with anyone elsej as each\ngirl rooms alone, and thus possesses a little sanctuary which she can adorn\nwith picture post-cards and other things dear to a girl's heart, and where\nshe can go, when she chooses, to fight out her battles with herself. When\nshe goes downstairs again she finds that there is a living-room tastefully\nfurnisht and having a piano; there is a large sunny dining-room containing small tables.\nThe girls are made to feel a pride in these cottage homes that have\nadopted them, and are taught simple, inexpensive, effective ways of making\ncottages attractive, with the hope that they will later carry into their own\nhomes suggestions received at Lancaster. It is imprest upon the girls\nthat economy plays a very important part in successful home-making, and\nthat to be a thoro, economical housekeeper is an end every girl should\nseek to attain. Their kitchen training is one of the most important features, and girls frequently come to the administration building to display\nwith great pride some sample of culinary efforts which they have accomplisht. Besides being taught to cook, the girls are taught laundry-work\n(everything is done by hand in order better to equip them to become homemakers themselves). They are taught also how to make their own clothes.\nOur girls work out-of-doors on the farm three or four months of the year.\nWe have done an increasing amount of outside work during the last three\nyears. This has been of great physical and moral benefit to the girls.\nA close attention is given to the individual needs of each girl in her\nschool work, and the academic and industrial work are closely allied.\nThey are taught to figure the cost of preparing a meal, or making garments\nto wear. Physiology and hygiene are brought out in connection with the\ndiscussion of ingredients of which things are made. Nature-study and\ngeography are correlated in the study of production. The value of money\nand its uses, the cost of supplies — ^food and material values — are all taught.\nA class in home economics, where practical talks and demonstrations are\nmade, we find of great value especially to those about to be paroled from\nthe school. This preparation for the new life they are about to face and\n\n"}
{"page": 861, "printed_page": "849", "text": "DepartmentI\n\nTHE\n\nGIRL\n\nDELINQUENT\n\n849\n\npreparation for a new and strange environment lessen the probable failures\nafter they leave the institution.\nWe have toucht on the industrial and academic training. Besides this\nthey receive moral and religious training. A priest and minister come to\nthe school weekly for services and instruction. Aside from this teaching\nthe precepts and examples of those with whom the child comes in daily\ntouch is of the greatest value.\nWe have a resident physician, a dentist, and oculist who make regular\nvisits. We believe with the Greeks, *'A healthy mind in a healthy body.\"\nA thoro physical examination is made of each girl when she enters the\nschool, and physical defects are remedied as far as possible, as they prevent\nthe mind from that concentration of effort so necessary for self-improvement.\nA Wassermann test is made of every girl coming into the institution, and\na segregation is made of all girls suffering from syphilis. These girls are\ngiven a three-year treatment of mercury and iodide.\nOur great function, however, is the regeneration of individuals thru\ncharacter-reconstruction. We aim to analyze character and to find the\ncure of each individual's shortcomings by the appUcation of the particular\nremedy needed for every weakness. Study, by a field worker, is made of\nthe environmental surroundings, which is of great assistance in determining\nhow much that has contributed to the condition of each respective character. The causes being removed (by the change of environment or whatnot), we aim to fill their minds with wholesome things and to fit our girls\nagain to take their places in society as respectable members — law-abiding,\nseK-respecting, and self-supporting — \"as human assets rather than liabilities.\"\nOur results show that 65 per cent of all the girls committed to us are\nliving respectably at the age of twenty-one. Some girls are ready to be\nparoled in one year, others in two or three years, according to mentality\nand behavior. The matron and superintendent decide when a girl's name\nis to be given to the trustees to be voted upon as one able to take care of\nherself in the community. When this times comes, a trunk containing an\noutfit is given the girl and she goes forth in a happy mood. Her character\nhas been developt, her standards of living raised.\nDISCUSSION\nJessie B. Colburn, president, Association of Women Principals of Public Schools,\nNew York N.Y. — For several years the women principals of public schools in New York\nCity have felt that the question of the delinquent girl must be faced and some solution\nfound. In the effort to do this intelligently, we women have during the past year or two\nbeen gathering figures, studying instances, and consulting as to effective means of attacking the problem, and after many conferences, we have askt that our public-school system\nshall include a country cottage school where these girls may be placed, free from the\nstigma which attaches to an institution commitment, and free too from the academic\ndrudgery which so often makes school hateful to girls, of this type. Let the girl do house-\n\n"}
{"page": 862, "printed_page": "850", "text": "850\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION .\n\n[Special\n\nwork and learn to make a home; if she takes to it, let her do sewing and embroidery;\nbut do not force this sedentary work with the needle upon her if she has no taste for it.\nIn a special home for girls, everyone should have a private room — her very own. It is\nher right and a patent aid in character-building. Next in importance comes the home-like\ndining-room, with its small tables, clean napery, and consequent inculcation of not only\nthe decencies of life, but the pleasant social amenities.\nThere are three reasons why such a school as this is a crying necessity. Two of these\nare those which we ordinarily consider: first, the protection of society; and secondly, the\nsaving of the girl herself, who is generally much more sinned against than sinning; the\nthird reason, however, I think the primary one, and it is, in my judgment, far too often\noverlookt, or at least relegated to the background, when it should have first place in our\nconsideration. I mean the protection of the young and innocent-minded children with\nwhom these unfortunate girls are in daily contact.\nTwo other points: An absolute essential to the success of such work is that the right\ntype of woman — and it must be a woman — ^^must be found to head the school; the\nsecond is that other women, just as carefully selected, must be ready when the girl\ncomes back to the city to enter the struggle of life again, to do the necessary follow-up\nwork.\n\nTHE BIG-SISTER\n\nMOVEMENT\n\nMRS. SIDNEY C. BORG, JEWISH BIG-SISTER MOVEMENT,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nThe \"Big-Sister\" societies with whose functions you are undoubtedly\nsomewhat familiar, are attempting to render their assistance to the child\nin the incipient stage of delinquency and in so doing are hoping ultimately\nto lessen the need for institutions giving custodial and correctional care.\nFew of us are so occupied as to be unable to spare the time for such\npersonal service, and a sympathetic interest often proves the determining\nfactor in a girl's life. The ways in which a \"Big Sister\" can be helpful\ncan neither be enumerated nor foreseen. The measure of her usefulness is\nmost largely dependent upon the subordination of the thought of charity\nto a genuine feehng of interest and comradeship.\nThe work is chiefly preventive; it is not so much a problem of reforming\ngirls who have gone a long way on the erring path, as an effort to prevent\nthem from ruining their lives beyond recall.\nPersonal influence, the human touch, as I have said before, can become\nstrong influences for good, and these are qualities which we all possess in a\nmeasure. Further, it is not on the child alone that this influence must be\nexercised, for, as Mr. Coulter has so aptly stated in his book entitled The\nChildren in the Shadow, the real delinquent is the parent and not the child.\nIt is therefore to the parents that the \"Big Sister\" must turn and emphasize\nthe weight of their responsibihty. But the parents, unfortunately, are\nfrequently unable to carry the burden alone, hence to us falls the moral\nobligation of preventing these children from passing irrevocably into the\ndepths of degradation and disease.\nSince we initiated this work a few years ago, we have been able to assist\napproximately 650 girls, many of whom are under our constant supervision\n\n"}
{"page": 863, "printed_page": "851", "text": "Department]\n\nORGANIZED\n\nCHARITY\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nDELINQUENT\n\n851\n\nand others to whom we return at frequent intervals for a friendly chat or a\nword of advice.\nIt has been said that it is more blessed to give than to receive. Those\nwho stretch out the helping hand of a sister to these young unfortunates open\nup to them a new world, and receive in return the priceless blessing of the\ndeepening and quickening of their own spiritual lives.\n\nORGANIZED\nSIEGFRIED\n\nGEISMAN,\n\nCHARITY\n\nAND\n\nTHE DELINQUENT\n\nSUPERINTENDENT, BROOKLYN\nASYLUM, BROOKLYN,\nN.Y.\n\nHEBREW\n\nORPHAN\n\nDuring the recent Shakespeare revival, lips youthful and mature uttered\nthe bard's immortal hnes: \"All the world's a stage, and all the men and\nwomen merely players. They have their exits and their entrances.\"\nApplying this metaphor, we sit in review upon this motley throng, and\nonly after some effort do we detect its components, some standing forth\nin bold relief by virtue of salient characteristics, others mere mass, part\nand parcel of that great, apparently indivisible, indistinguishable background. And yet of these how many start forth blithely, how many,\nbecause of inherent defect or the compelling force of untoward circumstances, drop by the wayside, footsore, weary, despondent, despairing!\nAye, at this very moment, two children are being born into the world,\nthe one of goodly parentage, eagerly awaited, tenderly watcht over, properly\nprovided for; the other, a compulsory addition to an already overstockt\nfamily, a mere drag, necessitating the loss of pay for several days on the\npart of a tired, careworn mother.\nThe development of urban centers, creating new situations of especial\ndifficulty, also comphcated hitherto simple problems. Amid rural or\nvillage environments, where one had lived in close knowledge, if not in direct\ncontact, with the other, the demand for financial aid was easily met. But\nin cities private help, the assistance that neighbor renders to neighbor,\nis inadequate and desultory, hopelessly incapable of dealing with any but\nsurface phenomena.\nThe erring mother presents, in all likelihood, a more serious question.\nDisintegrating homes require skilled care; but, for the welfare of society, it\nis essential that the strongest forces be marshaled so that, by means of the\ncement of human love, lasting buttresses and bulwarks may be reared.\nTho the delinquent father and mother should have a measure of our attention, yet we must apply ourselves especially to the children. They are\nthoughtless, unmoral perhaps, callous to argument, reason, or love; they\ninclude too, the imbecile, the moron, all those dwelling eternally in the\ngloom, feebly groping their way in a world too full of obstacles, too bizarre\nfor a simple, childlike comprehension and appreciation. List them, if\n\n"}
{"page": 864, "printed_page": "852", "text": "852\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nyou will, under the categories of the court, as the truant, the gangster, the\nsneak thief, the drug fiend. Who are his parents? Are they possibly\nnot the delinquent rather than he ? What are his home surroundings ? Is\nthe body poHtic perhaps not more criminal than he, in permitting such\nconditions in our wealthy urban centers?\nSome years ago we were appalled at the statistics of children who came\nto school each morning without a suitable, or some times any, breakfast.\nNow and then we are set aghast when we are confronted with the findings\nof physicians who speak of the stupendous number of pupils suffering\nfrom physical defects of one sort or another. Add to these causes the\nchasm between the Americanized child and the alien parent, the latter\ncontinuing in the New World his fixt habits of life in total ignorance of\nAmerican ways. We admit that among our American children, also,\nrespect for law and order, reverence and obedience, are neither inborn nor\ninculcated. May I suggest that, in the case of the truant, greater blame\nand severer responsibility be fixt on the delinquent parent. I am deeply\nconscious of the splendid efforts of our so-called parental or truant schools.\nI equally realize that they attempt to render, in a way, the work which our\npubhc schools fail to extend to many; that they emphasize manual training,\nsupervised play, etc. The schools need a total reorganization, a great\nhumanizing, a broadening and extension. The school year must be\nextended, the vacation limited to the hottest season, possibly the month of\nJuly. Of course, there will be some variance in the work accomplisht during\nthe summer months, more of the time being devoted to manual work, to\ndomestic science, to nature-study, to excursions to points of scenic beauty,\nhistoric association, etc. There must be additional playgrounds. It surely\nhas occurred to you what scanty provision our cities make for recreation.\nIn the days of Greece and Rome, more stress was placed upon the amusement of the public. There were festivals without number, games, races,\nin fine every opportunity was embraced for a public festival. The children\nof the wealthy today have their amusements, their extraneous instruction\nin music, dancing, etc., while the children of the poor are relegated to the\nstreets and worse. The boy must be somewhere between school hours and\nschool hours. Let him be in the streets, if there is absolutely no other place,\nrather than have him disappear from view entirely.\nWhere can the girl of the working mother seek her recreation ? The\nsurprise to me often is that so many preserve their native purity and goodness rather than that so many go astray. Are there then no delmquents\namong the wealthy, may be your proper question? There surely are,\nbut pubhc agencies are rarely called upon to deal with them; their record\ndoes not fill our pages, and in their case, too, we would frequently be forst\nto ascribe their condition to wreckt homes.\nI discust the entire problem a short time ago with one of the best-known\njudges of our juvenile court. He made the rather cheering statement that\n\n"}
{"page": 865, "printed_page": "853", "text": "Department!\n\nPRESERVING\n\nTHE\n\nFAMILY\n\n853\n\nin the light of his experience he believed juvenile delinquency to be on the\ndecline, but that more cases of improper guardianship came before him\nthan in previous years. And he ascribed the decline in juvenile dehnquency\nto better work and wider sympathy in the pubUc schools.\nIs it not possible that the schools will also consider it a legitimate\nbranch of their work to relieve charitable organizations of much of the preventive work, along the line of juvenile delinquency, by entering, even more\nfully, into the life of the individual child ? There is a big work for all of\nus to do.\nPRESERVING\nJOSEPH\n\nv.\n\nTHE FAMILY\n\nS. MCCLANCY,\nSXJPERINTENDENT\nOF PAROCHIAL\nDIOCESE OF BROOKLYN,\nBROOKLYN,\nN.Y.\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nAmong the educational factors making for the development of character\nand mind on the part of the dehnquent as of the normal child, the family\nstands out prominent. The first school that a human being enters is the\nhome. Its lessons are well taught and well learned. Who of us that have\nadvanst far into the years of life but can trace back to family influence\nmany of the ideals that are guiding the hours of our today ? The social\ninstinct native to the human breast finds its first satisfaction in the home.\nIt is in the schoolroom of the home that a person starts on the upward\npath leading to that expression of the better elements of his make-up which\nwe know as education.\nThe devotees of religion make much of the educational value of our\nchurches. Those committed to the principle of associating morality with\nintellectual training place emphasis on the school. Yet, general is the\nconviction that the home is the primal factor in the development of\nthe child. Thus has God ordained things to be. The parent supplies the\nchild with the first ideas of concrete right and wrong. From the same\nquarter proceeds that respect for lawful authority that is the cornerstone\nof all forms of human society. The teaching of the home is informal but\nnone the less effective. The mother's sacrifices and gentleness, notist with\nappreciation by the child, make for the development of an unselfish character. Thru the father bearing the heat and burden of the days of toil,\na lesson is read in the need for the quality of sturdiness in meeting the trials\nof life. The kindly and well-tempered encouragment given children by\ntheir parents engenders a confidence in self that at times is woefully wanting\nin some educated people. Rough edges of character are worn away to an\nextent in the intimacy of family relations and play obtaining between the\noffsprings of a common parentage. In its fulness of strength the home\nbears about it the note of religion. It is a bad home that inculcates religious narrowness or fosters bigotry. The fact of an ever-present, allknowing, and all-interested God becomes an important agency in investing\n\n"}
{"page": 866, "printed_page": "854", "text": "854\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\na child, not merely with the veneer of good conduct but also with its veritable substance. Too well rooted in history and too well abiding in the\nconscience of everyone is the belief in a rewarding and punishing Deity to\nbe dismist out of deference for a philosophy making popular atheism.\nSelf-improvement is rendered on the average well-nigh impossible in any\nhome that tries to stand without the guiding and governmg influence of\na firm acceptance of the existence of a Divine Providence.\nThe character- and mind-development especially of the delinquent\nchild attends in great part on the quaHty of the home. The pity of life\nis that not all homes work for this noble end. Some of them refuse to lend\n■ their cooperation to the church and the school for the bringing of the child\non to an educational and moral maturity. One explanation for this bad\ncondition is sought in the economic wrongs of the day. Poverty paralyzes\nhome influences. The toil-burdened father begets in the misery of his\n-low-waged employment diseased standards of honesty that are likely to\nfilter down to the child. In the same home the care of many children with\nbut slight means of subsistence will take the attention of the mother off\nthe larger work of guiding the mental and moral development of the child.\nThis is especially striking in the case of widows. The normal environment\nof play and health that a child has a right to demand of society is at times\nwanting. The desire for amusements, the gratification of the child's\nappetites for sweets, the quest for toys — these are often unmet in the\nhouses of the poor. The case can be pusht farther. Even sanitary conditions, well set forth by Dr. William H. Maxwell in his admirable paper on\n\"How to Help the Backward Child,\" are lamentably lacking. Proper\nsleeping appointment, the presence of pure air, the nourishment for a growing body, the reasonable safeguards against disease, the precautions against\nmoral disorders — such indeed are awkward problems in homes where the\nwages are small. There is to be noted a peculiar leakage of home influences among our immigrants. Sturdy and industrious characters arriving\non our Hberty-blest shores, they neglect to learn our language with any\ndegree of confidence in speaking it. From this condition flow many evils.\nThe child assumes the role of an interpreter and in many cases the passage\nis easy to independence of parental control. Especially is the plot of this\nmischief thickened when evil street companionship enters into the problem\nas is the case with most delinquents.\nEven when the home breaks down in its educational value the wise\nfriend of the school child hesitates to remove him from its sphere. The\nway of acting is rather to seek the improvement of the home. The commitment toan institution is a last resort and one always to be taken with\na measure of sincere regret. The thought now rushes on our view that the\nbest method of meeting the delinquency problem is to mobilize our efforts\nin the direction of restoring to fallen homes their native vigor along educational lines. Educated people should plunge into the labor problem.\n\n"}
{"page": 867, "printed_page": "855", "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nSOCIAL\n\nWORKER\n\n855\n\nall the while keeping clear of the gospel *of class strife. The modem looseness of idea on the inviolability of marriage should give way before a\nstrengthened public opinion denouncing divorce as an evil which more\nthan outweighs all the horrors that are described of homes torn by internal\ndissension.\nOur parting thought is twofold. From our hearts there issue the\nwarmest sympathy and the most cheering encouragement for an organization such as the Association of Workers among DeUnquent Children, and\nfor others who labor along their lines altho not banded under their control.\nTheir material for work is assuredly not of the best. It is a noble thing,\nwhen engaged in a good direction, to be undiscouraged by the odds against\none's success. The country, with its jails already chokt to overflowing,\nmust look down with gratitude upon the men and women who are applying\nthe curative and preventive measures to keep down the number of convicts.\nThe work is not without its discouraging sneers of criticism, but it is a work\nwhose successes have been many, altho unfortunately not appreciated by\nan incredulous pubHc.\nThe final word is to stress the contention of some of the best thinkers\nof our day, that all delinquency does not spring from defective mentality,\nand that the overemphasizing of environment has led some to forget the\nexistence of free will on the part of man. The child dehnquent is a problem\nto be handled in the light of a philosophy that does not degrade man to\nthe level of the brute. Instruct the child in the sense of his own responsibihty, and then make good the environment in which he is placed. The\nhome is the environment of excellence; in our efforts to give the home its\nfull efficacy let us not lose sight of the aim of our endeavors to round the\nchild into the man or woman of knowledge, morality, religion, and patriotism.\n\nTHE SOCIAL WORKER\nHENRY\n\nW.\n\nTHURSTON, DIRECTOR OF CHILD WELFARE,\nPHILANTHROPY, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nSCHOOL\n\nOF\n\nI assume that all of you have had personal and professional dealings\nwith some of the following persons, and some of you with all of them:\nattendance, or truant, officers; probation officers in charge of children, and\nperhaps adults, who have never been in a custodial institution of any kind;\nparole officers in charge of children and perhaps adults who have been\nreleast from custodial institutions of some kind ; men and women in public\nand private employ who have as a part of their work the giving of material\nrehef; men and women in charge of placed-out or boarded-out children.\nAll these and many more are candidates for membership in the occupational\ngroup that is now slowly differentiating itself in our midst as a social-work\ngroup technically so called.\n\n"}
{"page": 868, "printed_page": "856", "text": "856\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nNow, whether or not these workers whom I have just enumerated have\nyet estabUsht a real profession of social work, it is demonstrably true that\nin their most efficient developments they are all fundamentally alike in\ntechnique, with minor differences in routine.\nFor example, the most efficient among probation officers, parole officers,\nvisiting teachers, hospital social-service workers, placing-out agents, and\ndistrict nurses are all alike in these respects: (i) they all d-eal with handicapt individuals; (2) they all deal with these handicapt individuals against\nthe background of a particular family, neighborhood, economic and civic\nenvironment. The technique of the social worker in this sense is different\nfrom that of the teacher in the classroom, from that of the doctor and nurse\nin the dispensary and hospital, from that of the minister in his pulpit. It\nmay easily be granted that the classroom teacher can teach better if she is\nfamihar with all the personal characteristics of each pupil and of his home\nand social environment, but we should never lose sight of the fact that the\ntechnique of a teacher in the classroom and that of a social-case worker in\ninvestigation, formation, and execution of plan of treatment for each dependent, neglected, or deUnquent child and his family as a whole, are different.\nIt may be an open question whether or not the same person should know\nand practice both techniques, but it leads only to confusion if we fail to\nrecognize that there are two techniques.\nThis leads us to the crux of the whole problem of cooperation between\nthe teacher and any social worker. As things are now in many of our\ncities, the teacher not only faces the problem of cooperation with one social\nworker with respect to a particular family, but cooperation with several.\nOften a probation officer, a visiting nurse, or visiting teacher are all at one\ntime visiting a family, which has one or more children in a school. In\nsuch a situation the teacher's problem of cooperation with each social\nworker is very difficult unless the different social workers who visit the same\nfamily also cooperate well among themselves and with the family in question.\n\nTHE WORK\nRUTH\n\nTRUE,\n\nOF THE\n\nCHILDREN'S\n\nVISITING\nBUREAU,\n\nTEACHER\n\nWASHINGTON,\n\nD.C.\n\nI beHeve that every large school needs to supplement the staff whose\nbusiness it is to handle groups of children for some six hours of their day,\nwith some one person whose business it is to study the individual child for\nas much as possible of his twenty-four hours a day. This thought had\nbeen smoldering, for during the last nine years it caught fire spontaneously\nin several parts of the country. Now, for the first time, the people who have\nbeen experimenting with it have come together to compare notes. This\nfunction has been given different names. In New York such a worker is\ncalled a visiting teacher; in Boston, a home and school visitor. In general,\n\n"}
{"page": 869, "printed_page": "857", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nWORK\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nVISITING\n\nTEACHER\n\n857\n\nany child who is a misfit, whose teacher feels that he is not absorbing the\nprofit he should be getting from what the school has to offer, may come\nto her. The only exceptions are those for whom some other special provision ismade, as in the case of truants. In particular, according to the\nlast report of the Public Education Association, 926 children were brought\nto their visiting teachers by the class teachers and principals for the following\nreasons:\n1. Those who were lagging behind in scholarship. These were not\nmentally subnormal children, barring a few cases which were not so diagnosed until after they were referred.\n2. Those with whom there was some difficulty regarding conduct of\nwhich the roots reacht deeper than the classroom — back into the home\nor outside life of the child.\n3. Children who were irregular, not truants, but those who were\ndropping out too many occasional days.\n4. Children in such poor physical condition that they were in need of\nresources beyond those the school had to offer. Here they workt in cooperation with the school nurse.\n5. Those for whom home conditions were so bad that the effects showed\nin the classroom.\n6. Children persistently tardy.\nThe visiting teacher has one great advantage over the probation or the\ntruant officer. More and more, as she works in a school, she comes in at\nthe beginning of trouble. I would like to emphasize the fact that then is\nthe time when effort is best repaid by result. To generalize, she may in the\nfirst place bring about an adjustment in the home which will put the child\nin a better position to benefit from the school. Frequently a case presents\nsome tangle which can quickly be pulled straight. In some instances a\nnew home is secured for the child.\nIn the second place, there are adjustments which may be made in the\nschool. For these, the knowledge of the child's outside life brought back\nis almost always useful and often indispensable. Sometimes the change is\none of program, such as a shift to an open-air class, or an opportunity for\nlunches in the school. In other cases it is one .of attitude which comes to us\nall with understanding. I believe that this is just as important. Many\nchildren, whose effort will never tally with achievement because of some\noutside handicap, are thirsty like the others for the glow that comes from\nappreciation.\nThe visiting teacher must be one of the staff of the school; she cannot\nafford to be a fifth wheel revolving on her own account. She needs to have\nher place in the school building and to be there and to be ^iven hours when\nshe can be reacht by teachers and children. Perhaps the kernel of the\nvisiting teacher's immediate contribution to the school is the help she can\ngive in fitting together the pieces for a child whose pattern does not con-\n\n"}
{"page": 870, "printed_page": "858", "text": "858\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nform. Her place is indicated when we remember that for such youngsters\nno machine program, however well it may work for the majority, will take\nthe place of a hand-made plan.\n\nTHE WORK\n\nOF THE BUREAU OF ATTENDANCE,\nCITY SCHOOLS\n\nJOHN W. DAVIS, DIRECTOR, ATTENDANCE\n\nBUREAU,\n\nNEW\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nThe full title of this bureau is the Bureau of Compulsory Education,\nSchool Census, and Child Welfare. In doing our work, these three divisions\nsometimes impinge, sometimes overlap, as the nature of the problem to be\nsolved demands. Primarily, as I understand it, the prevention side of our\nwork is the one to be emphasized today. And right here I should like to\nput forth our fundamental proposition: that a school census properly\nkept will be a great help in our work.\nWe feel that the problem is a sociological one, and, further, that to\nreduce truancy we must study the causes leading to it. The causes may be\ngroupt as follows: the nagging teacher; lack of clothing; not in proper\nphysical nor mental condition; dislike for school brought about in other\nways; overindulgent parents; incomplete family; stern father and relenting mother; squalid and filthy homes; drunkenness on the part of one or\nboth parents; the gang.\nIf we remove the cause, the truancy disappears. The attendance\nofficers are instructed to look primarily for the cause in order to ascertain\nwhether the individual officer can effect a cure, always remembering that\nhe must put himself in the place of the erring pupil, when he begins to judge\nthe boy, and to be a big brother to him.\nWhile the bureau car was coming thru the park one day, a boy of\nfourteen was stopt, invited to a seat in the car, and brought over to the\noffice. On being questioned by me, he stated that his reason for playing\ntruant was that his teacher was constantly nagging him! He was returned\nto school, transferred to another class, and that cured his truancy.\nNow the dislike for school may be brought about in other ways than by\nthe nagging teacher. If a pupil is maladjusted as regards the course of\nstudy, trouble will follow; also lack of clothing and shoes are frequent\ncauses of truancy. The bureau has a stock of clothing on hand that has\nbeen given it by well-wishing friends, and it relieves the necessities of the\nindividual cases in this respect.\nThe law gives this bureau power to commit to a parental or truant school\nall children who are persistent truants, provided the parents consent; if\nthe parents do not consent, the aid of the courts must be invokt to carry\nout the law. Our hearings are conducted by two division supervisors.\nLast year we had 9000 hearings.\n\n"}
{"page": 871, "printed_page": "859", "text": "DepartmentI\n\nBUREAU\n\nOF ATTENDANCE,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK\n\nCITY\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n859\n\nWhen the bureau was organized we felt that it was necessary at these\nhearings to have a physical and mental examination made of all the pupils\nbrought before us. After the physical and mental status has been determined and the pupil found to be satisfactory, he is transferred to another\nclass in his own school, or to another school, and placed on probation to see\nwhether the change in environment will prove beneficial.\nLet me here call your attention to what we consider one of the most\nimportant phases of our prevention work — the number of children placed on\nprobation. We have had on probation this year about 5000 children.\nThis does not include those on parole from the truant schools — 583. The\nattendance officers keep in close touch with the boys on probation and on\nparole. Here the attendance officer is the big brother, and that is the\nattitude we wish to maintain.\nOne of the cases reported to us and referred to Dr. Heckman was that\nof a boy who not only was a truant, but, when he did attend school, was\nvery troublesome. Dr. Heckman's examination showed that his eyesight\nwas very defective. The boy wore glasses, but they were of a character\nthat he should not have been using under any circumstances. As a matter\nof fact, when he was sitting in the front of the classroom, near the blackboard, the glasses he was wearing made the figures on the blackboard\nindistinguishable .\nIn studying the case of another lad, we found peculiar conditions at\nhome — good surroundings, but with a stepmother and the boy's own father,\nresulting in a case of \"my\" children, \"your\" children, and \"our\" children.\nAs the father was at home very Uttle, his child was not receiving the attention from the stepmother that he might have received had the father been\nat home more. The case was referred to us thru the court, inasmuch as one\nof the attendance officers had found a good home for the child.\nNow, as to the gang: I mean the gang of older boys — seven teen, eighteen,\nand nineteen years of age — that induces and seduces the younger boys to\nplay truant, that they may be brought up in the ways of the older gangsters.\nThese gangsters are a very grave danger and menace to the city, and\ngenerally speaking, this is where criminality begins.\nUnder a working arrangement between Police Commissioner Woods and\nour bureau, the police now apprehend any boy of school age found on the\nstreets during school hours, and take him to the nearest public school where\nhe is turned over to one of our attendance officers.\nThis leaves but one other topic to be spoken of: the boy who takes out\nworking papers with no intention of working. As you doubtless know,\nthe Board of Health notifies us of the number, date, and the name of every\nperson to whom working papers are issued. Each case is investigated\nautomatically after ample opportunity has been given to each child to obtain\na position. If the child has not secured a position, he must return to\nschool.\n\n"}
{"page": 872, "printed_page": "860", "text": "86o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nTo facilitate an experiment with pupils found on the street with working certificates but not employed, Edward Mandel, principal of Public\nSchool 188B, mapt out a course of study along commercial lines, consisting\nof the following subjects: Commercial arithmetic, commercial EngHsh,\nstenography, typewriting, ofl&ce practice, civil service, telephone, and transit\nproblems of New York City railway Unes.\nSix periods of forty minutes each were devoted during the afternoons\nto teaching the boys the practical use of tools, while a thirty-minute gymnasium period and a thirty-minute reading period were provided for each\nday as well. As you can see, prevention rather than punishment is the\ndoctrine of this bureau.\n\nTHE NEED\n\nOF FRESH-AIR\n\nCLASSES\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nHARRIET A. TUPPER, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL NO. 58, NEW\n\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nThe second annual report on fresh-air classes for anemic children in the\npublic schools of the city of New York contains a letter written by Dr.\nGustave Straubenmiiller, now acting city superintendent. In it is this\nparagraph:\nWhile there always will be children who are physically weak and undemourisht,\nstill the time is coming when it will be considered unpardonable in a school administration\nnot to know of the cases and not to make special classroom provisions for them, even if\nactive measures for the removal of the remediable defects be not intrusted to it.\n\nThe current National Education Association session seems to prove\nthis, as is evidenst by the time and space allotted to special education.\nWe have become not merely administrators of the three R's but keen\nanalysts of the material with which we work. The result is widely differentiated methods of educating differing t5rpes. These methods rest in\npart upon devices to permit of greater comfort for the physically or mentally\nhandicapt, and thru this relief to the body, the mind is able to work normal y. That\n\"\nis the meaning, I take it, of Dr. Straubenmuller's characterization that it is unpardonable in a school administration not to provide\nspecial classrooms for children so handicapt.\nThe supplying of fresh air for all children in school would seem like\na first principle of education, but cold fresh air doesn't seem to be very\npopular with parents, teachers, nor pupils. Yet the over-heated air of\nmost of our homes and the ventilating systems of our most expensive school\nplants leave much to be desired in the way of betterment.\nThe anemic child needs these changed conditions as is proved by Dr.\nWoodruff's clear-cut, conclusive reasoning. Then, having provided the\nfresh, cold air, the proper wraps must follow, while suitable desks and\nchairs help also. Any form which will insure comfort while sitting, and\nwhich may be moved to one side to make room for cots during the resting\n\n"}
{"page": 873, "printed_page": "861", "text": "Department!\n\nNEED\n\nOF FRESH-AIR\n\nCLASSES\n\nIN PUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n86 1\n\nperiods will suffice. A southern exposure is desirable so that one may have\nsunshine all day, etc.\nBut how shall we know the cases needing attention of this kind?\nMust we as principals and teachers also become pathological experts?\nNot at all. I am sure that physicians, who are always in every community\nthe greatest givers, will give the necessary examinations and aid you in\nselecting your class. If errors are made, don't worry, because fresh air\nwas never known to hurt even the most vigorous person. The greatest\nresults will be gained from these physical examinations if tonsil and adenoid operations are performed at once where needed, and the teeth put\ninto a good condition. No child is likely to be permanently benefited by\na fresh-air class if he needs an operation, but if the examination results in\nthe removal of remediable defects the school is largely benefited thereby.\nPerhaps we do not know the result of the ordinary heated classroom on\nthe normal child. Let me tell you of a test made by Dr. Woodruff at\nPublic School No. 107, Manhattan, during the school year of 1911-12.\nA class of normal children was selected and called a control class; they were\nas near the average age of the fresh-air class as possible; they were weighed,\nmeasured, their blood was tested, and they were fed quite as regularly\nas the anemic children, whose windows were wide open to the not too\ngentle breezes from the North River during the entire school year. This\nwas, in fact, the only difference, so far as we were able to control it, that\none used an ordinary steam-heated room with ventilation thru windows\nopened as the teacher felt the need, while the other never closed them and\nhad practically no heat. The results showed that the so-called control\nclass did not gain so much in either weight or height, and that they actually\nlost 3.48 per cent of haemoglobin, while the anemic children gained 10.2\nper cent, thus making a difference of more than 13.5 per cent; in other\nwords, the control class became more anemic while the anemic children\nbecame nearly normal. But this was not the only gain made by the anemic\nchildren; their ability to study increast, the fatigue point was reacht after\nlonger periods of work, and at the end of the year nearly every child had\nshown improvement over his previous year's record of promotions. In\nseveral cases extra promotions were made.\nHowever, the influence of the fresh-air system doesn't stop with the\ngood of the children and the education of the parents. In my opinion\na distinct advantage comes to that school where a fresh-air class has been\norganized thru the broadening influence of the teacher. The real fresh-air\nteacher is just another kind of missionary. She preaches the doctrine of\na perfect body as a temple for a better mind, to her pupils, their parents,\nand her associates. Inadvertently, perhaps, she drops a word about the\nwonderful resistance of her class to colds and contagious diseases. Not\nan absence due to cold nor measles nor other like disease in the entire year,\nis quite frequently the record.\n\n"}
{"page": 874, "printed_page": "862", "text": "862\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nSPEECH-IMPROVEMENT\nDENNIS\n\nJ. MCDONALD, M.D., FELLOW OF ACADEMY\nMEDICINE, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nOF\n\nHaving for many years been closely associated with our public-school\nsystem, I find that the most serious problem that confronts us is the spoken\nEngHsh of our children. Realizing the paramount necessity for normal\nspeech and having the opportunity for observation and study at close\nrange during my service to the board of education as commissioner for\nmany years, I determined to try to standardize work for all abnormalspeech conditions found in our schools.\nSpeech per se, as a faculty, is not innate in man; every human being is\nbom speechless. The child gradually learns to speak, and unconsciously\nspeech is developt with other bodily and mental faculties. While means\nof speech is possest at birth, in its development it is subject to disturbances\nby disease or other causes. Speech is produced by the prompt cooperation\nof three great mechanical factors, namely, respiration, vocalization, anci\narticulation, with which is associated mentation, or the action of the\nmind.\nModern medicine and psychology have put to their credit a notable\nachievement by the demonstration that defective speech is at bottom\na mental rather than a physical disease, where a definite defect of the\nspeech organs does not exist. Children suffering from such a speech\ndefect as stuttering are highly strung or sensitively organized. They\nare emotional, temperamental, and easily influenst. If nothing is done to\ncorrect their condition, thereby estabhshing mental stabiUty, what is the\nresult ? Such children help to fill up our vast army of truants, delinquents,\nvagrants, and gangsters. From a weak, good-natured child is evolved a\nchild on the road to criminahty. To quote the words of an authority who\nhas had charge of a large home for vagrant boys for the last twelve years:\n\"Ninety per cent of the boys who have past thru my house have suffered\nfrom some form of speech defect.\" This definitely corroborates my former\nstatement, that if these boys had received the proper training and had\nbeen cured of their defective speech during their school life, their mental\nstatus and environment would have been normal, and it would have been\nimpossible for them to find themselves in their present condition. Instead\nof undesirable citizens we would have, with the proper care and training,\ncitizens that we all could be proud of.\nFor years teachers of English connected with the various schools and\nuniversities have deplored the fact that pure, unalloyed EngHsh speech,\nviewed from a tonal and enunciatory standard, is fast becoming a lost\nart. This impulse, no doubt, has been the outcome of the rapidly developing interest in oral composition; so much so that the English teachers are\nobserving in themselves their own deficiencies in tone and utterance. The\n\n"}
{"page": 875, "printed_page": "863", "text": "Department]\n\nSPEECH-IMPROVEMENT\n\n863\n\ngreat necessity is instruction in the fundamentals of speech, that is, careful\nconstructive work in articulation, pronunciation, and production of tone.\nWith poor tone, work upon pronunciation, articulation, phrasing, interpretation, etc., is relatively unprofitable because it lacks foundation and\nwill not be assimilated; but when conversation is carried on in tones that\ncomprise the normal male-or-female-speech range, almost all difficulty in\nimproving enunciation or articulation disappears. We naturally must\nconclude that it is definitely necessary to establish standards for our everyday speech. Conversation should be carried out along male and female\ntonal range; by that we mean notes comprising the male and female\nspeaking voice. Since the idea is practical, it is therefore possible, and\nwhen definite provisions are instituted for the carrying-out of this idea the\nresult will be more than beneficial, for the shrill, harsh rasping, speech\nthat we hear daily will be a thing of the past.\nA study of speech conditions in our public schools shows that 200,000\nof the 800,000 children are foreigners or of foreign extraction, and that\n200,000 of the boys and girls are afflicted with stuttering, mumbUng, lisping,\nor foreign accent.\nPlans are under consideration whereby the board of education will\nprovide in the very near future for its thousands of children suffering from\ndefective speech, thus wiping out all handicaps and setting a standard\nfor normal American children.\nA special speech department will be organized, with a medical specialist\nat its head. Every child with a speech defect will be studied, diagnosed,\nand prescribed for. If the handicap is caused by some pathological condition of the speech organs or by some simple thing like adenoids for\nexample, the cure will be easy. If the cause is more deeply seated the\nspecialist will still be able to deal with it. Each child will be dealt with\nseparately. I am certain that very few cases will be found entirely hopeless. These children will receive special work, exercises, etc., for a certain\nperiod every day during school hours, under the care of a teacher who has\nreceived proper training and is under the direction of the speciahst of the\ndepartment.\nAnother important function of the department of speech will be the\nstandardization of English without accent for the foreign-born. The\nwhole matter of teaching English to foreigners has been scandalously neglected. Itis a strange fact that, with the hordes of foreigners descending\nupon our shores every year, of whom thousands enter school and attend\nnight school, no one has ever written a textbook on the subject of teaching\nEnglish. The teachers have workt out their methods, and some of them\nare good; but we have no standards.\nTo teach Uttle children to speak English is comparatively easy, yet a\nlarge number never learn to speak correctly. They acquire a vile patois that\nis a handicap thru life to them. As for the adult foreign population, one\n\n"}
{"page": 876, "printed_page": "864", "text": "864\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nknows that there is a large number of voters who cannot speak an intelligible\nsentence.\nGraded phonic drills, embracing all the fundamental sounds of the\nlanguage, will be instituted in the public-school curriculum, so that the\ndaily exercises can be given to every child in order to attain perfect enunciation and correct careless speech or foreign accent.\nThe very Americanization of the foreign citizen is involved in this matter\nof clear English speech. A good speech, unhampered hy accent, is a requisite for the highest mental and moral development of the immigrant.\nThe object in view in the treatment of defective speech is not only to\ncorrect the defect but to establish normal correct speech; in other words, to\ncreate a new standard of speech instead of adding to an old faulty condition.\nCure, in this medical age, is like that for other nervous diseases — reeducation. These long standing psycho-neuroses are chronic conditions,\nand only a long and patient training will remove them, so that lungs, voice,\nHps, and tongue will again work in harmony. The whole character often\nhas to be reconstructed, the whole inner life reorganized. To cite definitely,\ndefective speech is a distinct form of nervous disease; it can be properly\nand legally treated by teachers under the guidance of a physician, the\ntreatment being the re-education of the cerebral-speech mechanism, and this\nre-education is brought about largely thru the accurate physiological use of\nthe vocal organs.\nIn the last forty years extensive strides have been made in the correction\nof disordered speech thruout Germany, Austria, France, England, and\nJapan.\nTHE MISSION\nJAMES SONNETT\n\nOF THE SPEECH\n\nGREENE, M.D., DIRECTOR, NEW\nDEFECTS, NEW YORK,\n\nSPECIALIST\n\nYORK INSTITUTE FOR SPEECH\nN.Y.\n\nModern medicine has put to its credit a notable achievement by its\ndemonstration that defective speech is at bottom a pathological condition.\nSpeech and its defects have been treated or mistreated by almost\neverybody, in all walks of life, because, as far back as we can go in our\nliterature, there was someone who needed treatment. The case of Moses\nis an illustrious example.\nIn following up the literary history of defective speech we find four\noutstanding periods: (i) from the earliest historical records to the early\npart of the nineteenth century; (2) from the early part of the nineteenth\ncentury to the period of surgical operations; (3) the period of surgical\noperations, chiefly confined to the year 1841; and (4) from the surgical\nperiod to the present day.\nJudging from the Greek vocabulary, containing as it does a large\nvariety of terms relating to impediments of speech, we are justified in the\n\n"}
{"page": 877, "printed_page": "865", "text": "Department!\n\nTHE\n\nMISSION\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSPEECH\n\nSPECIALIST\n\n865\n\nconclusion that not a few persons thus afflicted were to be found among the\nancient Greeks.\nThe stimulus given to every other art and science by the development\nof the Greek language seems to have had little or no effect in aiding the\nsages of ancient Greece to arrive at the formulation of any satisfactory\nclassification of defective speech.\nThe Romans clast stuttering and Hsping with other infirmities and\npeculiarities. The stutterer and lisper had his special name, halhus hlaesus;\nso had the squinter, the bandy-legged, and the long-nosed person. But little\npractical knowledge of these ailments really existed.\nOperations for defects of speech were performed before, but nothing of a\ndefinite nature occurred until 1841, when Dieffenbach announst his operations on the tongue for the cure of defective speech, especially stuttering.\nSurgical enthusiasm was on, it spread like wildfire over the entire continent. A regular mania took possession of the surgeons of Europe for the\ncure of defective speech, each one of note claiming to be the inventor of a\nnew modification of some previous operation. The methods were generally\narran'ged by nationalities, the Germans following Dieffenbach; the French,\nVelpean; the EngHsh, Yearsley and Braid. Nearly two hundred cases in\nFrance alone submitted to the operation in the course of the year. At the\nend of the year a cry of warning was raised, and those who had tried the\nexperiment found the courage to acknowledge their grave error.\nFollowing this surgical period pedagogic methods came into vogue and\nwere carried out by teachers both abroad and here; for teachers connected\nwith the various schools and universities deplored the fact that pure, unalloyed speech was fast becoming a lost art, and this gave a great impetus\nto all manner of didactic methods. At about the same time a realization\nof psychic influences necessitating counteracting suggestions came into\nstyle especially for the relief of stuttering.\nPsycho-analysists for awhile were very busy; their fundamental argument was that stuttering like all phobias and obsessions, was caused by a\npsychic complex which is endowed with extremely intense emotions and\ninhibitions, and, therefore, possesses so impelling a power that it forces the\npatient to be more or less under its influence. The physical and psychic\nsymptoms of defective speech are merely projections of the conflicts piled\nup in the emotional complex. According to my classification there is the\nphanerogenetic stutterer and the cryptogenetic stutterer. The cr)^togenetic stutterer is the incurable wanderer who needs medical scientific\ntreatment. Those were the cases that Mr. Albert Gutzmann was unable\nto cure and also those are the cases which are not cured today by most of\nthose engaged in defective-speech work.\nAt the university clinic at Berhn it was definitely demonstrated by\nProfessor Herman Gutzmann that defective-speech children are sick\nchildren. Lispers usually had some pathological condition of the peripheral-\n\n"}
{"page": 878, "printed_page": "866", "text": "866\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nend organs of speech. Stutterers usually had a central involvement which\nrequired extensive medical examination to diagnose and classify. A speech\nspeciaUst of America bears out the pathological contention by citing that\n97 per cent of looo cases of stuttering that came under his observation had\nsome pathological condition that required medical treatment; and in about\n38 per cent of the cases, surgical treatment of some form or other had to be\nresorted to.\nHysteria is not an organic disease, there being no involvement of the\nperipheral organs, of the spinal cord, nor of the medulla. It is a disease\nof the mind, using the term \"mind\" scientifically as being the product of\ncertain \"unknown alterations of the cerebral cells,\" and representing the\nhighest functions of the brain. It has been called a \"psychologic disag regation,\"\"psychologic\na\nlesion,\" a \"disease of the personality.\" In\nany case it is very real, very distressing, and worthy of our best attention.\nAll vocal sounds are produced by coordinate action of the phonatory\nrespiratory mechanism. The independent action of each of these two\nmechanisms may be apparently excellent, but if for any reason their coordinate action is not possible there can be no vocal sounds or phonation.\nWe may then have loss of voice with no paralysis whatsoever of the vocal\ncords nor any of the intrinsic muscles of the larnyx.\nThe case seen was that of a child about nine years old who for two\nyears never spoke above a whisper. On examination by means of the\nlaryngoscope the true state of the vocal cords was revealed. An application\nof the internal faradic brush was sufficient to remove the anaesthesia of the\nlarynx.\nA great barrier in the way of mental development is the lack of power of\nexpression, and it is universally conceded that until the faculty of speech is\nestablisht no man can ever become a useful citizen. Efficiency and ease\nseem to go together as a characteristic of mental strength and economy.\n\"Living at the tips of one's nerves\" thru an impediment of speech tends to\ndevelop vicious circles of nervous instability resulting in an increase of\ncriminals, prostitutes, and general failures.\nPathologic conditions which render the nasal passages impervious and\nat the same time interfere with the proper adjustment of the palatal muscles\nare most detrimental to the singing and speaking voice. A voice, to be\npleasing, must have its tone vibrations, which are produced by the action\nof the vocal cords on the expiratory blast, reinforst by sound waves\nfrom the cavities of the chest and head. The nose and accessory sinuses\nplay a very important part as vocal resonators. The resonant element\nacting on the fundamental tone produced by the larynx develops overtones\nwhich gives color or timber to vocal sound. The following are the most\nfrequent pathologic intranasal conditions which interfere with the functions\nof the nose and accessory sinuses, and either directly or indirectly with\nvoice and speech: deviations of the nasal septum, hypertrophy or hyper-\n\n"}
{"page": 879, "printed_page": "867", "text": "Department]\n\nWHAT\n\nIS A\n\n\"SPEECH\n\nCLINIC?\"\n\n867\n\nplasia of turbinates, polypoid growths, and adenoids. When present, these\nconditions can be eUminated on proper diagnosis and treatment, and speech\nthat was muffled, loose, and unmusical, changes to speech that is pleasing\nand melodious.\nMay we not hope that thru the cooperation of education and medicine\nin the task of curing disorders of speech the new generation will go forth\nbetter equipt in this battle of life ?\n\nWHAT\n\nIS A ''SPEECH CLINIC?''\nMASSACHUSETTS\nBOSTON, MASS.\n\nGENERAL\n\nHOSPITAL,\n\nDuring the last school year I traveled some two thousand miles and\nvisited over twenty-five cities for the purpose of ascertaining what methods\nwere used for the improvement of speech in the public schools. I found\nthe methods as numerous as were the cities visited. On the basis of my\nobservations, I attempted to formulate an ideal method of attacking the\nproblem. This survey, reflection, and formulation have resulted in what\nI call ^'speech cHnic.\"\nA speech cUnic consists of three departments: a superintendent, a\nphysician, and a teacher. From my experience in making this extensive\nsurvey, I have come to the conclusion that the problem cannot be adequately solved unless all three of these individuals take part. Let us\nbriefly consider the function of each.\n1. The superintendent's proper sphere is to view the whole ground in\na general and supervising manner. He should not be expected to be\nthoroly conversant with the medical diagnosis of the physician, nor should\nhe be expected to be conversant with all the detailed methods of training\nemployed by the teacher, but he should be acquainted in a general way with\nboth these sides of the subject, so as to be able to direct the others in the\ngeneral trend of their work.\nThe superintendent likewise should have a general supervision over the\nwhole problem in the schools — a wider field of activity than doctor or\nteacher should be allowed to assume. The doctor can examine and diagnose\ncases brought to him, the teacher can take these over and treat them educationally. The superintendent, on the other hand, should be the one to\norganize the flow of patients to the doctor thru his general management of\nprincipals and other teachers. The superintendent's special function is\ngeneral supervision of the whole field of work.\n2. The special function of the physician in the speech clinic is to make\ndiagnoses on cases referred to him. Of course he should treat those cases\nhimself which he sees demand medical care, culUng out, from those the\nteacher presents, the cases that have some element in their make-up that\n\n"}
{"page": 880, "printed_page": "868", "text": "868\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\ndecidedly marks them as subjects for medical treatment. Such cases, for\nexample, are feeble-mindedness in its markt forms, decided jaw-deformities,\nand latent nervous or psychiatric conditions.\nThe chief service that the physician can render the teacher is in finding\norganic causes of speech defect, or in stating clearly that there are none.\nA good illustration of this was a case that was brought to me. A teacher\nhad given a boy constant and intensive vocal drill. The results were nil.\nThe teacher, in despair askt me what should be done in the way of further\ntreatment. After an examination taking about an hour, a diagnosis of\ncongenital syphiHs was made. The teacher was told that if the case had\nbeen brought first to the doctor he would have been able to tell her that\nnothing could be done for the case, and she would have been saved the\ntedious three months of drill. This is a good illustration of how the doctor\ncan save, thru his diagnosis, the energy and valuable time of the teacher.\nThe teacher's activities in the speech chnic should be confined to educational remedial and corrective work. In a word, she should apply treatment.\nTo summarize, the speech clinic consists of three individuals with three\nfunctions: superintendent, doctor, and teacher; supervision, diagnosis,\nand treatment.\nTONE\n\nAND\n\nHEARING\n\nGEORGE B. MCAULEFFE, M.D., NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nSound is a mental result originating from certain changes in the ear\nand brain due to vibrations. Vibration is the basis of tone. The human\near appreciates vibrations from i6 to 48,000 per second. The musical ear\nmay hear as high as 54,000. Insects hear still higher. The human ear\nlimit is ordinarily 11 octaves, but for practical purposes 7 octaves suffice.\nVibration less than those producing sound, help in instructing the deaf.\nThe totally deaf may feel vibrations more keenly than do those with normal\nhearing. In fact, its appreciation becomes developt almost into a separate\nsense. This likewise explains a form of deafness called paracousis willisu\nin which the afflicted persons can hear conversation in a noisy room or on a\ntrain, while they are very deaf to the same conversation carried on in a\nquiet room. Here the vibrations seem to carry on to the sensorium the\nfighter tones of speech and make the latter more audible. Unfortunately\nthis form of deafness is of bad omen, as to the recovery of hearing. Again,\nthe deaf are more deaf to foreign languages than to their own, and to strange\nvoices than to those of their family.\nHearing is subjective and objective. This explains why voices are so\ndifferent m intensity and pitch in the deaf. A person with catarrhal or\nconduction deafness hears his own voice loudly because it cannot escape\neasily from his clogged ears. He therefore speaks very low imagining that\n\n"}
{"page": 881, "printed_page": "869", "text": "Department]\n\nSPEECH -IMPROVEMENT\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nCHICAGO\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n869\n\nhe is speaking loud enough. His subjective hearing is louder than his\nobjective. A person with nerve deafness does not hear his voice well on\naccount of his damaged internal ear or brain. He thus talks loudly so that\nothers may hear.\nAprosexia is that condition of mental cloudiness or phlegmatic stupidity\nwhich is often thought to be inattention. It is, in fact, due to the withdrawal of the deaf individual from participation in mental activity because\nhe finds he does not hear and therefore will not try. It is found particularly in those who have adenoids. The mental rebound is surprising on\nremoval of the growths and the restoration of the hearing.\nThere are two kinds of deafness — conduction, generally catarrhal, arid\nnerve deafness. The former is caused by a swelling of the eustachian tube.\nAs only one person in four has normal hearing we can see that many musicians may be partially deaf. The musical ear is one of fine auditory\nmemory.\nThe one great fault of hygiene productive of more aural trouble than\nany other is violently blowing the nose. This act carries into the ear\ninfection as in grippe and salt-water bathing. It causes inflammation\nand swelling of the eustachian tube.\nI think that apart from the visitations of systematic diseases which\nunfortunately select the ear as a field for their activity, like cerebrospinal\nmeningitis, preventive medicine has rendered probable a better race of\nhearers, and consequently a better race of speakers.\n\nSPEECH-IMPROVEMENT\n\nIN THE\n\nCHICAGO\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nMISS LYON, DEPARTMENT OF CORRECTION OF DEFECTIVE SPEECH, PUBLIC\nSCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL.\n\nThe work is classified into two divisions: (i) the major, stuttering; and\n(2) the minor, all other defects. The method used depends entirely upon\nthe individual, the subject must be studied. For a typical case of stuttering,\none method, outlined along four points, is used, tho the work is necessarily\nstill somewhat tentative. This outline consists of (i) correct breathing,\n(2) relaxation, (3) rhythm, and (4) the development of self-confidence.\nAbout five minutes are devoted to silent deep breathing, in varying positions,\nand three or four minutes for silent relaxation, to gain poise. The system\ncenters around the vowels, as it is believed that the great difficulty lies with\nthese. After the deep breathing a vowel is given and sustained as long as\npossible. Then the tip-of-the-tongue sounds — /, d, I, n — are combined with\nthe vowels.\nThere is great value in the correct use of rhythm, tho the children should\nnot be taught to talk to a beat. Nursery rhymes are used, at first strongly\naccented, then nearer the normal.\n\n"}
{"page": 882, "printed_page": "870", "text": "870\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nThe old woman and the sixpence is a rhyme frequently used, as the\nwords, \"story,\" and \"rhythm\" all appeal, tho perhaps the actual story part\nis a Httle forst as regards some of the children. With older children, poems,\nstories, and discussions are used.\n\nSPEECH\n\nWORK\n\nMRS.\n\nA. REED,\n\nFRANK\n\nIN THE DETROIT\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nREED\n\nPUBLIC\nSCHOOL,\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nDETROIT,\n\nMICH.\n\nIn the Detroit public schools the child is sent to a speciahst for speechimprovement work half a day, twice a week, and then returned to the\nteacher with instructions as to how he is to read and recite. Stress is laid\non the importance of relaxation, on correct, that is, natural, breathing.\nAfter this the next step is relaxation on outgoing breath. As speech\nis given during exhalation, speech therefore is given during relaxation.\nStammerers and stutterers strain when talking — they are at a tension; it is\nimportant to try to teach them relaxation.\nThe children can be taught to help themselves toward correct breathing\nand speaking, by being shown the \"geography\" of the speech organs — both\nnormal conditions and deviations.\nThen comes the blending; the continuous production of a vowel, an\neasy start, and a continuous production. The psychological side is also\nstudied, and the children are helpt to develop self-control and self-reliance;\nto eliminate fear and the fear of talking. Knowledge dissipates fear; when\nthe child knows how he will not be afraid.\nAt the beginning of this work in Detroit, at the first survey, there were\nfound three hundred and fifty children; but it has since been found that\nmany children hitherto considered as stubborn, or backward, shy or poor\nspellers, were children with defective, speech. All the teachers are now\ntaking interest in this work.\n\nTHE NEED\n\nOF SPEECH\n\nWORK\n\nALMA M. BULLOWA, HUNTER\n\nIN THE HIGH SCHOOLS\n\nCOLLEGE, NEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nUnfortunately, here in New York we cannot even lay claim to correctspeech standards! New York, unlike Boston, is a place and not a condition,\nand indeed it is because it is so many places — Httle Italy, Httle Russia,\nHttle Ireland, Httle Poland — that there is no standard of correctly spoken\nEngHsh, that we speak, not one dialect, but many; and that it is the most\ndifficult thing in the world for an educated adult to keep his standard—\nto maintain a purity of language against the corruptions of the majority\nin the streets. Eternal vigilance is the price of pure EngHsh!\n\n"}
{"page": 883, "printed_page": "871", "text": "Department]\n\nNEED\n\nOF SPEECH\n\nWORK\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHIGH\n\nSCHOOLS\n\n871\n\nIn Hunter College High School the percentage of American-born\nstudents is rather greater than in most of the city's high schools, and therefore the following statistics must be considered as significant. Of our\nstudents 10 per cent are of foreign birth, while 50 per cent speak a language\nother than EngHsh in their homes! There are, of course, numbers of\nstudents who do not speak acceptable English, but unless they speak a\nforeign tongue, I have not classified them as belonging to the 50 per cent\nwho do not speak English at home.\nThose who speak Yiddish or German predominate, and this will be seen\nto have a great influence upon both vocal and speech habits, since the lowlying tongue of the Yiddish or German conditions the type of both voice\nand speech in the English of these students. I have met, in the course of the\npast two and one-half years in our high schools, students who speak in their\nhomes and home neighborhoods, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Russian,\nHungarian, Roumanian, French, Itahan, Spanish, and pure Hebrew, and\nwho have, in consequence, but little time to accustom either their speech\napparatus or their ears to the speech which is merely adopted. They\nspeak English with every variety and degree of foreign influence apparent,\nand they do so \" with an air,\" quite placidly, as if to say, '^ The mannerism of\nmy particular English makes it mine individually and especially, therefore,\nit is well.\" Moreover, unless the student is directed by a specialist who\ncan say that the fault lies just here, or there, that the difficulty lies in confusion of tonics, or in false speech melody, for example, it is almost impossible for the bewildered one to find a path in the maze of her linguistic\ndifficulties.\n\n■\nH\nH\nB\nH\nH\n■\nH\nH\nH\nH\nB\n\nBut not alone to the foreign-born or to those who speak a foreign\nlanguage at home can we ascribe the deteriorated condition of our language.\nIt is the fault equally of those who are native-born, and who are insensible\nof their responsibility to be well-spoken, as well as to be well-drest, wellmannered, and well-read.\nThere is no good reason why the high, shrill tones of the boy Americana\nshould be a by- word among the nations; and that such a condition should\nexist when our growing love of music causes us to provide public concerts\nin our city parks and to increase the number of hours devoted to music\nin our high schools and college curricula is a veritable paradox. It is almost\ntime for us to realize that the human vocal instrument is worth using\ncorrectly, and that if it is worth while gpending hours in an attempt to\nget beautiful sounds from such man-made instruments as the piano and the\nviolin, it is a sad abuse of the God-made instrument to neglect its development altogether.\nThe average of students afflicted with the several types of nasality is\n20 per cent; of those whose voices are abnormally high, 18 per cent; of\nthose whose voices are throaty, 10 per cent. Every variety of ineffectively\n\n"}
{"page": 884, "printed_page": "872", "text": "8y2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nclass, and by training the students along the simplest lines to use and control the breath, many seeming miracles have been accomplisht. The\nstrong and useful voice has replaced the inaudible, weak one that was due\nto lack of muscular control; the purified free tone has been substituted for\nthe tight, constricted one; the high shrill voice — too often entirely lacking\nin resonance — has given place to the lower, fuller one. The average\nhigh-school girl can be heard abusing the language at any time in the street\ncars or elsewhere. She is slovenly and incorrect in so many varieties of\nform that one might say, without exaggeration, that loo per cent of the\nhigh-school students require speech work. In the past two years and six\nmonths I have met with students who stutter and stammer (or who have a\ntendency to stammer) ; with those who lisp in varied forms, with the hist ^,\nthe faulty \"ng\" (which exists in 15 per cent of our students), the r, false\nblends, inability to make certain combinations of speech sounds, mistaken\ntonics, confusion of the sub-tonics and a-tonics, and these are merely some\nof the general problems which confront one in high-school speech classes.\nFirst there is the lack of standard! Our students have never been\ntaught to listen to themselves nor to others. No correct standard has been\nset either at home or in school, and the beauty and usefulness of acceptable\nEnglish has never been pointed out. They are in the condition of the\ndeaf with the excuse of the deaf. Their own ugly, raucous tones disturb\nthem as little as do the grating sounds of the car wheels or trucks, or the\nother melodies of the noisy city streets. I have askt a class at the beginning\nof its work in \"oral English\" to characterize a good voice, and invariably\nthe sole characteristic specified js that it should be low. It is the ideal by\ncontrast to those voices which they generally hear — high and shrill and\npenetrating — since so few realize that it is easier to speak thru noise than\nabove it. In order to acquire the low ''ladyhke\" voice which high-school\nstudents believe suits their condition, as opposed to the shrill shout of elementary-school days, many students close their mouths, and inaudibihty\nand nasality result. On the other hand, one student who was askt to comment upon Miss Mathison's voice in 'Xaliban,\" said that she didn't like\nit, because it was so low and different from other voices that it made her\nfeel she wasn't on earth at all. A vocal standard inust be estabUsht, if not\nearher, at least in the high school.\nBut the elementary-school course is already overcrowded; there is\nan overwhelming amount of work to be done, and under the present conditions special speech work for those very defective is the best solution of\nthe problem that the average school has to offer. I was talking with a\nyoung teacher the other day, and she assured me that there was no time to\nstop a reading lesson for the dropt t or d — it was not sufficiently important.\nI askt her what she did if a child's voice was very unpleasant, and she said\nthat she didn't notice that, as a rule, and, if she did, she wouldn't say\nanything, since the poor child might cry. I askt her what she did if the\n\n"}
{"page": 885, "printed_page": "873", "text": "Department]\n\nSPEECH-CORRECTION\n\nAS A SCHOOL\n\nPROBLEM\n\n873\n\nchild of Italian birth or parentage confused the / and tf, and said\"ditn't\";\nand she said she always tried to make the children hear the difference;\nwhile in the case of the faulty \"ng,\" she told the children to drop the g.\nSetting the standard, however, is only one-half of the work of the high\nschools, and that which is more important remains to be discust. We\nmust see to it that our students accept the standard, that they form habits\nwhich are practical working habits of voice and speech. There is a false\nconception abroad, which is due to the old prejudice against \"elocution\"\nas it was taught a half-century ago, as it is taught today, tho (and be it\nspoken gratefully), not generally. Many of our students, however, have\nconceived such a prejudice to being taught how to speak, to what they\nthink must be artificiality, that the notion must be combated before real\nprogress can be secured. \" My voice is natural,\" they say, tho at the same\ntime admitting that it is disagreeable, \"and were I to speak this new way,\npeople would laugh and say that I was trying to put on airs.\" There are a\nhundred ways of demonstrating that the voice or speech which is undesirable\nis habitual, but not natural, that it is no more natural than any pathological\ncondition for the cure or correction of which the medical man is consulted.\nThe best and surest way of establishing the supreme importance of good\nvoice and correct speech will be for the high-school teachers of EngHsh to\nreahze their error in continuing to place the emphasis upon the written, and\nnot the spoken, word. In this age of specialization a man could very well\nget along without being able to write or to spell. There are stenographers,\nand secretaries and printed postal cards with ready-to-use sentiments,\nand these accomplish all such mechanical matters for him, much as did the\nscribes and scriveners of old, but a man must talk for himself!\n\nSPEECH-CORRECTION\nJOHN\n\nr.\n\nREIGART,\n\nPRINCIPAL,\n\nAS A SCHOOL\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nNO.\n\nPROBLEM\n1 66, NEW\n\nYORK,\n\nN.Y.\n\nThere should be no assumption that speech-correction is merely a school\nproblem; it should be also a social, a medical, a psychological problem.\nThere is also the assumption that the child, when entering school, is ready\nto learn written language. As a fact, children at this stage have a very\nimperfect use of spoken language, occasionally none at all. It has been\nfound, in the study of the teaching of reading, that the child needs\nappreciative ideas. The new analysis will lead to phonetics, rhythm,\nbreathing, tone-production, and phrasing. Not only the correction of\ngross defects, but the refinement of speech should be in the hands of the\ngrade teacher, not of the specialist.\nThe teacher should know something about the various organs used —\nnot for purposes of diagnosis, but to understand more of the relationship\nbetween the function and the organ performing the function. She should\n\n"}
{"page": 886, "printed_page": "874", "text": "8y4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Special\n\nbe trained in phonetics — how speech is formed, not \"notebook\" phonetics,\nbut motor, for speech is action. She should know the psychology of\nspeech. The teacher must have a knowledge of physiology, of psychology,\nand of phonetics; and for special cases she must have special training.\nThe child should receive special inspection, medical supervision and\naid if needed, and should be assisted by the hygienist, neurologist, and\npsychiatrist.\nORAL DEJpORMITIES\nVETHAKE\n\nIN THEIR RELATION\nSPEECH\n\nE. MITCHELL,\n\nD.D.S.,\n\nNEW\n\nTO DEFECTIVE\n\nYORK,\n\nN.Y.\n\nIn presenting this subject for your consideration, let me call your attention to the necessity, in the correction of speech defects by training first\nto diagnose the cause. Much effort is often wasted in an attempt to improve the speech where the speech mechanism is defective.\nYou could hardly expect to get full power from the engine in your motor\ncar, if one or more of the cylinders were out of commission. So also in the\ncase of a cleft palate, a part of the speech mechanism is missing, creating an\nimpossible condition for much improvement, without first resorting either\nto surgical or to mechanical interference.\nThe mechanism by which articulate sounds are produced is a very complex one. First, we have the vocal cords;, and of course the lungs which,\nacting as a bellows, furnish the current of air to make the cords vibrate.\nAbove the cords are the laryngeal, pharyngeal, the oral, and the nasal\ncavities, all of which are resonance chambers which, by their muscular\narrangement, are capable of being changed in size and shape, and can thus\nbe attuned to the pitch of the sound produced by the vibration of the vocal\ncords. Without these resonance chambers the vibration of the cords alone\nwould give but a feeble and disagreeable sound.\nIn the oral cavity we sometimes have deformed dental arches, teeth\nnot in their normal arrangement and alignment — that are very apparent;\nin other cases, while the teeth are so abnormal in position that their functions are greatly interfered with, still the deformity is hardly noticeable.\nIt can readily be seen that with such conditions, speech must be more or\nless affected.\nThe narrowed arches and high vault to the roof of the mouth interfere\nwith the movements of the tongue, which affect the speech.\nAgain, the palate is one of the most important organs of speech. Its\nfunctions are concerned in the forming of the tone of the voice by regulating\nthe shape and size of the resonance chambers, and by closing off the nasal\npassages in the emission of certain sounds. This being impossible to a\ngreater or less extent in cleft-palate cases, speech is very defective and has\nthat peculiar quality which all can recognize.\n\n"}
{"page": 887, "printed_page": "875", "text": "Department!\n\nTEE\n\nECONOMIC\n\nTHE ECONOMIC\nIRA\n\nS. WILE,\n\nMEMBER,\n\nVALUE\n\nVALUE\nNEW\nNEW\n\nOF SPEECH-CORRECTION\n\n875\n\nOF SPEECH-CORRECTION\nYORK\nYORK,\n\nCITY\nN.Y.\n\nBOARD\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nThe political economist might object to the title, \"The Economic\nValue of Speech-Correction,\" on the grounds that speech is not wealth,\nbut merely one of the means of acquiring wealth. Technically speaking,\nvalue is a power which an article confers upon its possessor of commanding\nin exchange for itself the labor or the product of labor of others. The degree\nof efficiency of labor depends upon many causes, including the physical\norganization and the mental equipment of the laborer.\nObviously, the most vital phase of speech-improvement lies in the\norganization of elementary-school instruction and methodology, so that\nbad speech habits may be checkt during the school life of children. The\nprevention of speech defects, in so far as slipshod teaching is responsible\nfor them, is a large field which has scarcely received adequate cultivation.\nRecognizing the social economic value of speech, it is patent that the\nattainment of fluent unimpaired habits of speaking represents a distinct\ngain to the community. The value, therefore, of speech-correction would\nbe represented by the saving of the community of expenditures now involved\nas a result of existent or future speech defects. It is exceedingly difficult to\nestabUsh with even approximate mathematical precision the economic cost\nof speech defects. In this country data are not available to determine\nthe total number of persons suffering from speech defects.\nAll speech defects represent abnormaUties. In a wide sense abnormal\nchildren are \"those afflicted with anything whatever that unfavorably\naffects their lives in relation to the social medium in which they live.\"\nConsequently speech defects represent abnormalities which, per se, Umit\nthe possibilities of children and adults to realize to the utmost their potential\npower for uniting in the activities of the world.\nSpeech defectives and particularly stutterers are hkely to be backward\nand even retarded in their school work, altho there are many who maintain excellent positions as measured by ordinary standards of school progress. The large proportion of stutterers, probably 50 per cent, could be\nprevented by adequate provision for improvement in methods of school\ninstruction. A large proportion of the stutterers are curable.\nSpeech-improvement in schools is productive of the saving which may\nbe secured thru preventing, what Fletcher, of Clark University, referred\nto as \"the leakage of energy\" on the part of both teacher and class which\nensues during the attempted recitation of a stutterer. Systematic speechimprovement classes save the time of the teacher and th^ class. They\npromote more rapid progress and secure more concentrated attention upon\nthe subject-matter being taught, by preventing the diversion of attention\nto the peculiarities of the individual child who is reciting.\n\n"}
{"page": 888, "printed_page": "876", "text": "876\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nThe majority of speech defects are combined with defects of vision,\nhearing, muscular coordination or cerebral maldevelopments. Of the\ntwenty million children in this country it has been estimated that 5 per cent\nhave impaired hearing and 25 per cent have impaired sight. It has been\nadjudged that some impediment in speech exists in 3 per cent of the school\nchildren. There is no differentiation, however, so far as I have been able\nto ascertain, as to the nature of these various impediments.\nStudies in speech-correction may indicate in numerous instances that\nstuttering has been increast by an attempt to make sinistrals dextrals;\nand the speech defect thus resulting may actually serve to impair the industrial progress of the child for the sake of securing uniformity in classroom\nmethods. Experience in our own schools has demonstrated that stuttering\nand lisping children may be restored to normal speech and participate with\nnaturalness and greater effectiveness in the work of their classes.\nIt has been estimated that one in every 2400 of the population in the\nUnited States is a deaf-mute. This indicates that there are about 37,500\ndeaf-mutes in the United States. This indicates that the mere cost of\neducation in the state institutions for all of these deaf-mutes costs approximately twelve million dollars per annum.\nRecognizing the industrial limitations of those suffering from speech\ndefects and appreciating the obstacles to professional life, their undesirabiUty as teachers, their handicaps as physicians, their hmitations as pleading lawyers, and their impossibility as preachers, it is but natural that we\nshould seek to preserve or secure their potential utility by restoring to them\nthe normal-speech function.\nAnother economic gain is to be secured thru speech-correction in the\nprevention of industrial accidents. The relation of speech defects to the\ncost of industrial accidents has been hinted at in those reports which\nattribute a part of the accidents to the inabiUty of employes to speak the\nprevailing language of the factory, mine, or shop. There are numerous\npositions where quick utterance is required and in which stuttering might\nand does jeopardize the Hves of fellow-workmen in times of emergency.\nThe importance of discouragement, anxiety, family distress, embarrassment, difl&dence, and shyness upon the development of high moral character\ncannot be estimated. Wherefore, among delinquents, speech deficiencies\nare noted with greater frequency than among the normal population.\nIn the ordinary public-school system the educational cost for correcting\nspeech defects had not been estimated. A special teacher is necessary, an\nungraded class is important. The development of normal speech must be\nfacihtated thru personal analysis of the underlying causes of the speech\ndeficiency. Well may we paraphrase the statement of Dr. Caroline Yale\nto the instructors of the deaf, \"The plea now should be, not for more speech,\nbut for better speech.\" The plea should now be for more speech, for better\nspeech, and the prevention of speech defects.\n\n"}
{"page": 889, "printed_page": "877", "text": "Department]\n\nTHE\n\nSELECTION\n\nOF CHILDREN\n\nFOR\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCLASSES\n\n877\n\nPRINCIPAL'S POINT OF VIEW OF THE SELECTION\nCHILDREN FOR SPECIAL CLASSES\n\nMARGARET\n\nKNOX, PRINCIPAL, PUBLIC SCHOOL\n\nNO.\n\n1 5, NEW\n\nOF\n\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nSomeone has said that \"a teacher is a discoverer of girls and boys, discovering their powers and latent possibilities.\" I should like to add for\nthe theme of the discussion this morning: \" Discovering also their lack\nof powers and latent possibilities of the better kind, and devising ways and\nmeans for making up for this lack.\"\nYou, a body of teachers, do not need that I tell you what the usual procedure isin a classroom when the principal comes in. You know only too\nwell how the teacher immediately takes an inventory of the possibilities\nof her class and the means of best showing o£E her work.\nIf it is reading the principal asks for, the teacher calls a child in a certain\npart of the room, and row after row proceeds. You will find child after\nchild standing forth under the scrutiny of the principal's supervising eye and\nreading without a mistake, fluently, understandingly. So it is with number\nwork, rapid-drill question and answer come tumbling forth like a long,\nsteady volley of artillery fire — quick and correct.\nThen the principal says, \"Begin your next series of questions here,\"\npointing to quite a different part of the room, or singling out some child not\nyet called upon. The teacher's face falls and she says, \"Oh, you need not\nlook for much there; that is my third group; I don't expect anything of\nthem\"; \"Those children are not going to be promoted\"; or, \"These are\nthe hold-overs of last term.\" Or, perhaps she will ask that this child be\nexcused as she is very nervous, or that this one be not askt anything, as he\nseldom answers, and when he does he speaks so thickly and then grows\nhysterical.\nAs I look at them I see the vacant stare, or the childish, beseeching\nglance of questioning which says to the principal, \"Why am I in the third\ngroup ? Why can I not answer like the smart boys ? Why does the teacher\nalways call those children when visitors come in ? I should like to do things,\ntoo. Why can't I do them? Why doesn't the teacher like me? Why\ndoes she always talk about me to other teachers and to the principal when\npromotion time comes ? Why do they say you won't like this boy, he is\nnot fit for promotion ; he is going on, but he shouldn't.\" All these questions\nwell up in the eyes of this little child (and the eyes bespeak the heart of the\nchild always), so young and already so disappointed.\nThe monthly report cards of all children having an \"A\" record are\ngiven out by the principal from the platform before the assembled school.\nHere we get the necessary impetus for the spirit of emulation -that sets the\nnormal child toward the goal of winning the best record in the class.\nAt the other end of the class are found these derelicts of whom I have\nalready spoken. These, too, have record cards, of a special kind. We call\n\n"}
{"page": 890, "printed_page": "878", "text": "878\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nthem the \"Deficient Record.\" Each teacher is askt to send to the office\na card for every child who is so deficient in the work of the month that, in\nher estimation, he is not fit for the class. On this card there is a space large\nenough to give in detail an account of the deficiencies and their causes —\narithmetic, lacking in accuracy; foundation in tables weak; no reasoning\npowers, therefore problem-work poor.\nWith these deficient cards before her, the principal, always in her office,\nconsults the teacher and singles out those for whose deficiency there is a\ncogent excuse, such as prolonged absence, serious* illness and consequent\nphysical weakness for the time being, mischievousness and consequent\ninattention in school, lack of preparation of home lessons, etc. These the\nteacher can explain readily, and, by means of a reprimand administered\nin the classroom by the principal and the card sent as a message to the\nparents, the deficiency may be soon changed into a proficiency report.\nThe first-year teacher remembers one child as a hopeless case, one of the\nthird-group \"dunces\" who was a drag on her class for one, or perhaps two,\nwhole terms and knew nothing after all, altho she had workt harder with\nthis one boy than with a dozen bright boys. Then comes the conference\nwith the parent. At first the parent will not admit that there is any cause\nfor this backwardness, particularly if the deficient child is the oldest of her\nfamily. She has not yet had experience of comparing the ability of this\nchild with others having the same opportunities. But in this consultation\nwith the parent how often the cause of the defect comes to light: the child\nwho has had a bad fall; who was terribly shockt by finding her mother\ndead, a suicide; the child who was born while the mother was suffering from\na temporary fit of insanity, etc.\nAbout two years ago I examined very carefully, at the end of February,\nthe first month of the term, the \"deficient cards\" sent by the teachers of all\nthe first- and second-year classes. After the eliminating process described\nabove, by conference with all the teachers of the children since entering\nschool, and with the parents, we selected twenty boys and girls, the slow,\nor retarded, or naughty, or most defective little ones — call them by what\nname you will. At all events they were \"derelicts\" even at this early age.\nThese children we put in charge of a fine kindergarten teacher and gave\nthem the use of the kindergarten room for one session of each day. The ,\nplan of organization was that this kindergartner should apply all her fine\nkindergarten methods and Montessori methods in teaching these children\nin the primary-grade subjects, especially drilling by these objective and\nmanual methods the three \"R's\" — reading, writing, and arithmetic.\nThis work was done every morning, and in the afternoon the class\nseparated into age groups or grade groups and was dispersed among all the\nregular primary classes where the teachers gave them opportunity to take\npart in all the work of their classes and reported to the teacher of the special\nclass just where the greatest weakness presented itself or where improve-\n\n"}
{"page": 891, "printed_page": "879", "text": "DIAGNOSIS\n\nDepartment]\n\nOF FEEBLE-MINDEDNESS\n\nment was notist when working with the normal child. This was all done\nin a pleasurable way, as, for example, a trolley ride. to the oculist or to the\nNeurological Institute and a little outing in the park by the way so that the\nchildren became perfectly docile and were ready to study.\nThe lack of ability in the academic subjects should lead the teachers to\ntry to interest their slow, stupid children in the outside activities of the\nschool. Get them into the athletic clubs; swimming and dancing may be\neasy for them; there they may excel. The glee club may make a special\nappeal to the child with a voice, but not much brains. The girl who cannot\nget more than 50 per cent of her class work done may be 100 per cent in\nability to manage the class and be the housekeeper if her teacher is off duty\nfor an hour or a day.\nThe chief thing in all this selection of children for special classes is to\nkeep the individual child from feeling the hurt of his own weakness until he\nis safely past the parting of the ways, one of which leads to delinquency and\nsuffering, and the other to plodding contentment in doing something well,\nno matter how lowly the work may be, and eventually to earning his own\nliving.\nUntil recent years we have felt that our work as teachers was well done\nif, after a term of painstaking work, we past to the next grade 75 per cent,\n80 per cent, 90 per cent of our pupils. We patted ourselves on the back\nand closed our door at the end of the year feeling that there was nothing\nmore required of us.\nI am so thankful that there has come in these later days the new thoughtfulness, not for the successful 80 per cent past, but for the unsuccessful\nremnant. The new thought for these is not to make them part of the successful 80 per cent, but to make 100 per cent of them successful along quite\ndifferent Hnes.\nTHE\nLEWIS\n\nBINET\n\nSCALE\n\nAND THE DIAGNOSIS\nMINDEDNESS\n\nOF FEEBLE-\n\nM. TERMAN, PROFESSOR\nOF EDUCATION, LELAND STANFORD\nUNIVERSITY, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL.\n\nJUNIOR\n\nIt has seemed to the writer that some of the publisht criticisms of the\nBinet method have lackt something in spirit of fairness in that they have\nshown a tendency to make capital out of certain defects and inadequacies\nof the method which are as fully recognized by its qualified champions as\nby anyone else. In certain instances these criticisms have taken on a tone\nwhich is unnecessarily destructive and which occasionally suggests imputations and implications not overtly asserted. Contentious articles of this\nsort are misleading to the lay reader, and by magnifying the differences of\nopinion supposed to exist among the leaders they inevitably tend to create\nan unwarranted attitude of suspicion toward cHnical pyschology generally.\n\n"}
{"page": 892, "printed_page": "880", "text": "88o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nFrom some of these articles the lay reader might very well make the following inferences: (i) that most of the psychologists who use the Binet scale\nbeHeve it to be a perfect instrument of measurement; (2) that they believe\nits use in the diagnosis of feeble-mindedness renders unnecessary any consideration ofmedical, neurological, or sociological data concerning the\nsubject; (3) that they regard the degree of intelligence, as determined by\nthe scale, as the sole measure of the subject's fitness to be at large; (4) that\nthey deliberately encourage persons without psychological training to undertake research with mental tests; (5) that the infallible criterion of feeblemindednes , inthe adult subject, is failure to pass the twelve-year tests.\nLet us consider the points given above in order:\n1. Does the system of tests left ug by Binet measure the inteUigence\nwith perfect accuracy ? It is safe to say that no psychologist in the United\nStates nor Europe believes that it does. Binet himseK did not, nor do\nthose who have had most to say in advocacy of the Binet method, including\nMeumann, Stern, Bobertag, Huey, Kuhlmann, Goddard, and the writer.\nAll of the persons mentioned above, the late Dr. Huey excepted, have made\ninvestigations for the purpose of correcting some of the grossest imperfections ofthe scale, and we have no reason to believe that a single one of\nthese considers his own revision as perfectly satisfactory.\nIt is no reflection upon other workers to say that until very recently\nthe Binet system of tests was the only ready means of making even an\napproximate estimate of the mental level of a subject. Scores of other\ngood tests were floating around, but because they had not been standardized they were of very limited value.\n2. Do psychologists who use the Binet tests countenance the failure\nto utilize medical, neurological, sociological, and other supplementary\ndata ? It is not to be denied, of course, that there are some differences of\nopinion as regards the relative amount of stress which should be placed\nupon the evidence from these different sources in the diagnosis of individual cases. The divergent practices here are a natural result of the\ndifferent purposes for which a diagnosis may be made. It so happens that\nthe thing most desired in the large majority of diagnoses is correct guidance as to educational and social treatment. The mental capacities are to\nbe evaluated with the end in view of determining the subject's educational,\nsocial, and vocational possibihties. Altho even here all the obtainable\nmedical and neurological data should be utihzed as a matter of course, it\ncan hardly be denied that this aspect of the problem is in most cases essential y apsychological one.\n3. Do psychologists who defend the Binet method disregard the extraintellectual mental traits as codetermmants of a subject's social fitness or\neducational possibilities ? They do not. Critics of the Bmet tests have\nno special nor prior claim to credit for insisting on the importance of emotional, volitional, or moral traits as factors in determining social fitness.\n\n"}
{"page": 893, "printed_page": "881", "text": "Department]\n\nDIAGNOSIS\n\nOF FEEBLE-MINDEDNESS\n\n88 1\n\nOver and over again, by Binet himself and by Meumann, Stern, Huey,\nKuhlmann, and the writer, the necessity of taking account of the extraintellectual factors has been urged.\n4. Do adherents of the Binet method hold that Binet testers who have\nnot had extensive psychological training should be encouraged to attempt\npsychological diagnosis of the feeble-minded? So many psychologists —\nchiefly those out of the clinical field — have taken their fling at amateur\ntesters, that one would suppose the followers of Binet had sinned most\ngrievously in this respect. Their record, however, is absolutely clear on\nthis point. Even those who have gone farthest in encouraging the wider\nuse of the Binet tests have asserted explicitly that only the trained psychologist should be permitted to make a real diagnosis.\nTo go farther, however, and to demand that no one shall make use of\ninteUigence-tests who has not had several years of undergraduate and\npostgraduate training in the usual lines of academic psychology, would be\na serious and absurd mistake. As a matter of fact, there is no argument in\nfavor of limiting the use of intelligence-tests to trained psychologists which\ndoes not apply equally well in the case of pedagogical tests like those of\nCourtis, Ayres, Thorndike, etc. These tests, fortunately for education,\nteachers are specifically urged to make use of.\n5, Do the responsible psychologists who use the Binet scale mechanically apply an automatic criterion in the diagnosis of feeble-mindedness ?\nThis question has already been answered in what we have said regarding\nthe general agreement as to the desirability of taking into account medical\nand other data. The writer does not for a moment suppose that those\nwho proposed this standard ever meant that it should be rigidly and\nmechanically applied.\nThe misunderstanding comes largely from the fact that the term\n\"f eeble-mindedness\" is currently used in two very different senses. In\none sense it refers to the possession of no more than a certain degree of\nmental — chiefly intellectual — capacity as measured by some objective\nscale. This is the psychological definition. As more commonly employed,,\nthe term \"feeble-minded\" has reference primarily to those who, because\nof inherent or early acquired mental weakness, cannot get on in the world,\nthose who \"cannot compete on equal terms with their fellows,\" or \"cannot\nmanage themselves nor their affairs with ordinary prudence.\" This is the\nsocial criterion, which received definite formulation by the Royal College\nof Physicians, London.\nThese two criteria, the psychological and the social, cannot be used\ninterchangeably, for the reason that ability to get on in the world depends\nupon many things besides absolute mental capacity, such g,s health, looks,\nbearing, muscular strength, inherited wealth, sympathetic friends, economic and industrial conditions, the prevailing level of inteUigence in those\nwith whom the subject must compete, etc. The social criterion is attractive\n\n"}
{"page": 894, "printed_page": "882", "text": "882\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nand plausible only so long as it remains unanalyzed. It is far too shifting\nand indefinite to serve as a working concept in science.\nThe expression \"manage themselves or their affairs with ordinary\nprudence\" is doubly vague, neither \"ordinary\" nor \"affairs\" having any\ndefinite nor constant meaning. The \"affairs\" of a youth who inherits\nlarge properties and social position are hardly comparable in difficulty of\nmanagement with the \"affairs\" of a youth in many other kinds of social\nenvironment. \"Ordinary prudence\" varies according to the social group\nand may have a dozen different meanings within a radius of as many miles.\nThe difficulty in \"managing one's affairs\" not only varies in the different\nstrata of society at a given time; it also varies enormously from period to\nperiod in the economic and social evolution of a country. It is the writer's\nconviction that the standard cannot be placed higher without including\namong the intellectually feeble too many who could hardly be clast, by\nany reasonable standard, as socially feeble. Practically it would be a still\nmore serious mistake to go too far in the opposite direction, for one of the\ndesirable ends of psychological work with abnormal? is to raise the popular\nstandards as to what constitutes feeble-mindedness. This standard at\npresent is lamentably low. To adopt Witmer's criterion and to classify\nas feeble-minded only those who are \"industrially incapable of earning\neven a modest livelihood\" would tend to keep it too low.\nPerhaps enough has been said to show that the difficulties encountered\nin the diagnosis of feeble-mindedness, and particularly those which are\ninvolved in the classification of border line cases, are due largely to the\nnature of the phenomena with which we deal. They are not artificial\nproducts of the Binet age-grade method of measuring intelligence. They\nreappear in the same form whatever scale is employed. They have not\nbeen disposed of by the Yerkes-Bridges point scale, nor will they be by\nany other scale which can be devised. New scales are indeed greatly to be\ndesired, but an even more pressing practical need is for reliable comparative\nnorms based upon the application of the revised Binet tests with thousands\nof individuals of various social groups.\nDISCUSSION\nSamuel B. Heckman, College of the City of New York, New York, N.Y. — In considering the selection of children for any special class or for any special kind of teaching\nthe guiding principle must be the end or purpose of the children's being in that class,\nthat is, we should be guided by what we purpose doing with the children when we have\nthem there rather than by the best means of getting them there. Evidently th§ main\npurpose of having children in the special classes should be the improvement of the children\nrather than furnishing them merely a proper and happy abiding place. This improvement moreover, must be thought of as being primarily educational in its nature. Other\nimprovement in the child may be desirable and may be contributory to his improvement\neducationally. The removal of physical handicaps which the child may have, the amelioration ofthe hygienic conditions of home and school, the remedying of the improper\n\n"}
{"page": 895, "printed_page": "883", "text": "Department]\n\nDIAGNOSIS\n\nOF FEEBLE-MINDEDNESS\n\n883\n\nnutritional conditions, and the care of pathological and constitutional conditions are\nadmittedly essential to the functioning and improvement of mental capacities; but all\nthese essentials must, after all be considered as secondary and contributory to the fundamental purpose of the child's presence in the special class, namely, his improvement\nmentally, and in consequence his better behavior responses, socially and industrially.\nI should like to emphasize, therefore, that the final judgment in the selection of these\nchildren for the special or ungraded classes should come from him who is fitted to understand them, not only from what their present condition is, but also from what it is possible\nto make them. That is to say, not only from the standpoint of diagnosis should the child\nbe selected, but from the additional standpoint of prognosis and teachabiUty. I wish to\nmaintain that it is that person who has knowledge and experience in changing children,\nthat is, in educating children combined with expert knowledge in cUnical testing and\nexamining who is best fitted to pass finally upon the selection of children for special\nclasses.\nThe physical and medical examination is fundamentally essential, as everyone knows,\nparticularly when one is seeking causes for the mental condition of the child, but this\nexamination should not be the final determiner for the pupil's placement in a class.\nArthur C. Jelly, M.D., Department of Special Classes, Boston, Mass. — The first\nspecial class was started in Boston in 1899. In 1902 I was askt to select the children for\nnew classes and have since been employed in that work.\nThe teacher very naturally picks out at first the cases about which there can be no\nquestion regarding their deficiency. To select only this sort of case results in a class which\nfalls short of the best results, in my opinion. Nearly, if not all, these markedly deficient\nchildren need to be protected from the opportunities for getting into trouble that a city\naffords, and therefore it is best for them and best for the public that such children enter\none of the state schools in the country.\nJust above this group in the scale of intelligence is another group that examination\nindicates to be not improvable; but I feel that many such should be given a trial in a\nspecial class, because it is possible that they may develop greater capacity than my\nexamination makes possible.\nA group higher in the scale consists of those whose examinations show that they are\nonly slightly deficient, or perhaps only retarded; the special class can reasonably be\nexpected to bring to light in them an increast capacity to do schoolwork.\nI am askt to examine many whom teachers consider suitable for special classes, who,\nI decide; do not need such classes, because their examinations show them capable of\naverage work. To summarize the foregoing statements, a special class, to be really\nefficient, should have in it two movements — one group needing the institutional school\nand being received there as promptly as practicable, and the second group, whose increase\nin mental capacity makes their return to grade desirable.\nBefore I examine a child I secure a report from the teacher as to the child's schoolwork\nand conduct and her reasons for considering the child in need of an examination by me. If\nthe teacher who has been assigned to the new special class can be present at the examination, she and I can usually reach conclusions and plans for the future training that neither\nof us could probably reach alone. In case the special-class teacher is not present and the\ngrade teacher wishes to see the examination, I am quite willing to have her do so, because\nthat arrangement appears to secure a more correct understanding of the work than the\naverage teacher has previously obtained; and cooperation between the grade teacher and\nthe special- class teacher is important.\nWhere parents do not agree with the teacher's judgment about the child, I find frequently that misunderstandings can be corrected and the parents brought to see the child's\nneeds by seeing how poor he appears in the examination. In other words cooperation\nof teachers, parents, doctors, and nurses is necessary to accomplish the best results for the\n\n"}
{"page": 896, "printed_page": "884", "text": "884\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nchild. My examination begins with questions about the name, residence, and age of the\nchild (which can be shown or not by the teacher's report); then color- and form-tests;\nthen pictures which test capacity for observing correctly and for drawing inferences from\nwhat is seen; then suggestibility by lines, arrangement of five boxes of slightly different\nweight in order, beginning with the heaviest; then reading and number work,\nI measure the size of the head and note peculiarities of structure and shape of cranium,\nof the hard palate, of the shape of the ears and their position on the head. Finally I\nask the child to stand facing me and imitate me in certain movements, intended to test\nhis capacity for observation, imitation, control, and coordination of muscle groups.\nIn the case of older and more intelligent children I have found very instructive the\nresults of certain tests which I learned from Dr. Norseworthy, of Teachers College, several\nyears ago.\nHaving used this plan of examination for several years before the Binet-Simon scale\nappeared in English, and having found it very satisfactory, I have not yet abandoned it\nand substituted for it the Binet scale; tho I always carry about with me a set of Binet\ntests and often use them to compare results from them with results from my method.\nI cannot agree with those psychologists who say that no child should be put into a\nspecial class whose mental age is less than three years behind his chronological age; and\nI certainly do not agree with the opinion that all children whose mental age is four years\nbehind their chronological age should be assigned to the special class. The time at my\ndisposal prevents full discussion of the reasons against accepting such conclusions.\nI believe no one appreciates more than I do how much light has been thrown upon\nmental affections at all ages by the work of psychologists; but as one of my bright friends\nhas said, \"In the present state of our knowledge any attempt to classify any group of\nsubjects based solely on the findings from psychological .tests would commit grave errors.\"\nAnd one of our best authorities on feeble-mindedness has said, \"Normality of intelligence\nis not a fixt strength of intellect, and feeble-mindedness is not merely a question of intelli gence.\"\nAs fast as psychologists discover better methods of testing any mental processes, I\nfeel we must all make every effort to use them as intelligently as we can. By combined\neffort I believe we can make great advances in the solution of problems in this most difficult\nfield.\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF TEACHERS\n\nJAMES G. RIGGS, PRINCIPAL,\n\nFOR SPECIAL\n\nSTATE NORMAL\nOSWEGO, N.Y.\n\nAND\n\nCLASSES\n\nTRAINING\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nIn obedience to Mother Nature's beautiful laws, the race is perpetuated\non the earth with an ever-increasing capacity for joy and achievement.\nMost come physically right; some few come with deformed and crippled\nbodies, but equip t with possibilities of mental growth. To them one goes\ninstinctively with every aid to open the way of performance, and there have\nbeen many notable men and women whose physical handicap was almost a\nspur to achievement.\nAnd there are other few who have come with beautiful bodies but\ndarkened minds, shrouded forever in a gloom which refuses to be dispelled.\nMother Nature fixes the penalty where wittingly or unwittingly her royal\nlaw is violated.\nOf all the children of men, that one which most elicits our pity is not\nhe whose limbs are misshapen, but he whose mind is deformed or unformed,\n\n"}
{"page": 897, "printed_page": "885", "text": "Department!\n\nTRAINING\n\nOF\n\nTEACHERS\n\nFOR\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCLASSES\n\n885\n\nwhose normal development is retarded or checkt by some sinister influence.\nFrom him we withdraw out of sheer dread, or, from curiosity, watch his\nunguided motions and meaningless acts. His parents, if not abnormal\nthemselves, try to shield the scion of the family, blasted at its beginning,\nand keep him from the eyes of men, as tho a judgment upon the iniquities\nof the fathers had fallen upon the children. Adults of abnormal type function normally in reproduction, continuing in ever-widening circles of baleful\ninfluence the individuals who cannot provide for themselves and hence\nbecome positive burdens to society.\nAre there many such? Some statisticians say 4 per cent are feebleminded, the more conservative assert 2 per cent, while the number depends\nentirely upon the classes or degrees of abnormality one estabHshes among\nthe children whose minds have not developt normally. They are variously named, as: abnormal, backward, idiot, mentally deficient, unstable,\nill-balanst, feeble-minded, and moron. All are markt by three characteristics, namely, a retarded development, a lack of equilibrium, that is, some\nfaculties more retarded than others, and unusual mental peculiarities.\nSome localities have a larger number of such children than others, but the\naverage seems to be about 2 per cent, so we would expect to find among\n5000 children 100 who would come safely within the category of\ndefectives.\nHow did they happen? Why are they here? God knows. It is\ncertainly not of their choice that they came freighted with a cargo too great\nfor their feeble powers. It may be some accident of birth, some accompaniment ofpoverty, as deficient nutrition, or care; and in most cases it\nmay be some inherited taint of insanity or the poison of alcoholism, or some\nsocial evil. That heredity accounts for the condition in large measure can\nbe easily shown.\nWhile it is interesting to study causes, not much can be done to check\nthe increasing number of feeble-minded until the state acts and makes\nimpossible the propagation of human kind from stock of known mental\ntaint.\nThe fact is they are here, and if it is askt where, we will appeal to the\njudge of the police court, to the keeper of the almshouse, to the department\nof charities, to the home for foundlings, to the rescue home, to the Salvation Army, which takes what is left over and what is refused in other places.\nThey are the ne'er-do-wells and the army of those who can never get on.\nWhere is the menace if they are so provided for? Lacking in selfcontrol, any excitement, anger, or brooding may lead them on to the most\natrocious crimes from arson to murder. The feeble-minded girl is possibly\na greater menace because she becomes an easy prey to lust, and the defective\nprogeny are rapidly increast. Crimes against the person and against property bring the program of arrest, trial, prison sentence, parole, discharge,\nthe state paying, not for prevention, but for care after the deed is done;\n\n"}
{"page": 898, "printed_page": "886", "text": "886\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nand when the term of prison service has expired, the program begins over\nagain, and the state again foots the bill without complaint and, we sometimes think, without heeding the lesson of it all.\nThis being the menace, and not a decreasing one, can we do anything\nabout it ? It is not timely for a layman to go into the question of sterilization, altho that should have early and serious consideration of the authorities, quite as much as the introduction of infected trees or cattle within the\nboundaries of the state! It is the day of prevention, of prophylaxis. We\nnow put the feeble-minded into institutions where they are trained to do a\nfew things, but we beheve that a good share of the 2 per cent who are not of\nthe class which must be shut away can be trained in special classes under\nthe direction of local boards of education and can be made to contribute\nin some degree to their own support, among those who are their kin, or\nbetter still, in a farm colony where the best provision can be made for\ntheir effort.\nNew Jersey is the pioneer state in passing a law requiring a special\nclass and teacher where there are ten defective children. The training\nschool at Vineland has trained 180 teachers for the public schools, but the\ndemand is growing. Elizabeth Farrell, who is in charge of special classes\nin New York City, has said that she could place seventy teachers if they\nwere ready. No school in this state has regularly offered a course to prepare\nteachers for the work. In view of this the commissioner of education of the\nstate of New York authorized the State Normal and Training School at\nOswego, N.Y., to establish such a course.\nAccordingly advice was sought from various sources, but no one cared\nto go on record with assurance as to what is best. The plan must be considered an experiment in which we seek your advice and constructive\ncriticism as you watch its progress.\nThe purpose of the course is not to prepare caretakers for the feebleminded, but teachers who are able to organize classes of children, plan their\nwork, train their teachers, and then supervise a series of such classes. This\nwill require more or less expert knowledge of the feeble-minded, more,\nprobably, than the school physician possesses. To this end it is expected\nthat those admitted to the new department will already possess a diploma\nentitling the holder to teach the normal child. The course will cover one\nyear, arranged in units of ten weeks, thus enabling teachers to come on\nleave of absence for any portion of the course.\nThe teacher should herself know what the hand can be taught to do in\norder to offer whatever is within the range of the child's efforts, and she\nshould add the physical exercises suited to his need, which impHes, of course,\nthe abiUty to learn his need.\nNo course would be complete which omitted a study of society which\ndiscloses the place of such work in its larger aspects and discusses the plan\nand purpose of organized effort in the state.\n\n"}
{"page": 899, "printed_page": "887", "text": "Department]\n\nWORK\n\nTHE WORK\nSAMUEL\n\nB.\n\nOF THE\n\nTEACHER\n\nOF THE\n\nOF THE TEACHER\n\nALLISON,\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCLASS\n\nOF THE SPECIAL\n\nDISTRICT\nSUPERINTENDENT\nSCHOOLS,\nCHICAGO,\nILL.\n\nIN\n\nCHARGE\n\n887\n\nCLASS\nOF\n\nSPECLAL\n\nThe work of the teacher of the special class is related to the kind of\nchildren she is called upon to teach.\nSurvey has shown that there are in the special room usually at least\nsix well-defined groups of children listed from a pedagogical point of view:\n(i) those retarded because of ill health of some form or other, nose or throat\ndiseases, malnutrition, etc.; (2) those having emphatic leanings toward\nsome particular area of the school subject-matter, as academic subjects or\nhandwork, or toward or away from reading or mathematics; (3) those\nnaturally abnormally slow in development, but of good mentality; (4) those\nwho have markt below-average mentality, but yet will be independent\neconomically; (5) those about whose mentality there is doubt — lower\nborder-line cases — many of whom, after trial and opportunity, gain classification in upper groups; and (6) those undoubtedly feeble-minded or\nnon-educable either academically or in practical occupations.\nNow what are the pedagogical needs of these various groups? The\ngroup retarded because of physical ailment should be returned to regular\ngradation as soon as possible. They have need of thoro coaching in\nacademic subjects. This coaching calls for a mastery on the part of the\nteacher of all academic devices and an understanding of all avenues of\napproach to the retarded mind. In teaching reading, for instance, the\nteacher must have command of methods appealing to audition and motor\nresponse as well as to visualization; word methods must be supplemented\nby phonic and phonetic approaches. This whole group of pathological\nretardates is an emphatic challenge to the very best teaching in all formal\nacademic studies. These remarks apply to the slowly developing child as\nwell. He needs the regular academic procedure in higher potencies than\ndoes the average child. The variant type should have his deficiencies\novercome, if possible, by the same speeding-up of academic methods.\nWith these groups the pedagogic attack may be in a large measure direct\nand in regular procedure.\nThe teaching of the backward and defective group calls for an especially\nintelligent and professional attitude on the part of the teacher.\nThe indirect appeals to mental forwardness are many, but may be\nclassified broadly under the following categories: (i) music; (2) rhythmic\nexercises, dancing, etc.; (3) plays and games; (4) handwork, such as\ncarpentry, textiles, basketry, and clay.\nIn music and rhythmic exercises the special teacher will find her most\npotent stimulant to mental alertness. All grades of mentality respond to\nmusic and rhythm. Their appeal is fundamental. They go down deep\ninto the organic structure and reach the mysterious and hidden places\n\n"}
{"page": 900, "printed_page": "888", "text": "888\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nwhere that which we call physical and that which we call mental interact.\nThe effect of music upon mentahty was well known to the Greeks and was\ntheir most effective educative means. Plato says:\nMusical training is more potent than any other, because rhythm and harmony find\ntheir way into the inward places of the soul on which they mightily fasten, imparting\ngrace and making the soul of him who is rightfully educated graceful.\n\nOf a similar nature are plays and games. They are universal in their\nappeal and knit together the intelligence and physical efficiency. They,\ntoo, are nature's special educational agency. They are primitive and go\ndeep. Backward children can be reacht by play appeal when all others fail.\nA fourth indispensable qualification for the teacher of the special class\nis a many-sided interest and abiUty in handwork suitable for young children.\nOn the practical side then the qualifications of the teacher of special\nclasses may be set forth as follows: (i) she must be an exceptionally skilled\nteacher in the use of special means for getting academic results; (2) she\nmust know how to play games and be able to direct them; (3) she must\nhave a repertoire of handwork occupations large enough to answer the\neducative needs of a year's work.\n\nTHE NECESSITY\nHOWARD\n\nFOR AFTER CARE OF CHILDREN\nCHARGED FROM SPECIAL CLASSES\n\nJ. BANKER,\n\nEUGENICS RECORD\nHARBOR, N.Y.\n\nDIS-\n\nOFFICE, COLD SPRING\n\nWhether there is any necessity for the after care of children discharged\nfrom special classes depends entirely on the kind of children that make up\nthese classes. This may sound at first as a mere truism, but there appears\nto be some reason to preface my remarks with such a statement, for it\nseems that the term \"special class\" is not fixt as to its meaning. The\neditor of the Training School Bulletin in a recent number called attention\nto the fact that in some cities the expression \"special class\" means \"a class\nfor feeble-minded; in others, a class for normals who are retarded; and in\nstill others, a class for all who lag behind.\" If the class is intended to\ninclude only the distinctly feeble-minded, the necessity of the after care of\nthe children discharged therefrom seems to be a necessity by definition;\nif the class is only for normals who are retarded by temporary conditions,\nit is to be presumed that no after care is needed; if the class includes all who\nlag behind, then it would appear that some would be in need of after care\nand some would not, and in that case it becomes necessary to consider the\nneed of each individually.\nIt is an easy matter to detect that a child is lagging behind his fellows\nand on that fact assign him to the special class. It is often difficult and\nsometunes impossible to diagnose the real cause of the lagging; moreover,\n\n"}
{"page": 901, "printed_page": "889", "text": "Department]\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCLASSES\n\nAND\n\nINSTITUTIONS\n\n,889\n\nit is largely the work of the special-class teachers, as trained specialists,\nto study these aberrant children, and to them may be left the task of\ndetermining, if possible, the hidden cause of the child's failure.\nIf the special class is a hospital only for incurables during school age,\nthen the necessity of their after care is a foregone conclusion. It is to be\nsupposed, however, that such was not the idea when the special-class movement began. We are told that \"confident principals announst to the\nteachers that these children were to be brought up to grade and returned\nto the regular classes.\"\nAmong the disabilities that clearly impede the child's efficiency and\nrender him a subject for the special class may be mentioned blindness,\ndeafness and deaf-mutism, deformities, malformations, interfering with\nbodily functions, malnutrition, and disturbances of the secretory and the\nnervous systems, involving mental deficiencies and emotional eccentricities.\nIn the case of many other disabilities we have not only come to recognize\nthe part they play in breaking down the child's efficiency, but we have\nlearned how to remove the disturbing factor or at least to alleviate in greater\nor less degree its effect. In such cases the trouble is usually soon recognized\nand resort is quickly made to the surgeon, the dentist, the ocuUst, or the\ndietitian; and the child, reheved in whole or in part of his disabiUty, is\nable to adapt himself to the regular school curriculum sufficiently to keep\nwithin the range of variation allowed the so-caUed normal child.\n\nHOW\n\nTO FILL TEE GAP BETWEEN THE SPECIAL\nAND INSTITUTIONS\n\nADA M. FITTS,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nCLASSES\n\nOF SPECIAL CLASSES, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nThe problem of feeble-mindedness is very much before the pubHc, and\neverywhere in this country, community-surveys, the use of mental tests,\nand studies of family histories are furnishing evidence that the feebleminded are an increasingly important factor in all forms of social and\neducational work.\nAlong with the other agencies that are interested in finding a solution\nto this far-reaching problem, the public-school authorities have become\naroused and are providing classes which it is hoped will furnish training for\npupils who are not able to make good in the regular grades. The pupils\nshould be selected by a trained expert who uses a combination of tests and\nwho will win the confidence of parents as well as give a diagnosis of the child's\nmental and physical condition. Special classes take feeble-minded children\nas early as possible, say from seven to eight years of age. Some eventually\nreturn to grade and are able to complete a part of the fourth-grade work;\na few more are transferred directly to the institution; but the majority\nshould remain in special classes till they reach the school-age limit.\n\n"}
{"page": 902, "printed_page": "890", "text": "890\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nThree methods have been adopted: (i) to have the special class occupy\na room in an elementary-school building and care for the mentally defective\nchildren of that immediate district; (2) to group these pupils in a central\nschool; (3) a combination of both individual classes and centers. In\nMassachusetts, until recently, children were allowed to leave school at\nfourteen, but with the raising of the compulsory school-age limit to sixteen,\nwe found ourselves (two years ago) face to face with the problem of what\nto do with the special-class children who must remain in school until they\nare sixteen years of age. In Boston, in order to provide the next necessary\nstep beyond the individual class, the regular grade pupils occupying two\nsix-room buildings were accommodated elsewhere and these buildings were\nused as centers — one for special-class girls and another for special-class\nboys.\nAt the centers advanst manual work is begun and grading and classification are possible. The program is so arranged that each child has one\nand one-half hours physical, one and one-half hours academic, and two hours\nmanual, work each day. The girls are given a trained teacher to instruct\nthem in domestic science, millinery, sewing, embroidery, crocheting, knitting, mending, and preserving. The boys are taught brush-making, bootblacking, woodworking, serving of luncheons, dish- washing, simple tailoring,\ngardening, assistant janitor work, and other forms of comparatively\nunskilled labor. In this way we attempt to carry on the training of specialclass children from seven to sixteen years of age.\nThe special class, in my opinion, should be still further supplemented\nby workrooms where, under favorable conditions, pupils over sixteen may\nbe provided with work for which they would be paid. Cobbling, chaircaning, tool-sharpening, brush- and mat-making, are industries which\nmight be carried on profitably. They could thus be guarded and controlled\nin part without being taken from their homes. This brings up the question\nof how long the public schools should assume the responsibility of these\nchildren beyond the school-age limit. It seems to me that it should do so\nfor another year or two, at least, unless there is some other agency ready\nto do the work.\nThe most important factor is the teacher who presides over the special\nclass. She must be one who is quick to perceive, able to adapt, whose\nsympathies are keen, and whose outlook is broad, but who combines with\nthese gitts steadiness of purpose and the power to raise and hold her pupil\nto his best. A sense of humor will help out in many a situation. In\nBoston the teachers are given time in which to visit the children's homes,\nlearn the conditions, and confer with the parents. The teacher knows how\nmuch freedom can safely be given the child; she knows his limitations, and\nwhen work is undertaken for which he is not adapted, she is able to suggest\nother lines. She could keep in touch with him and advise him as need\narose, if she had the time.\n\n"}
{"page": 903, "printed_page": "891", "text": "Department]\n\nSPECIAL\n\nCLASSES\n\nAND\n\nINSTITUTIONS\n\n891\n\nThe child may have been prepared for appropriate employment, but\nhe cannot be given the necessary power of self-direction. The subnormal\nperson (young or old) does not have that guiding power within; he must\nhave outside control that should never be relaxt. The need is for a person\nor persons who will provide this oversight and follow the career of each\nindividual, continuing the guidance begun by the teacher.\nAt the half-yearly examination I confer with the head teacher and we\nchoose the most suitable children who may be considered as eligible for\nthis trial; we select the most suitable firms and communicate with the\nmanager.\nThe parent is then seen and the offer is made to her:\nUnder the Act we have the power to keep your child at school until sixteen years\nof age, but, as he, being over fourteen years of age, seems to be suitable and fit to care for\nhimself and do reasonably good work, we are willing to allow him to leave school on\ncondition that he go to work at a place we choose for him and that he remain in that\nplace until he is sixteen. If he fails to do this or to give satisfaction to his employers,\nhe must immediately return to school and stay until he is sixteen.\n\nThe advantages of this method are many. Chiefly we have tested the\nchild to see whether, working under good conditions, he will be able to keep\na situation and give satisfaction. The employers are as a rule pleased\nbecause they know that they will get the child's best work and that they\ncan return him to school if he prove unsatisfactory.\nLet us consider what becomes of these children who leave school and\nwho are not provided with such after care. In a recent canvass of the\nsituation in Boston, 65 of the special-class graduates were located and their\nworking history reviewed. From September, 1913, to September, 1915\n(2 years), 31 out of 65 had a working history of over i^ years and less\nthan 2 years; 11 out of 65 had a working history of over i year and less\nthan i| years; 10 out of 65 had a working history of over 6 months and\nless than i year; 13 out of 65 had a working history of less than 6 months.\nTo be sure, one of these with a working history of nearly two years, had\nhad eighteen positions. One she had held for one day only and the longest\ntime was three months. In her case these two years covered the time from\nseventeen to nineteen years of age. The positions secured by this group of\n65 required but Httle skill; the list includes bundle girls and boys in dry\ngoods stores, dehvery boys, office boys, nurse girls, peddlers, workers in\nbrush-making, shoe-blacking, and basket-making estabUshments, carpetfactories, rubber-factories, and laundries; while working in candy-factories\nis a favorite employment. This gives a clue to the kind of positions that\nare open for the mentally defective, and with these in mind, the after-care\nofficer should know of vacancies as they occur and attempt to fill them.\nThe results of the follow-up work that has already been done and the\nfact that so large a proportion of the children are employed for wages, leads\none to feel that the work done by the special class does carry over into their\nafter life.\n\n"}
{"page": 904, "printed_page": "892", "text": "892\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Special\n\nIn order to \"fill the gap\" or better, in the words of Dr. MacMurchy,\nto \"build a bridge\" between the special class and the institution, I have\nsuggested: (i) that the public school insure diagnosis and treatment at an\nearly age, act as a clearing-house for cases needing permanent segregation,\nand attempt to train the others for appropriate employment; (2) that the\npupils upon leaving school be still further provided for in workrooms or in\nfarm groups; (3) that the guidance begun by the teacher be continued by\nafter care and supervision; (4) that there be a definite plan for awakening\ncommunity interest in the problem; (5) that state- wide supervision is\nnecessary; and (6) that the National Associations for the Feeble-Minded\nformulate a program both educative and constructve, so that the nation\nas a whole may realize the \"menace of the feeble-minded.\"\n\nAFTER-CARE\nFEANCES\n\nWORK\n\nE. CHENEY,\n\nIN SPRINGFIELD,\nSPECIAL-CLASS\n\nTEACHER,\n\nMASSACHUSETTS\nSPRINGFIELD, MASS.\n\nThe most hopeful aspect of our conferences during the last three days\nin this ungraded-class section would seem to be the forward look which\npsychologists, eugenists, and educators have shown. While we may disagree as to methods, we are all looking for better tests of mentality, for\nrace-improvement, for education which projects itself into the future life\nof the pupils under our care, and for a quickened community interest in the\nfuture of feeble-minded school children.\nThe necessity and value of keeping continuous histories of each individual pupil was recognized in our work from the beginning. An indext\nbook was first used, but the records were finally transferred to a card catalog. This card catalog contains information, not only regarding the child's\nmental and moral condition and progress, but a study of his ancestry and\nenvironment. In order to gather these data, innumerable visits were made\nto the homes, and parents were encouraged to visit both the class and the\nhome of the teacher, until Httle by little, and often indirectly, the important\nfacts accumulated. The record was continued after the child left school\nby encouraging the child to report at the school from time to time, continuing the home-visiting, and interesting employers and social agencies in\nthe child's career. From these records statistics were compiled.\nThe placing of the comparatively large number of children — 25 per\ncent — in the care of the state was largely brought about by a personal\nacquaintance with the superintendent, teachers, doctors, and matrons of\nthe institutions. This has meant frequent visits to the institution, often\nwith parents or children, or both, taking home reports to the parents from\nthe institution as to the child's welfare and progress, writing frequent\nletters of inquiry to the superintendent, making appointments for interviews between parents and superintendents, or asking for advice with\n\n"}
{"page": 905, "printed_page": "893", "text": "Department]\n\nAFTER-CARE\n\nWORK\n\nIN SPRINGFIELD\n\n893\n\nreference to specific problems, and visiting children who were at home for\na vacation, noting how they reacted to this experiment, reporting when\ndesirable to the superintendent.\nThose who understand the tragedy of the presence of a feeble-minded\nchild in the family will appreciate that the special-class teacher, who is able\nto help that child and to Ughten the burden in the home, is the one preeminently qualified above all others to continue indefinitely this friendly\noversight.\nThe relatively few cases of deUnquency in the community are accounted\nfor by the interest and cooperation which has been secured from poUce and\nprobation officers, as well as from lawyers and judges. This interest has\nbeen a growing and inspiring feature of an intelligent and sympathetic attitude toward mental defect, and is increasingly shown by the general pubHc.\nAs a result of the continuous activity of personal work, a body of facts,\nnot of theories, was prepared in 191 2 for presentation to a small group of\ninterested people, and the time was then ripe for the formation of the\nSpringfield Committee for the Study of the Feeble-Minded.\nThis committee has endeavored to carry out this purpose as follows:\nBy adding new cases to the card catalog, by keeping all records approximately up to date, and by recording such facts as might be useful in the\nfuture in classifying scientific data.\nBy increasing, thru persuasion, the placing of larger numbers of children\nwithm reach of educational opportunities.\nBy interesting employers in giving positions to the high-grade mental\ndefective.\nBy assisting in the removal of certain inadequately protected persons\nto the care of state institutions.\nBy holding meetings, usually each month, at the call of the chairman\nto discuss various phases of the work and to make plans for further activity.\nBy cooperation with the city library for the placing of Hterature relating\nto mental defect and eugenics, on a special shelf, for its greater accessibihty\nto the general public.\nBy addressing and communicating with various groups of people —\nlegislative, educational, civic, and religious — using the card-catalog data as\na basis to mold public opinion.\nBy actively and successfully working for the estabhshment of a third\nstate institution for the feeble-minded, and by preparing a map of the city\nfor the use of the local school board, showing the distribution of the feebleminded in the various districts, and the obvious need of further publicschool provision.\n\n"}
{"page": 906, "printed_page": "894", "text": ""}
{"page": 907, "printed_page": "895", "text": "DEPARTMENT\nDETROIT\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENCE\n\nMEETING,\n\nFEBRUARY\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\n22-25, 1916\n\nMINUTES\n\nFIRST DAY\nEVENING\n\nSESSION— Tuesday, February 22, 1916\n\nThe Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association met\nin the Arcadia Auditorium, Detroit, Mich., at 8:00 p.m., with President M. P. Shawkey,\nstate superintendent of schools, Charieston, W.Va., in the chair.\nAfter music by the Central High School Orchestra, Roy Ellis, director, the\nsession opened with an invocation by Rev. Charles Henry Williams, D.D., pastor, Second\nCongregational Church, Oberlin, Ohio.\nAddresses of welcome were given by Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools,\nDetroit, Mich., and Fred L. Keeler, state superintendent of public instruction, Lansing,\nMich., to which response was made by Francis G. Blair, state superintendent of public\ninstruction, Springfield, III.\nAfter music by the Eastern High School Quartet, consisting of Howard Parks, Virgil\nRochte, George MacLaughlin, and William Joy, Nicholas Murray Butler, president,\nColumbia University, New York, N.Y., presented an address entitled \"What Is Going\non in the World.\"\nPresident Shawkey announced the following committees:\nCommittee on Nominations\nR. B. Teitrick, deputy state superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa.\nHenry Snyder, superintendent of schools, Jersey City, N.J.\nJoseph Rosier, superintendent of schools, Fairmont, W.Va.\nEllis U. Graff, superintendent of schools, Omaha, Nebr.\nHenry A. Davee, state superintendent of public instruction, Helena, Mont.\nCommittee on Resolutions\nCalvin N. Kendall, state commissioner of education, Trenton, N.J.\nEdward F. Buchner, professor of education and philosophy, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.\nJ. A. C. Chandler, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Va.\nFranklin B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass.\nWilliam S. Sutton, dean. Department of Education, University of Texas, Austin, Tex.\n\nSECOND\nMORNING\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION— Wednesday, February 23, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Shawkey at 9:30 A.M., in Arcadia\nAuditorium.\n89s\nThe following program was presented:\n•'The Ford Idea in Education\" — Samuel S. Marquis, Sociological Department,\nFord Motor Company, Detroit. Mich.\n\n"}
{"page": 908, "printed_page": "896", "text": "8p6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nDebate: \"The Best Organization for American Schools Is a Plan Which Shall Divide\nThese Schools into Six Years of Elementary Training and Six Years of Secondary Training\"—Charles H. Judd, director, School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago,\n111., affirmative; Carroll G. Pearse. president. State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis.,\nnegative.\n\"Greetings\" — David B. Johnson, president, National Education Association, Rock\nHill, S.C.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION— Wednesday, February 23, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order in Arcadia Auditorium by President Shawkey, at\n2:00 P.M., and the following program was presented:\nCantata: \"Walrus and the Carpenter\" — Chorus of three hundred grade-school\nchildren; Thomas Chilvers, director; Esther White, accompanist.\n\"The Public School and the New American Spirit\" — J. George Becht, executive\nsecretary. State Board of Education, Harrisburg, Pa.\n\"Functions of Boards of School Control\" — EUwood P. Cubberley, professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. This paper as\nread constitutes chap, ix of the author's book on Public School Administration (Houghton\nMifflin Co., Boston, Mass., 1916). For this reason it will not appear in this volume.\n\"The Superintendent as the Layman Sees Him\" — Thomas W. Churchill, president,\nBoard of Education, New York, N.Y.\n\"Relation of a Member of a Board of Education to the School System\" — O. M.\nPlummer, director, Board of Education, Portland, Ore.\n\"To Whom Is the Board of Education Responsible?\" — Albert E. Winship, editor,\nJournal of Education, Boston, Mass.\nEVENING\n\nSESSION— Wednesday, February 23, 19 16\nCentral High School\n\nAt this time, the students of the Central High School presented a Shakespearean\nreview entitled \"The Passing Show of 16 16,\" in which were introduced various selections\nfrom the plays of Shakespeare, as follows:\nHamlet's Address to the Players; Petruchio Is Breaking the Spirit of Katherine;\nA Scene from The Tempest; The Dance of the Fairies in Midsummer-Night's Dream;\nCaesar's Ghost Appears to Brutus, from Julius Caesar; Ophelia's Mad Scene, from Hamlet;\nThe Choice of the Caskets, Merchant of Venice; Touchstone, Celia, and Rosalind in the\nForest of Arden, As You Like It.\n\nTHIRD DAY\nMORNING\n\nSESSION— Thursday, February 24, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order in Arcadia Auditorium, at 9:30 a.m., with President\nShawkey in the chair.\nThe following program was presented:\n\"Some Suggestions for Improving the Rural-School Curricula\" — G. C. Creelman,\npresident, Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Ontario, Canada.\nJoint discussion: \"The Minimum Essentials versus the Dijfferentiated Course of\nStudy in the Seventh and Eighth Grades\" — Lotus D. Coffman, professor of education.\nUniversity of Minnesota, MinneapoUs, Minn.; John D. Shoop, superintendent of schools,\nChicago, 111.; WilUam C. Bagley, director. School of Education, University of Illinois,\nUrbana, 111.; David Snedden, commissioner of education, Boston, Mass.\nThe annual business meeting followed the program.\nThe first order of business was the report of the Committee on Revision and Extension of the Work of the Department of Superintendence. This committee was appointed\nin accordance with a resolution adopted at the Cincinnati meeting. Charles E. Chadsey,\nsuperintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich., chairman of the committee, made the report,\nwhich was adopted, as follows:\nThe committee understands that it was the purpose of the resolution imder which it\nwas appointed that it should consider the clarifying of the work of the department and\n\n"}
{"page": 909, "printed_page": "897", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n897\n\nmake such suggestion for an extensionof that work thru the year as would gather together\nand organize professional information of significant value in the work of administrative\nand supervising officers and would codify the tenets of this department touching the\nrights and duties of such administrative and supervisory officers in their several relations\nwith their commimity, institution, and board of trustees, to the end that this selected\ninformation and professionally approved doctrine might aid more effectively these officers\nin meeting and solving their local problems. The committee recommends for your consideration the following:\nThe Department of Superintendence is one of the several departments of the National\nEducation Association. As a department it is concerned with defining the nature of its\nactivities in a way that will avoid the confusing of its work with that of the other departments of the general Association.\nThe main constructive lines of the activities of this department are the consideration of:\n1. Courses of study that will meet the needs of communities.\n2. Enumeration, classification, and promotion of pupils.\n3. The certification of the qualifications of teachers and the methods of securing their\nappointments.\n4. Proper school supplies and the mode of securing such supplies, including textbooks\nand apparatus.\n5. Plans for school building.\n6. The formation of school districts with regard to population, opportunities, and\ninterrelations.\n7. The methods of raising and apportioning school moneys.\n8. The relations of superintendents to boards of education.\nThe committee recommends that there be appointed at each meeting of the department a committee on one, or committees on more than one, of the above, or co-ordinate\nformative lines, the members of these committees to represent typical parts of the country\nand to have as their chief object the bringing before the department reports on comparative\nconditions, industrial, cultural, etc., and information on what is being accomplished in\nsome of the most progressive schools, and that at least one session of a department meeting be devoted to hearing and discussing such reports.\nThe committee further recommends that the Executive Committee of the National\nEducation Association of the United States be requested to ask the Board of Directors\nto make an appropriation of $500 . 00 to meet the expenses during the current year of such\ncommittees as may be appointed under these resolutions.\nCharles E. Chadsey, of Michigan\nJames M. Green, of New Jersey\nNathan C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania\nBen Blewett, of Missouri\nWilliam H. Maxwell, of New York\nCommittee\nThe nominating committee reported as follows:\nFor President — John D. Shoop, superintendent of schools, Chicago, HI.\nFor First Vice-President — Fred L. Keeler, state superintendent of public instruction,\nLansing, Mich.\nFor Second Vice-President — John Dietrich, superintendent of schools, Helena, Mont.\nFor Secretary — Margaret T. Maguire, supervising principal of Washington School,\nPhiladelphia, Pa.\nThe persons named were unanimously elected as officers for the coming year.\nThe Committee on Resolutions presented the following report, which was adopted:\nI. We affirm that every child in the United States of America has definite educational\nneeds for which adequate provision should be made by proper legislative enactment and\nby ample resources for support. In so far as the public, the superintendents, and the\nteachers are now meeting these needs, the American school system will be able to fulfil\nthe larger educational obligations of an expanding modern democracy.\nWe believe that American pubUc education now offers substantial hope for the realization of the fundamental principles of liberty and humanity which will alone support a\nrighteous nationalism and internationalism, by which peace, justice, and progress will be\nguaranteed.\nWe believe that a new international note should be sounded in our educational program, calling upon us to cultivate mutual understandings and interdependence among\nthe peoples of the world, and to this end we recommend that our national government\nadopt the policy of appointing educational attaches to our embassies and legations in\nforeign countries.\n\n"}
{"page": 910, "printed_page": "898", "text": "ggS\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\n2. The complete unification and Americanization of all our people is a necessity.\nIn view of the temporary cessation of immigration, the present is a particularly opportime time for the extension of educational agencies that will effectively prepare immigrant\nchildren and adults for the rights and duties of American citizenship.\nWe recommend that the president of the department be authorized to appoint\na special committee to co-operate with the United States Bureau of Education and all\nother agencies in. realizing this goal.\n3. We rejoice over the progress in state, and especially in national, legislation which\npromises to guarantee the protection of children from the iU effect incident to undesirable\nkinds of labor at the time when future public welfare demands that they should be in\nschool.\n4. We reafl&rm our approval of federal aid to vocational education as proposed in the\nSmith-Hughes bill now before Congress. We believe that the end to be served is so important and so diversified as to require a federal board, the members of which shall be educational representatives of the interests concerned and shall give their undivided attention\nto the administration of the act.\n5. We commend most heartily the activities of the United States Bureau of Education and its helpful co-operation in the development of education in all parts of the\ncountry. We recommend to the Congress of the United States a generous increase in\nappropriations for the Bureau in order that it may be able to respond to the multipUed\ndemands thruout the nation for its services.\n6. We reaffirm our beUef that a small board of education is the most efficient instrument for the administration of the affairs of pubHc schools.\n7. We reaffirm our behef in the value of a bureau of research in connection with the\nsuperintendent's office. We also commend the properly conducted, sympathetic, and\nconstructive school survey as an aid in the solution of school problems. We look forward,\nhowever, to the time when every school system will be so equipped in its own regular\nofficial and teaching staff as to conduct a continuous survey from within.\n8. We affirm that the overcrowding of the elementary schools is a most serious defect,\nrequiring, as it does, the individual teacher to be responsible for the instruction and the\ndiscipUne of too many pupils. We beUeve that it is the part of educational economy\nto provide as speedily as possible for the aboUtion of this practice.\n9. In view of the progress that has been made in raising the standards of preparation\nfor teaching, it is recommended that school boards and superintendents thruout the\ncountry adopt, as soon as possible, for their guidance in the selection of elementary and\nsecondary teachers and supervisors, the highest standards now in force in our more\nprogressive states.\n10. In order to secure more efficient teaching we reaffirm our behef in the necessity\nof helpful, sympathetic, and constructive supervision of schools, both city and country.\n11. We reaffirm our belief in the importance of encouraging all agencies designed to\npromote the physical well-being of children. We note with satisfaction the increase in\nthe co-operation between health and school authorities.\nWe strongly favor physical training that will develop mind and character as well as\nbody, but we are emphatically opposed to the introduction of compulsory mihtary training into the high schools of the country before mature consideration of the educational\nquestions involved therein.\nWe suggest the appointment by the incoming president of the department of a\ncommittee of nine to study and to report upon the proper place for and purpose of mihtary\neducation of American youth, and in case it is appointed we recommend that the Executive Committee request the Board of Directors of the National Education Association\nto provide for the necessary expenses of this committee.\n12. The country child is entitled to as good a school as the city child. He should\nhave a professionally trained teacher, who is paid an adequate salary. The rural schools\nshould have good supervision. We believe the county superintendent of schools, as well\nas the city superintendent, should be chosen solely on account of academic and professional\nqualifications, executive abiUty, and good character. We are convinced that his selection\nshould be determined by some method other than that of popular election, which is usually\ninfluenced by considerations other than educational. We further recommend the consoUdation of rural schools wherever practicable.\n13. We express our appreciation of the action of the various railroad associations\nwhich gave to the members of the department the benefit of the open rate.\n14. We express our appreciation of the hospitaUty extended to the department by\nSuperintendent Chadsey, his colleagues, the citizens, and the various organizations of\nDetroit.\n15. We extend the thanks of the department to President Shawkey for the excellent\nprogram prepared for this meeting.\n\n"}
{"page": 911, "printed_page": "899", "text": "Superinteadencc]\n\nSECRETARY'S\n\nMINUTES\n\n899\n\n16. We express our appreciation for the many courtesies extended by the hotel\nmanagements.\n17. We thank the representatives of the press for the excellent reports of the meetings\nof the department.\nInvitations for the 191 7 meeting were presented by Boston, Mass.; Kansas City,\nMo.; Milwaukee, Wis.; MinneapoUs, Minn,; and Omaha, Nebr.\nFive minutes was allowed for the presentation from each city, and it was voted\nthat on successive ballots the city receiving the fewest votes should be withdrawn. On the\nfirst ballot, Boston received 305; Kansas City, 336; Milwaukee, 63; MinneapoUs, 47;\nand Omaha, 163. This dropped Minneapohs automatically and Milwaukee asked to\nwithdraw. A second ballot was ordered, but after the vote for Boston had been taken\nand before the vote for Kansas City could be counted, Boston withdrew and moved that\nKansas City be made the meeting-place for 191 7 by acclamation, which motion was\ncarried.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION— Thursday, February 24, 1916\n\nThe afternoon was given to round tables, as follows:\n(a) round table of state and county superintendents\nChairman — Carl G. Schulz, state superintendent of education, St. Paul, Minn.\n\"How Much and What Kind of Supervision?\" — C. P. Cary, state superintendent\nof public instruction, Madison, Wis.\n\"How Not to Train Rural Teachers\" — Edward Hyatt, state superintendent of public\ninstruction, Sacramento, Cal.\n\"Rural Supervision in the Mountains of the South\" — Jennie Burkes, county superintendent, Claiborne County, Cmnberland Gap, Tenn.\n\"The Status and Need of Rural Supervision\" — A. C. Monahan, specialist. United\nStates Biureau of Education, Washington, D.C.\n(b) round table of superintendents of cities with a population of over 250,000\nChairman — J. M. Gwinn, superintendent of schools. New Orleans La.\n\"A First Step in Establishing the Six-Three-Three Organization\" — Herbert S. Weet,\nsuperintendent of schools, Rochester, N.Y.\n\"The Determination of Educational Policies\" — Henry Snyder, superintendent of\nschools, Jersey City, N.J.\n\"Textbooks — Principles Governing Their Selection\" — Randall J. Condon, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio.\n\"The Education of Foreigners for American Citizenship\" — Raymond F. Crist,\ndeputy commissioner of naturalization. United States Department of Labor, Washington, D.C.\n\"Adaptation of Schools to Varying Needs\" — Ben Blewett, superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. Louis, Mo.\n(c)\n\nround table of superintendents of cities with a population between\n25,000 AND\n\n250,000\n\nChairman — Ira B. Bush, superintendent of schools, Erie, Pa.\n\"Community Activities as a Means of Motivation\" — Fred M. Hunter, superintendent of schools, Lincoln, Nebr.\n\"Teaching Tenure\" — John F. Keating, superintendent of schools, Pueblo, Colo.\n\"A Study of Deviate Children — The Problem of Delinquency and Subnormality\"\n— C. Edward Jones, superintendent of schools, Albany, N.Y.\nIowa.\"Vacation Club Work\" — J. H. Beveridge, superintendent of schools, Coimcil Bluffs,\n\"Short-Unit Industrial Courses\" — M. B. King, Department of Public Instruction,\nHarrisburg, Pa.\nCd)\n\nround table\n\nof superintendents of cities with a POPULATION UNDER\n\n25,000\n\nChairman — John Milne, superintendent of schools, Albuquerque, N.M.\n\"Effective Constructive Economy in Supervision\" — W. E. Hoover, superintendent\nof schools, Fargo, N.D.\n\n"}
{"page": 912, "printed_page": "900", "text": "NATIONAL\n\ngoo\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\n\"Effective and Economical Supervision in Small Cities\" — ^Walter S. Deffenbaugh,\nDivision of School Administration, United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C.\n\"Reliable Measurements of a School System\" — Otis G. Wilson, superintendent of\nschools, Fairmont, W.Va.\n\"The Ethical as the Essential Factor in Training for Efficient Citizenship in a Democracy\"— Charles W. Cookson, superintendent of schools, Troy, Ohio.\n\"The School's Responsibility in the New Nationalism\" — ^W. E. Albig, superintendent\nof schools, Bellevue, Pa.\n(e)\n\nround table of directors of educational research\n\nChairman — Frank W. Ballou, director, Department of Educational Investigation and\nMeasurement, public schools, Boston, Mass.\n\"The Two Phases of Educational Research and Efficiency in the Public Schools\" —\nGeorge Melcher, director, Bureau of Research and Efficiency, Kansas City, Mo.\n''Standardization of Teachers' Examinations\" — Stuart A. Courtis, supervisor of\neducational research, Detroit, Mich.\n\"Comments on Ten Intelligence Tests Applied to Ten Thousand Children in Grades\nV-VIII Inclusive\" — Albert SUels, director, Division of Reference Research, Department of Education, New York, N.Y.\n\"Improving Instruction thru Educational Measurement\" — Frank W. Ballou,\ndirector. Department of Educational Investigation and Measurement, public schools,\nBoston, Mass.\n(f)\n\nround table of compulsory education, school census, and child welfare\nChairman — ^John W. Davis, director, Bureau of Attendance, New York, N.Y.\n\n\"The Control and Supervision of Field Workers\" — Henry J. Gideon, chief, Bureau\nof Compulsory Education, Philadelphia, Pa. In the absence of Mr. Gideon, this paper\nwas read by Howard W. Nudd, director, New York Public Education Association, New\nYork, N.Y.\nDiscussion: R. L. Cooley, director of continuation schools, Milwaukee, Wis.;\nHoward W. Nudd, director, New York Public Education Association, New York, N.Y.\n\"Does a Strict Enforcement of the Compulsory-Education Law Assist Teachers and\nSupervising Officials in Their Work ? {a) Increased Assistance; {b) Reduction of Retardation; {c)Conservation of the Nervous Energy of the Teacher and Supervising Officials\" —\nEdward B. Shallow, associate city superintendent of schools. New York, N.Y.\nDiscussion: A. B. Rhett, superintendent of schools, Charleston, S.C.; M.C. Potter,\nsuperintendent of schools, Milwaukee, Wis.; Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of\nschools, Detroit, Mich.\n\"The Policy of Free Education in a Democracy Requires a Federal Child-Labor\nLaw, Stringent and Strictly Enforced State Statutes as Regards Compulsory Education,\nand a Continuing School Census\" — James D. Sullivan, chief, Compulsory Attendance\nDivision, New York State Department of Education, Albany, N.Y. In the absence of\nMr. Sullivan, this paper was read by Charles F. Wheelock, assistant commissioner of\nsecondafy education. New York State Department of Education, Albany, N.Y.\nDiscussion: Ben Blewett, superintendent of instruction, public schools, St. Louis,\nMo.; _ Herbert S. Weet, superintendent of schools, Rochester, N.Y.; Henry Snyder,\nsuperintendent of schools, Jersey City, N.J.; Henry D. Hervey, superintendent of schools,\nAuburn, N.Y.\nEVENING\n\nSESSION— Thursday, February 24, 19 16\n\nSchoolmaster-Governors'\n\nEvening\n\nThe meeting was called to order in Arcadia Auditorium by President Shawkey at\n8:00 P.M., and the following program was given:\nChorus: The Pirates of Penzance — Boys' Chorus, Northwestern High School;\nClara E. Starr, director.\nIntroduction of President-elect John D. Shoop, superintendent of schools,\nChicago, 111.\nAddress — Woodbridge N. Ferris, Governor of Michigan.\nAddress — Martin G. Brumbaugh, Governor of Pennsylvania.\nAddress— Frank B. Willis, Governor of Ohio.\n\n"}
{"page": 913, "printed_page": "901", "text": "I\n\nADDRESS\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nFOURTH\nMORNING\n\nDAY\n\nSESSION— Friday, February 25, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order at 9 : 30 a.m. by President Shawkey in Arcadia Auditorium.\n901\nThe following program was given:\n\"Booker T. Washington — An Appreciation\" — 0. T. Corson, editor, Ohio Educational\nMonthly, Columbus, Ohio.\n\"High Points in the Los Angeles Plan\" — J. H. Francis, superintendent of schools,\nLos Angeles, Cal.\n\"Significant Developments in Educational Surveying\" — Leonard P. Ayres, director.\nDivision of Education, Russell Sage Foundation, New York, N.Y.\n\"Report of Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education\" —\nClarence D. Kingsley, high-school inspector, Boston, Mass.\nAFTERNOON\n\nSESSION— Friday, February 25, 1916\n\nThe meeting was called to order by President Shawkey in the Arcadia Auditorium\nat 2:00 P.M.\n\nThe following program was presented:\n\"The Thirtieth Man\" — John H. Finley, president, University of the State of New\nYork, Albany, N.Y.\n\"Definiteness and Compulsion . in Education\" — A. Duncan Yocum, professor of\neducational research and practice. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.\n\"Manners and Morals — Our Problem\" — Alice M. Carmalt, assistant professor of\neducation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pa.\n\"Scouting as an Educational Asset\" — ^James E. West, chief scout executive. Boy\nScouts of America, New York, N.Y.\n\"The National Morahty Codes Competition\" — Milton Fairchild, chairman. Executive Committee, National Institution for Moral Instruction, Washington, D.C.\nE. C. Warriner, Secretary\n\nPAPERS\n\nAND\n\nADDRESS\nFRED\n\nL.\n\nKEELER,\n\nSTATE\n\nDISCUSSIONS\nOF WELCOME\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\nLANSING, MICH.\n\nOF\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nThe state of Michigan deeply appreciates the distinction this gathering\nbrings to her. Michigan's hospitahty is extended with special joy to a\nmeeting of the nation's educators, and it is with keenest pleasure I bid you\nwelcome.\nMany of you are not strangers to Michigan. To many of you this\nmeeting is a home-coming rather than a visit to a strange land. It is hardly\npossible to name a city in the United States, certainly not in the West, that\ndoes not have teachers and educational leaders who were trained in Michigan. Our state was the first state in the Union to organize a complete\npublic-school system from kindergarten to university. For two generations\nAnn Arbor and Ypsilanti stood out as the educational centers of the West.\nWe are proud that the newer states have found much in the Michigan\nsystem worthy of adoption, and we rejoice over the marvelous progress\nour sister-states are making in promoting public education.\n\n"}
{"page": 914, "printed_page": "902", "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\n902\n\nThe people of Michigan have always maintained a broad view of the\npurpose of education, and with characteristic liberality their educational\ninstitutions are open, not only to the citizens of our own state, but to any\nperson from any quarter of the globe who wishes to come. We believe\nthat we do most for ourselves when we do much for others. And there is\nabundant reason why we should hold this view. Michigan is great because\nshe has done much for others and because she has done much for herself.\nBut she stands ready always to acknowledge that she has also received much.\nMichigan was carved from that great empire, the Northwest Territory,\nwhich was created by the Ordinance of 1787 — a document which ranks\nwith the Declaration of Independence and the federal Constitution. The\nOrdinance states tliat \"there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary\nservitude in said territory.\" That provision was drafted by that greatest\nstatesman of the South, who belongs, not only to America, but to the whole\nworld — Thomas Jefferson. The Ordinance also provides that ''religion,\nmorahty, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be\nencouraged.\" This statement expresses the sentiment of our whole country today. That sentiment founded New England, and New England\ngave it to us. Indeed, the very author of the Ordinance of 1 78 7 was Nathan\nDane, of Massachusetts. It appears, then, that the founding of the Northwest Territory was conceived in the best thought of the North and the South.\nNot only have we received ideas from other sections of the country,\nbut we have received men with ideas. Each state of the Union is permitted\nto place in the Capitol at Washington the statues of two of its favorite sons.\nMichigan has placed there the statues of Lewis Cass and Zach Chandler.\nBoth of these men came to us from New England. John D. Pierce, our\nfirst state superintendent of public instruction — the first state superintendent in this country — whom we regard as the founder of the educational\nsystem of Michigan, came to us from New England. James B. Angell,\nfor forty years president of the University of Michigan, came to us from\nNew England. Dr. Angell is now the president emeritus of the great institution to which he has given his life. A great educator, a great scholar,\na great diplomat, above all a great teacher, we are proud today to honor\nhim as the first citizen of our state.\nFive New England states have given us superintendents of public\ninstruction. Each New England state has given us a governor, and some\nof them two. President Jackson made a young fellow from Kentucky\ngovernor of Michigan Territory before he was out of his teens. This was\ndone much against our protest. But of course we decided that the only\nthing to do was to agree with Jackson and we gave the boy a chance. After\nawhile we liked the boy so well that we adopted him, and when Michigan\nbecame a state we elected Steven T. Mason our first governor. It is perhaps\nnoteworthy that up to the present time Michigan has chosen only one\n\n"}
{"page": 915, "printed_page": "903", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADDRESS\n\nOF WELCOME\n903\n\ngovernor who was a native son. This poHcy, I must say, has not the unanimous approval of the native sons.\nI repeat, we believe both in giving and in receiving. There are more\njudges on the federal bench today who received their training at Ann Arbor\nthan from any other university in the country. There are today twentysix members of the national Congress who received their training at Ann\nArbor — more than from any other university in the whole country. And\nwhile we are training these leaders in national affairs, we are richly rewarded\nin the men we take in from the outside. Several of the superintendencies\nof our larger cities are held by men from other states. Three years ago,\nwhen the city of Detroit was searching for a man to take charge of her great\nsystem of schools, she went west and brought home from Denver, Colo.,\nour present superintendent, Charles E. Chadsey.\nThe most American thing in America is our public-school system.\nNowhere is the work of pubHc education better illustrated than in Michigan. Our state university, with over seven thousand students from every\ncountry in the world; our normal-school system, with more than four thousand students; our agricultural college, with an enrolment of two thousand\nstudents; a group of splendid denominational colleges, with two thousand\nstudents; our public schools with over five hundred thousand children in\nattendance — all these testify to our conviction that the safety of our country demands that \"schools and the means of education shall forever be\nencouraged.\" We tax ourselves to support our educational establishment,\nnot, primarily, to give the young people certain advantages. We regard\nour tax as an investment which richly repays us in the quality of the citizens\nwe get to take part in our democracy. We believe that the most expensive\nliability a state can have is an ignorant citizen. When I hear the reckless\nattack made at times by hostile critics of our schools, I wonder what\ncounsel gives them inspiration. That our schools are not perfect, no one\nwill deny. But when I think how young the institution is, and what prodigious burdens have been heaped upon it all at once, and when I see with\nmy own eyes with what marvelous skill the schools of the country discharge\ntheir responsibihty, I declare to you that the American public school challenges the admiration of the whole world. A little while ago I visited the\nschools of Calumet, that wonderful mining camp in northern Michigan. I\nfound there in one schoolroom boys and girls representing thirty different\nnationalities. The wall before them was draped with the stars and stripes.\nI saw the boys and girls rise and salute their flag. And then in a reverent\nspirit they sang:\nMy Country, 'tis of thee,\nSweet land of liberty,\nOf thee I sing.\n\nI have heard our national anthem sung many a time before, but since\nthat day it has had for me a new meaning.\nGo into the schools of Detroit\n\n"}
{"page": 916, "printed_page": "904", "text": "904\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nsome evening and you will find there ten thousand men and women who,\nat public expense, are being given the fundamentals of an education. Many\nof these are foreigners who are being taught our language and who are being\ntaught the meaning of American citizenship.\nMy friends, I will close as I began: Michigan appreciates the honor of\nentertaining this great meeting of the nation's educational leaders. We\nwelcome you the more because you are engaged in a work dose to the\nhearts of the people of Michigan — a work we regard as the most important\nbusiness in our country. We welcome you because your presence will be\nan inspiration to us this week, this year, and the years to come. In behalf\nof the sterling citizenship of our state; in behalf of twenty thousand teachers\n— the most enthusiastic, loyal, and devoted teachers that ever blessed a\ngreat state; in behalf of one miUion of the most splendid boys and girls;\nin behalf of the superintendents and teachers of Michigan here present,\nI extend to you a hand of welcome.\nRESPONSE\nFRANCIS\n\nTO ADDRESS\n\nOF WELCOME\n\nG. BLAIR, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,\nSPRINGFIELD, ILL.\n\nSpeaking for the members of this great Association, I cannot assume\nthat your welcome extends any farther than to us as a body of men and\nwomen engaged in a great work. I cannot assume that your welcome\nextends to the ideas which we bring, to the educational programs and\nresolutions which we shall here formulate. This fact is not mentioned\nas a matter of complaint, but rather to raise a question which strikes at\nthe very spirit of American Ufe. It is charged that the people of the\nUnited States have scant regard for the opinions of their leaders in any\nfield of thought, that they treat with indifference or contempt the opinions\nof experts, that they resent authority, and show little respect for law.\nI cannot, of my own knowledge or experience, assert that this attitude is\npeculiar to America, but some who are widely traveled and deeply learned\nin the afifairs of nations declare that nowhere else in the world are the\nleaders of thought — the experts — held in such light regard as in this great\ndemocracy.\nIn the face of this great world-crisis, it is becoming in us as the leaders\nof education in this great democracy to review seriously our educational\ncreeds and philosophies to see whether this gross national defect is in any\nway chargeable as an outcome of our educational system.\nOf course, some of it results directly from the very form of our government. Its cornerstone is the Declaration of Independence, whose glowing\nlines declare \" that all men are created equal and are endowed with certain\ninalienable rights.\" No one who believes in the true spirit of a democracy\nwill in any way try to tarnish the luster of those shining, glorious words,\n\n"}
{"page": 917, "printed_page": "905", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nRESPONSE\n\nTO ADDRESS\n\nOF WELCOME\n\n905\n\nbut he will stupidly err if in accepting the doctrine that all men are created\nequal he concludes therefrom that the judgments of all men are equally\ntrustworthy upon all questions. No one will lightly cast a doubt upon the\nsoundness of this doctrine of equahty in so far as it relates to equality of\nopportunity. The cynic may deny it and the unfortunate may doubt it,\nbut the man of faith, the patriot, will ever hold it as a sound and precious\ntruth, altho he knows that equahty of opportunity does not mean equaUty\nof condition or attainment. This gospel of equaUty of opportunity is the\nmodern Jacob's ladder on which are seen ascending and descending, not\nangels, but boys and girls, men and women. Who are these that are descending? They are the children and grandchildren and great-grandchildren\nof those men and women who heard the call of opportunity and who,\nthru heroic effort and merit, climbed to the very top, honored by the\npeople as worthy leaders, and blessed as noble benefactors, but whose\noffspring lost the gleam of the star and the callof opportunity, and fooHshly\nassumed that achievement and merit can be transmitted from father to\nson, and stupidly erred in thinking that in America positions of social and\ncivic preferment are hereditary. So down they come, some of them reluctantly, some of them resentfully, but nevertheless they descend to get a\nnew point of view and a new start. And who are these who are ascending ?\nThey are those who have caught the glint of the star and have heard the\ncall. Here is a lad whose father but yesterday was a workman on the section. This is the son of a fruit peddler. And this one caught his vision\nand his zeal between the handles of a plow. These, all, are the children of\nhigh endeavor, the sons and daughters of American opportunity. Who,\nwith all of its inconsistencies, with all of its disappointments, with all of\nits failures, would draw a curtain of doubt and discouragement over this\nglowing ideal ?\nBut while something of this national infirmity which we are considering\nmay spring from this foundation doctrine of freedom and equality, we may\ndiscover if we look farther that much of it finds its origin in our educational\ncreeds and philosophies.\nAt about the same time that we were writing the governmental theories\nof Rousseau into our Declaration of Independence we were writing his\neducational ideas into our systems of education. But it took over a hundred years for his theories of extreme individualism, of revolt against\nauthority in education, to exert any marked influence upon the prevaihng\nmethods in education. But reinforced by the sweet and gentle teachings\nof Pestalozzi and Froebel and systematized by Herbart the spirit of this\ngreat revolt against the ancient doctrines of authority and discipline and\nobedience has swept into and pervaded the entire body of our system of\npublic education.\nNo one who knows will undertake to deny that this great change has\nbrought into public education a spirit of sympathy which it sadly needed.\n\n"}
{"page": 918, "printed_page": "906", "text": "9o6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\nIt changed the center of gravity of the educational solar system. It\nplaced the child and his interests at the center, and made all other matters —\neducational theories, courses of study, and methods of instruction — revolve\nabout him and take their meaning from him. It breathed into the nostrils\nof an austere and rigid form the breath of life and it became a Uving soul.\nAll of this the most conservative will admit. They will go even farther\nand agree that this great rebirth in educational doctrines and procedure\nhas added greatly to the strength of our democracy. But there are many,\nwho are in no sense educational heretics, asking seriously whether we have\nnot carried this spirit of individualism too far. There are those who are not\nwedded to the old regime in education who feel that modern society has\nsuffered a great loss by this extreme reaction against authority and discipHne\nand obedience.\nNo one will deny that every child has certain inborn possibilities and\npotentialities which must be allowed to unfold according to the law of his\nown nature, but one may very properly question whether any individual,\nso developed, can live and work with his fellows, can play the part of a\nman in the affairs of a great nation, unless he has learned somewhere along\nthe line that beyond his individual needs and desires there he powerful\nsocial and civic forces and laws which will add to or subtract from his personal power and influence as he works with them or against them. No\none desires a return of the old strait-jacket system of discipline. Everyone rejoices in the new freedom which has come to the child in the new\nmethods of organization and control, but many thoughtful people are asking\nwhether the movement has not gone too far, whether our children are not\nsuffering a distinct loss in character thru the decay of obedience to rule and\norder, whether it is not breeding a weakness in the very quahty of citizenship.\nEveryone wants the child to think out for himself everything that lies\nwithin his power. Everyone wants him to doubt, to question, to experiment until he finds a satisfactory answer. No one wants him to accept the\nopinions and commands of others with unthinking dociUty. No one asks\nthat he stultify his own intelligence and smother his own will in servile,\nstupid obedience to another. But many believe profoundly that the\ngreatest respect for authority is compatible with the highest degree of intelligence, that the strongest will is capable of the most instant and complete\nobedience to the will of others, that the very greatest degree of freedom\ncomes only to him who recognizes and obeys established law and authority.\nIt is very right that we should hold up before the youth of this country\nthe opportunity that everyone has to become a leader in some field of\nendeavor. It furnishes a worthy ideal. It points out a definite star to\nwhich all may hitch their wagon. But we shall err greatly if we do not\nmake it clear that there can be no leaders unless there are followers; that\nan army made up wholly of generals would be an impossible army. We\nmust show that no one can lead unless he has learned how to follow. We\n\n"}
{"page": 919, "printed_page": "907", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nWHAT\n\nIS GOING\n\nON\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nWORLD\n\n907\n\nmust never lose sight of the fact that this great economic, social, and civic\ndemocracy demands group-thinking and group-acting ; that its very safety\ndepends upon the power of its citizens to fix their thought harmoniously\nupon a common aim, to concentrate their effort solidly toward a common end.\nI do not Want to be misunderstood. I am not alarmed by every shadow\ncast by the clouds of war. I refuse to become panic-stricken at the sight\nof the very clouds themselves. I do not share that feeUng of worshipful\nawe which some good people are exhibiting toward this new international\ngod called Efiiciency. How in the midst of this great test of the nations\nthat word has been flung round the world! How it has been blazoned upon\nthe very sky! A gentleman addressing a large audience in one of our cosmopoUtan cities declared that unless the United States could effect thru its\neducational system the same degree of economic and governmental efficiency\npossessed by some of the European nations, Ichabod would be written across\nour door and the light of our great democracy would go out forever. Not\na few of us will sympathize with the statement of the speaker who replied\nthat rather would he contemplate the destruction of American democracy\nthru its liberty-loving, wasteful, blundering incompetence than assist in\ncompelling it to that fatal form of efficiency which is driving some European\nnations on to their certain ruin. Not one of us desires that the American\ngovernment shall become so compactly articulate that like an ivory ball\nit shall take its directions and angles of reflections from a cue held in one\nman's hand.\nBut we shall be untrue to the sacred trust committed to us as leaders\nin public education if we do not weigh carefully the meaning of that great\nword efficiency in its relation both to our educational system and to our\ngovernment. We may discover that a very great deal of the thing which\nthat word signifies can be appropriated by us with profit to our schools and\nto our nation. We may discover that thru the shifting of the emphasis\nin some of our theories of education and thought, the redirection of some of\nour methods of instruction and control, we shall attain that kind of efficiency\nwhich is the essence of a real democracy — individual freedom with respect\nfor authority, personal independence with loyal acknowledgement of leadership, the greatest degree of intellectual and civic liberty, joined with the\nmost profound respect for law and order.\nWHAT\nNICHOLAS\n\nMURRAY\n\nIS GOING\nBUTLER,\nNEW\n\nON IN\n\nTHE\n\nWORLD\n\nPRESIDENT,\nCOLUMBIA\nYORK, N. Y.\n\nUNIVERSITY,\n\n*\n\n[Abstract from Newspaper Reports]\nHave you really considered how profoundly every one of us must be\naffected by what is going on in the world ? The day that marked the opening of the present great war in Europe marked also the opening of the great\n\n"}
{"page": 920, "printed_page": "908", "text": "goS\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nstruggle to determine whether our present civilization is to survive or\nwhether we are to enter on a period of social retrogression which\n*will pull us back into even lower depths than those from which we have\nclimbed.\nAt the present time, strange and unfamiliar conditions confront us. So\nmany things that we thought settled forever are uncertain; so many\nthings that we thought we had put behind us are staring us in the face;\nwhat we have longed for and prayed for now seems impossible. The times\nare so grave, the disturbance of settled order is so severe, the break with\nadvancing civilization is so complete, that no man dare speak with confidence or dogmatism.\nAnd it was all so unexpected! In June, 19 14, I was in Paris, with one\nhundred representative men of all the great nations of the earth. They\nspoke of the multiplying evidences of a new era when all the nations of the\nearth would be friends, leaving the world to give all its thought to social\nbetterment and civic improvement. And even as we were speaking the\nthunder clouds were gathering for the greatest storm in history!\nWe often read of great crises as if they were specimens in a museum.\nWe speak of the fall of Rome, of the Renaissance, of the French Revolution,\nof American constitution-making, almost as if they were things apart from\nus. Unless I am mistaken, we are living even now in one of the great\nworld-epochs. As I read history, there have been only two eras of significance equal to this. Five hundred years before Christ, the battles of\nThermopylae and Salamis determined that Greek democratic individualism\nrather than Oriental collectivism of race, religion, caste, and fixed authority,\nshould be the dominant note of government in the Western world. The\nsecond great crisis came when Charles Martel drove back the Arab hordes\nat Tours, thus deciding that Western civilization should be not Mohammedan but Christian. From that day to this, Western civilization has not\nhad so much at stake as in the present war. Happy are we to be neutral,\nbut we cannot be indifferent or withhold our moral judgment when everything that we hold dear is in the melting-pot. With the opening of the\nEuropean war there began a new epoch in the history of civilization. On\nthe issue of that war depends the existence of this civilization of which we\nare so proud.\nWhat has the world been doing these past one thousand years? It\nhas been building nations that sought to be ends in themselves. This\nnation-building began with the downfall of the Roman Empire, and in this\nstruggle of men to express themselves in terms of the nation we have the\nclew to the history of the past ten centuries. We have erected the nation\ninto something superior to moral rules and obligations. It is this false\npatriotism — a patriotism that makes the nation superior to moral law—\nthat is now singing hymns of hate. It is that narrow and unethical conception ofnationalism that has brought Europe to the edge of ruin. If our\n\n"}
{"page": 921, "printed_page": "909", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nWHAT\n\nIS GOING\n\nON\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nWORLD\n\nQOQ\n\ncivilization is to continue, this war must be the Nemesis of that nationalism\nwhich regards the nation as an end in itself. I am convinced that the\npresent war is the result of this perverted notion of nationalism. It is one\nof those volcanic outbursts in terms of nations which shows the disturbance\nwithin. It is a blind, unthinking fanaticism that is hurling the nations\nat each other's throats, and, when the horrors of war have been relegated\nto the past, it will be determined whether the great principle of nationality\nis to be a blessing or a curse.\nWhat does it ^lean ? Will it prove to be what the Greeks call a \" katharsis,\" a purification or a cleansing of the spirit ? Or does it mean that our\nchildren are to see the institutions of a thousand years dissolved like mist\ninto elemental forms ? The world may or may not learn the lesson of this\ngreat conflict. It depends on us, in great measure, to say whether it shall\nbe ruinous, or whether it shall pave the way to more splendid things by\nreason of the terrible lessons that are waiting to be learned. Spencer\nsaid that when evolution reached its high mark, an involution or inevitable\ndownward tendency would set in, and then would come another upward\ntendency. If we are unable to grasp the lesson of this war, we must be\ncontent to drift back. Shall we do that ?\nI am an incurable optimist. For my part, I have faith to believe that\nthe world is going to profit by its present dire experiences, and that we\nare going forward to a time when men will live and work together regardless of the too restricted and too narrow views of nationality that prevailed\nin the past. I believe we are about to gain a new and a splendid conception\nof life and patriotism — a new internationalism such as the world has never\nseen. The great struggle of the nations is going to be a great purifier of\nthought — a stimulus to co-operation. Ultimately it will bring the world\nto a time when men will truly co-operate, when brotherly love will be a\nreal, tangible thing and not a myth — a time when war will be a thing forever in the past.\nAnother great lesson of the war will be learned in terms of religion.\nThis will come to pass when we shall cease to worship a tribal God, cease\nto be twentieth-century pagans, and shall learn to serve the one, the only\nGod of all nations.\nI like the saying of Bossuet: \"Beware when God wipes out! It means\nHe is getting ready to write!\" It seems that the American nation, with\nall its acknowledged i^mperfections, has at this time a contribution to\nmake to the world that will be epochal in its effect. We have learned, as\nthe world may learn, that one nation may be made out of forty-eight nations.\nWe have learned that people of diverse language, customs, and religions\nmay dwell together in peace under one flag, provided each is' given his due\nrights. We have developed great leaders whose thought and opinion all\nthe world may well receive. We ask the nations of the world to take\nWashington and make him theirs; we ask them to take all our leaders\n\nIL\n\n"}
{"page": 922, "printed_page": "910", "text": "gio\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nthat have done so well in developing the principles of federated unity and\nfollow them in the cause of the civilization of the world and the eternal\nbetterment of mankind.\nTHE FORD IDEA IN EDUCATION\nSAMUEL\n\nS. MARQUIS,\n\nSOCIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT,\nDETROIT, MICH.\n\nFORD\n\nMOTOR\n\nCOMPANY,\n\nThe impression has somehow got abroad that Henry Ford is in the\nautomobile business. It isn't true. Mr. Ford shoots abdut fifteen hundred cars out of the back door of his factory every day just to get rid of\nthem. They are but the by-products of his real business, which is the\nmaking of men.\nWiUiam Carey, cobbler and missionary, asked as to the nature of his\nbusiness, said: *'My business is extending the Kingdom of God, but I\nmend shoes in order to provide money to carry on my work.\" Mr. Ford's\nbusiness is the making of men, and he manufactures automobiles on the\nside to defray the expenses of the main business.\nSome people call the fifty-acre group of buildings out in Highland Park\nthe Ford Factory. Well, it is that, but it is a great deal more. It is a\nschool. Mr. Ford is more interested in men than in machines. He is\nbefore everything else interested in the education of his employees.\nThe Ford school at the present time has about twenty-five thousand\npupils. It has fully twice that many more on the waiting list. Before\nvery long people will be registering an appUcation at the Ford school for\ntheir boys as soon as they are born, just as they are now doing at some of\nthe more exclusive academies and colleges down east.\nAny man can enter 'the Ford school, provided there is a vacancy,\nwho is eighteen years of age and is out of employment. Married men are\npreferred to single, and boys with mothers to support are given a chance\nbefore those who have no one dependent upon them. The boy under\ntwenty-two years of age with no one looking to him for support is not eligible\nfor profit-sharing. It would be cheaper to admit him than the boy with\nsomeone dependent upon him for support; but Mr. Ford prefers the latter\nat five dollars per day to the former, because the money will do more good\nin meeting the needs of more people.\nA prominent eastern manufacturer said to me recently:\nThere is no use trying to meet facts with theories. Mr. Ford has done for his men\nthat which I said could not be done and ought not to be done, but he has done it, and it\nworks to the benefit of all concerned, and that puts an end to the argument. I have\ncome on to find out how he does it, for I want to do as nearly as I can the same things for\nmy employees,\n\nMr. Ford has done in finance that which financial experts claimed was\nimpossible, fie has a^ccompHshed in mechanical liiies that which trained\n\n"}
{"page": 923, "printed_page": "911", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nFORD\n\nIDEA\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nQII\n\nand experienced men said could not be accomplished. His one answer to\nthe statement, ''It can't be done,\" is to do it.\nA young engineer, a graduate of one of our universities, said to me: \"If\nHenry Ford had had a technical training, he would have known better than\nto have attempted to do some of the things he has done successfully.\"\nAnd the young man did not see the humor in his statement.\nIt is a good thing that once in a while some man with originality and\ncourage, and unhampered by the traditions of the schools, confronts the\nmechanical, economic, and social problems of the world. Because there\nis a man of this kind out at the Ford is the reason why the impossible and\nthe unexpected happen there so frequently.\nWhen the Ford profit-sharing plan was announced, the Jeremiahs got\nbusy. All sorts of dire things were about to happen. The labor market\nwould be upset. Chaos would reign in the industrial world. Ford employees, made suddenly rich, would squander their wealth to the detriment\nof the community and the lasting injury of themselves. But nothing of the\nsort has happened.\nThings quite the contrary have come to pass.\nWhen Mr. Ford made known his intention to give the man who had\nmade a mistake a chance to come back, another howl went up. The city\nwould be overrun with undesirables. Crime would increase. Men, it\nwas asserted, would break into jail in order to get into the Ford. It didn't\nhappen; and the reason why this did not happen, and the reason why\nFord employees did not spend their money in a manner detrimental to\nthemselves and to the community, and the reason why the labor market\nwas not demoralized, and the reason why workmen in other factories did\nnot throw down their tools and go on a strike, and the reason why all the\nother dreadful things predicted did not come to pass, was that along with\nthe profit-sharing plan went a plan for the education of the working-men\nin thrift, honesty, sobriety, better housing, and better living generally — a\nplan that protected them and everybody else. The Ford idea in education\nwas declared impossible. The men would not stand for it. It invaded\ntheir personal rights. It took away their liberty. It was paternalism of\nthe worst sort.\nBut it has worked. It is not resented except occasionally by a man who\nclaims that the liberty guaranteed him under the Constitution of the United\nStates to get drunk and beat up his wife has been invaded.\nThe Ford school provides five compulsory courses. There is a course\nin industry and efficiency, a course in thrift and economy, a course in\ndomestic relations, one in community relations, and one in industrial\nrelations.\nThe Ford English school, which is an important branch of the main\nschool, provides courses in speaking, reading, and writing Enghsh, and in\narithmetic. This course is not exactly optional. A man who declines to\ntake it is laid off for a couple of weeks in order that he may have time to\n\n"}
{"page": 924, "printed_page": "912", "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\n912\n\nthink it over. If after further persuasion he refuses to attend the classes\nhe is given an opportunity to find employment elsewhere.\nI must not forget to mention that in this school we have our professor\nof table manners who teaches the art of eating a meal in a manner that will\nnot interfere with the appetite of the other fellow. We also have a professor of etiquette, such as is required in the ordinary station of life.\nThen we have a special course in the art of making a new start in hfe,\nwith the degree of A.M. LL.D., which being interpreted means: A Mistake\nDoubly Lived Down. The big lesson we try to teach in this course is that\nwhile no man can outrun his past he can outgrow it.\nA study of the foregoing courses will make it clear that the Ford idea\nof education is:\n1. To improve a man's tastes and at the same time increase his earning power.\n2. To teach a man to use his income in a constructive manner.\n3. To put a man into a right relation with his family.\n4. To put a man into right relations with his community.\n5. To put a man right with his work and his employer.\n6. To fit the foreigner to become a citizen and to encourage him to do so.\n7. To give the man who is down and out a chance to come back.\n\nIt is a poor, blind, blundering, educational system which cultivates in\na man a taste for things which it in no way prepares him to obtain. To\nincrease a man's capacity for happiness and at the same time to fail to\ndevelop his power for procuring the means for obtaining the happiness\nfor which you have given him the craving is a cruel thing to do, not a\nkindly one. That educational system is a failure which does not provide\nfor compulsory vocational training for every boy or girl, high and low,\nrich and poor. The system of education which only increases, thru the\nso-called cultural studies, the capacity for happiness, and fails to develop\nthe power for gaining that happiness, is a system bound to increase human\nmisery and failure. The Ford idea is to increase a man's capacity for\nhappiness and at the same time to increase his efficiency, his earning\ncapacity, his worth to society, so that he may have access to the things he\nhas been taught to enjoy.\nThe thing we need to see is the cultural possibilities in vocational training. It is possible to develop a man's mind and soul in the training of his\nhand. We fail to see this because we underestimate the dignity of manual\ntoil and its worth to society. \" I want you to go to school and get an education so that you will not have to work as hard as I have worked,\" was a\nremark often made to me by my father. He did not mean to do so, perhaps, but he was instilling into my mind the idea that an education meant\na higher standing in the social scale and exemption from the degradation\nof physical toil. One still meets too frequently with this enervating and\ndemoralizing idea in the atmosphere of our pubHc schools and colleges.\nA college man at the Ford school discovers that he has a great many things\n\n"}
{"page": 925, "printed_page": "913", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nFORD\n\nIDEA\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n913\n\nto learn under the tutorship of men who have never seen the inside of a\ncollege. The fact is, we are giving at the Ford a great many high-school\nand college men their first real cultural training so far as will, thoroness,\naccuracy, honesty, and a sense of the dignity of labor are concerned. Education does not consist in developing the human intellect alone, but the will\nand emotions as well. It is not enough that a man thinks right, he must\nbe able to will what is right, and to feel what is right as well. We believe\nat the Ford that the true aim of education is to increase the sum-total of\nhuman happiness, but you cannot make an addition to a man's happiness\nthat will stay unless at the same time you increase his usefulness to society.\nIn order to get more, he must be able to give more. Cultural training\nwithout vocational training is about as wise a procedure as planting wheat\nin the desert before developing a system of irrigation. True culture cannot\nbe imparted before one has experienced the toil out of which culture springs.\nMuch of our school culture starves to death. It is bUndly given at the\nexpense of the training on which it must depend for sustenance in afteryears.\nIn public school and college we stimulate study by assuring the pupil\nthat an education will pay. It will mean more dollars in one's pocket later\non. We stimulate a man's desire for an education at the Ford school in\nthe same way. But we go farther. We not only teach a man how to earn\nmore money, -but we begin at once to teach him how to spend it. Lessons\non how to use money are just as important as lessons on how to earn it.\nWe receive every man on six months' probation. This is our preparatory school in which a man qualifies for profit-sharing. It is during this\ntime that we make a careful study of his habits. If, at the end of six months,\nwe are satisfied as to his ability to make use of his profits, we place him on\nthe profit-sharing list, but he must have demonstrated the fact that he\nspends money in a constructive way. There are but two ways of spending\nmoney. One builds up and the other destroys the man, his family, and\nthe community in which he lives. The Ford man must be a builder. If\nhe is not, he is called into the oflSce and his destructive habits are pointed\nout. He is informed that until these habits are overcome his profits will\nbe withheld. If he makes good within thirty days, all withheld profits\nare restored; if it requires sixty days for him to get right, he receives 75\nper cent of his withheld profits and 25 per cent are put into a charity fund.\nThe company does not benefit by the withheld profits of its men. If a\nman taken off his profits does not qualify within six months, his discharge\nat the end of that time is automatic. Needless to say, few men discharge\nthemselves. The certainty of the loss of a minimum income of five dollars\na day, by spending it unwisely, is a strong incentive to the constructive use\nof money.\nEnvironment plays an important part in the Ford idea of education.\nThe environment of a man must be right if you expect him to come clean and\n\n"}
{"page": 926, "printed_page": "914", "text": "914\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\nstrong out of it. Thru our investigators, we frequently take a look into\nthe homes of our employees. If conditions are not right in the home, we\nset ourselves the very first thing to the task of making them right. If\nfamiHes are separated, we endeavor to bring them together. If husband\nand wife are living apart, we leave nothing undone in our effort to reunite\nthem.\nWhen the efficiency of a good workman begins to decline, we have come,\nas the result of past experiences, to look into the home for some kind of\ndomestic trouble. In the majority of instances we find our suspicions\nconfirmed. Family quarrels have an almost immediate effect on the output\nof lathes and drill presses.\nMuch has been said about the home as the foundation of state and\nchurch. We have made the discovery at the Ford that the family is also\nthe basis of right economic and industrial conditions. The welfare of the\nfactory, no less than the welfare of the state and church, depends upon the\nhome. We therefore keep a close watch on the home. We encourage\nbetter housing. We take families up bodily, if need be, and move them\ninto better neighborhoods. We insist that a man shall provide generously\nin proportion to his means for his wife and children. Should he fail to do\nthis, we may turn his profits over to his wife, until he learns to do the square\nthing. We impress upon a man's mind the fact that the one condition\non which we will share profits with him is that he in turn will share them\nwith his family.\nMr. Ford's idea is that a home in which there are roomers or boarders\ncan never be a real home. We therefore insist that the wife of a profitsharer be free to give her entire time to the home. Roomers and boarders\nmust go or profits are withheld. Wives seldom object to this ruHng.\nSo firmly convinced are we that the home is the first essential to right\nliving that more than once we have gone out and rented a house, sent to\ndistant cities for the workman's family, and put them together in the new\nhome. The results are worth many times the investment.\nI regard the discovery by the Ford school of the economic value of\nthe family as one of the most important contributions made in modern\ntimes toward the problem of bringing the home back to its proper place in\nmodern society. It is a fact, once it is appreciated, which will throw the\nenergy of our great industrial organizations into the reconstruction of the\nhome.\nIn addition to the course in domestic relations, we have a course on\ncivic relations. We have a great many foreigners. A great many letters\ncome to us criticizing us for employing so many. To these we reply,\nreminding the writer that his great-grandfather — ^possibly his grandfather\nor father — was a foreigner, and that had the people already on American\nsoil treated his illustrious ancestor as he wants us to treat the foreigner\ntoday, he would be wallowing in the slums of some European city instead\n\n"}
{"page": 927, "printed_page": "915", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nFORD\n\nIDEA\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n915\n\nof enjoying his present privileges. We are taking no little pains to make\nthese foreigners citizens in the best sense of the word. We are trying to\nteach them a higher kind of patriotism than some of our ''hope to die\"\nAmerican critics display in their condemnation of our employment of the\n\"hated foreigner.\" In short, we are trying to lead these men to love their\nadopted country without acquiring a hatred of the one from which they\ncame. It is curious how many people mistake the hatred of other lands for\nthe love of their own. These are those patriotic people who tell you how\nthe sight of the stars and stripes in a foreign port brought tears to their\neyes, and in the next breath tell you how cleverly they beat their beloved\ncountry out of its revenue when they passed thru the customs on their\nreturn from abroad.\nThe Ford English school, of which mention has already been made,\nwas established especially for foreigners in our employ. In that school we\nhave at the present 136 instructors and 2,200 students. We teach them to\nspeak, read, and write English and give them instructions in other fundamental branches of knowledge. We use the dramatic system of instruction. The men come to classes before and after work for a short time\ntwo days in each week. The lessons last an hour and a half. The course\nis given in 68 lessons covering a period of 34 weeks. The men who come\nup to the required standard are graduated. On next Sunday we graduate\na class of 512 and have our exercises in the Light Guard Armory. Each\ngraduate receives a diploma. Our teaching force is a voluntary one, and\nin order to increase the efficiency of these men, some of whom have never\nbeen beyond the sixth grade in school, we have organized a Teachers'\nClub which has much of the spirit of a college organization. Matters of\ngeneral educational interest are discussed, college songs are sung, and a\nfraternal spirit is created. The object of this English school is not only\nto make the men more efficient in our work in the shop, but also to prepare\nthem for citizenship. The first thing we teach them to say is, \" I am a good\nAmerican,\" and then we try to get them to five up to the statement. We\nfound in the beginning a prejudice on the part of one nationality in the\nfactory against another. A candidate for the vice-presidency of one of our\ngraduating classes was repeatedly turned down, and when the men were\nasked why they did not vote for him they stated that it was on account of\nhis nationahty. It was explained to them that neither he nor they were\nforeigners, but that they were all Americans and should vote for the man\npurely on the basis of merit. After this explanation was made the man was\nunanimously elected.\nWe encourage these men to buy homes, knowing that the ownership\nof property will lead to interest in civic matters. We encourage them to\ntake out naturalization papers, rendering them every possible assistance\nwe can in this matter. And in promoting men we do not overlook the\nefforts of those who have co-operated with us along these Unes. We feel,\n\n"}
{"page": 928, "printed_page": "916", "text": "91 6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nand we try to make them feel, that there is something wrong with the man\nwho accepts the privileges of this country and refuses to assume in return\nhis full share of the duties of citizenship.\nThe right relationship between employer and employee follows naturally\nin the wake of the things we try to do for our men. The spirit of the Ford\nschool is not that of patemahsm but of fraternahsm. \"Help the Other\nFellow\" is the motto of the institution. We try to be fair with our men, and\ntheir appreciation is shown in the hearty good-will with which they do their\nwork.\nOne hears a great deal of Ford efficiency. The secret of Ford efficiency\nis the good-will of his employees. The men are happy, made happy by\nthe wage and profit-sharing that put anxiety out of life. In return for what\nthey receive the men work not only with a will, but with a \"good- will,\" and\nno efficiency methods ever devised can take the place of the \"good-will\" of\nemployees toward employer. Will plus scientific efficiency methods will\ndo great things, but \"good- will\" plus ordinary inteUigence will do a lot\nmore. And when you get the two together — good-will and efficiency —\ncompetition ceases. This is why Henry Ford is getting out of raw, unskilled,\nand what some ignorant people call \"ignorant foreign labor\" greater 'results\nthan any other employer in modern times.\nThe consciousness of having made his workmen happy was the pay he\nexpected for doing it. The increased efficiency of his men as a result of\ntheir good-will came as a by-product and exceeded all expectations.\nOur special course for the man who is struggling to regain his place in\nthe world would require an article of great length were I to go into detail.\nSuffice it to say that of those given the chance, the great majority do make\ngood. Mr. Ford's idea is that the cure for crime is work, not in stripes and\nbehind stone walls, but in the open where men are made strong by the confidence and encouragement of their fellow-men. Experience is demonstrating the truth of his theory.\nThere is a very definite end in view in the Ford idea of education. We\nhave in mind a man who is right in his relations toward his employer, his\nfamily, and toward the community in which he fives. This is the kind of\nman we have in view. This is the human product we seek to turn out,\nand as we adapt the machinery in the shop to turning out of the kind of\nautomobile we have in mind, so we have constructed our educational system\nwith a view to producing the human product we have in mind.\nKnowing the kind of man we want, we proceed first of all in accordance\nwith Mr. Ford's idea to make it possible for a man to have his share of\nhuman happiness; for no man can be right in his relations to his employer\nand to society so long as they deny him the happiness, or the means thereto\nwhich it is his right to have.\nHenry Ford's greatest desire in life is to make others happy. Incidentally hehas proved to the world that the business of making others\n\n"}
{"page": 929, "printed_page": "917", "text": "DEBATE\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nON SCHOOL ORGANIZATION\n917\n\nhappy pays commercially. But the fact that it pays is not his first consideration. Agreat deal of his money comes as a sort of by-product of\nthe business of helping the other fellow. It seems that every time he discovers a way of making more people happy, more money pours in. But\nso long as the money is used, as it always is, to give more people employment at a wage that provides for some of the luxuries of life, as well as for\nits necessities, nobody cares.\nHenry Ford is one of the few men controlling great wealth whom the\nmasses of men want to see control still more.\n\nDEB A TE: THE BEST ORGANIZA TION FOR AMERICAN SCHOOLS\nIS A PLAN WHICH SHALL DIVIDE THESE SCHOOLS INTO\nSTX YEARS OF ELEMENTARY TRAINING AND SIX YEARS\nOF SECONDARY TRAINING\nI.\n\nCHARLES\n\nH.\n\nJUDD, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL\nOF EDUCATION,\nCHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL., AFFIRMATIVE\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nHow long are the elementary schools and the high schools to stand\napart ? How long are pupils in the seventh and eighth grades to be deprived\nof their right to a richer course of study because of the artificial line which\nhas heretofore cut them off from geometry and biology, from the languages\nand literature of other nations, and the skilled arts which train the eye\nand hand ? How long are we to accept with complacence the wasteful and\ndiscouraging reviews which characterize the eighth grade and compel children to mark time on the threshold of the great change into the first year\nof high school ? How long are we to tolerate a curriculum in the first year\nof the high school which seems so strange to the ordinary child that he is\nalienated from the pursuit of higher knowledge ?\nThese are the questions which we are to discuss today. The answer\nis brief and clear. So long as you listen to the dark counsels of those who\nsay to you that children in the upper years of the elementary school cannot\ndo more than they are now doing, you will hold them back. So long as you\nlet those who scoff at their fellow-teachers make you think that high schools\nare for the few and elementary schools have the secret formulas of democracy, you will be content to shut your eyes to the fact that the American\nhigh school is one of the most typical expressions of our western-world\ndemocracy. So long as you are willing to jog along with the clumsy school\norganization that originated in the middle of the last century, you will\nwaste the time of children by your ox-cart methods.\nIf, on the contrary, you will open your eyes and realize that our high\nschools today register 30 per cent of all the children of high-school age,\nyou will begin to see that the time has come to adopt a modern form of\norganization which wiU facilitate the contmuation of every child's education.\n\n"}
{"page": 930, "printed_page": "918", "text": "9i8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nIf you realize that the three R's have expanded in the modern world\ninto science and civics, into art and knowledge of human life, you will be\ninspired with enthusiasm for the introduction of some of these better things\ninto the earlier years of a child's Ufe. Elementary schools should not be\nthe homes of drudgery and the abode of the downtrodden. Elementary\nschools have a right to a part of the new light of a new age.\nIf we Uberalize the elementary school, we shall also, in like spirit,\nliberaUze the first year of the high school. When one thinks of the wall of\nLatin, algebra, and ancient history, over which most of us climbed half a\ngeneration ago, he is certainly glad of an opportunity in mature Hfe to\nknock a few stories from the foundation of that moss-grown barrier.\nThe answer, I say, is brief and clear. We cannot longer allow anyone\nto befool us into satisfaction with the present breach between the elementary\nschools and the high schools.\nLest there should be a few conservatives among us, let us begin by asking\nthem what is sacred about the eight years of the present elementary school.\nWere these eight years determined upon after careful consideration ? Not\nat all. The elementary school was, at the outset, an undefined and, in\nmany respects, unlimited institution. One can remember, if his experience\ngoes back to a district school, how the older boys and girls of the community\ncame in during the winter term and took a little work when they were\notherwise unoccupied on the farm or in the home. Pupils in such schools\nwere frequently much older than our present eighth-grade pupils. The\nreason why they came to the common school was that no high school was\nnear at hand to offer them extended opportunity. These older pupils\nwere the forerunners of those who today are demanding a larger and a\nricher education than that which has heretofore characterized the grades.\nIndeed, in New England, where economic conditions were favorable,\nthe experiment of a nine-year elementary school was tried. Even today\nover the whole state of Maine, except in the large cities, the nine-year school\nis the standard school and expresses the ambition of the people for more\neducation than can be included in the limits of a course based on the\nthree R's.\nOn the other hand, there are seven-year elementary schools in the\nUnited States which go to show that there is nothing sacred about the eightyear school. In many of our southern states the seven-year school flourishes and is retained by men and women of this organization who are\nthoroly acquainted with the eight-year school.\nThe famous experiment in Kansas City shows that a seven-year school\nis a perfectly rational and altogether economical school. So much misinformation has been circulated about the Kansas City schools that I\ntook pains to secure from Superintendent Cammack information on the\nmatter. The average time required by the pupils who last year completed\nthe seventh grade in Kansas City was 7.65 years. We know that the\n\n"}
{"page": 931, "printed_page": "919", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDEBATE\n\nON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n919\n\naverage time required by children in eight-year schools to complete the\neighth grade is 8 . 5 years, so that it is seen that the Kansas City schools get\ntheir children thru the elementary course a year earlier than other schools.\nSuperintendent Cammack's figures show, also, that more of the children\nget thru the Kansas City schools than in eight-year systems.\nAll these details show that the eight-year school is not a fixed law of\nnature. Where, then, did it come from? Some time in the middle of\nthe last century when the high schools were very little developed, when\nthe common school gave the common child all the training he was to get,\nthe example of Europe was accepted and our eight-year school crystallized\ninto form.\nThe European eight-year school is the product of an entirely different\nnational attitude toward education. In Europe, the boy or girl who goes\nto an eight-year school goes no farther. The eight-year school is a complete\nunit. The eight-year school of Europe is the device of aristocracy to give\nonly a limited education to the common people.\nThe school of Europe which is intended for children who are going on\nis not an eight-year school. No child of the governing class goes to the\neight-year school in Europe.\nThis is the thing we borrowed from Europe — an eight-year school for\nthe poorer classes, an eight-year school which aims at a meager education,\nan eight-year school sharply marked off from the higher schools.\nIt is interesting to note in this connection that the age of fourteen which\nwas selected as the upper limit of compulsory education was not determined\nby a careful investigation of the intellectual Ufe of children or the subjectmatter of instruction; it was originally established in Europe and in the\ntraditions of our civilization because it is the period of confirmation in the\nchurch. In Europe religious education has always been a part of the work\nof the school, and when the child is ready for confirmation his education\nautomatically stops.\nThe student of education sees in the later developments of American\nschools a brilliant illustration of the biblical parable. This old European\nbottle, full of the New World ferment, is covered with the patches put on\nby conscientious but misguided hands, and yet hope grows less and less\nthat our new ambitions can be held together in this antique vessel.\nThe elementary school breaks up when nature asserts itself. In the\nbest schools of this country the upper grades are departmentalized. This\nmeans that the methods of teaching children cannot be the same in the\nlower grades and the upper grades. The division of the eight-year school\ninto upper classes conducted by one method and lower classes conducted\nby other methods is a natural and wholesome readjustment.\nFurther evidence that the eight-year school is no unit appears in the\nfact that the present-day course of study is different from that offered in\nthe old-fashioned unit school. One cannot keep an eighth grade alive on\n\n"}
{"page": 932, "printed_page": "920", "text": "920\n\nNA TIONAL\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[Detroit\n\nditch-digging problems and definitions of parts of speech. There are new\ncourses in civics, new courses in local industries, and new courses in science.\nThere is even a tendency to read some of the classics in EngUsh literature\nwhich used to be labeled as the exclusive property of the high school. The\ndupHcating of high-school work has gone so far in the upper grades of the\nelementary school that harsh words are sometimes passed down by highschool teachers who find that Julius Caesar and other strictly high-school\ncharacters have been kidnaped.\nWhat does all this duplicating mean ? It means that you can surround\nthe common people of the United States by an eight-year school, but they\nwill break out as soon as they can. In America there is today in reality\nno eight-year school. The shell is broken, save only in those unfortunate\nlocalities where some arch-conservative is holding it together by devices\nwhich repudiate nature.\nIf we turn from worn-out European tradition to scientific studies of\nhimaan nature or even to observation such as a sensible teacher can make,\nwe find that it is the twelve-year-old child who is putting away childish\nthings in the first flush of adolescence. The twelve-year-old child begins\nto look into the larger world. He begins to think of his duties to society\nand himself. When he is fourteen or fifteen, he will be half thru the critical\nperiod of adolescence. If you want to influence an adolescent in a large\nway, you must begin at twelve, not fourteen.\nAnother product of the science of human nature is the principle of\nindividual differences. The fallacy of believing that all pupils are exactly\naUke was the fallacy of a generation ago. The study of human nature\nand the needs of society have forced upon us a new conviction. We now\nrealize that an individual to be a productive member of a democratic\nsociety must play some part other than that which is played by his feUows.\nIn our schools we must provide preparation for the diversified duties of\ndemocratic society by giving full recognition to individual capacities and\nindividual training. Children in the lower grades exhibit personal characteristics which deserve attention, but in those early days when the most\nfundamental types of learning are being worked out, the common traits\nof human nature are in preponderance. By the time the child has reached\nthe fifth and sixth grades, his personality begins to express itself emphatically innew ways. Having cultivated acquaintance with the fundamentals\nof knowledge, he now begins to make applications of knowledge to his own\nindividual life, and the period of adolescence finds him ready to assume\npersonal responsibiUties and make personal decisions with regard to intellectual and moral matters. Whether we like it or not, the child in the\nseventh grade is growing into an individual. Whether we like it or not, his\ntastes and outlook will begin to mark themselves off sharply from the\ntastes and outlooks of other members of the class. That school alone is\n\n"}
{"page": 933, "printed_page": "921", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nI\n\nDEBATE\n\nON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n921\n\nintelligent in its management of seventh-grade children which recognizes\nthe fundamental principle of individual differences.\nThere are those among us who contend that children of this age must\nbe driven into the same mold, that they must be made to fit some abstract\nnotion, developed in the mind of the pedagog. Some of these conservatives\nmay have their way for a time, but the years will prove that their conservatism is falsely conceived. That education is most appropriate to a\ndemocracy which is most broadly planned and executed.\nUp to this point we have shown that reorganization is going on in our\nschool system thru the changes which are naturally developing in the\nelementary school. If we turn abruptly to the high school, we shall find\nhere a tendency toward reorganization which is even more pronounced.\nThe high school has been in some degree from the earliest period an institution organized to give to all its students a broad outlook upon life. Some\nhigh schools have degenerated into appendages of colleges and have been\nsatisfied to offer merely a narrow preparatory course. But the typical,\nthe vigorous example of the American high school has been characterized\nby the broad purpose of introducing the student to life. The great fields\nof human knowledge are to be canvassed by the student in series of courses\nwhich carry him thru history, literature, science, and mathematics. In\nour modern high school there is added to this list of academic subjects an\nintensive study of the vernacular and a whole series of practical and industrial arts which are to widen the student's horizon. The result of this\nambitious program is that the curriculum of the high school has come to be\nso crowded that it is quite impossible to meet the demands in the short\nfour years allotted to this school. The Committee of Ten, when it made\nits report in 1894, saw very clearly that the secondary school cannot do\nthe work which it must undertake and confine its program to four years.\nThe pronouncement^ of that committee in this matter is perfectly definite\nand is as follows :\nIn preparing these programs, the committee were perfectly aware that it is impossible\nto make a satisfactory secondary-school program, limited to a period of four years, and\nfounded on the present elementary-school subjects and methods. In the opinion of the\ncommittee, several subjects now reserved for high schools — such as algebra, geometry,\nnatural science, and foreign languages — should be begun earlier than now, and therefore\nwithin the schools classified as elementary; or, as an alternative, the secondary-school\nperiod should be made to begin two years earlier than at present, leaving six years instead\nof eight for the elementary-school period. Under the present organization, elementary\nsubjects and elementary methods are, in the judgment of the committee, kept in use too\nlong.\n\nThe secondary school is thus on record as having discovered the problem of reorganization before the lower school became clearjy aware of it.\n» Report of the Committee of Ten on Secondary School Stttdies, p. 45.\ntion Association by the American Book Company.\n1894.\n\nPublished for the National Educa-\n\n"}
{"page": 934, "printed_page": "922", "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\n922\n\nEven today we have a situation which can be described in somewhat the\nsame terms. The secondary-school people are taking up the innovations\nof the intermediate school or the junior high school with enthusiasm.\nElementary-school officers, on the other hand, are somewhat more conservative. The elementary-school principal hesitates to lose his upper classes;\nthe elementary-school principal is afraid that he is to be deprived of his\nmost experienced and efficient teachers. While the high-school people\nare driven by sheer necessity to accept a change, the elementary-school\npeople are not convinced because they feel that it may be possible by\nmakeshift devices to evade for a time the real issue.\nThat the high school is compelled to expand may perhaps be made more\nimpressive by calUng attention to the fact that it has already expanded at\nthe upper end into the Freshman and Sophomore years of college. There\nis not an American college which does not complete the secondary course\nof its students. In many institutions this is done by an evasion which can\nhardly be described as subtle. In these cases the college prints a long list\nof requirements, accepts students who do not fulfil these requirements, and\nthen compels these students to make up conditions after entering. A\n\"condition\" is a confession that the college cannot demand from students\nits own prescribed secondary course.\nOther colleges deal with the problem more directly and say to the student, take elementary German or French, elementary history and science,\nin the early years of your college course and thus complete the broad survey\nof human knowledge which the high school could not complete. Until\nyou finish this introductory work we cannot let you specialize or enter the\nprofessional schools.\nThe evil of this situation lies, not in the fact that the colleges are in\nreality secondary schools in their Freshman and Sophomore years — the\nevil lies in the fact that many colleges are making a frantic effort to force\nthe high school to do more work. Students take not four but five and even\nsix units in a year in the effort to cover human experience in four years.\nThe high school needs relief, and the broadest educational statesmanship\nwill be exhibited in providing this relief.\nIt would be easy to pile up arguments for the reorganization of the\nhigh school. What does it mean that some of our better schools are organizing two-year courses? What does it mean that the elective system has\ncome to the rescue of the first year ? What is supervised study ? Every\nreform in the high schools is an eloquent pronouncement in favor of an\nextension and a modification of the present school organization.\nWhy one should have to present all these facts in the form of arguments\nis hard to understand. Let one look out over our schools and he will see\nthe change coming. This is not a prophecy; it is a fact. More than lo per\ncent of the approved high-school systems in the north-central territory are\nat work today on the problem of organizing intermediate schools. We\n\n"}
{"page": 935, "printed_page": "923", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDEBATE\n\nON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n923\n\nought to have every ounce of our energy fo devote to the discussion of the\nbest way of carrying out the program. It is truly irritating that one must\npause to say, \" Come with us; it is so, it is so,\" when he should be in council\ndiscussing the next step forward.\nPerhaps there are some who do not understand why this movement is\nso swift in our day. Perhaps those who hold back are merely dazed by\nthe rapidity of the change. There is an explanation for all this, and perhaps\nwe shall do well to give that explanation in all detail.\nWhen the Committee of Ten made its report, it had a theoretical insight\ninto the situation, but its contentions operated only very feebly in bringing\nabout real changes. This teaches that change in organization does not\ngrow out of theory, and we have new confidence in the vitality of the real\nchanges of today. In the same way, the forces that have been operating\nto change the elementary school have been at work slowly until, finally,\nwithin the last few years, there seems to be a consummation of this movement with a rapidity that is literally astonishing. When the historian of\neducation writes an account of the last five years, he will point out the fact\nthat during these years the great fundamental need of social economy bore\ndown upon our people with unmistakable emphasis. It made very little\ndifference in the early days of our American civilization that a student\nlost one or two years thru our clumsy school organization, but today we\nare not at liberty to waste the time of students in any sense of the word.\nWe must give to students and we must give to communities the best forms\nof organization possible. There have been inco-ordinations in the earlier\nyears, as every serious writer on education has realized and pointed out.\nToday the public is calling upon us, in an age of efficiency and scientific\ninsight, to cure these inco-ordinations. We are forced to act and act\npromptly. What was theoretical discontent has become a real demand\nfor improvement.\nCuriously enough, this demand for economy is misunderstood by some\nof our conscientious colleagues. They think of intellectual parsimony when\nwe speak of economy. They think we are going to hold back something\nfrom children. They cry out for the old-fashioned waste as the sure mark\nof generosity. Let us exercise what charity we can with them. Let us\ntell them that economy means better organization, less friction, more rapid\nprogress, less loss. Everywhere the forces of society are set in the direction\nof improving the opportunities of every child. These opportunities must\nbe so complete and so well organized that there shall be no question at\nall about the investment of equipment and teaching which society is making\nin the schools and the investment which the child is making in time and\nenergy. We must see to it that there is no wasteful duplication. We must\nfit the courses to the needs of the individual child. We must fit these\ncourses to the needs of his growing mental life. We must change the\nmethods of our administration at a time when it is appropriate to the child's\n\n"}
{"page": 936, "printed_page": "924", "text": "924\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nchange in mental attitude. Anyone who stands in the way of this movement isan enemy of society and an enemy of the individual child. Economy\ndoes not mean something that is narrow and limiting; it means, rather, a\nbetter organization.\nSometimes it has been said by those who oppose the intermediate\nschool that the break between the sixth grade and the seventh grade will\nbe widened by this new form of organization. They are saying, also, that\nthe break between the ninth grade and the tenth grade is a menace to the\nfuller development of the child's education. The answer to these criticisms\nlies in the fact that the whole motive of this organization is to create a\ncontinuity where heretofore there has been a disjointed and wastefuUy\ndupHcating system. The seventh grade is to recognize the individual\nchild's needs and is to give him such a course as is suited to his adolescent\nexperience. In doing this, it will effect a change in methods of operation\njust at the point where the child himself is undergoing a change. The\nchild will reach out and meet the change in school organization which\nis provided for him. To delay this change until two years after the child is\nprepared for it, as we do in an eight-year school, jeopardizes the whole\nrelation of the school and the pupil. To make the change at the time in\nthe child's life when he is ready for it and when the change will be congenial\nto his needs and intellectual demands is to economize his life and energy\nin the largest sense of the word. We avoid a break by moving parallel\nto the child's own motion, not by crossing him obliquely in the path of\ndevelopment. In exactly the same way, if we change the first year of the\nhigh school so as to make it fit the child's needs, we shall effect economy by\nremoving those obstacles to the natural progress of the pupil which now\nexist in the first year of the high school.\nThe effect on teachers and school officers will be equally wholesome with\nthe effect on students. It is quite impossible to work out these changes\nwhich are contemplated in the organization of an intermediate school\nwithout showing the irrationality of all the harsh feehngs and criticisms\nthat heretofore have existed between the elementary school and the high\nschool. We shall make for unity by cultivating in the school organization\nitself a new spirit of adaptation of the courses to the students. If the whole\ncorps of teachers could be trained by this new form of organization to see\nthat the one dominating principle of school organization which is acceptable\nin modern society is the principle of continuity and adaptation to the child's\nneeds, we shall have eradicated those criticisms and personal animosities\nwhich have in the past so often expressed themselves in the petty criticisms\npassed back and forth between shallow-minded partisans of distinct and\nantagonistic schools.\nIn these few paragraphs, I have tried to outline the changes which are\ntransforming the eight-year school into a richer school, better adapted to\n\n"}
{"page": 937, "printed_page": "925", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDEBATE\n\nON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n925\n\nthe children, and better related to the other members of the school\nsystem.\nI have tried to show that the high school, too, is changing.\nThe consummation of these changes is seen in a new amalgamation of\nthose grades which have until now been universally held apart. The\nseventh, eighth, and ninth grades belong together. No artificial line can\npermanently divide them. As we become more intelligent in our scientific\ninsights, as our social Ufe expresses itself more freely, we become vividly\naware that the sixth grade is the natural point of differentiation and that\nthe problems of secondary education unfold themselves from the child's\ntwelfth to eighteenth year.\nThe new order of school is not an imitation of an outworn model; there\nis here all the vigor and appropriateness of a new social life finding its large\nand natural expression. There is a cure in this new organization for the\nlittleness and provincialism of those earlier days of separation.\nSurely the burden of proof lies heavily on the shoulders of anyone who\nwould oppose this movement. He must show that the old order is efl&cient,\neconomical, and full of harmony. He must make us believe that the upper\nyears of the elementary school are like the lower years. He must persuade\nus that the high school can give an adequate view of life in four years.\nHe must not only persuade us, but he must also persuade the children\nin the schools and the parents in the homes. The strength of this new\norganization is in the fact that it meets a felt need. Where it is put into\noperation it holds children in the schools, equipping them for life in accordance with the laws of their natures. This movement is a great substantial\nsocial fact and he who opposes it must answer to society.\n\nII.\n\nCARROLL\n\nG. PEARSE,\nPRESIDENT,\nSTATE NORMAL\nMILWAUKEE, WIS., NEGATIVE\n\nSCHOOL,\n\nIn beginning this discussion, the negative makes no denial of the fact\nthat the elementary schools of the country, as well as the secondary schools\nand the colleges, need readjustment and a much better adaptation to the\nneeds of both the pupils and the community; none of these three grand\ndivisions of the American educational system has kept pace with the changes\nin the industrial and social life of the nation, nor is any of them, in general,\nmeeting satisfactorily the demands of the time. But to the plan proposed\nby the affirmative as a remedy for existing difficulties, the negative offers\na most positive dissent.\nOur present educational system is a growth; it was not prescribed for us\nby others. It has grown up as the joint result of our national conditions and\nour compelHng desire that all the people be educated. It is, therefore, reasonable that it, and the causes that have produced it, receive consideration before\nit is gaily thrown aside for the plan here proposed, or for any other plan.\n\n"}
{"page": 938, "printed_page": "926", "text": "926\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nOur ancestors in the colonies that have given us our ideals in education\nclearly held two beUefs: first, that all children should be taught to read and\nwrite and cipher so that they could read the Bible and the laws, communicate with others or make a record, and compute, as required by their daily\nbusiness; secondly, that leaders were needed, ministers, lawyers and judges,\ndoctors, to tell the people what to think and what to do. To educate\nleaders, colleges were needed. These two notions gave us the elementary\nschool and the college.\nBoys who wished to enter the colleges must be trained in that knowledge\nwhich was required by those institutions. Not all boys could be fitted for\ncollege by the father, or the minister, or some learned friend of the family.\nAcademies and \"grammar schools\" were set up for this purpose. Two\ngenerations after the Revolution, Horace Mann preached his crusade,\nwith its principle that every child should have the chance for an education,\nwhich, to him, meant a college training. To make broad the highway\nfrom primary school to university, the academy and the ''grammar school\"\nwere turned into the public high school.\nGeneral intelligence increased; other subjects joined the \"three R's\"\nin the common-school curriculum. We wanted our children to learn\ncertain things. But more especially we wanted them to remain in school\nuntil about the age of fourteen, at least, before taking up the burdens of\nlife, or before deciding on the particular direction their future studies should\ntake. The curriculum was arranged, from time to time, so as to occupy\ngenerally the time indicated. In Maine and in other New England states,\nwhere youth matures later, some nine-year elementary schools were established; thruout the South, owing to climatic conditions, maturity comes\nearlier, and many seven-year schools were instituted. But in general\nthe eight-year elementary school became the accepted pattern for the\ncountry.\nThere were always failures in the old-style schools. But the boys and\ngirls who were poor at their books often did best at their work; they dropped\nout and went to work, and little was said. But when people flocked to the\ntowns, schools became large, and were of necessity more closely graded.\nHere the large number of failures in the grammar grades attracted attention; school funds are wasted when it takes two years to teach a boy what\nhe should learn in one ; also, many children who fail leave school unprepared\nfor successful work in life.\nBut the high schools and colleges are having trouble as well as the\nelementary schools. Too few children get into the high school; too\nmany fail after getting there; too many who fail, and too many others,\ndrop out.\nYoung men graduate from college too late by two or three years.\nWhen they enter the professions, they too often, because of the preparation\nnow required, come into the practice two, three, even four years later than\n\n"}
{"page": 939, "printed_page": "927", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDEBATE\n\nON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n927\n\nthey ought. A committee of the National Education Association on\nEconomy of Time in Education stated a few years ago:\n\nI\n\nSince the early New England college, we have added four years to preparation and\nthree years to specializing for the professions. Instead of converting the college into the\nuniversity, we have piled the German university on top of our imitation of the English\ntype [of college] without adjustment of the system, and the situation is full of difficulties\nand absurdities.\n\nFor this generally unsatisfactory condition we have been seeking\nremedies. Some public schools have put their grammar-grade failures\ninto \"industrial classes,\" giving them mostly hand work, in the effort to\ninterest them and hold them in school; other schools have had similar\nclasses called ''prevocational classes,\" which have sometimes tried also\nto train these children, made failures by the faulty conditions in regular\nclasses, into usefulness as shop or factory hands. Now comes this proposal\nto cut off the seventh and eighth grades — separate the twelve- and thirteenyear-old children— from the elementary school and put them into the high\nschool, thus organizing a six-year elementary school and a six-year high\nschool. When we remember the difficulties which fourteen-year-old children now have in too many high schools, it seems a queer remedy.\nTwo types of the six-year high school are proposed; sometimes one\ntype is urged, sometimes the other. The one type is to provide separate\ncourses, and probably, where possible, separate schools, for different groups\nof children. These are to be required to choose, at the end of the sixth\ngrade, whether they will follow industrial careers, or go into commerce,\nor have a liberal education and probably go into a profession. If the children do not know what to select, someone is to choose for them and put\nthem into the compartment selected. The other type is to be a sort of\nglorified grammar school, somewhat different from our present schools in\nequipment and curriculum, but differing chiefly in having the seventh and\neighth grades separated from the lower grades.\nThe first type of six-year high school, where children are separated into\nclasses according to their \"probable future employment,\" is no doubt suggested by those familiar with the secondary schools of England and\nGermany. In both these countries, only those who are to go into the professions or those who are to have a liberal education enter the secondary\nschools, which are largely separate institutions, and do not have any close\nor direct connection with the elementary schools. These secondary schools\nare for \" the classes\" — the children of families of wealth and social position,\nand for a limited number of other children who show promise of special\nmental ability; these are taken out of the elementary schools at twelve\nyears of age or earlier, while most of the children — the common children —\nare left in the elementary schools to be trained as workers.\nThe headmasters in the English' secondary schools, which are in reality\ncollege-fitting schools, clamor to have their students sent to them at the\n\n"}
{"page": 940, "printed_page": "928", "text": "928\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nage of twelve or earlier; in the German schools, children who are to have\nthe \"higher education\" go into the secondary school before the age of\ntwelve, often at the end of the fourth or even of the third school year.\nAmerica does not wish a public-school system the organization of which\nis drawn from such educational practices, or from countries with such social\nand educational ideals.\nIt is fair to ask who among us is now advocating this plan. I regret\nto say that our highest educational official has taken this, as I believe,\nerroneous view of the remedy for existing conditions. The honored and\ninfluential ex-president of a great eastern university is quoted as having\nsaid at an important educational gathering a few years ago that each child\nshould choose, or someone should choose for him, at the age of twelve, his\nfuture career, and his future education should be shaped to that end. A\nCommittee of the National Education Association on Economy of Time\nin Education in its report a few years ago favored the plan. In connection\nwith this report it may be noted, however, that on this committee of five\nthere were three college men and one high-school man; only one publicschool man was among the number, and he was not the most aggressive\nmember of the group.\nMany college men, including my distinguished opponent, would be\npleased with this plan, and there are reasons why college men should favor\nit. The young men now too frequently come from the professional schools\nthree or four years too late; too often they graduate from the colleges two\nor three years too late. Some kind of an adjustment will, within a few\nyears, be forced. If the plan we are discussing could be adopted, the organization ofthe professional school could be saved; the college could retain its\npresent organization and prestige as a four-year institution. The college\ncould then also get from the high school that more thoro and extended\ntraining in the college-preparatory studies which the college is now asking\nfor but which the high school does not find itself able to give. That the\ntwo years thus gained for the benefit of the colleges would be taken from the\nelementary schools is no doubt of little importance to the college men.\nOnly a small minority of children get thru the high school, and fewer yet\nget to college, and the college is interested only in this selected minority.\nBy this plan too the proper aspiration of the high school to expand and\nbecome a more important institution could be gratified. It may be that if,\nby taking the two years from the elementary schools, this importance could\nbe given to the high schools, they might relinquish the desire to expand\nby the plan of taking into the high school the \"junior college,\" the first two\ncollege years. Only the common schools of the common people would suffer.\nShorn of these two years, they would be greatly reduced in importance, in\nprestige, and in their power to influence American hfe and institutions.\nMany employers would be glad to see this six-and-six arrangement.\nThe differentiated courses for the industrially destined pupils would give\n\n"}
{"page": 941, "printed_page": "929", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDEBATE\n\nON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n929\n\na means of training hand workers in the years from twelve to fourteen that\nnothing we now have can equal. One such employer is quoted as saying\nthat he would Hke to have the public schools send him a boy who could\n\"read a blueprint, run a drill press, and be satisfied with his job.\" A boy\ncaught at the age of twelve and trained for his ''probable future employment\" as a hand worker might perhaps fill even this last specification and\n\"be satisfied with his job\" as attendant to a drill press for life.\nIt is to be regretted also that some public-school men, who can hardly\nhave realized what such a six-and-six plan would quite certainly do to the\ncommon schools sooner or later, are echoing the cry for the plan, the chief\nbenefit of which is to be reaped by the colleges. Perhaps this is only natural;\nmany public-school men are loyal graduates of the colleges which are pushing this plan; they have been accustomed to look to the colleges for leadership; the colleges have recognized and regular means of giving publicity\nto their views. PubHc-school men seldom have mediums of publicity;\nthey perhaps too often take the word of some one who offers to give it.\nThe advocates of the plan tell us — that is, some of them in arguing the\nquestion do — that the great change in our young people comes at twelve,\nnot at fourteen; that the age of twelve marks the time in a child's life\nwhen he puts away childish things and becomes a man. This, from\n\"scientific men,\" sounds queer. Common people know without asking\n\"educators\" that these great physical and spiritual changes come at about\nthe age of fourteen in our latitude and climate. In the tropical south,\nthe time of change arrives earHer; far to the north, it may be delayed;\nbut, for the great majority of our young people, it comes at about fourteen.\nI quote only one authority, G. Stanley Hall, who will no doubt be accepted\nas such. He says in his great work on adolescence:\nThese years are the best decade of life, and that it [the book] may directly and\nindirectly help the young to exploit aright all the possibilities of the years from fourteen\nto twenty-four, and safeguard them against insidious dangers, is the writer's desire.\n\nIt is childish to say that our elementary school has been made to end\nwith the pupil's fourteenth year because the church confirms its children at\nfourteen. We have fixed the end of our elementary school to coincide with\nthe fourteenth year for the same reason that the church confirms young\npeople into its membership at that age; because, at about the age of fourteen, profound spiritual as well as physical changes fit the youth for this\nexperience and participation. The church of Europe has learned thru\na thousand years the wisdom of this course; and this is based upon an even\nolder experience and practice running back into the mists of pagan antiquity. Ifwe should accept the age of twelve as a \"change\" period requiring a new and separated school organization, we must remember that there\nis another \" change \" period at about the ninth year; we must make another\nsub-organization and establish still another school in a separate watertight compartment for children of that age.\n\n"}
{"page": 942, "printed_page": "930", "text": "930\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nChildren at twelve years of age are seldom fit to make choice of a Hfe\ncareer; parents and teachers are seldom fit to make this choice for them\nat that time. You know that this is true of your own twelve-year-old\nchildren. Why should you presume to require the children of others — of\nthe \"common people\" — to choose at that time? The changes of even\npreadolescence often put a very different face on matters in two years, and\nchoices made at the age of twelve will often be and often ought to be\nremade at fourteen or later. The two years in question are, however,\ninvaluable for vocational guidance — as a time for reflection and for obtaining information before children are forced to the iron gates of decision.\nTraditional standards and considerations, parental influence and the\ninfluence of surroundings, up to the age of thirteen are strong; after that\nyoung people begin to exercise greater independence in choosing occupations.\nBut there is still a weightier reason than any of the foregoing why this\ntype of the six-year high school ought not to be permitted to get a foothold\namong us. The deeper reasons for a public-school system are social and\npolitical. Every man pays school taxes to help to train every child of the\nstate as an intelligent citizen. More important even than the knowledge\nwhich is so important to intelligent citizenship is the sentiment of real\ndemocratic equality, and a knowledge and understanding of each other\nand an interest in each other on the part of all our people — not merely the\nliberally educated, not merely the workers in industry or in commerce,\nbut all the people. There is enough scramble and selfishness and conflict\nof interest after the youth leaves school for the work of life; there is enough\ntendency to social separation and exclusiveness if we do the best we can.\nBut to push downward by two years the time when our children in the\npeople's schools are separated into groups, largely if not wholly according\nto their \"future probable employment,\" would be httle short of a crime on\nthe part of those responsible for it, and nothing short of a calamity to us\nin our national life. The separated high schools, where commercial and\nindustrial and \"liberal\" high-school courses of study are followed by separate\ngroups of pupils under separate roofs, are bad enough; but to introduce\nthis division at the end of the sixth grade would be as inexcusable as it is\nunnecessary.\nThat form of the six-and-six plan which proposes a common course of\nstudy for all children but proposes to cut the seventh and eighth grades\naway from the grades below, while less dangerous and fraught with less\ngrave dangers to our institutions in the near future, brings with it certain\nserious dangers nevertheless, and is wholly unnecessary; all the improvements and reconstructions which are required can not only be made without\nresorting to it, but they can be more advantageously made with an eightyear elementary school than under the six-and-six plan.\nThe end of the elementary school is a natural stopping-place. If the\ncommon school ends with the sixth grade, a far greater number of pupils,\n\n"}
{"page": 943, "printed_page": "931", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDEBATE\n\nON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n931\n\nespecially those who are over age, will wish, or will be urged by shortsighted or greedy parents, to leave school, than will be the .case if the elementary school stops only at the end of the eighth grade. This does not\nneed argument; every practical school man knows it.\nIf the six-year elementary and six-year high school is to be accepted\nas our type, a general reorganization of our schools everywhere must take\nplace. This will require in many, probably in most places, the erection of\nspecial buildings for the new type of school, with new and expensive equipment and furnishings. It will require the appointment of teachers of the\nhigh-school type and with the high-school standard of salaries. A good\nmany pubhc-school administrators, as well as a good many experienced\nparents, will wonder how much better off boys and girls in their thirteenth\nand fourteenth years will be if placed in charge of the type of teachers often\nfound in charge of high-school classes in the earlier years; they will be sure\nto raise the question at once as to how much better and more wisely the\nentering high-school students will now be handled by the high-school\nteachers under high-school conditions than the same pupils have been\nhandled by grammar-school teachers and principals in the later years of\nthe grammar schools. But, waiving this point for the present (tho the\nsuperiority of high-school teachers and high-school methods should be\nclearly shown before the proposed plan can be seriously considered), can\nanyone doubt that the plan proposed would greatly increase the cost of\ncarrying on the schools ? The cost of high-school buildings is very much\ngreater than that of entirely satisfactory grammar schools; the cost of\ninstruction for high-school students thruout the country approaches, if it\ndoes not reach, a figure twice as great as that for pupils in elementary\nschools.\nThe difficulties of the plan would be largely increased by the fact that\nonly the larger towns could or would organize in accordance with it. The\nexpense of separate establishments, or for greatly increased high-school\nfacilities* munities\nand with equipment,\nwouldresources.\nbe out of This\nthe question\nfor in\nthea small\ncomlimited financial\nwould result\ndual school\norganization, with most of the larger towns administering their schools\non one basis and the smaller communities on another. This would cause\nendless trouble and loss to pupils transferred from large to small or from\nsmall to large school systems. Pubhc-school men know how constantly\nthis circulation from one town and school system to another is going on, and\nthey, at least, can realize how serious a problem this constant readjustment\nof pupils entering from other school systems would be.\nBut to one who studies the six-and-six problem from the standpoint\nof the needs of the community and the needs of the pupils, the plan is seen\nto be wholly unnecessary. The present common organization of school\nunits has within it the possibility of all the reforms which are necessary.\nBy the plan which the negative side favors, the necessary modifications\n\n"}
{"page": 944, "printed_page": "932", "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\n932\n\nto give vitality and motive and interest to the work of young people up\nto the age of fourteen, and to enable the schools to meet more effectively\nthe needs of their communities, are entirely possible within the present form\nof organization.\nThe work of the grammar grades in the average school neither appeals\nto the interest of most of the pupils nor serves their needs or the need of\nthe community. The studies are for the most part suitable, so far as they\ngo. Each subject in the curriculum has been included in response to a felt\nwant; it is not Ukely that any of them will be dropped out. The things\ntaught have a purpose, either practical, for business or citizenship, or cultural in a desirable way. But something is lacking in the way the subjects\nare treated, and something much more important is lacking, namely, the\nthings that are not taught in the schools.\nThe schools are still teaching the things that suflSced when much education was given, incidentally, it may be, but nevertheless given, at home and\nelsewhere out of school. The morning and evening and vacation-time\nduties which once filled the out-of-school time of children have become\nalmost obsolete, so far as town children are concerned. For them the\nmorning and evening chores and the vacation-time work about the farm\nare things of the past. Even the old-time sports and the recreations in\nwhich we and our fathers took dehght and found education are no more.\nThe schools must bring back the opportunities which have slipped away.\nThe school grounds must give the play space and the space for digging\nand planting which once could be had elsewhere. The short school day is now\npacked full, but it can be made longer, if the required variety is given to\nthe school exercises. It was made short when children had work at home;\nmake it long enough now so that they can do some hand work at school.\nA school day one hour longer, with another hour available if the child desires;\na school year four or five or six weeks longer than at present^ong enough\nto turn to useful training a considerable part of the long and useless vacation which is a bane to children and a plague to parents — will give opportunity for all the vitalizing and motivation that will be required, and that\nwithin the present form of school organization. The course of study, suitable enough when the home, the shop, the farm, and the playground were\neducational auxiliaries, can, with this added time, be reshaped so as to give\nthis physical and motor training, so as to develop judgment and poise, and\nso as to have vital interest for all normal children. Increased opportunity\nfor hand work, not for dull children only, but for all; outdoor work and\nplay, work in the dirt and with growing plants and animals; unorganized\nplay, and sports and games which require organization and direction; a\nmore detailed and practical study of our history and government, especially\nthe practical application of the will of the people to the affairs of local\ngovernment, including a study of and instruction in the obligations of the\ncitizen to his government and to his neighbor, his fellow-citizen; a study of\n\n"}
{"page": 945, "printed_page": "933", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDEBATE\n\nON\n\nSCHOOL\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n933\n\nvocations and of the proper choice of a career; the study of household\neconomies — the apportionment of income, the relative and particular\nresponsibiUties of the earning and the buying partner, the necessity for\nthrift, both in saving and in avoidance of waste; the responsibihty of the\nhead of the household to understand the care and upkeep of the \"plant''\nin which he lives and to see that it is a comfortable home; household arts\nfor all girls — cookery and sewing, homemaking, the art of simple home\nnursing, the care and feeding of little children; for both partners in the\nhome, the duty of maintaining its essential standards, and an understanding\nof the importance and the rightful place of the home in the community;\nthese topics suggest something of the mines that lie waiting to be worked,\nand the possibihties of enriching and motivating and rendering vital and\nfruitful the work of the grammar grades in the elementary school. Utilizing\nthese and other things which He waiting to be used, it is not necessary to cut\noff the seventh and eighth grades and separate them from the lower grades\nin order that the pupils may be interested or happy or profitably employed.\nThere does not seem to be any reason why, with an hour in the day\nallowed for optional studies as suggested, classes in algebra or in Latin\nor in German or in French cannot be formed wherever there is a call for\nthem, for those pupils who wish, or whose parents wish them, to begin these\nsubjects.\nSuch a plan would be of the greatest value also in that the improved\nfacilities for the seventh and eighth grades would be available, in a considerable degree, for sixth-, and fifth-, and fourth-grade pupils, and even for\nthe younger ones, where they were fitted to profit by the opportunities.\nSuch a plan would make the six-and-six arrangement, as a means of\nsecuring desirable provision for the seventh and eighth grades, as unnecessary as an automobile in Venice.\nBut strong as the educational and administrative reasons to be urged\nagainst this perhaps less dangerous type of the six-and-six plan are, the\nstrongest argument is again political and social.\nWe have long viewed with apprehension the gradual disappearance of\nmen from the elementary schools. In many cases now the more energetic\nand ambitious women are beginning to follow the men into the high schools,\nwhere the pay is better, and into the professions, and into business. Every\nsuperintendent of schools knows how difficult it is to keep those women who\nare strongest and most able, and especially to keep men of the type we wish\nour boys and girls to be associated with, in the service of the average elementary school. With the seventh and eighth grades cut away, nothing\nis more certain than that the most desirable men and the stronger women\nwould be drawn, in increasing proportion, into the secondary schools and\ninto business employments. The elementary schools would be left more and\nmore in charge of the more mediocre and less aspiring women and of a few\nunambitious men.\n\n"}
{"page": 946, "printed_page": "934", "text": "NATIONAL\n\n934\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nThe American common school has not always been high in economic\nefficiency; it has not always given back dollar for dollar the value that was\nput into it. But as a nursery of democracy, no instrument has ever equalled\nit. For four generations, it has been transforming the children of Old\nWorld immigrants into American citizens. It is more important to the\nperpetuity of American institutions than any other agency. Imperfect as\nit has been, it is indispensable.\nWith the plan proposed by my opponent, the American common school,\nin which all the children of all the people are to be educated, would sink\nfrom its high estate. It would become a school composed of little children\ntaught by women. Beautiful and splendid as the service of American\nwomen has been to American schools, no one, they least of all, would wish\nto see such a result. The welfare of the nation demands that the common\nschools be not reduced below their present dignity and importance; that\nthe needed reforms in the grammar grades be made without destroying\nthe elementary schools as an influence in our national life.\nWe cannot afford to listen to a proposal which will delegate to the\nsecondary schools and colleges the chief duty of shaping the social and\npolitical ideals and attitudes of the nation. We cannot stand idly by while\nthe birthright of the American public school passes from it; we cannot consent to this plan which will make of the common school an ineffective and\nfeeble thing as regards its function as a nursery of democratic sentiment\nand patriotic citizenship; we cannot consent to have the common schools,\nwhich have been the bulwark of American ideals, transformed into a system\nof infant schools.\nGREETINGS\nDAVID\n\nB.\n\nJOHNSON,\n\nPRESIDENT,\nROCK\n\nNATIONAL\nHILL, S.C.\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION,\n\nI congratulate the officers of this Department of Superintendence and\nI congratulate you upon this great meeting in this great and progressive city.\nAs we are having a record-breaking meeting here, so also we hope to\nhave a record-breaking meeting of the general Association at New York\nCity next July. In order that we may have that, however, we must have\nyour loyal support and your presence there. May we not confidently\ncount on both ?\nI hope that none will allow his allegiance to the parent Association to\nbe weakened in any respect because of his commendable allegiance to this\ngreat department. The parent Association needs your presence and your\nhelp. I believe the great body of teachers of the rank and file will be\nbenefited by your attendance upon the meetings of the general Association\nand I beUeve you yourselves will be benefited thereby. Let us have then a\ngreat get-together meeting next summer of the teachers of all classes in this\n\n"}
{"page": 947, "printed_page": "935", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nAMERICAN\n\nSPIRIT\n\n935\n\ngreat country. Let us determine to put the National Education Association where it belongs — first among the educational associations of the\nworld in numbers, in influence, and in helpful work undertaken and accompHshed. It does seem that out of 600,000 teachers in this country, we\nought to have more than 7,200 active members of the National Education\nAssociation. Would it not be a great service to the schools, to the teachers\nthemselves, and to our country for us to work to increase the active membership of the National Education Association, an organization which\nstands for development of leadership in that army which is doing the most\neffective work of all forces of any kind in preparing for the defence of our\ncountry against its most deadly foes — ignorance, ineflSciency, disloyalty,\nand low moral standards ?\nThe meeting in New York next summer will be the first meeting of the\nAssociation ever held there, and we hope to make it memorable in many\nrespects. I am glad to tell you that all of the educational, commercial,\nand civic forces of New York City and the educational forces of the state\nof New York are working together heartily and enthusiastically to help\nus make the meeting a great one. Columbia University and New York\nUniversity have both postponed the opening of their great summer schools\nuntil after the meeting of the Association to avoid conflict with it.\nA number of entertainments and interesting trips will be arranged for\nthe visiting teacher, of which one will be a trip up the Hudson, probably\nto West Point. I cannot speak officially as to Coney Island or Chinatown,\nbut, without these sights, the many other sights and experiences of New\nYork City will prove a liberal education to anyone who has never been\nthere and renewed inspiration to everyone who has.\n\nTHE PUBLIC\nJ. GEORGE\n\nBECHT,\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nTHE NEW\n\nEXECUTIVE\n\nSECRETARY,\nSTATE\nHARRTSBURG, PA.\n\nAMERICAN\n\nSPIRIT\n\nBOARD\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nOF\n\nLittle more than a month ago, there occurred in the city of Philadelphia\nan event which was widely noted in the public press as one of the most\nsignificant and important conferences assembled in this country in recent\nyears. That conference sounded a national call to public and private\nagencies to enlist in the work of Americanizing America. Gathered together on that notable occasion were representative men and women from\nthe various phases of social, professional, industrial, and civic life. Capital\nand labor, official and civilian, settlement worker, teacher, preacher, and\nsocial economist sat side by side in earnest conference on one of the most\ncomplicated problems that confronts the America of today.\nThe conference had its origin in a propaganda, inaugurated less than\na year ago, to promote a nation-wide movement to bring American citizens,\n\n"}
{"page": 948, "printed_page": "936", "text": "936\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\niDetroit\n\nforeign born and native born alike, to a realization of the common privileges, the common opportunities, and the common loyalties of all the\ninhabitants of America wherever born. Directly stated, its object is to\ndevise ways and means to amalgamate the many diverse peoples inhabiting\nthe United States into a national unity; to encourage the use of the Enghsh\nlanguage thruout the nation; to promote the best standards of American\nliving in every community; to teach the proper interpretations of American\ncitizenship; and to encourage a recognition of foreign-born men and women\nin the human, social, and civic aspects as well as in the industrial aspects of\nour American life.\nThoughtful people everywhere recognize the fact that the problem of\nself-government is not solved. Far from being solved, it is just beginning\nto disclose itself in all its vast complexity. In small units of government\nwhere the interests of the people are limited and range along well-defined\nlines, where there is a common ideal, and where competition is slight, there\nthe problem of self-government presents relatively few difficulties. But\nwhere the unit of government is large, where the interests and purposes of\na people are diverse, and where the spirit of competition is marked, there we\nshall find self-government an increasingly complex problem — one that\nchallenges the best thought of a free people.\nIn this country we have passed from a simple homogeneous people into\na highly complex heterogeneous cosmopolitanism. The several groups of\nearly settlers were widely differentiated in point of customs, creeds, habits,\nmanners, and traditions, and succeeding generations retained and passed\non many of the racial or group characteristics, yet within each group hfe's\nactivities were ranged along simple lines. Because people live far apart,\nracial characteristics did not obtrude themselves and national Ufe developed\nwith comparative smoothness. But the multiplication of interests thru\ninvention, scientific discovery, industrial and commercial expansion has\nexpanded simple life. Into this natural expansion of the internal Ufe of the\nAmerican people, Europe has poured annually for many years thousands\nof her subjects. The vastness of our territory and the economic opportunities on this side and a restless discontent with the intolerant social,\npolitical, and ofttimes reUgious conditions of the Old World have caused a\nflood of immigrants to invade our shores, greater in number of individuals\nthan any recorded migration in history. The first decade of the present\ncentury added nearly 9,000,000 aliens to our population.\nAn examination of the figures relating to the alien element in this country shows that every third person in the United States is either foreign\nborn or born of foreign parents, and that three millions cannot speak the\nEngHsh language and twice as many more cannot read Enghsh. Onesixth of the population (15,000,000) of the United States is therefore directly\nor indirectly influenced by foreign conditions. Four-fifths of the more\nrecent immigrants belong to the class of unskilled laborers.\nSeventy-five\n\n"}
{"page": 949, "printed_page": "937", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nAMERICAN\n\nSPIRIT\n\n937\n\nper cent of the inhabitants of cities having a population of over a million\nare foreign born or in the generation of the immigrant. Furthermore, the\ntendency to mass in certain states and centers is a marked characteristic.\nIt is a current saying that New York is the largest German city in the world\nexcept Berlin; the largest Italian city except Rome; the largest Polish\ncity except Warsaw, and by far the largest Jewish city in the world. Fifty\ndifferent languages are spoken by this ahen folk. One thousand two\nhundred newspapers in the United States are printed in thirty-one languages\nother than EngUsh. These papers are generally American in spirit, but\ntheir chief items of interest are news of the fatherland. Thus they keep\nthe alien in constant touch and sympathy with his native land.\nThe assimilation of this polyglot immigration into the American nation\nis one of the tremendously significant problems confronting America today.\nThe matter of absorption is becoming increasingly diflScult owing to their\nvast numbers, their varied habits and traditions, and their inabiUty to\ngrasp the full meaning of the spirit of liberty as exemplified in the thought\nand activities of our people\nThe elemental background of American liberty was the fusing of the\nspirit of Puritan and Cavalier thru the shock of the Revolutionary War.\nThat influence may be traced across the continent. From the crossing of\ntheir blood, the union of their virtues, and the mingling of their best traditions came the t)^e of American citizen who influenced history during the\ngreater part of the nineteenth century. During the early period of immigration, beginning distinctively in 1840, most of the immigrants came from\nNorthern Europe. Since they had many of the same traditions and ideals\nand the same political standards, the process of assimilation was comparatively easy, but in the last twenty years most of the immigrants have come\nfrom Southern Europe and are farther removed from the thought and spirit\nof American life. With limited understanding and lack of training and of\nvision, they do not readily adjust themselves to the new environment.\nMisunderstood and ostracized, as they often are, their disappointment gives\nway to discontent, which is likely to express itself in turbulence.\nBut a new social ideal is taking possession of America today. It is\nthe spirit speaking out from the great heart of humanity. It recognizes the\nvast and intricate human relationships the world over. It reaHzes that\nthe treatment of the immigrant and his relationship to the social and industrial order present an unprecedented problem. The new American spirit\nstands not for the eUmination of whatever has not been produced on American soil; but it rather welcomes the best of the culture, the arts, and the\ncrafts of the Old World, that thru the process of education and training\nthese may be incorporated into our life and thus we may be enriched with\nthis spiritual inheritance.\nIn aid of this new movement to Americanize America, the distinctive\nformal educational forces of the country will play no unimportant part.\n\n"}
{"page": 950, "printed_page": "938", "text": "938\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nAlready the United States Bureau of Education is co-operating with the\n•Bureau of Immigration, and the pubHc school has become the rallyingground for the organization of the new forces. The school is rapidly divesting itself of the archaic methods of teaching citizenship. The time is not\nfar past when memorizing preambles to constitutions, powers and duties\nof congresses and legislatures, outlining departments of government, and\nlearning definitions constituted the teaching of civics. The painful results\nwere apparent when pupils described England's government as a \"limited\nmockery,\" and confidently asserted \"that the first conscientious congress\nmet in Philadelphia and that the constitution of the United States was\nestabUshed to promote domestic hostility.\"\nThe adult foreigner must be prepared for citizenship no less than his\nchildren — nay, even greater is the necessity that he shall have special training. Fortuitous conditions will educate the plastic and impressionable\nchild, while the parent responds only to specific training. And all too\nfrequently the alien receives no aid, encouragement, or opportunity to\nprepare for the sacred right except at the instance of political partisanship.\nThe school for the adult is becoming to be as much a part of public education as a school for the child. Our attitude to the foreigner has not always\nbeen characterized by sympathy or even respect. Too often we have tried\nto awe him with the superiority of our institutions, by exploiting our traditions, extolling our heroes, and boasting of our freedom, hoping thereby\nto impress him with our vaunted greatness and thus cause him to forget\nhis fatherland and to discard the customs and culture of his race. Such\nan attitude clearly violates the fundamental principles in training for loyalty.\nCritical observers of social heredity point out what must be very\napparent to anyone who analyzes the problem presented by the fact that\na man deeply and truly disloyal to his own folk and culture is not Hkely to\nbecome a deeply and truly loyal American. Then, too, there is always\nthe obvious danger which has its basis in a profound and fundamental\npsychology that in any attempt to change or completely transfer from one\nloyalty to another, the very capacity for loyalty is destroyed. Nothing\nis more deeply rooted than social and group instincts and traditions. To\nstrip these from the individual and to cover him with an alluvium of social\nhabits ever so thick may after all prove to be only a cheap substitute.\nWhat makes the Japanese patriotism so vital is the fact that the religion\nof the Japanese includes a reverence for the past. That reverence is the\nthing that is perpetuated. The school must make more of our national\nholidays. Unfortunately, one of our essentially patriotic holidays comes\nduring the vacation period. But happily there has been a decided reaction\nfrom the degeneracy of a bombastic, half-riotous occasion, with its toll of\ninjury to life and limb, to a more dignified mode of celebration in which\nsanity and safety are predominating characteristics. The schools here can\nrender a service by making our national holidays an opportunity for teach-\n\n"}
{"page": 951, "printed_page": "939", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nPUBLIC\n\nSCHOOL\n\nAND\n\nAMERICAN\n\nSPIRIT\n\n939\n\ning the lessons of sacrifice. Too often the alien looks upon this land of the\nfree and this home of the brave as a land of unrestricted liberty. He must\nunderstand that personal Uberty must always comport with moral law and\npoHtical liberty with civil law. In our land, democracy has a problem of\nrace as well as a problem of social and industrial classifications.\nThe revival of pageantry in various communities, working out thru\nceremonial and dramatic form the episodes that marked the rise and progress\nof a city or community, is one of the most significant methods of impressing\nupon the young the spirit of sacrifice and social service. American children show their love and appreciation for heroic deeds in their selections\nof declamations which set forth the exploits of such heroes as Horatius,\nOustavus Adolphus, and William of Orange. These make their appeal\nto children, not because the expression of their lives symboHzes a race or a\ngroup, but because they represent fundamental expressions of human life.\nThe school and the community should help preserve the best traditions\nof the aHen and help him to work them out into the newer relationships.\nTo neglect their heroes is to subtract one of the most fruitful factors in\nteaching patriotism. Garibaldi, Pasteur, Disraeli, Volta, Mendelssohn,\nMarconi have a meaning to the world that is not consequent upon the fact\nthat they were born across the sea. The courage, strength, ardor, and\nspirit of the great men of any nation are admired by other nations.\nHitherto the school has regarded the teaching of citizenship as a special\ntopic, or the work of a separate department, but we are learning that every\nrecitation constitutes a lesson in citizenship, and that there is an arithmetic\nof character, a geography of character, as well as the ethics of character.\nThere is no branch of study that may not lend itself to training for civic\nrighteousness and civic efficiency. The problem of training youth in citizenship does not involve new institutions, new text, and new subject-matter,\nbut rather a new attitude of the teachers and a new atmosphere in the\nclassroom. Children must be helped to think thru the problems of the\ncommunity and the relationships of the individual to the social group to\nwhich he belongs as well as to the civic order. The alien, as well as the\nnative American, needs to be instructed in the limitations of liberty. He\nmust learn that his liberty must be Uberty under the law. If American\nchildren understood this as thoroly as they ought to understand it, we should\nnot have to blush in the presence of the foreign child when children of\nnative Americans, with half-baked ideas about liberty and independence,\ninterpret that liberty and independence in terms of unbridled license.\nWhat indeed must be the effect upon children of the alien when in high\nschools or in the grades they note the pupils strike because someone has\nbeen punished, or because a teacher has been promoted or demoted or a\nholiday refused? Above all else, the school must teach a reverence for\nthe law and respect for the rights of others. No word is so misunderstood\nas \"liberty.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 952, "printed_page": "940", "text": "940\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nThe problem of democracy is this: \"How to utilize without waste the\ntremendously potent forces of human life that are everywhere about us.\"\nThe problem is largely individual. The wealth in character of the state is,\nin the long run, the wealth in character of the individuals composing it.\nEvery social structure is the outgrowth of personal ideals. The public\nschool has been an eflScient agency. It will be more effective in the future\nas, with deeper consecration, superintendents and teachers advance to the\nunprecedented problems that lie before them. With new ideals, new aspirations, new hopes for the enlarged brotherhood of America, may we not hope\nthat these dissimilar nationalities will be incorporated into the newer ty^t\nof citizenship ?\nTHE SUPERINTENDENT\nTHOMAS\n\nW. CHURCHILL,\n\nAS THE LAYMAN\n\nPRESIDENT, BOARD\n\nOF EDUCATION,\n\nSEES HIM\nNEW\n\nYORK, N.Y.\n\nThere are 5,833 public-school superintendents in America. I have a\nspeaking acquaintance with only in. From the superiorities of these\nto fashion an ideal head, including such pulchritudes as a layman especially\nadmires in a school executive, is my undertaking.\nIn mixing my paints I should like plenty of red. Rousseau's dictum\ncomes to my mind: \"Let him first be a man.\" You want warm body\ncolor in making the portrait of one whose main business is the rearing and\nculture of men. Red blood, hard muscle, virile speech, manly manners\nseem to me indispensable in the head of a school system. The traditional\npattern with spectacles, with the scholar's stoop, the parchment skin, the\npainfully proper speech chastely devoid of slang and expletive — the type\nstrictly devoid of variation from the conventional — has had its day.\nThe perpetuation of a deep and accurate scholarship has long been\npreached as the purpose of public schools by mild-mannered men who\nexpressed rather their own instinctive desire than any great public need.\nThose who founded the American public-school system had no such\nnotion. Enhghtenment, Uberty, self-management, self-government — that\nis, abihty for, and desire of, democratic citizenship, each working for all and\nall for each — was the result expected by the early patriots who proposed\nin America that education should be free and universal. There cannot\nbe any doubt of this. The words of Jefferson, of Adams, of FrankUn, of\nWashington, and of the framers of the Ordinance of 1787, under which the\nschools of this western territory grew, are as clear as the sunshine in this\nparticular. The perpetuation of scholarship, the preservation of poHte\nlearning, the bestowal of a literary culture — all as an asset of personal\ndistinction — was undoubtedly the aim of educators in the period before\nthe Revolution. Learning meant gentility. Gentleman and scholar\nwere words repeatedly linked together. School meant leisure; leisure\nmeant means; means meant birth or high estate; all meant aristocracy.\n\n"}
{"page": 953, "printed_page": "941", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE SUPERINTENDENT\n\nAS THE\n\nLAYMAN\n\nSEES HIM\n\n941\n\nNo one would think of disputing that. It is too plainly written in the history of the world before the overturn of 1 7 76. But what especially interests\nus now is the slowness with which the principles of the Revolution permeated the soul and substance of education. The Fathers of the Republic\nand the statesmen of succeeding years have been in substantial agreement\nthat tax-supported schools are for the creation of an intelHgent, libertyloving, self-directive people. On the other hand, there has persisted in the\npublic schools a surprising amount of Old World assumption that the lower\nschools ought chiefly to concentrate their attention upon grammar and\nclassic arithmetic, leading to upper public schools where Latin, ancient\nmythology and history, rhetoric and polite scholarship are the staples of\ninstruction. Is that not true ? Our forefathers conceived a school system\nto generate political virtue for the future; our fathers let the school master\ncontinue to retail the pedantic learning of the past. Our theory of schools\nproposes the cultivation of manhood; our practice clings to the mediaeval\npurpose of producing learned men of letters. Tradition insists that the\nschool superintendent be a scholar. All the underlying reason for the\nexistence of schools, all the needs of the time demand, \"Let him first be a\nman.\" A century and a half of American familiarity with the school\nmanager assuming the scholar-type has lamentably failed to give the school\nsuperintendent that confidence and respect which are required to enable\nthe schools to realize the purpose for which they were established. Perpetuation ofa scholastic ideal dear only to a very small proportion of the\ncountry is much easier for a superintendent than any other course. His\nlife, spent among books, his thoughts, guided from infancy along welltrodden paths thru normal school and university, his purpose incrusted\nwith academic ideas, repeated year after year in conventions of his own\nkind, make of him a Living Yesterday. He is concerned with the perfection\nof systems by which what-used-to-be may more perfectly be preserved.\nThis notion of a superintendent's function has lamentably failed. There\nnever was, since the nation was born, so widespread and definite a protest\nagainst the failure of schools. Cities misgoverned, public lands stolen,\nwhole precincts selling their votes, juvenile crime increasing, colleges bending their necks for the yoke of rich men's foundations, periodicals reeking\nwith salacity, the drama smothered in sex-madness, and prominent\nemployers informing the newspapers that the school children can neither\nread, nor write, nor spell, heads of state departments of education confessing that \"the lives of school children are wasted,\"' all these things are\nweakening the American faith in public education. Far be it from me\nto insist that all or any of these distressing things can fairly be charged to\nthe failure of the schools. But the pertinent fact is that the founders of\nthe free-school system expected it to produce a higher type of self-governing\ncitizen than the Old World knew. The distressing outcome is that so many\n' Andrew S. Draper, state commissioner of education, New York.\n\n"}
{"page": 954, "printed_page": "942", "text": "942\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nprominent publicists' declare that the hopes of the Fathers have been\nbitterly disappointed.\nAmong the many answers that suggest themselves to these somber\nreflections, these two take prominence. Either the expectations of what\npublic education ought to do have been too high or the pubhc schools have\nnot been efficiently directed toward realizing these expectations.\nFirst, was the hope and belief of the founders of the free pubhc school\nthat it would preserve liberty, prevent tyranny, decrease vice and crime,\nand increase human happiness, too high a hope and too confident a behef ?\nMost of you have said no. When the superintendent campaigns for increase\nof funds, he urges that the money be spent for schools so as not to be needed\nfor jails — to set men right rather than to lock men up for going wrong.\nYou call the school the bulwark of the nation's liberties, the agent of\nprogress, the urging force for \" that one far-off, divine event toward which\nthe whole creation moves.\" We cannot look to the school superintendent\nfor a denial that the results expected from free and universal education\nhave been estimated too high. We come to the other query: Have the\npublic schools been really directed toward delivering an intelligent, libertyloving, self-governing, co-operating, happy people? I think not. They\nhave been too generally used as the means of perpetuating an ancient conception of scholarship. Their programs show it, their managers' words\ndeclare it. Nothing short of a complete revision of the conception of pubHcschool service will abate the dissatisfaction which has arisen as the result\nof a comparison of the product of the schools with the conception of what\npubhc education is for. The main agent of this revision is obviously and\ninevitably the superintendent. He must purge himself of the fallacy that\nscholarship is the main desideratum in himself or in the school system. The\npubhc does not tax itseK for scholarship. It expects intelligence. Intelligence isas distinct from scholarship as moraUty is from theology. Intelligence is common-sense; it is *'know how\" penetration, brightness,\nunderstanding. Scholarship is the sum of the conventional attainments\nwhich custom and fashion have imposed upon schools. Intelligence is\nmind-power for use in any circumstance, old or new. Scholarship is an\naccumulation which requires a special situation for its enjoyment, either\nthe leisure of the study or a company of specially trained persons. Your\ncommunities are not demanding of you the graduation of scholars, but an\noutput of human creatures who can think, reason, judge, and decide about\nthe large concerns of personal and national Hfe. Most of you and most of\nyour helpers have been trained to think about academic subjects — about\nnouns and pronouns, x and y, which do not matter much. To say a thing\nis academic (that is, pertaining to school) is to say that it will not work.\nThis was well enough when education was the preparation of gentlemen\n» Richard Grant Wliite, Rebecca Harding Davis, Charles W. Eliot, Rabbi Emil Hirsch, Edward Bok,\nMichael Friedsam, Captain Charles King.\n\n"}
{"page": 955, "printed_page": "943", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nAS\n\nTHE\n\nLAYMAN\n\nSEES\n\nHIM\n\n943\n\nsuperior to toil. To maintain such an academic education at the expense\nof a nation of workers is as fatuous as it is dishonest. These observations\ndo not hurt you any more to hear than they hurt me to say. I, too, have\nbeen nurtured on flowers from the gardens of antiquity. I, too, love the\nechoes from a learned and refined past. To be called scholar, to parse,\nto scan, to quote, are as dear to me as to the most refined of this learned\nbody, but scant 5 per cent of my post-academic life is spent upon the things\nmy schooling emphasized. Scant 5 per cent of all our citizens travel paths\nto which their school training naturally leads.. To bring a school system\nto an adequate public service does not demand a scholar. Were it not for\na fashionable tradition about it, such as requires the EngHsh judges to\nincase their heads in cages of false hair, or Michiganders to vote the Republican ticket, a superintendent might properly be unable to know whether it\nwas Nessus or Narcissus who had trouble with his shirt, or whether Savonarola was an indoor skater or a toilet preparation. But truly it is of supreme\nimportance that the person to undertake the commission of bringing the\nschools to produce what they were founded to produce — intelligent, selfgoverning, co-operating citizens — shall be a supremely manly man.\nI have known superintendents who set great store by organization.\nThey made and tended systems. The mechanism bedeviled them. They\ncould act only as the machines within their own heads would allow. \" Keep\nthe rule even if you lose the boy\" was their motto. Their hero was that\nsweet little idiot of our boyhood days, Casablanca of the burning deck,\nimmortal martyr of stupid regularity.\nOf what use is an organizer who fails to produce anything that is worth\norganizing ? Our school system is wonderfully provided with good roads\nlaid out by superintendents, but the highways do not lead where the children have to go. The expert roadmaker, the skilled organizer, is in great\ndanger from his own abiUty. Often the people of his system will travel\nmore joyously and arrive more quickly at a more desirable place on paths\nof their own making. The organizer runs a great risk of becoming a driver.\nHe mechanizes education too much, therefore he dehumanizes it. Maybe\nsome parts of the country need more organizing power in their superintendents. Those I have seen ought to soft-pedal their organization for a while\nand use the human stops a little more. Let us have a superintendent who\ncan organize, but let him first be a man.\nOne hears much about the superintendent as leader. It sounds exalting, more often to the superintendent than to the teachers. A need of\nleadership there has always been since superintending was invented.\nWhere the leadership idea is over-prominent in the superintendent's mind,\nthere is inevitably a narrowing of his ideas down to those put forward by\nhimself in exclusion of those offered by others. An educational department\nis a garden of talent wherein hundreds of valuable seeds of education lie\nin the soil along with weeds a-plenty. Some leaders are so keen to banish\n\n"}
{"page": 956, "printed_page": "944", "text": "944\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nweeds that the possibilities of the varied talent all thru the system are\nnever realized^ but remain dry seeds in dry dust. It stands to reason that\nthe sum of the brains of a teaching staff, including the brains of a superintendent, ought to amount to more than the brains of the superintendent\nalone. Leadership, personal authority, concentrated spotHght on the head\nman, have kept back many a city from its money's worth of education in\nthe schools. What we want in the superintendency is a man, not a monopolist, adiscoverer who searches out and pushes along every genuine fellowlaborer who will contribute ideas for the common good. Let us have manly\ngive-and-take in educational councils with the superintendent conscious\nof the fact that there ought to be many persons in the department as\nintelligent and as able as he. There is an innate spirit of advance in every\nnormal personality. A superintendent suffused with a real devotion for\npublic service will nurse that spirit, inspire it, give it scope and employment\nto develop a school system rich in able personalities. A narrow-minded\nsuperintendent will fear the competition of other minds, will give none\nof his supreme problems to other workers in the schools, and will carry on\nwhat should be a democracy of public service as tho it were the realm of an\nabsolute monarch and he its czar.\nIn schools and colleges there have appeared the students' council and\nother co-operative associations. The vital element of such an idea is the\nvery American essence. We believe in the management of their own affairs\nby the people themselves. We believe that to prepare the people for such\nmanagement public schools were established and are maintained. We\ncount it, therefore, a regrettable condition if any school system or any\nsuperintendent neglects to use to a large degree the form and principle of\ndemocratic government in the conduct of departmental afifairs. I know the\nobjections that are running thru your minds; that the teachers are not big\nenough to discuss educational policy; that the teachers are too selfish to\nrecommend an extensive improvement of the service if it brings any hardship upon them; that in many cities of the country the teachers are pulling\none way and the superintendent another. But, granting all the infirmities\nof teachers, which make the sharing of participation with them seem unduly\narduous, the way to make teachers big enough to grasp big policies is to\nbring teachers up against big policies. The way to cure the selfishness\nof teachers is to bring it up against a great service demanding sacrifice.\nThe way to stop teachers and superintendents from pulling in different\ndirections is for superintendents when teachers are pulling toward the pubHc\nbenefit to pull with them. The educational work in each locality is greater\nthan one superintendent can do. There must be a larger number of hearty\npeople uniting for the common good. No mere scholar, no organizer, no\none full of the ambition of personal leadership, can get hearty and efficient\nservice out of these people. Back of scholarship, formation of plans, and\ndesire of leadership, is the great inspiring hope which constitutes the essence\n\n"}
{"page": 957, "printed_page": "945", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nAS\n\nTHE\n\nLAYMAN\n\nSEES\n\nHIM\n\n945\n\nof teaching, namely that the nation shall grow in wisdom, in loyalty, in\ngenerosity, in the great qualities of manhood. For this, scholarship\nhas proved inadequate, organization has failed, leadership has not sufficed.\nGreater than all these and waited for by city after city thruout the whole\nnation is the incarnate spirit of manhood, a living, virile sense of the great\npossibilities of life, a determination to organize the agencies at hand to\nrealize it, I yield to none in respect for the clergy, those ministers of God\nin a careless world preaching the Gospel of a clean and happy life. But\nyours is a ministry which gives you mankind in the making. Twelve times\nas long as to the clergyman, you have the minister's flock each year in the\nschools. In your hands is the rearing and culture of men. The makers\nof our free school conceived this to be its work, and not the delivery of that\ncut-and-dried curriculum of yours which goes by the name of an education.\nI do not conceive your main business to be the question: \"What is the Boston course of study ? \" or \" What does Cleveland teach ? \" But I do know\nthat in your own town there is waiting for an answer the query: \"What\nare these children around me? What are the possibilities before them?\nWhat are the forces of manhood and womanhood by which they shall realize\ntheir destiny? How can I help these forces grow? How guide them\naright?\" We may no longer close our ears to these, demands and salve\nour souls with the unction that we are doing what Boston does and with\nas much success. The business of a superintendent is not now to keep in\nmotion the old machine that came over in the \"Mayflower,\" a pattern of\nthe thing that poUshed the sons of gentlemen in the days when knighthood\nwas in flower. A superintendent is not a tale that is told, but an agent\nof a better tomorrow. His mission is not to prove that Horace Mann was\nright, but to propound anew to the best minds in his own town: \"What is\nthe most we can do for these children ? \" It means the breaking of old ties,\nthe surrender of fond memories, the abandonment of assumed omniscience,\nthe adoption of humiUty and willingness to learn, bravery to advance,\naudacity to hazard new adventures, courage to take one's commission in\none's hand and to risk it among carpers and cavilers such as have obstructed\nprogress since creation's dawn. Oh, it is inspiring to be a school superintendent in 1 9 16! There never was a time when a real one was greater in\ndemand. If he will cease to be content with forms and will give himself,\nboth heart and soul, to the pursuit of that end which the best vision of the\nbest thinkers of '76 conceived, a sustaining spirit will come within him\ndriving out all pettiness and weakness whatever that has at any time\nbrought any superintendency into contempt. He will, by this devotion\nand this service, feel himself to grow and to remain in the full stature of\na man.\n\n"}
{"page": 958, "printed_page": "946", "text": "946\n\nTO WHOM\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nIS TEE BOARD\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nOF EDUCATION\n\nA. E. WINSHIP, EDITOR, \"JOURNAL\n\nOF EDUCATION,\"\n\n[Detroit\n\nRESPONSIBLE?\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nIt is true that a school consists of a teacher, textbooks, and pupils,\nbut in America there would be no teachers, no textbooks, no schoolhouse,\nno equipment, nothing out of which to make a school, but for the board of\neducation that administers the funds that are tax raised.\nSo far as the public schools are concerned, the boards of education,\ndirectly or indirectly, have the first word and the last as to the use of taxraised school moneys. Doctrinarians may quarrel as to the desirability\nof having experts, pure and simple, handle the funds, and direct how they\nshall be used, but they will achieve so little in our day that we may assume\nthat boards of education will stand sponsor for the use of these moneys.\nMembers of boards of education are as intelligent, as devoted, as honest\nas any class of people intrusted with any official responsibility. The traditional assumption is that boards of education are chosen primarily to prevent\nthe spending of the people's money, that their business is to put on brakes,\nto make it difficult for superintendents and other school officials to get\nmoney for school uses. Boards of education often try to find ways and\nmeans to prevent teachers from getting influence that might increase their\nsalaries. This is due entirely to the inherited tradition that it is the first\nduty of these boards of education to prevent increase of taxes for school\npurposes. Unless this attitude can be changed, it makes no appreciable\ndifference whom we elect to boards of education, men or women, experts\nor philanthropists.\nThe board of education is elected by the people to look after the interests\nof the children and to do that alone. It is the business of the board of\neducation to get as large appropriations as can be wisely used for the good\nof the children, for schoolhouses, for equipment, for textbooks, for teachers.\nBoards of education are expected, are required by common-sense and conscience, to get as adequate and as modern buildings and equipment and as\nefficient teaching as they can get the money to buy.\nEvery law providing for the election of such boards specifies that they\nare elected to provide school privileges for \" all the children of all the people.\"\nNo law was ever passed that stated that these boards are elected to prevent\nthe use of money, to put on the brakes, financially. Whoever is elected\non a ticket that virtually pledges a candidate to serve in the interest of the\ntaxpayer instead of in the interest of children is virtually doing an unlawful\nact, is trying to thwart the purpose of the law. It ought to be possible\nto indict such a man for contempt of legislation, at least for conspiracy to\ndefeat the ends of the law. Any party or organization or group of citizens\nwho should run a candidate on the issue of serving the interests of the taxpayer should be indictable for conspiracy to defeat the purposes of the law.\nThe mayor and the city council are expected, officially and traditionally,\n\n"}
{"page": 959, "printed_page": "947", "text": "Superintendence!\n\nSUGGESTIONS\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULA\n\n947\n\n\\o guard the treasury, but the board of education is expected by specific\nkw to get all the money that can be used advantageously for the advantage\noi the children.\nIt is not at all uncommon for board members to be elected to erect a\nschoolhouse in a given section out of spite against some other section of the\ndistrict, or to oust a superintendent who has said or done something with\nno relation to education that arouses the prejudices of a given set of people,\nor to depose a principal who has offended some influence, or sect, or organization. Any such campaign, any such pledging of a candidate, any action\nbased on such a pre-election pledge, is definitely, deliberately, emphatically\nunlawful and should be indictable. Members of boards of education are\nresponsible first, last, always, and everjrwhere to the children and to them\nalone.\nBoards of education have the greatest of all responsibiUties in American\nofl[icial life. They have America's future in their hands as have no other\nclass of Americans. On the lower side, they must protect the men and\nwomen of tomorrow from the civic pests of the cheapness and narrowness, the prejudice and spite of today which have been inherited from\nyesterday. On the other side, they must protect the men and women\nof tomorrow from the conceited dreamers of today.\nTo the members of boards of education alone is given the opportunity\nto get the right perspective of the child in the schools as he is jeopardized\nby the conservative of yesterday and the zealot of today while trying to\nplume his wings for the opportunities of tomorrow.\n\nSOME\n\nSUGGESTIONS\n\nFOR IMPROVING\nCURRICULA\n\nTHE\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL\n\nG. C. CREELMAN, PRESIDENT, ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL\nGUELPH, ONTARIO, CANADA\n\nCOLLEGE,\n\nThe whole rural-school problem may be considered as a large one in\nitself. And there are many phases to the problem. Where population\nhas decreased, there is an attendance so small as to hinder proper class\norganization or the incentives to work that come from the enthusiasm of\nnumbers; there is the frequent changing of teachers, due to goodness knows\nhow many reasons, but economic chiefly; there is the inexperienced girlteacher trying her apprentice hand in the rural school; there is the poor\nequipment and the non-attractive school and surroundings; there is the\nnon-progressive board of trustees, interpreting trusteeship to mean doing\nonly what the law makes compulsory and with no vision ol the great dividends tobe earned in investing generously in education; there is irregularity\nof attendance, owing to bad roads, sickness, work at home, and indifference\nto education; there is the lack of play — that best part of school life; there\n\n"}
{"page": 960, "printed_page": "948", "text": "948\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nis need for medical inspection; there is need for truancy officers and reai\ncompulsory education; there is the dropping out of school of the boys\nabout the time they reach fourteen years of age, going out into life thus\ninsufficiently equipped; there is the school work reflecting courses of study\nprepared with the graded urban school in view; there is the high school\nonly at a distance, requiring boarding in town and again giving instruction\nspecially adapted to the urban dweller or the few pupils who may proceed\nto the college or to professional life.\nAgricultural teaching is the remedy. — What is the best way to meet the\ndefects in our schools and what different kind of school should be aimed at ?\nOur answer to the first question is: The rural-school problem will be best\nsolved by the introduction of agriculture and domestic science. We must\nmake our schools appeal strongly to our patrons as institutions worth while,\ndeserving strong financial support as institutions giving children something\nwhich they cannot afford to da without. Not agriculture in the school so\nmuch as the school in agriculture is the goal. There will be a rationahzing\nof the work of the rural school; it will reflect its environment and meet\nthe real needs of those depending on it for an education. It will seek to\nserve and not to stand off apart from its best opportunities. It will not\ninterpret agriculture and homemaking as narrow things. It will mean play\nand music and books and social mingling as much as soils and crops and\ncattle and cooking, ''for life is more than meat as the body is more than\nraiment.\" The school will be for everybody; not limited to the uses of\nchildren but bringing everybody to school, if not for instruction, then for\nno less necessary recreation. It will be the heart of the community,\nvitalizing every home.\nFrom it will arise new visions of education.\nThe new kind of school. — What different kind of school might be aimed\nat ? There is a kind that embodies the new spirit of co-operation. Perhaps itwill necessitate the breaking down of our sectional scheme of school\nadministration, making the township or a group of schools the unit of\nadministration. It will need a new kind of trustee, and perhaps a larger\noutlay of money.\nIn many places the old kind of school has served its day. There should\nbe a consolidation of schools which will permit of the introduction of agriculture, domestic science, and manual training. Possibly this may be\nassociated with a township or county people's high school, located in a\ncentral place (not a town) in the township, managed by a township board\nof trustees composed of farmers. Such a school will have as its headmaster\na teacher trained at the agricultural college; his classes will be conducted\nchiefly in the winter months, and pupils of all ages will be taught; his\nsummer work will be to follow his pupils on to their farms, help in the other\nschools of the township, and work his own little farm which is provided with\nhis home. In time a teacher of domestic science will carry on similar work\nwith the girls and women.\nThe school will be provided with adequate\n\n"}
{"page": 961, "printed_page": "949", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUGGESTIONS\n\nFOR\n\nRURAL-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULA\n\n949\n\ngrounds and facilities for play. The school will be a social as well as an\neducational center for the township. There will be a good assembly hall\nin which public meetings, lectures, and social gatherings may be held.\nWith the school as the head, all the other schools of the township will be\ncbsely associated, receiving from it help and inspiration.\nSuch a school might be, if the people desire it!\nIn spite of the general progress undoubtedly being made, all these\ndefects must be recognized and met. We have made considerable advancement in the last ten years; we have still a long way to go. We must ever\nset up higher ideals if continued progress is to be secured.\nIn introducing this topic, I am presuming that all of us have long ago\nin our minds settled two questions: (i) That every boy in every country\nschool should have an opportunity to learn the scientific principles of his\nfather's business. (2) That every girl should receive instruction in household science whether she or her parents believe in it or not.\nNo matter how strongly you and I have thought on this matter, however, these subjects have not been generally introduced into our schools,\nperhaps for the following reasons: (i) It is easy to outline a course of study\nthat seems simple and easily introduced. It seems altogether different\nto transfer a course of study from paper into reahty. You have no doubt\nfound this out for yourselves. (2) Agriculture seems to be especially hard,\nnot to introduce, but to get practical results therefrom. It is easy to interest children in plant and animal stories, but it is not easy to instruct children\nso that an improvement is readily seen in the field crops and the flocks and\nherds and the home life of the neighborhood. (3) The pressure of the\ngeneral course of study limits the time for such new subjects. (4) There\nis a lack of knowledge of these subjects on the part of the superintendents\nand inspectors. They may assume, or even feel an interest in the work,\nbut without definite knowledge the lack of ability to be helpful soon manifests itself and the teacher and pupils soon lose interest. (5) There is\nfrequent changing of teachers. (6) The limited knowledge and experience\nof the teachers is beyond question the greatest difficulty.\nTeaching agriculture in rural schools. — We have long since come to the\nconclusion that special training must be given to the teachers if definite\nor really instructive work is to be accomphshed and that the state should\npay for this training. This may be done in one of two ways: (i) The board\nand lodging and travehng expenses may be paid by the state, for a definite\ntime, to some central place where agriculture is well taught; (2) the state\nmay offer a bonus of $25 or $50 a year, to be added to salaries of such\nteachers as take such courses and afterward successfully teach such subjects\nto their pupils.\nIt is for each state to settle for itself where in the state such teacher's\ncourses may be taken up. At first glance, it would appear perfectly natural\nto use the grounds and buildings and equipment and staff of the agricultural\n\n"}
{"page": 962, "printed_page": "950", "text": "950\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\ncollege. We believe at the Ontario Agricultural College that we are doing\nsome of our best work in training teachers for rural-school work. This\ndoes not mean that we are turning out teachers from our regular agricultural courses, but that we have thrown open our doors to the rural teachers\nof the province, and that in co-operation with the Department of Education\nwe are using our large plant to help the cause of the rural school. This is\nbringing results.\nThe other way of trying to teach agriculture, in a pedagogical way in\nnormal schools at odd hours and sandwiched in between other studies, has\nnot met with success. On the other hand, given a purely agricultural\nenvironment with practical science teachers and fields and woods and flocks\nand herds and plants, and nature everywhere, it seems easy to interest and\ninstruct along all lines of rural activities. We have had intelligent teachers\nin training who at first showed resentment when asked to make their own\ngardens, to collect insects or plants, and to make observations of temperatures and erosion and wood-lots. We have never had one who continued\nfor six consecutive days who did not show first interest and then enthusiasm\nin the work.\nSchool gardens. — Perhaps the easiest and best way to start the agricultural work in rural schools is to start the pupils to plant and care for\ngardens. We have had pupils return to the school-garden work on Saturdays when nothing that we can think of would induce them to return for\nregular school work. The garden idea permits of starting in winter with\ngermination tests and weed-seed determinations, also selection of seed and\nremoving of impurities from samples from father's granary and com crib.\nWhile gardens imply flowers, I have seen in schoolyards splendid experiments with field crops, such as liming soil for alfalfa, spading under clover\nfor green manure, the eradication of weeds by cultivation and by spraying,\nthe growing of potatoes at different dates of seeding and with different\nkinds of fertilizers. In some gardens enough vegetables are grown to supply\nthe domestic science class the following winter, from which the girls in\nturn make vegetable soup each day, for one cent a bowl, and serve it to all\nthose who bring their lunches to school. Then again the garden furnishes\nendless illustrations for teaching arithmetic, language lessons, and so forth.\nThe school fall fair. — This has been one of our most progressive movements. The teachers and pupils seem to find in it a long-felt want.\nWith a small beginning in 191 2 of 25 school fairs, the work has progressed\nso fast that this past season of 19 15 as many as 234 school fairs were held\nin 41 different counties, including 2,291 schools representing 48,386 children.\nSeed was supplied and instructions were given to the children, who planted\nand cared for 51,243 plots. They also became responsible for 6,868 settings\nof hens' eggs of bred-to-lay strains. The total number of entries at the\nschool fairs amounted to 116,236, and the total attendance, including\nchildren and adults, was 157,000.\n\n"}
{"page": 963, "printed_page": "951", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSUGGESTIONS\n\nFOR RURAL-SCHOOL\n\nCURRICULA\n\n951\n\nA regular inspection of the plots in the summer is important. It keeps\nthe teacher in the neighborhood; it helps the children to a better care\nof the plots, lends a pleasant diversion, and enlists a larger sympathy from\nthe parents. Competent judges who can give their reasons for the awards\nare also a great help, not only in insuring fair play and no favoritism, but\nin emphasizing the importance of careful selection and preparation of\nexhibits.\nAt these fairs, oratorical contests have been inaugurated with splendid\nresults. Hardly a school fair but had its attraction of ambitious boys and\ngirls speaking from an improvised platform. Exhibits of cooking by the\nsmall girls have also come to be a very important feature of the school fall\nfairs.\nLive stock judging is coming also to be a part of our school fair work.\nThe parents supply the stock to be judged, and the district representatives\nor county agents conduct the contest, or some other agricultural college\ngraduate is secured to superintend.\nTeaching domestic science. — I shall not dwell upon this phase, as you\nhave a special section on this program devoted to the work. I will say,\nhowever, that as 95 per cent of the people in the United States and Canada\ndo all their own housework, it seems stupid that the people have not long\nsince risen and demanded that the art and science of the household be made\ncompulsory by every board of trustees in the country.\nFor one hundred dollars, equipment may be procured and used even\nin a one-room school, so that every girl may receive useful instruction in\ncooking and sewing and laundry work. She wants only a start, the rest\nshe will get at home by constant and careful practice.\nThe older hoys. — Many farmers' boys leave school permanently just\nwhen they should be starting their secondary education. There are many\nreasons why, and it is not necessary to mention them here. What we have\nnot done is to make it easy for such boys to return to the same school some\nyears later and find instruction according to the need. We have, it is true,\nadded continuation classes to our common schools, but these have not\nattracted many pupils who have been out of school for any appreciable\nlength of time. There must be hundreds of thousands of young men,\nbetween sixteen and twenty-five years of age, who would be greatly benefited, and perhaps given an entirely n©W viewpoint in life if they could get\nsome systematic instruction just at this stage.\nWe find that six weeks' and ten weeks' courses for farmers' sons in the\nwinter time are coming to play an important place in our agricultural\neducational scheme. As many as fifteen hundred, in classes of from ten\nto twenty-five, have been in attendance at such short courses in one season.\nGiven a class of young men who have had practical experience in farming,\nand offer them a chance to learn the why of farm operations, and it is wonderful how quickly they will become interested. Keep them at it for six\n\n"}
{"page": 964, "printed_page": "952", "text": "952\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\nor ten weeks, and it is remarkable how their whole outlook on life is changed.\nCo-operation becomes possible in the neighborhood ; the agricultural college\nand experimental stations become real and personal; reports and bulletins\nare read and understood; cow-testing is made easy; a water system is\nnow within reach; tile draining is practicable and possible, and the whole\nfuture looks altogether different. We secure agricultural college graduates\nto do the teaching. Good men who perhaps were school teachers before\ngoing to college, and who are now farming, are easily attainable at a moderate cost. We are trying in this way to give help to those who want it\nwhen they want it.\nTo sum up, it seems to me that what our rural-school curriculum needs\nis the teaching of real agriculture to young farmers and a chance for every\ngirl to get a start in systematic homemaking while her time is not worth\nvery much. I should like to see in every rural schoolhouse a creed for every\nboy and every girl, something like this.\nOntario Country Boy's Creed\n1. I believe that life in the country can be made just as pleasant and profitable as life\nin the city.\n2. I believe that father and I can form a partnership that will suit both of us.\n3. I believe that if I kill every weed on my father's farm we shall be well paid by the\nincreased crop alone, to say nothing of the benefit to our neighbors.\n4. I believe that by careful selection of our chickens I can double the output of the\nflock.\n5. I believe that by introducing alfalfa on our farm we can keep twice as many\ndomestic animals as at present.\n6. I believe that by keeping twice as many animals we shall be able to grow much\nlarger crops of alfalfa and other things.\n7. I believe that by planting shade trees, growing flowers, shrubs, and keeping a\ntidy homestead, we shall be better contented and happier in every way and our farm will\nincrease in value.\n8. I believe not in luck, but in pluck.\n9. I beheve that farming is a most honorable calling, and, having decided to stay on\nthe farm, it is my duty to make the best use of my time in school that I may be the better\nfarmer in the days that are to come.\n10. I believe in working when I work and playing when I play, and in giving and\nreceiving a square deal in every act of life.\nOntario Country Girl's Creed\n1. I believe that I have a right to be.imppy every day.\n2. I beheve that God's blue sky and God's green earth are a part of my inheritance.\n3. I beheve that I have a right to love little chickens and ducks and lambs and\npuppies as well as dolls and ribbons.\n4. I beheve I could take care of these things as well as my brother who does not\nlove them as much as I.\n5. I beheve I would love to keep house better than anything else, and I only wish\nthey taught housework at school.\n6. I believe that keeping a garden all my own would be great fun, and I believe that\nI could be very happy in giving away the flowers and in cooking the vegetables that I\nraised myself.\n\n"}
{"page": 965, "printed_page": "953", "text": "Superintendence!\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN THE\n\nSEVENTH\n\nAND\n\nEIGHTH\n\nGRADES\n\n953\n\n7. I believe that I could study real hard at my grammar and geography and arithmetic and spelling if I could do cooking or sewing with the other girls in the afternoon.\n8. I do not want to go to town and leave my father and mother and my brothers\nand sisters, for I know I shall miss them all and the trees and the creek and the green\ngrass and the old woods and everything; but oh! I do not want to stay at home and do\nnothing but wash dishes and carry water and do the chores and grow old like auntie.\nI want to laugh and love and live.\n9. I believe I can learn to sew and cook and do laundr}' work and do them well, and\nI want to learn them and I want to learn to do them well.\n10. I believe in the square deal for girls as well as boys and I want everybody to be\nhappy all the time — the old as well as the young.\n\nJOINT DISCUSSION\nTHE MINIMUM ESSENTIALS VERSUS\nCOURSE OF STUDY IN THE SEVENTH\nI.\n\nLOTUS\n\nD.\n\nTHE DIFFERENTIATED\nAND EIGHTH GRADES\n\nCOFFMAN,\nPROFESSOR\nOF EDUCATION,\nMINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nThere has been a growing educational theory that individual rights and\nliberties are paramount to social duties and to the social will. It is true\nthat the most distinctive and valuable contribution of current educational\npsychology is a knowledge of individual differences. The discovery of\nthese differences has resulted in an exaltation of the importance of the\nindividual, and that exaltation has become the dominant note in educational\ntheory and practice. So deeply enmeshed is the doctrine of individual\ndifferences in educational thought that we are in some danger of forgetting\nthat interest, one of its by-products, is not always a measure of value, that\nmere spontaneous activity in itself never produced reflective thinking, that\nnatural learning, apart from human intervention, is a fiction, a dream, an\nanomaly.\nThe only national rights anyone has are those he uses for collective\nwelfare. Certain standards and certain values must be set up for the\ntraining so that all may more satisfactorily satisfy the conditions of\ngood citizenship, of neighborhood, and of family life. At this particular\ntime it is becoming increasingly imperative that we ask what is best for\nsociety, what is best for the state, rather than what is best for the individual.\nThe gigantic problems this country is facing and will soon have to solve\nwill demand new conceptions of responsibility, a more wholesome respect\nfor the ideals of American hfe, a stiffening of our moral fiber, and a more\nrigorous mastery of the tools of learning.\nIf the efficiency of a state or of a nation depends upon the trained\nintelligence of the people, the school must play its part in solving those\nproblems which are basic to social welfare and to national integrity; and\nin doing so it must provide first and above all a curriculum consisting of\n\n"}
{"page": 966, "printed_page": "954", "text": "954\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\nminimum essentials, a curriculum consisting of those great facts and principles which all should be expected to acquire within the limits of their\nrespective capacities.\nThe violent reaction we are experiencing against providing a curriculum consisting of minimum essentials is due to the wholesale attempt to\napply a uniform curriculum uniformly to all classes of children. This\npractice has placed no premium upon variations in methods. But\ninitiative upon the part of teachers will be stimulated and encouraged\nif we vary the methods of instruction to harmonize with the capacities of\nthe children for the purpose of securing more uniform outcomes in matters\nof skill, knowledge, standards, ideals, appreciations, obligations, and duties.\nWe regard it as a healthy sign and as a mark of progress that teachers\nenjoy great freedom in the adaptation of materials to the abilities of\nchildren. Any educational program that offers little opportunity for the\nexercise of resourcefulness and initiative on the part of teachers is the\nproduct of mediaevalism. A certain amount of freedom is desirable\nbecause it sthnulates ambitious teachers to improve their methods; a\ncertain amount is necessary because some individuals and some classes\nwill do more work than other individuals or other classes.\nBut the great fact remains that there is a certain irreducible amount\nof material, constantly increasing in character and in amount, which all\nchildren should be required to master if they are to be in possession of those\nthings which constitute the essentials of our common life and common\nwelfare. It is quite as necessary, and certainly as valuable, that we emphasize the stabler aspects of society in the curriculum as that we be conversant\nwith every variation proposed. Initiative is an eminently desirable\nquality, but initiative without guidance becomes anarchy; initiative without being founded upon a substratum of common ideals determined by sane\nleaders will result in national destruction. But ideals cannot be formulated\nin a vacuum. They always follow in the wake of or cluster about ideas,\nand it is those ideas and practices which constitute the basis of social Ufe\nfor which we are pleading.\nIt is not uncommon to hear the special pleaders of individual differences\nproclaiming that reading should be taught without readers, arithmetic\nwithout arithmetics, and that we should abandon all textbooks and courses\nof study. The discovery of an obsolete bit of material in the curriculum or\nsome defect in method has encouraged them to declare the entire school\nsystem to be antiquated and worthless, the \"most gigantic and momentous\nfailure of modern times.\" They also urge differentiation in the seventh\nand eighth grades because of the elimination and retardation found in these\ngrades, and they cite as the cause of this retardation the lack of adjustment\nbetween the different grades of ability found in the school and the course of\nstudy. While this mal-adjustment has no doubt contributed to the mortality of the schools, still the total population in school between 1900 and 1910,\n\n"}
{"page": 967, "printed_page": "955", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSEVENTH\n\nAND\n\nEIGHTH\n\nGRADES\n\n955\n\nas shown by the census returns, increased proportionately more rapidly\nthan the general population for each age group, and more rapidly for boys\nthan for girls in every state in the Union except Nevada. Altho mortality\nis descriptive of a condition to be ameliorated, we have much evidence to\nshow that both enrolment and attendance are improving. The greatest\nachievement of the last century, one unparalleled anywhere else in all the\nworld, is the retention in school of four children in ten to the age of fifteen\nand of one child in ten to the age of nineteen. We are not familiar with a\nsingle trustworthy investigation that establishes beyond question the fact\nthat retardation and elimination are due primarily to the uniformities of the\ncurriculum. That much of the retardation and elimination is due to\ncauses over which the school has little or no control has been clearly\ndemonstrated. Moreover, a recent investigation in one state has shown\nthat enrolment and attendance have increased as rapidly in 126 schools\nhaving no vocational work as in 117 schools having vocational work. Evidently there is a nation-wide faith in public education, whether it be general\nor special, cultural or vocational.\nAnother of the stock arguments for the differentiation of the curriculum\nin these upper grades is that it should be organized to serve the needs of\nthe community in which the school is located. We have no desire to minimize the importance of this conception. We are convinced that there\nshould be many more contacts than now exist between the school and the\ncommunity, that we have not yet become sufficiently sensitive and selfconscious concerning the possibilities of social service thru such contacts.\nThe localization of the activities of the school in terms of the dominant\nindustries and activities of the community will vitalize the curriculum and\nmotivate instruction. It will make a direct appeal to the pupils and it\nwill encourage local support for the schools. These results are highly\ndesirable. But attempts to localize the school curriculum may result in a\nsituation inimical to the interests of democracy. The natural consequence\nof localization may mean an accentuation of the differences already existing between the communities. If such be the case, and if the practice be\nextended indefinitely, then one of the great obligations of the public school\nwiU be neglected. If, as is generally admitted, the common school, and\nin that we would include the Seventh and eighth grades, is the agent of\nuniversal education, if the station of a nation among the nations of the\nworld can be determined by the attention it is giving to the general education of the masses, if social solidarity depends upon likemindedness rather\nthan upon unlikemindedness, then we must safeguard those things which\nmade for the homogeneity of our people, and not accentuate unduly\ncommunity differences.\nWe cannot educate all who Hve in farming communities to be farmers,\nor all who live in mining communities to be miners. We know that a\nmajority of the sons of any generation wiU not follow the occupations of\n\n"}
{"page": 968, "printed_page": "956", "text": "956\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\ntheir fathers. Since there is a tremendous shift in occupations from generation to generation, is it not all the more important that all people be educated alike in those things which are essential to mutual understanding\nand to mutual intercourse ? This does not imply that all shall think alike\nall the time, but that all shall have the basis and the instruments for\nsimilar thinking when it is required. Otherwise, the charlatan, the mountebank, and the demagog will need to appeal only to the emotions, the superstition, and the ignorance of the people to lead. But few will deny that an\neducated citizenry is as necessary to fight the battle of peace as a trained\ncitizenry is necessary to fight the battles of war, and neither can be secured\nwithout common elements in our educational program.\nFrequently the advocates of localization forget the fact that approximately one-half of the people living in cities were born, reared, and educated\nin rural districts. Had they been trained in the district schools in a narrow\ncurriculum, colored by one or two local occupations, they probably would\nhave found it far more difficult to adapt themselves to city Ufe. Moreover,\nthe mobility of our population between states, a tendency we should hardly\nthink of restricting, must be reckoned with when we are considering\neducation in terms of national good and national integrity. Unless we\nsafeguard all those things which make for social welfare and mutual understanding and social intercourse in our educational program, the localization of the curriculum, valuable as this conception is, must lead to\noccupational stratification.\nWhen any educational theory seeks to estabHsh new ethical standards,\nto undermine our codes of personal moraHty, when it strikes powerfully and\nsharply at the value of racial experience, when it declares that many of\nour stabler institutions are antiquated and worthless, the vaUdity of its\narguments should be tested. Not education merely, but every phase of\nAmerican life has been permeated and infected by the invidious implications of the doctrines of individualism.\nThe extent to which the doctrine of individual liberty has forced itself\ninto business is a matter of common knowledge. Men will refuse to buy\nof a grocer or a butcher whose scales are not properly adjusted when they\nthemselves resort to trickery in disposing of stocks and securities. Men\nwill vote to imprison the dealer of adulterated milk when they themselves do not scruple in selling watered stock. In other words, business\nhas become a game. At least, it is called a game in which each player is\ndominated by self-interest.\n. The same tendencies are at work in the poUtical field. PoUtics, as such,\nis looked upon as a game in which trickery, deception, and fraud are the\nproper cards to play.\nIt would seem that we need a new conception of public responsibility.\nTaking morals and public duties as we find them, we are impressed with the\nnecessity of devising new standards if we are to prevent degeneracy. We\n\n"}
{"page": 969, "printed_page": "957", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN THE SEVENTH\n\nAND\n\nEIGHTH\n\nGRADES\n\n957\n\nmust prevent the spirit of our trusteeship from sinking into abeyance and\nfrom being replaced by the spirit of selfish or local ends. To divert attention from the immediate and alluring and to center it upon the stabler\naspects and interests of society is a problem of paramount importance.\nThe trial of democracy as a form of government before the civilized\nworld has been going on too long to be overlooked in the burst of enthusiasm\nfor human freedom. All human freedom is limited by its capacity for\nstable and efficient government. Democratic nations have died only by\nself-slaughter. The last shreds of autocracy can be extirpated in a democracy only by learning submission to law, not to a master; to efliciency of\norganization under a higher servant, not under a ruler; to energy and\neJ05ciency of devotion to the common welfare, not to individual Hberty.\nOur nation faces the task of reinterpreting its ideals and readjusting its\nlife. Purpose must take the place of destiny, and there must be a change\nfrom drift to mastery. Our domestic and public affairs and our educational\nprogram must all be more efficiently organized. In the future there will be\nless talk of rights and more insistence on duties. It will be realized that\nthere can be no solidarity without sacrifices. If we do not loyally volunteer\nfor the new life of our country, we shall be drafted. In this work of national\nreadjustment our educational system will be tested as never before.\nPresident Eliot has recently declared that democracy is on trial now\nand that unless it can effect a highly efficient organization with national\nunity as its goal it must perish when it comes into competition with more\nefficient nations. National integrity and economic efficiency depend upon\nintelligent citizens and they depend upon the educational ideals fostered\nby the country. If education is not used to promote the resources of the\nnation as a whole, but to divert these resources into individual channels,\nit becomes a source of weakness instead of strength. As Fouillee points\nout, \"The danger that above all others the democratic nation must avoid\nis the disintegration of society into units with no immediate concern but\nself-interest, into individuals to whom social duties and bonds are gradually\nceasing to appeal.\" A growing consciousness of social welfare and of social\norganization is calculated to shift the emphasis from the demand for\nindividual liberty to a demand for social unity.\nModern educational psychology has not only made us aware of variations in ability, it has also discovered that there is a common central tendency around which individuals cluster or tend to cluster. Slight variations\nfrom this central tendency are numerous; large variations from it are rare.\nSimilarities in mentality as well as similarities in social ideals and standards are after all important criteria for determining the selection of the\nmaterials of education and the attainments of children. Variation in\nability is essential to social progress, but resemblances in ideals, customs,\nskills, and standards are essential to social stability. Differences among\npeople are no more basic to democracy than likeness among people. That\n\n"}
{"page": 970, "printed_page": "958", "text": "958\n\nNA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[Detroit\n\ncommunity of ideals and ideas, which serves as the basis for mutual understanding and which must be lifted from level to level with each succeeding\ngeneration, cannot be assured without a common pabulum in the school.\nIf this and succeeding generations are to consider common problems, if\ndemocracy is dependent upon agreement in thought and action with reference to the great fundamental conceptions and issues of life, then education\nin measuring up to its responsibility must seek to transmit the facts,\nprinciples, and standards and to inculcate the ideals which will safeguard\nthose conceptions and issues.\nA curriculum which serves this purpose cannot be narrow and restricted.\nIt will be an enriched and socialized curriculum. All those things which\nrelate to health, to civic responsibility, to our relations with one another,\nmust be emphasized. There must be an examination and reinterpretation\nof the subjects now in the curriculum for the purpose of making them more\nserviceable and valuable to us all. New materials will be introduced under\nthe sanction of new pressures for the purpose of satisfying new demands of\ngeneral social utility.\nBefore specialized skill and knowledge are set up as ends of education,\nall that knowledge of a non-technical nature with which every well-informed\nand reasonably well-adjusted citizen in an American state is equipped; all\nthose social and personal habits; all those ideals, attitudes, appreciations,\nprejudices, and contempts which distinguish the desirable citizen; all those\nduties and obligations which fix our responsibility and constitute the basis\nof our social life; all those tools which represent the instruments of learning and the expression of experiences as our common usefulness — all these\ncommon elements the seventh and eighth grades, whatever else they do\nor do not do, must see that their pupils possess on leaving them.\n\nII.\n\nW.\n\nC.\n\nBAGLEY,\n\nDIRECTOR,\nSCHOOL\nOF\nILLINOIS, URBANA,\n\nEDUCATION,\nILL.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nThe question of differentiated curricula versus common elements in the\nseventh and eighth grades is not a question to be solved on the basis of\nexpediency; it is not a question to be solved on the basis of individual,\nlocal, or partisan interests; least of all should the issues that it involves\nbe clouded or obscured by emotion or prejudice. The answer that this\ndepartment gives to this question is fairly certain to commit both the\ndepartment and the public schools definitely and perhaps irretrievably\nto one or another of two fundamental educational doctrines, and this at\nthe present time especially is not a responsibility to be considered lightly.\nToday, more than ever before, we are in a position to appreciate the fundamental influence which a permeating philosophy exerts over the conduct of a\npeople. In a country where institutionalized education is universal, the doctrines that dominate the people's schools will have a large share in deter-\n\n"}
{"page": 971, "printed_page": "959", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSEVENTH\n\nAND\n\nEIGHTH\n\nGRADES\n\n959\n\nmining the doctrines that dominate the succeeding generation. Under our\ndecentralized system of school administration, the body that has the largest\npower in determining the dominant educational doctrines is this representative body of school administrators. Your decisions will have a preponderant\ninfluence in shaping public opinion upon educational problems. Your judgment will be a large factor in giving to the people the counsel and advice\nthat may determine basic educational policies.\nIt is important, then, that our discussions should emphasize basic\nprinciples. The issues that are involved are too fundamental and too\nserious to justify a quibbling debate over unessential matters. We shall\nquarrel neither as to the need of differentiations nor as to the wisdom of\nmeeting individual needs and individual capacities by a rich and varied\nprogram of studies. Personally I beUeve that there is a place for certain\ndifferentiations, not only in the seventh and eighth grades, but even from\nthe very outset of school life. The important question is not, Shall differentiated programs be provided? but rather. Upon what principles shall\ndifferentiations be based ?\nTouching this important question, there are three theories or doctrines\nwidely current in American education that appeal to me as fraught with the\ngravest dangers. The first of these theories is this: that common elements\nin the school program are unnecessary beyond the point where children\nhave fairly mastered the \"tools of knowledge\"; substantial uniformity\nup to this point, we are told, is both economical and expedient, but uniformity beyond this point, while both cheap and easy to administer, cannot\nbe justified by any principle of educational values. According to this view,\ncommon elements beyond the fifth or sixth school year are not essential,\nand while there will continue to be some uniformity, this will be determined\nmerely by convenience, not by basic and fundamental principles. This, I\nbelieve, is substantially the view held by a group of prominent students of\neducation who have recently published a joint statement of principles that,\nin their judgment, should govern the construction of curricula. It is also\na view that is either implicit or explicit in the current arguments for reorganizing the seventh and eighth grades on the junior high-school plan.\nThis point of view, while representing a wholesome reaction against\nthe extreme and deadening uniformity that once prevailed, overlooks\nentirely, and to my mind inexcusably, one of the most important problems\nthat education in a democracy should strive to solve — the problem, namely,\nof insuring an adequate number of common elements in the people's culture;\nthe problem of insuring an adequate measure of likemindedness, a fund of\nideas, ideals, and standards common to all the members of the democratic\ngroup. If a democracy needs anything that education can furnish, it\ncertainly needs this essential basis of mutual understanding, for if democracy means anything, it means that the people in the last analysis must\ngovern their own affairs; it means that the will of the people must be\n\n"}
{"page": 972, "printed_page": "960", "text": "960\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nsupreme. If this collective will is to guide aright the destinies of a great\nnation, it must be based upon a collective intelligence of a high order; and\ncollective intelligence of a high order is impossible without a high level of\ncommon ideas, ideals, and aspirations.\nThe curriculum problem in the seventh and eighth grades and in the\nhigh schools, then, is not to be solved by discarding or belittling the principle\nof uniformity. The obvious avenue of solution is first to determine with\ngreat care what elements of knowledge, skill, and aspiration may best be\nmade common to all; to insure that, whenever we ask everyone to master\ncertain elements of knowledge and skill, these elements shall be really\nworthy of the honor that is being conferred upon them — the honor of being\namong the common denominators of the collective thinking of a great\npeople. In the past, the common elements of the school program have not\nalways or often been determined carefully, and while it is probably true\nthat many if not most of the materials now standardized in the elementary\nprogram deserve the high recognition that has been accorded them in making\nthem the basis of the common culture of the people, it is also true that some\nof them have outUved their usefulness, while the presence of others could\nnot be justified even as having historical value. The first problem in curriculum construction, then, is to make this determination of the minimal\nessentials which are to constitute the common elements of basic education.\nThese must be thoughtfully and carefully selected, not upon the basis of\nindividual whim, or doctrinaire caprice, but upon the basis of their human\nworth. They must represent the most precious and enduring parts of the\nculture-heritage of the race. Nothing cheap, nothing tawdry, nothing\nthat is of merely evanescent or superficial value should be included here.\nCarefully selected, rigorously tested common elements, then, should\nform the core of every seventh- and eighth-grade program. Around these\nshould be built the differentiations, the diversified offerings, but no one\nshould be permitted to escape the common elements — that is, no one who\nis to have a voice or a vote in the government of the people.\nAnd this leads to a second current doctrine that, to my mind, is surcharged with social dynamite. It is the insidious notion that what we call\ngeneral or liberal education is needed only by those who are going into the\nprofessions; that workers in the industrial, agricultural, and commercial\nfields do not need the kind of culture that the general and liberal work of\nthe seventh and eighth grades and the high school is supposed to represent —\nthat instruction in history, in geography, in literature, is really vocational\neducation preparing for the ''white-collar\" occupations. And so we have\nthe proposals for differentiated courses in history-^industrial history for\nthose going into the industries, political history for those going into the\nprofessions; and we have proposals and even experiments in the teaching\nof English which would relegate the great masterpieces to the white-collar\npupils, and feed those destined for other caUings on the inspiring contents\n\n"}
{"page": 973, "printed_page": "961", "text": "Superintendencej\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSEVENTH\n\nAND\n\nEIGHTH\n\nGRADES\n\n961\n\nof poultry bulletins and mail-order catalogs. I do not mean that the sober\nsense of the educational public has yet permitted the lower schools to be\nexploited by these fantastic schemes; I do mean that proposals no less\nabsurd have been made by serious and sincere individuals who have been\ncaught by this notion that the cultural materials of our upper grades and\nhigh schools are of value only to those who are headed toward the professions.\nThat the work of the seventh and eighth grades is now very far from\nperfect from the point of view of providing the essential common elements\nof general education, we shall readily admit; but the defects are those of\ndetailed application, not of fundamental principles. Certainly these sweeping reorganizations which propose differentiated curricula beginning with\nthe seventh grade are an extreme and unwarranted means of solving the\nproblem. To adopt a policy which in time is certain to force vocational\nchoices at or before the age of twelve is to work a personal injustice to millions of immature children, most of whom will not thank you at a later day\nfor thus prostituting their interests and selling their birthright. Most of\nthose who advocate early vocational differentiation are not thinking of\ntheir own children. Of course a broad and liberal training is presupposed\nfor them. These opportunities for early vocational choices are for other\npeople's children. And what do the \"other people\" think about them?\nTwo years ago, the Illinois Federation of Labor adopted a report from its\neducational committee — a report, by the way, which expressed a keener\nappreciation of the difficult service rendered by the public-school teacher\nthan any similar document that I have seen coming from a group of laymen.\nIn adopting this report the Federation went on record against vocational\ndifferentiation prior to the age of fourteen. Even Mr. Cooley, with whose\nadvocacy of the dual system of vocational schools I have had no sympathy,\nhas at every point in his constructive proposals safeguarded inviolably the\ngeneral and liberal education of all children to the age of fourteen. And\nhe has done this, I am told, against the pressure of some of the powerful\ncommercial and industrial interests that he has represented. When this\ndepartment last year adopted a resolution that apparently indorsed vocational differentiation at the age of twelve, a Chicago newspaper that was\nadvocating the dual system immediately seized upon the resolution as an\nillustration of the inconsistency of the schoolmen. This paper said in\neffect: Here are the schoolmen protesting in one breath against the dual\nsystem of schools which threatens their control of the educational situation,\nand protesting on the high grounds of democracy; and in the next breath\nthey adopt a policy of premature vocational differentiation tenfold more\nundemocratic than the dual system could ever be.\nWith the junior high-school movement as an agency for instituting\nwholesome reforms I have no quarrel. There are many things to be said\nin favor of segregation of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. But many\nprominent advocates of the movement are insisting that its essence is\n\n"}
{"page": 974, "printed_page": "962", "text": "g62\n\nNATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\ndifferentiated curricula, and differentiated curricula will inevitably mean\nvocational differentiation; they will mean a separation of the sheep from\nthe goats, and class restrictions in respect to liberal education; they will\nmean curtailing by two full years the common pabulum of culture so essential to a democracy; they will mean the inevitable narrowing of interests\nat a time when, above all times, interests should be broad and liberal.\nFurthermore, if the downward movement starts, it will certainly continue.\nThose who predicate their confidence in the junior high school on the theory\nthat an important corner in mental development is being turned at the age\nof twelve can easily find another corner at the age of nine. In fact, if the\njunior high-school movement is based upon the assumed virtues of vocational differentiation at the age of twelve, it is simply the first step toward\nthe Europeanizing of a democratic school system which, with all its faults,\nhas still constituted an \"educational ladder with its base in the gutter and\nits tip in the university.\"\nThe work of the seventh and eighth grades is open to vast improvement— in which respect, by the way, it bears a close resemblance to the\nwork of the high school, the work of the college, the university, and the\ngraduate school. Mortality is still too high in these seventh and eighth\ngrades. Our boys and girls who reach the end of the compulsory education period before they graduate from the elementary school need opportunities and stimulus for further cultural and vocational training; these\nopportunities and this stimulus should certainly be provided. I am heartily\nin sympathy with every plan that promises to alleviate these conditions\nwithout at the same time surrendering, as do these present-day proposals,\nthe fundamental principles that form the educational basis of true democracy. Iam also in favor of certain differentiations all along the line that\nwill supplement and complement the essential basis of common elements.\nWe must provide adequately for the lo or 20 per cent of pupils who find the\npresent standards too rigorous to meet, and we must also provide for the\n10 or 20 per cent who find the present standards too easy and who acquire\nenduring habits of laziness and carelessness because they are not stimulated\nto their best efforts. But the differentiations which these problems involve\nwill be primarily differentiations in teaching rather than differentiations in\nmaterials. The problem is one of adaptation. We can never hope by any\nlegerdemain of subjects, courses, and curricula to meet every individual\ndifference in rate of mental growth or in capacity for mental mastery.\nTo take the materials that have proved their worth and to adapt them to the\nneeds, capacities, and aptitudes of individuals is the task of the teacher.\nAs a teacher I cannot escape my responsibility merely by throwing the blame\nback upon the curriculum that I may be attempting to teach. The fault\nmay be in the curriculum, but it avails me nothing to advance the\nfaults of the curriculum as a cloak for my own inefficiency. It avails me\nnothing to say that I could teach all right if only I could find materials that\n\n"}
{"page": 975, "printed_page": "963", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSEVENTH\n\nAND\n\nEIGHTH\n\nGRADES\n\n963\n\neverybody wanted to learn. If such materials were available, my office\nwould soon be vacant; it would necessarily disappear for it would represent\na luxury without a purpose.\nA great deal of our trouble today lies in the fact that we are looking\nupon all of the ills of education as curriculum ills, when, in reality, many\nif not most of them are teaching ills. And in the improvement of conditions\nin the seventh and eighth grades, this matter will need some attention\nbut hardly, I take it, from the high schools and colleges. During the past\nfew years, I have visited several hundred classes on the elementary, secondary, and higher levels of public-school work. Easily the best teaching\nthat I have seen has been in the primary grades and in the seventh and\neighth grades.^ I shall not generalize from my limited experience, but\npersonally I am very skeptical of any proposal which would bring down\ninto the seventh and eighth grades the methods commonly found in many\nhigh-school classes — ^methods which have in turn been derived from college\nclassrooms. Nor am I wildly enthusiastic about the prospect of reproducing among seventh- and eighth-grade teachers the attitude toward the work\nof teaching which characterizes many high-school teachers and many more\ncollege professors. This may be a minor point, but if my earlier proposition\nis correct, if the problem of differentiation to meet individual needs and\ncapacities is primarily a teaching problem and only secondarily a curriculum problem, then it seems to me that the teachers in these grades should\nbe men and women to whom the art of teaching is something more than a\ntopic for sneering contempt.\nClosely akin to this phase of our discussion is the third and final current\ndoctrine that has intimate relations to this matter of differentiated curricula\nin the seventh and eighth grades. I refer to the beHef that educational\nvalues are to be determined exclusively or chiefly by the relation of\neducational materials to the \"immediately felt needs\" of the pupils — the\ndoctrine that interest is the chief measure of value. The weight of this\ndoctrine obviously falls on the side of curriculum differentiation, for the\ngreater the number of offerings and the fewer the common demands,\nthe greater the likelihood that something appetizing to the individual will\nbe found.\nAgain it is necessary to keep the balance. Interest is an educational\nagency the potency of which it would be folly to ignore. We have indeed\ntraveled far from the rigorous doctrines of the Puritans, and no one can\ngreatly regret that the severity, the harshness, and the repression of the\nolden time have given place to a recognition of pleasure and happiness and\nthe joys of life. But, after all, the problem is to balance the two forces.\nThen^ nothing was good unless it had a bad taste; today nothing is good\n'Classroom efficiency varies with supervision. Effective supervision is much more prevalent in the\nelementary school than in the high school. It is practically non-existent in colleges and universities.\nThere is a prejudice against classroom supervision among secondary and higher teachers; hence the danger\nof the movement to reorganize the upper grades on the high-school model.\n\n"}
{"page": 976, "printed_page": "964", "text": "964\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nunless it tickles the palate. Both are extreme views, and either, unbalanced\nby its complement, will lead to individual and social disaster.\nToward a solution of these problems of seventh- and eighth-grade\nwork — of all educational work, for that matter — ^we need a co-operation\nof these two forces. The teacher's attempt to make work fascinating and\nattractive must be met half-way by the aggressive effort of our boys and\ngirls. In the last analysis, the efficiency of our educational system depends\nupon the capacity of our boys and girls to do \"hard, uncoaxed, uncomplimented work willingly and heartily.\" With this attitude as a basis, the\ndoctrine of interest may be applied to the last notch; with this attitude\nlacking, our present emphasis upon the doctrine of interest commits us to\na pernicious individualism that is full of social perils.\nIs it not an opportune moment to suggest that our schools can never\nbe more than superficially successful until public opinion places its powerful\nsanction upon what may be called the duty of intelligence ? The kind of\npreparedness that a democracy needs most is not primarily the kind that\nwe hear so much about today. The kind of preparedness that a democracy\nalways needs, whether to face the crises of war or the crises of peace, is that\nwhich is represented by the highest possible level of general intelligence.\nUnder the influence of the present crisis, it should not be an impossible\ntask to direct the thinking of the people toward this momentous problem.\nThere are those who believe, and believe sincerely, that duty and sacrifice are outworn virtues that have no place in a democracy. It may not\nbe enough to argue that, if democracy can find no place for these virtues,\nthe world will shortly find no place for democracy. Can we insure on a large\nscale an effective sense of duty that will impel all the children of all the\npeople to pay the necessary price for the trained intelligence — the price\nof effort and sacrifice that must always remain the basic factors in mental\nmastery ? There are boys and girls in our high schools and in our statesupported colleges and universities who look upon the opportunities and\nprivileges that the bounty of the people provides always with the attitude\nthat these are rights, never stopping to think that a right implies a corresponding duty. It is wrong to permit this condition to continue — wrong\nto these boys and girls themselves, wrong to society primarily for whose\nbenefit public education has been established, wrong to the schools whose\nefficiency is impaired and whose service is restricted by the essentially\nindividualistic attitude that our current educational doctrines deliberately\nencourage.\nThe fundamental issue in this matter of \"differentiation\" versus\n\"common elements,\" then, is the issue between individuahsm and collectivism, and the struggle here is only a tiny example of the eternal struggle\nbetween these two forces. It is the struggle to find the proper balance,\nthe adequate proportion of emphasis to give to each factor. It is the lack\nof a proper balance on a vastly larger scale that is drenching Europe with\n\n"}
{"page": 977, "printed_page": "965", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSEVENTH\n\nAND\n\nEIGHTH\n\nGRADES\n\n965\n\nblood today. Many are asking whether, in our own country, we have not\ngone too far in the direction of individualism. In our educational theory\nwe have certainly gone too far, and educational practice has gone about\nas far as it is safe to venture without a counteracting movement. In my\nopinion, the time is ripe for a little tincture of iron in our educational philosophy; for the touch of a more virile idealism; for a renaissance of thoroness and a reasonable measure of rigor; for something approaching a\nrevival of the ideals of duty and effort.\n\nIII.\n\nDAVID\n\nSNEDDEN,\n\nCOMMISSIONER\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nBOSTON,\n\nMASS.\n\nThe efforts now being made in various states to reorganize curricula\nof training and instruction for children from twelve to fourteen or fifteen\nyears of age constitute undoubtedly the most significant and important of\ncontemporary movements in education. We are justified in assuming\nwithout argument that the scope and character of that instruction and\ntraining will be materially modified in the near future. Readjustments\nin administrative plans, restatement of purposes, and new developments\nin means and methods employed may all be expected. For some years\neducators have discussed plans for a \" six-and-six \" division of the years\ngiven to elementary and secondary education; and we now hear much\nabout the intermediate school and the junior high school as means of\nproviding better education for children from twelve to fourteen years of age.\nAlready a large jiumber of interesting experiments along these lines are\nbeing tried.\nThe writer holds that the theses given below can now be successfully\ndefended, and in this paper it is proposed to contribute toward their\ndiscussion:\na) The educational needs of pupils of twelve to fourteen years of\nage are variable to such an extent that, if conditions of educational\nadministration permitted, a number of courses of training and instruction,\ndissimilar as to many important elements and also even as to quality of\nresults expected in common studies, should be provided.\nb) The number and variety of subjects of training and instruction suited\nto and desirable for at least some important groups of pupils of these ages\nare now far too large to be properly included in the educational program\nof any one learner; and the number and variety of these desirable studies\ntend steadily to increase.\nc) It is highly probable that as regards flexibility of courses of instruction and training the school suited to the needs of pupils from twelve to\nfourteen years of age will in essential respects repeat the history of the\nliberal arts (general) college and the general secondary school which, in\nthe early stages of their history, offered uniform curricula composed in\n\n"}
{"page": 978, "printed_page": "966", "text": "966\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nthe main of prescribed studies, but which subsequently and in everincreasing measure found it desirable to increase the range of their studies\nand to give pupils wider latitude in making individual programs of\nstudy.\nd) While it may safely be assumed that for some years to come at least\nthe individual programs of instruction and training for all pupils of twelve\nto fourteen years of age will be required to contain studies or elements common to all, nevertheless it is even now expedient and desirable in wellorganized schools, and, of course, subject to administrative limitations as\nto expense and also subject to certain general conditions hereafter to be\ndescribed, to allow pupils to elect individual programs in large measure\nfrom among all the subject courses offered.\nUNLIKE\n\nENDS\n\nOR OBJECTIVES\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\nEvery specific subject or even phase of subject of school work should,\nof course, be taught with certain conscious ends or objectives in view.\nThese objectives or goals determining the teachers' aims are but illy defined\nat present, especially where the education of children from twelve to eighteen\nis concerned, but we may expect them to be more fully analyzed and stated\nin the near future, as educational processes become more scientifically\ncorrelated between social and individual needs on the one hand, and individual powers and possibilities on the other. But, in the light of present\nexperience, it seems highly desirable to classify the objectives of the education that is adapted to children of twelve to fourteen years of age into at\nleast two groups according to the presence or absence in each study or\nphase of study of certain fundamental characteristics. A few concrete\ncases will make this clear.\nThe objects to be attained in teaching a pupil to spell, for example,\ndiffer essentially from the objects to be attained thru having the same\npupil listen to a good musical recital or witness a dramatic performance.\nIt is unfortunate that educational psychologists have not given more attention to the fundamentally unlike character of the learning processes here\ncontrasted. In teaching spelling the outcome expected on the part of the\npupil is a certain quite definite and easily recognized ability to do, to execute, to express in action, and the learning process cannot be terminated\neconomically until this end is achieved. On the other hand, the learning\nachieved in hearing a recital or witnessing a dramatic performance (and\nwe are agreed that some form of learning is thus achieved) can be subjected\nto no profitable test of expression, of doing. We expect absorption, assimilation, growth, as results, but the final outcome is so remote from the original\nstimulus that we do not, ordinarily, seek to trace connections.\nFor the sake of convenient classification, let us call the first type of\nlearning the alpha type, and the second the beta type. Let us repeat that ,\nthe conspicuous result expected in the case of the alpha type is ability to do,\n\n"}
{"page": 979, "printed_page": "967", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSEVENTH\n\nAND\n\nEIGHTH\n\nGRADES\n\n967\n\nto express in action, while the most tangible result expected in the case of\nthe beta type is appreciation or, in one sense of the word, interest.\nIn the seventh and eighth grades, it is probably in accordance with\nsound pedagogy so to teach arithmetic, penmanship, composition, spelling,\nand, presumably, grammar that these subjects should properly fall in the\nalpha class. On the other hand, literature, science, and civics are, or\ndoubtless ought to be, so taught as properly to belong to the beta class.\nHistory, geography, music, art, and practical arts seem to be composite.\nIt is manifestly important, for example, that certain phases of history and\ngeography should be so definitely taught that the resulting fixed knowledge\nbecomes as available and inerrant as should be knowledge of the multiplication table. But it is intolerable that all geography and history as organized\nfor children from twelve to fourteen years of age should be so taught. Most\nof the supplemental material used, and indeed much of the contents of the\ntextbooks in current use, also, should be read, talked over, and the resulting\nimpressions assimilated, but no fixed and instantly usable knowledge need\nbe expected. Hence the proper organization of these subjects should\ninvolve a conscious and definite differentiation between alpha and beta\nportions, teaching units or phases.\nIt is difficult to determine the effect of the differentiations here proposed\non music and drawing (or art), because the purposes of these subjects in\nelementary education are, as yet, so imperfectly defined. It is probable\nthat both subjects are now composite, and that in the interest of effective\nteaching they should be differentiated into alpha and beta phases or teaching units. There is much discussion at present of the teaching of music\nfor the purpose of developing musical appreciation. Picture-study has\na place in some schools for a similar purpose. Clearly these are beta phases\nof these subjects. But it is also probably desirable that some children\nshould be taught to execute music — that is, to read musical notation\naccurately, to sing, or to play. These are clearly alpha phases. Perhaps,\nalso, upper-grade pupils should be given definite drill in drawing as an art\nof expression — also an alpha phase.\nNow the distinction here made is of fundamental importance in any\ndiscussion of flexible courses, or elective systems, because of the probability\nthat the right and expediency on the part of the school of prescribing studies\nor phases of studies applies with far greater force to the alpha group than\nto the beta group. For one thing, the processes of learning in the alpha\ngroup are much more arduous, as a rule, than in the beta group; but in\nthe alpha group, at least for the elementary school, will be found many of\nthe common intellectual tools of civilized society — the arts of oral and written expression, receptive (or silent) reading, definite knowledge of geographical and historical facts, simple principles of hygiene, generally accepted\nrules of behavior, etc. On the other hand, learning in the beta group is\neasier, or should be, if needed adaptation is made for individual interests;\n\n"}
{"page": 980, "printed_page": "968", "text": "g68\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nand in respect to appreciation studies generally, society can well afford to\nhave and perhaps even to procure a large degree of variability rather than\nof uniformity among its members. We should all spell alike and have in\ncommon a definite knowledge of some of the facts of American history;\nbut it is of advantage rather than disadvantage that our people should\nvary greatly as to the fields or individual examples of literature, and of\nhistory, in which they find interest and satisfaction.\nIt should, then, theoretically prove possible for us to enumerate all\nthe desirable ends or objectives in the systematic education of young\npeople from twelve to fifteen years of age, and to classify them into the two\ndivisions suggested above, according as the learning sought is specific,\ndefinite, and instantly usable in active life, or as it results in appreciation,\ntaste, modified sentiment, ideal, and undifferentiated background of\nknowledge (experience, intellectual nurture).\nTHE\n\nPOSSIBLE CURRICULUM\nOF THE JUNIOR\nOR INTERMEDIATE\nSCHOOL\n\nHIGH\n\nIn order to set clearly before ourselves, without unnecessary restrictions, the possibilities of flexibility in schools for children from twelve\nto fourteen years of age, let us assume a very large city school receiving\nonly pupils who have completed sixth-grade work, and designed to retain\nthese pupils for but two or three years. Let us assume further that the\nschool possesses financial means sufficient to enable it to organize and offer\nany kind of instruction for which there is a substantial demand, and which\nin the judgment of the authorities it is wise to offer to pupils of the stated\nyears and qualifications. Let us furthermore assume, for the sake of concrete description, that the work is offered as units, a unit consisting of the\nequivalent of five weekly periods of 60 minutes each, extending thru twelve\nweeks, to cover both instruction and recitation, and any other form of\nexclusive claim on the attention and energy of the pupil of average power\nfor the 60 minutes. Theoretically, then, in view of recent progress in\nenriching elementary-school curricula and in urging desirable new forms of\ninstruction and training, the following subject courses might profitably\nbe offered in Grades VII and VIII in such a school, the alpha and beta\nunits being separately indicated:\nName of Subject\nAlpha Units\n(Figures at left refer to explanatory notes at end of section)\n(i) English expression:\n(2) Oral expression\n6\n(3) Written expression\n6\n(4) Grammar\n3\n(5) Word analysis\ni\n(6) Spelling\ni or 2\n(7) Penmanship\ni or 2\n(8) Alphabet\ni\n(9) Silent reading\ni or 2\n\nBeta Units\n\n"}
{"page": 981, "printed_page": "969", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN THE SEVENTH\n\nAND\n\nEIGHTH\n\nGRADES\n\nName of Subject\nAlpha Units\n(Figures at left refer to explanatory notes at end of section)\n\nBeta Units\n\n(10) General history\n(11) American history\n3\n(12) Community civics\ni\n(13) Literature\ni\n(14) General moving pictures\n(15) Music, individual vocal\n3\n(16) Music, chorus\ni\n(17) Music, piano\n3\n(18) Music, appreciation\n(19) Music, band\ni\n(20) Drawing, representative\n2\n(21) Art, appreciation\n(22) Geography\ni or 2\n(23) Science, general\ni\n(24) French\n3 or 6\n(25) German\n3 or 6\n(26) Spanish\n3 or 6\nC27) Latin\ni or 2\n(28) Industrial arts\n(29) Agricultural arts\n(30) Commercial arts\n(31) Household arts\n(32) Arithmetic, commercial\n3 or 6\n(33) Arithmetic, industrial\n3 or 6\n(34) Arithmetic,- home\n3\n(35) Arithmetic, geometry, and algebra. ... 3 or 6\n(36) Hygiene\n•.\ni or 2\n(37) Physical training\ni or 2\n(38) Vocational guidance\n\n969\n\n6\n2\n\n35 or 6\n3\n\n2 or 4\n2 or 5\n3 or 6\n2 or 4\n\n3 or 6\n3 or 6\n3 or 6\n3 or 6\n2 or 4\n\n5 or 4\n\n(i) To include all general studies designed to give greater power3 orin 6the use of the\nvernacular, oral and written.\n(2) Including reading aloud, \"speaking,\" correct use of voice, \"oral composition\"\nCor sustained delivery to audience), debate, correct usage, etc., all from standpoint of\neffort to secure definite attainments.\n(3) Composition, letter-writing, correct usage in writing, etc.\n(4) Systematic analysis, with correction of personal solecisms.\n(5) Origin and structure of common words.\n(6) Chiefly to meet individual needs.\nGood spellers excused.\n(7) Chiefly to meet individual needs.\nGood writers excused.\n(8) Drill in alphabet, to produce readiness in use of indexes, dictionaries, etc.\n(9) Drill in technique. The subject not clearly defined as yet, but evidence exists\nthat it is very important.\n(10) A general reading and lecture course — no drill.\n(11) Selection of special details and fundamental generalization for drill for alpha\nunits; general and interesting phases of subjects as beta units.\n(12) To include a small amount of definitely organized knowledge as alpha imits.\nBeta units to cover thrift, reading about sanitation, practice voting, school selfgovernment, readings, visits, etc.\n(13) Close analytical study of one or two selections, and certain central facts of literature, under alpha units.\nBeta units to include home reading, library reading, etc., but\n\n"}
{"page": 982, "printed_page": "970", "text": "NATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\n970\nno requirement as to uniformity of material for all pupils.\nIndividual choices, subject\nto approval of instructor.\n(14) That is, not definitely correlated with other subjects, and is designed chiefly\nto enhance discriminative appreciation of moving pictures as a means of education and\ndiversion.\n(15) Drill for pupils having marked capacity to profit from such study.\n(16) Selected group desiring drill.\n(17) For selected pupils desiring definite training.\n(18) All available forms of music offered to all desiring such training.\n(19) Selected group desiring definite training.\n(20) A general course; additional specialized work in correlation with practical\narts.\n(21) Plastic and decorative, and in part correlated with practical arts, but should\ninclude pictures, room decoration, architecture, advertising illustration, and moving\npictures.\n(22) Separation of formal or drill phases from appreciative phase, preserving correlation, by means of specific ''teaching units\" for both alpha and beta phases.\n(23) Largely interpretive of scientific aspects of surroundings.\n(24)-(26) To produce mastery of spoken or of written language, according to predetermined aims.\n(27) For drill in part. Subject could be reorganized to give insight and appreciation\n(beta units) in part.\n(28) Miscellaneous shop experience on projects from wide range of industries,\nincluding reading about the industries, and other means of enriching experience. Projects from textile, printing, metal-working, woodworking, food-packing, transportation,\nand other industries.\n(29) Including gardening, poultry-raising, correlated reading, etc.\n(30) Typewriting, elementary bookkeeping, commercial penmanship, commercial\nreadings, visits to commercial establishments, etc. Much of it on practical project\nbasis.\n(31) Primarily to build on home experience and to enhance appreciation.\n(32)-(34) To be definitely practical subjects, correlated with practical arts courses.\n(35) Recommended for pupils expecting to enter high school and college.\n(36) To include certain alpha phases for definite knowledge and practice — teeth,\nposture, etc. — and others (beta) for insight and wide appreciation.\n(37) Some definite physical training to cure defects or to prevent apprehended\ndefects (alpha units). Games, \"boy scout\" activities, miscellaneous developmental\nplay, athletics, etc., for beta units.\n(38) Readings, individual conferences, lectures.\nTHE VARYING\n\nEDUCATIONAL NEEDS OF CHILDREN\nFOURTEEN YEARS OF AGE\n\nOF TWELVE\n\nTO\n\nThe foregoing idealized curriculum shows clearly that there is even now\navailable for possible use in courses of study for the junior high or intermediate school many times as much material as any one pupil can compass.\nCommon experience teaches that hardly any subject is included above\nwhich cannot be \"used\" in some educational way, and to the interest\nand advantage certainly of individuals and even of groups of pupils,\nBut there are no great numbers of these units that can reasonably be\nregarded as essential to all pupils alike, and which therefore should be\nuniversally prescribed as positive requirements.\nEqually, there are few\n\n"}
{"page": 983, "printed_page": "971", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN THE\n\nSEVENTH\n\nAND\n\nEIGHTH\n\nGRADES\n\n971\n\nthat any pupil should be prohibited from taking if he wishes — here called\nnegative prescription.\nBut what shall be the bases of these positive and negative prescriptions ?\nThey certainly include at least the following: (a) the limitations imposed\nby the varying native capacities of pupils; (b) the requirement that each\npupil, even against his own desire and that of his parents, shall, as a part\nof his right to a protected childhood and as a logical accompaniment of\ncompulsory school attendance, be required to receive the instruction and\ntraining that will probably be necessary or greatly advantageous to him\nin later life; and (c) the right of society to have each person fitted as far\nas may be to take his part as citizen, parent, soldier, and worker in a world\nwhere all human activities are increasingly socialized and corporate in\ncharacter.\nNo argument is required to prove that children of twelve to fourteen\nyears of age vary greatly as to natural capacity. Some are so talented that\nthey can carry a large program of studies with ease and profit. Others are\nfortunate if they can, only at best, meet minimum requirements. Some\nare bom with natural gifts for music, foreign language, and drawing.\nThese pupils can master their favorite subjects with an 'ease not possible\nto children less gifted in these directions. It is the observation of every\nteacher that some children have inferior natural capacity for arithmetic\nand other forms of mathematics, while others find only slight difficulty\nin these subjects, even in portions where rigorous abstract thinking is\nrequired. These natural limitations will therefore be influential in determining what large numbers of pupils will, or will not, be allowed to\ntake.\nOn the other hand, the rights of the child, irrespective of his own desires\nin early youth or those of his guardians, to obtain or be given the education\nessential to a fair start in life are of paramount importance. This right\napplies not only as regards those minimum attainments in reading, writing,\nspelling, and number which are to be expected of all normal children; it\nshould include also the requirement that children, manifestly talented in\ncertain directions, shall be obliged at a suitable age to begin studies, such\nas foreign language, that may later, as far as can reasonably be foreseen,\nprove essential in the careers and positions of personal influence toward\nwhich their native powers seem to direct them.\nFinally, no one will dispute the obligation on the part of society to\nrequire all persons to acquire in childhood at least the minimum of knowledge and training which is essential to their successful participation in\ncorporate life. Not only are the arts of expression to be included here,\nalong with moral training, knowledge of civic facts and .responsibilities,\n' and everyday arithmetic; eventually each person may be required to submit to the training required for a vocation, and for the work of the soldier.\nSociety must give this degree of education as a means of self-preservation.\n\n"}
{"page": 984, "printed_page": "972", "text": "Q72\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nBut, when an extensive curriculum of subject courses is offered in a\nschool, the burden of proof rests on the school to establish a strong presumption as to the necessity of the units which are prescribed, whether for all\nor for those electing stated courses. Subject to the requirement that the\npupil and his parents provide for the full use of the pupil's time, the learner\nshould be free to elect his own program of studies, unless the school\nauthorities can definitely establish the desirability of prescription.\nTHE PROS AND\n\nCONS\n\nOF\n\nTHE ELECTIVE\n\nSYSTEM\n\nClearly, then, educators charged with organizing and administering\neducation for persons from twelve to fifteen years of age are, or soon will\nbe, confronted by conditions which constitute, if the distorted figure may be\npermitted, a three-horned dilemma: {a) Possible educational offerings (or\nopportunities for giving particular kinds of instruction and training) are\nbecoming many fold more numerous than can be taken by any one individual or group of individuals presenting like characteristics; {h) the native\ncapacities of pupils or of distinctive possible groups of pupils vary greatly;\nand (c) some subjects or phases of subjects, as yet not fully determined or\ndefined, should in some cases be prescribed for all, and in other cases for\nall having stated forms of ability or probable future fields of usefulness.\nHow shall the administrator proceed under these conditions? Shall he\ndisregard, as he has heretofore done, the first and second considerations,\nand insist on a limited curriculum of prescribed studies for all, thus ignoring\nopportunities for varied training and instruction? Shall he include in\nhis curricula all possible studies, but segregate them in rigid courses, so\nthat each shall constitute a fixed system in itself, like a railroad route, of\nsuch a character that the pupil, once en route, cannot cross to another line,\nand can change his route of travel only by going back to the starting-point\nagain ? Or shall he simply organize the school offerings into one long series\nand allow the pupil to range and choose ad libitum ? Manifestly, each of\nthese courses is open to objection. They are all psychologically unsound.\nIn reality, each method is desirable and feasible as to certain elements\nor types of studies in the curriculum. Some studies or subject courses\nshould be prescribed for all pupils; some should be prescribed only as component elements of definite courses, and therefore to be required only of\nlearners electing such courses, while, possibly, elective to others; and\nsome should be freely elective to all. But it is here contended again that\nas regards all prescribed work, whether generally prescribed or prescribed\nfor those electing specified courses, a heavy burden rests upon the authorities\nmaking the prescriptions to establish the presumption that it is better that\nthese prescriptions should thus be made than that the pupil, subject to\nreasonable supervision from home and school, and to the general requirement that he must employ all of his school time profitably, shall freely\nelect his own course (subject, also, of course, to the limitations imposed by\n\n"}
{"page": 985, "printed_page": "973", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSEVENTH\n\nAND\n\nEIGHTH\n\nGRADES\n\n973\n\nthe necessities of efficient and economical school administration). Here\nwe are, of course, at once involved in the old debate as to the merits and\ndemerits of the elective system and the capacities of learners wisely to use\nsuch a system.\nAll of us have read (and perhaps participated in) lengthy discussions\nas to the elective system in college and school. We were long ago told that\nlearners — whether college Juniors or high-school Freshmen — were not old\nenough or wise enough or earnest enough to choose their own studies to\nadvantage. They would usually choose \" snap \" courses. Their programs,\nunder freedom of election, would consist of unco-ordinated subject-courses,\nthe resulting learning would be fragmentary, discursive, and unsubstantial.\n''Easy instructors\" would be in favor, real efficiency would disappear, and\nchaos would prevail.\nIt is a fact that in nearly all debate as to the elective system, its opponents have had the stronger arguments. The proponents, while usually\nable eventually to win the day in action because of favoring circumstances,\nhave never, it would seem, formulated the most fundamental and strongest\narguments in favor of their position.\nIt must surely be admitted that the pupil, whether in seventh, or tenth,\nor fifteenth (college Junior) grade, is but poorly equipped to make so\nmomentous a choice as that involved in electing the studies he will henceforth pursue. Almost equally, after college graduation, he will be but\npoorly prepared to elect his profession, his place of future work, his physician, his political party, a woman to be his wife. Here we express, of course,\nonly an admission that our system of education includes as yet hardly any\nprovision for adequately guiding the individual in the matter of many, if\nnot all, of the important decisions he must make in life.\nFor, if we ask what is the alternative to free election of studies, even,\nlet us say, in the college period of education, v/e are confronted by the fact\nthat except in rare instances there exists as yet no organized procedure\nwhereby the individual, with his limitations of capacity and opportunity,\nhis interests, and his obligations to society, can be guided into making\nchoices that best meet or serve his needs. The opponents of election have\nprobably never asserted that they were ready to provide the personal\nattention and scientific insight that would be required adequately to have\nprescribed for the individual student on the basis of sound diagnosis the\nbest program of studies for him. It is certain that in college and secondary\nschool this could not be done, for the sufficient reason that never yet have\neducators in those institutions accompHshed anything substantial in the\nway of capacity for making scientific diagnoses of the capacities, limitations,\nand probable opportunities of individual learners.\nFurthermore, even assuming that such diagnoses were possible at any\nperiod, the prepossessions of the advocates of rigid courses — or, usually,\nof one rigid course — would probably have prevented them from studying\n\n"}
{"page": 986, "printed_page": "974", "text": "974\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\nthe variant qualities of the minds of their students, again for the sufficient\nreason that the all-important consideration, as teachers have beUeved, was\nthe subject to be taught — Latin, algebra, Greek, rhetoric, logic, physics,\netc. — and not at all the characteristics of the individual learner.\nIn other words, the historical alternative to free election, at least of\ncourses, if not subjects, has been rigid prescription as determined byinflexible tradition or custom or educational theory. The variability of\nlearners as to capacities, interests, and needs has been ignored. Traditions\nand dogmas as to the superior or even unique educational values of certain\nancient subjects of study have governed. The newer subjects were intrinsically inferior, if not worthless, educationally; hence any choice of them\nhas been regarded as necessarily bad. The thought that election of studies\nis bad has always been fathered by the wish that it should prove bad from\nthe standpoint of the opponent whose favorite studies might not be elected.\nThe various attempts heretofore made to modify, on the one hand,\nthe rigidity of the inflexible one-course curriculum, and, on the other, to\nprevent the wasteful possibilities of completely free election, have constituted admissions that adjustments of courses and studies, based partly\nupon the capacities of learners, and partly upon their varying needs, are\nhighly desirable and probably feasible. But it is a fact that no satisfactory\nstatement of the principles which should guide in the matter has, as yet,\nbeen formulated. There is still too often the naive assumption that the\n\"system\" — ^that is, the collection of educational dogmas and traditions as\nexpressed by unprogressive educators, usually thru conference or committee\nedict — knows best what the \"student\" needs and should have. This is\nnot an individual student, James Ferguson, for example, but an abstract\nhuman being, an educational John Doe, who has met entrance requirements\nand who is probably assumed to be taking his class attendance in the same\nspirit in which he would accept a necessary, tho distasteful, sentence to a\nhospital.\nIt is still too early, perhaps, to formulate the underlying principles\nwhich should govern flexibility of curricula and courses; but it is possible\neven now to apply to the possible junior high-school curriculum the best\nresults of contemporary theory and practice as to this educational problem\nin secondary school and college.\nCONTROLLING\n\nPRINCIPLES\n\nOF\n\nFLEXIBILITY\n\nIN JUNIOR\n\nHIGH SCHOOLS\n\nIf we take, for example, the entire range of subject-courses that it is\npossible to offer in the junior high school, it is clear that all cannot be\nregarded as being on the same footing from the standpoint either of election\nor of prescription. Some are essential to all, many essential to none.\nSome are essential in certain courses, others essential to no particular course.\nOn the other hand, there are many that may well be regarded as educational\nluxuries — highly pleasurable to those who can afford them and surely not\n\n"}
{"page": 987, "printed_page": "975", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTUDY\n\nIN THE\n\nSEVENTH\n\nAND\n\nEIGHTH\n\nGRADES\n\n975\ninjurious to any who can take them without detriment to their more necessary work. But what are the subject-courses that belong in those respective categories ? It is difficult for us to reach sound conclusions here because\nour prepossessions are at present so much stronger and more clearly defined\nthan are any available findings based on scientific study. In the idealized\ncurriculum for a junior high school given above there are found from 58\nto 88 alpha units (or subject-courses to be taught with the aim of producing\npower to do), and from 52 to 82 beta units (or subject-courses in which\nappreciation is a controlling purpose). No one average pupil, probably,\ncould take in two years more than 30 of the total 140 units supposed to be\noffered. A slow pupil could take perhaps not to exceed 20, while an exceptionally strong pupil could take 40. What requirements shall we make,\nwhat advice offer, and what liberty allow, to our junior high-school pupil\nconfronted by the foregoing curriculum ?\nFirst, let us repeat that our attitude toward the alpha units should not\nbe the same as that toward the beta units. If the beta units are taught\n(or, better word, offered) with due regard to appropriate pedagogical principles, we may experience difficulty in keeping pupils from them, or, at least,\nfrom some of them. They should prove inherently interesting to children\nas do play, the '' movies,\" sports, and certain kinds of fiction, or as the opera,\nfiction, travel, and association prove attractive to adults. On the other\nhand, the alpha units present, in the main, the characteristics of the harder\nwork of the world. The interest with which they are pursued must often\nbe a derived interest — derived, in some cases even, from fear of punishment,\nor fear of forfeiture of desired approval, or from love of gain or approval.\nHence it can at the outset be asserted that prescription will be much more\nnecessary in the case of the alpha than of the beta units.\nLet us assume that a careful study of the capacities of average children\nof twelve to fourteen years of age, coupled with an equally careful study\nof the objectives, individual and social, which should be realized thru their\neducation, shows that it is expedient and desirable that their two-year\nprograms could and should include substantially 15 alpha units and 15\nbeta units. We might then establish the following rules to govern the\nmaking of individual courses:\na) Any pupil deficient as to spelling, writing, and silent reading according to some definite standard shall be required to take these alpha subjects.\nb) Every pupil shall elect four alpha units in English expression, in\naddition to those required under (a).\nc) Every pupil shall elect at least six units designed to provide a definite\ncourse in one of the following fields: (i) foreign language and mathematics;\n(ii) commercial arts; (iii) industrial arts (boys); (iv) household arts (girls);\n(v) agricultural arts.\nd) No pupil shall have fewer than 15 or more than 20 alpha units.\ne) Every pupil shall elect at least 10 beta units.\n\n"}
{"page": 988, "printed_page": "976", "text": "976\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\nCONCLUSIONS\n\nThe following are the conclusions of this paper:\n1. The reorganization of education designed for youiig people from\ntwelve to fourteen is one of the most important of contemporary movements in the field of general education.\n2. It is right and proper that this period should continue to be reserved\nfor general education (cultural, physical, and social education), and that\nno specific vocational education should be offered in it; but (a) vocational\nguidance, based on communicated information (books, lectures, individual\nconferences), observation of men at work in vocations, and participation\nin simple processes derived from industry, all designed as phases of general\neducation, is acceptable and desirable; and {h) differentiated courses in\npractical arts, partly as a means of enabling each pupil to find himself, and\npartly as a means of acquiring valuable experience in reception and expression or execution (not necessarily, contributing to vocational power\nhowever), are desirable.\n3. Central schools should, as far as practicable, be organized for all\npupils from twelve to fourteen, to include not only the normal in grade, but\nthe retarded as well. As far as practical, retarded pupils should take the\nsame studies as pupils of normal grade; and where, in the more technical\nstudies, they cannot do this, special courses containing work especially\nadapted to their needs should be provided.\n4. Whenever it seems that a new study can profitably be offered to a\nsubstantial group of pupils of these ages, it should be introduced.\n5. It is to be expected that many more studies or subject-courses will\nbe offered than can be taken by any one pupil; and hence will arise the\nnecessity of election of courses or subjects.\n6. In providing for the selection of individual programs, prescribed\nstudies should be reduced to the minimum, and large freedom allowed to the\npupil and his parents to elect, subject to full advice, the subject-courses to be\ntaken by the pupil. Choices made by pupils may frequently be unwise,\nbut rarely more unwise than the courses prescribed arbitrarily by the\nauthorities.\nADDRESS\nWOODBRIDGE\n\nN.\n\nFERRIS,\n\nGOVERNOR\n\nOF\n\nMICHIGAN\n\nI want to have it distinctly understood that I appear before you as\nan educational exhorter. I haven't a new thing to say to you; I haven't\nanything to tear down. I just want to present two or three very old notions\nand exhort you to their observance.\nIf I were to organize an educational system, I would make for its\ncenter health— h-e-a-1-t-h, health. I ask teachers to care as much about\nhealth as the great industrial institutions of this country care about\n\n"}
{"page": 989, "printed_page": "977", "text": "Superintendence!\n\nADDRESS\n\n977\n\nhealth. If you will do that much, there will be important changes in the\nUnited States in a comparatively short time. Our great factories are\ntoday houses of glass. What for? Light, light, and more light. They\nare so built that they can have air and more air. The industrial world\nhas found out that it pays in dollars and cents to have light and air, and\nof course any industrial institution that has light and air has all other\nsanitary provisions.\nMany of our school buildings, viewed in the light of what I have\nalready said, are unfit for the use of our boys and girls. You say, \"What\ncan we do about it?\" You can do everything. It is about time schoolmasters and schoolma'ams came to realize the power they possess. You\ncan do almost any wise thing if you have a mind to, or rather, if you\nwant to.\nTonight I make the appeal for air and sunlight. In Michigan we\nhave a state sanatorium for tuberculosis patients. This sanatorium is\nfull of patients, every single case a well-defined case of tuberculosis.\nThey are sleeping out of doors, living out of doors, playing out of doors,\nworking a little out of doors — everything out of doors except dressing\nand undressing; on account of the peculiar usages here in America, particularly in sanatoriums, they are obliged to dress indoors. The same\nrestrictions are not placed on people who are well as on people who are ill.\nWe know that the only means by which we can help these people is to have\nthem live out of doors. Well, what under heaven has Michigan and the\nother states in the Union against people who haven't tuberculosis? I\nwant you to answer that question. My state is going to stamp out tuberculosis, that is, kill tuberculosis, get rid of it somehow. I ask our officials\nto take hold of the educational machinery of my state and see if they\ncannot do something to get well men and women to live as they ought to\nlive with reference to air and sunshine. Now, you yourselves don't do it.\nYou don't believe in fresh air, you don't want fresh air, you won't have\nfresh air; you won't live out of doors, you don't want to get out of doors,\nand consequently what hope is there ?\nMicrobes do not thrive out of doors; they don't sit up in the trees\nnor on brick or stone walls. They are indoors. Every cold, every case of\npneumonia, is an indoor disease. Let us come a little closer to our subject.\nWhat can you people do with the present schoolhouses ? You cannot have\nthem condemned and torn down; you cannot build new buildings in order\nto have air and sunshine. You can take out the lower or upper sash, and\nput in a cotton-cloth screen for the entire year. You will use more fuel\npossibly, but you will have fresh air and better air, less sickness, and teach\na few boys and girls how to live and have health instead. of tuberculosis\nor any other disease. Will you do it ? No, the majority of you won't.\nAnd what else can you teachers do ? On every sunshiny day, on every\nfair day, in the rural and village schools, you can take your boys and\n\n"}
{"page": 990, "printed_page": "978", "text": "gjg\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\ngirls out of doors and conduct out of doors every class that can be conducted successfully out of doors. I dare you to do it. There has never\nbeen a schoolroom built to equal God's schoolroom. I would much rather\nhave the boys and girls out of doors, now and then glancing at a bird in a\ntree or a squirrel scampering around, than observing a curtain when it falls\ndown inside.\nI go further, I plead in behalf of medical inspection. I hold that every\nAmerican child, when he enters the schoolroom, has the right, if the state\nis going to demand what it does, to have just as good teeth as modern\nscience can give him; he has a right to have a pair of eyes just as good and\neflScient as modern science can give him; he has right to have just as sound\nears and eflScient ears as modern science can give him; just as good a\nthroat and nasal cavities as modern science can give him; just as good a\nbody as modern science can give him. You agree with me, don't you?\nIs there any possibility of disagreement ? You see then what I mean by\nhealth in the schoobroom. In five years, you can perceptibly improve conditions thru your own efforts along the lines I have suggested, without state\naid. It is up to you. By the way, the people wiU respond. They will\nlisten to you.\nWe have in this country a tremendous school equipment, costing millions and millions of dollars, and for whom ? Your traditional answer is,\nfor the boys and girls of a certain age. Talk about superstition — I haven't\nany language whereby I can describe my contempt for this answer. And\nwhat has it done ? It has paralyzed the majority of people, so that, when a\nman whose hair is like mine speaks about getting an education, he is told\nthat he is too old. When a man or woman is too old to learn, there is only\none thing I can suggest. He should take a shovel and pick, go to the family\ncemetery, where I hope he has bought a lot, dig a grave, get into it and\nstay there.\nIn our democracy, public schools should be for all of the people all of\nthe time. We now use them less than 50 per cent of the time. The remainder ofthe time they are idle. City schools should be open six nights\nin a week and six days in the week. There are many schoolmasters who\nthink that the people would not take advantage of these privileges.\nI love the flag. I like to hear folks talk about it; but I have always\nhad a profound admiration for the people who carry the flag. I want to say\nthat one of the highest forms of patriotism in this country consists in carrying out the idea I have suggested, of giving all of the people in this country\nan opportunity to acquire the fundamentals of an education, and especially\nan opportunity to learn to speak and write English. Oh, what a gigantic\ninfluence it would have on the solution of industrial problems, on the\nsolution of national preparedness!\nOne other thing: Don't forget the few fundamentals we have taught\nin the public schools ever since they were organized. Above all, teach a\n\n"}
{"page": 991, "printed_page": "979", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nADDRESS\n\n979\n\nfew things so that they will stick. Isn't it humiliating to hear the graduate\nof a college or university say: \"Oh yes, I have been out of college five\nyears; I cannot read my Virgil, I cannot read my Cicero, it is all gone.\"\nOr, \"I once knew a little something of geometry, but it has vanished; I\nknew something of chemistry, but it is gone.\" Don't mention it again\nas long as you live. What is the use of advertising your foolishness ? Don't\ntake particular pains to mention it. I am not afraid of any of those fellows.\nI am afraid of the fellow who has learned something that has stayed with\nhim. There is E. A. Strong, professor of physical sciences, State Normal\nCollege, Ypsilanti, Michigan, who is now nearing his eightieth year. He\nhas taught science all his life. If an Ypsilanti girl tomorrow should say:\n\"Doctor, I am puzzled a little with that passage in Virgil,\" he would\nread it as tho he had only learned it yesterday. He mastered the classics\nat Union College. I am not arguing as to whether you should teach the\nclassics or not, but whatever you do teach, teach it so that it will stick.\nThe greatest teacher I ever had was Herman Kriisi. He covered plane\ngeometry in just forty weeks, but in some of the high schools in Michigan\nthe period is sixteen weeks. Every theorem was presented in the form of\na problem. No textbook was used. Every student presented his own solution. Iwould like to find a Kriisi student in the United States who today\ndoes not know his geometry. I know plane geometry and I have not\ntaught the subject in twenty years. Somebody says: \"Do you teach\ngeometry that way now in your own school?\" No, because I am compelled to cover a certain amount of ground in a certain number of units\nof time. Why so ? Many of my students enter colleges and universities,\nand I must meet the requirements of these institutions.\nPlease don't think lightly of my appeal for health, my appeal for all\nthe people, my appeal for thoroness.\n\nADDRESS\nMARTIN\n\nG. BRUMBAUGH,\n\nGOVERNOR\n\nOF PENNSYLVANIA\n\nIn the United States we have gone far to put to the test a new theory of\ngovernment — that the will of a majority expressed in law, constitutional\nand statutory, is the sole and adequate guidance for all the people. We\nhave put democracy on trial. We have proclaimed its adequacy. We\nhave unhesitatingly subscribed to its beneficent operation. We stake on\nit our lives, our property, and our sacred honor. We have at all times,\nwith bated breath, in the solemn hours of reflection, asked ourselves whether\nafter all we have found in our democracy, as it works its issues, the golden\ngood we are proud to claim that it holds. What gives this heart-tremor,\nthis tender solicitude, this half-awakened fear that perhaps we have not,\nafter all, found the pot of gold at the end of our rainbow of hope and faith ?\n\n"}
{"page": 992, "printed_page": "980", "text": "980\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nWhy are we half fearful to put our democracy fully to the test? Is it\nbecause we question its fundamental rightness? Absolutely no. What\nvisioning souls wrought in Independence Hall we hold sacred and secure.\nThe doubt is born, if at all, because we have not given to democracy its\nadequate channels of expression. We have not been fair to our own\ndominant ideals.\nWhat we need to do — and do it now — is to make possible a complete\nreliance upon our theory of government and put it to its fullest use. To\ndo this we must unhesitatingly lay larger reliance upon education. An\nenlightened democracy is the hope of the nation. The school is the hope\nof the Republic.\nThis agency, devised by wise insight and carried steadily into the generations of our advance, needs re-establishment and rejuvenation in these\nstress years of our advance. The whole theory of preparedness is fundamental y atheory of education. Our armies and our navies, the front line\nof preparedness, and our industries, the secondary line of defense, are alike\ndependent upon a trained, skilled, intelligent, efficient citizenry. The\nresources of a people, material and spiritual, are its safeguards. Education\nis the guaranty of resourcefulness.\nOur educational system under control of our fundamental theory of\ngovernment is not only the most potential agency to stabilize our national\nideals, but it is the agency pre-eminent for their completest realization.\nNo equipment of material good can replace a training of our people into\na homogeneous nation. This fact is emphasized as one considers the far\nreaches of racial ideals that here fuse and fashion this mighty people. From\nevery land and from every clime they have come, they are coming, they\nwill come, and, unless these all pass the portals of our educational system,\nand in its halls get essential baptism of American ideals and achievements,\nand a keen understanding of national purposes, we cannot hope for a nation\nwhose democracy is its boast and its certain permanence.\nWe turn then to the school and demand for it a much larger place in\nthe American mind. It is increasingly manifest that it, best of all our\ninstitutions, trains for service, for efficiency, for living, and for promoting\nthe government whose agency it is. We must in the school train for\nco-operation in all civic duties, for competition in all industrial activities,\nfor moral steadfastness in all social endeavor, and for the intertwining of\nthese into one serviceable and substantial system of national equipment.\nWe have committed ourselves to a vast enterprise — the making of\nmen and women fit for the Republic. There must be no looking backward.\nWe must go steadily on until the proud boast, \"I am an American citizen,\"\nshall be a synonym for civic pride, industrial efficiency, and moral and\nreligious worth. Then we shall be prepared— not for war— but for the\npeace that passe th all understanding and is permanent.\n^\n\n"}
{"page": 993, "printed_page": "981", "text": "ADDRESS\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nADDRESS\nFRANK\n\nB.\n\nWILLIS,\n\nGOVERNOR\n\nOF\n\nOHIO\n\nIn these times we hear much about conservation, a word to which the\nlast ten years have given a new significance. We hear of the conservation 981\nof the public domain, of forests, of game, of insectivorous and song birds,\nof water power, of mineral resources, and the public health. All these are\nimportant. I wish to say, however, that to the teachers of the country is\ncommitted the momentous problem of the conservation of the intellectual\nand moral energy of the Republic.\nWe see around us in the material world evidences of the prodigalities\nof nature. We see life in myriad forms struggling for existence. We see\nin the elements the manifestation of mighty powers that are yet to be utilized in the service of man. In the motion of the air as it sweeps over the\ncountry and in the power of the restless sea thundering on rocky shore,\nthere is sufficient energy to heat and light and move the world.\nTo the educators of the United States is committed the intellectual and\nmoral energy, in large measure undeveloped, of those who will soon not\nonly shape the destinies of the Republic, but constitute the Republic\nitself: for what is our nation but the aggregate of its citizenship? On\nyou more largely than on any other body of men in the United States\ndevolves the problem of the conservation and development of the energies\nof the children of the nation.\nGarfield once said, before he was president: ''I always feel like taking\noft* my hat to the American boy. I do not know what possibilities are\nwrapped up under his plain jacket.\" To the schoolmasters of the land are\nreserved the privilege, the opportunity, and the responsibility of developing these large possibilities. The intellectual and moral powers must not\nbe dissipated or frittered away and wasted. They must be directed to\nuseful and beneficient ends. It is a great thing to attain dexterity in kicking the football or plying the oar in physical contests, but it must be made\njust as worthy in the public eye to wield the hammer and the trowel, to\nguide the lathe and the drill, to follow the plow and drive the harvester\nthru fields of golden grain; and hand in hand with manual training must\ngo the intellectual and moral development suited to the varied needs of\nour American citizenship.\nOn Washington's birthday there was published in this country a detailed\nstatement setting forth the pre-eminence of the United States among the\nnations of the earth. In making comparisons, population was considered,\nbut much was properly made of the fact that the efficiency of the individual\ncitizen must be taken into consideration. The enormous population of\nChina and the relatively large population of Russia do not give them a\ndominant position among the nations of the earth. By careful calculation,\nthe expert arrives at the conclusion that ''the United States exceeds all\n\n"}
{"page": 994, "printed_page": "982", "text": "982\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nOther nations in size of effective population.\" In wealth and resources our\ndominance is even more pronounced. If this superiority is to be maintained, the energies of the rising generation must be conserved and the\naverage individual citizen of the United States, morally, mentally, physically— in all that goes to make up efficiency — must be the peer, yea, even\nthe superior, of the average citizen of the most favored nation beyond our\nborders.\nTo make him such is in large measure the work of those who are\nassembled here. The subjects for discussion on your program show that\nyou are awake to this fact. You are met to discuss practical educational\nproblems of momentous import. I bid you Godspeed in your work. With\nthe realization of your ideals we shall have not only ''a new conception of\nnationalism,\" but a new nationalism and a new patriotism that shall include\nall in the old that brought us to our present high estate, and add to it all\nthat is to lead us to the greater Republic yet to be.\nWe hear much of preparedness both for national defense and for national\nelections. Probably both are necessary. Certainly the President must\nbe backed up with power if his efforts for peace are to be successful. Our\nforeign policy must be something more than an international school of\ncorrespondence. Peace is our passion: \" our interest is in concord not in\nconflict\"; yet we must have an army and a navy big enough to protect\nevery American citizen wherever he has a right to be. On the wings of a\nnew American-built merchant marine. Old Glory must be carried to all\nthe ports of commerce of the world. With this preparation for defense,\nnot conquest, must come also industrial preparedness to maintain our\nstandard of living and thinking. Let us inculcate the homely virtues of\nhonesty, hard work, and hopefulness. One of the qualifications absolutely\nessential for permanent success in public or private life is old-fashioned,\nsquare-toed honesty. Our young people must be made to understand the\ndignity of labor and the honor of toil. Human nature is so constituted\nthat it is best developed by toil and battle and struggle. The coral insect\nperishes where the currents are gentle, but grows and thrives under the\nthunderous attacks of waves that would grind granite to powder. With\nhonesty and hard work and good cheer let there be coupled a patriotism\nthat knows only one country and one flag. The elements of our cosmopolitan civilization are diverse, yet they become one in the democracy\nof the American schoolroom. This thought has been well expressed by\nan Ohio school-teacher in the following lines:\nBriton or Teuton, it matters not,\nOnce we've been thru the Melting Pot;\nChanged forever each heart and mind,\nOld World fealty left behind;\nHenceforth, Yankee, in blood and bone,\nWe have one country and one alone :\nAmerica.\n\n"}
{"page": 995, "printed_page": "983", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nBOOKER\n\nT. WASHINGTON— AN\n\nAPPRECIATION\n\n983\n\nLand of the larger, nobler view,\nLand of the immigrant's dreams come true;\nCountry where tyranny, caste, and clan\nYield to the sacred rights of man;\nNation whose glorious history\nBrightens the hope of humanity;\nStorehouse of treasure, rich and vast,\nGift of a providential past,\nSpared by fortune of time and place\nTo nurture a new and favored race;\nLand of our opportunity,\nLand of our children's destiny:\nAmerica.\n\nIf you do well your work of teaching honor, industry, optimism, patriotism, and faith in a Power not ourselves that makes for righteousness, the\nfuture of the Republic is safe.\n\nBOOKER\nO. T. CORSON,\n\nT. WASHINGTON— AN APPRECIATION\n\nEDITOR,\n\n\"OHIO\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nMONTHLY,\"\n\nCOLUMBUS,\n\nOHIO\n\nBorn a slave, without a record of either the place or date of his birth;\npermitted to grow up in the midst of the direst poverty, without any of the\nrefining influences or tender associations so essential to the happiness and\nwelfare of a little child; compelled at a very early age to work in the salt\nand coal mines of West Virginia, under conditions which the most heartless\nexploiter of child labor, in these days, even if the law permitted, would\nhesitate to impose upon any human being; with no opportunity to go to\nschool and satisfy his insatiable thirst for knowledge; without even a\nchance to play for which the soul of every child hungers; without a word\nof encouragement or a whisper of hope from anyone, with the possible exception of his kind but poor and ignorant mother; without even a family name;\nwith everything in both heredity and environment against him and with\nnothing in his favor: these are a few of the countless and apparently\ninsurmountable difficulties which surround the birth, childhood, and youth\nof the man in whose honor the members of this Association, representative\neducators of a nation, now reverently pause for a few moments, in their\nconsideration of educational problems, in order that an opportunity may\nbe given to pay a brief but very imperfect tribute to his memory.\nCan it be that out of the depths of such hopeless conditions, there could\ncome, not only a great leader of his race, but also one of the greatest educators and philanthropists which any age or race has ever produced — a man\nof sterling character and brilliant achievements, who would be honored\nby degrees from some of America's greatest universities, whose fame would\nextend across the seas, and whose untimely death would be sincerely mourned\nby all who knew his worth and work ? Certainly, a half -century ago, no\n\n"}
{"page": 996, "printed_page": "984", "text": "p84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\none would have prophesied such a future for such a child, and even today,\nwith an intimate knowledge of the achievements of the all too brief life of\nBooker T. Washington, it is exceedingly difficult for us to believe what we\nso certainly know.\nIt is pleasing and profitable to turn from a consideration of the discouraging conditions which surround the beginnings of the life of this poor boy,\nwith no promise of success, to an enumeration of a few of the marked stages\nin the steady growth and development of that life in the years that were to\nfollow.\nHis first taste of knowledge, as represented by symbols, in learning\nto recognize and make \" i8,\" the number allotted to his stepfather in marking the barrels at the salt mine; his advancement in mastering the alphabet\nand thus teaching himself to read; his success from the start, in the midst\nof the most disheartening circumstances, in carrying out the \"one resolve,\"\nwhich he tells us remained with him constantly in a *' determination to\nsecure an education at any cost\"; his training in the home of Mrs. Ruffner,\nwhere he laid the foundation of all his future success by learning to do everything exactly as it ought to be done and precisely when it should be done;\nthe passing of his entrance examination to Hampton, which consisted in\nsweeping and dusting a room so perfectly that Miss Mackie, the head\nteacher, who was not at all prepossessed in his favor, at once recognized\nin him the qualities certain to win; his hard work as a student, which won\nfor him a place upon the honor roll of commencement speakers; his unselfish devotion to his work as a teacher in the school at his former home, where\nhe stood ready at any time, day or night, to teach anything he knew to\nanyone who wanted to learn; his later study in Washington, where his\nobservations and experiences served to deepen his conviction of the necessity of industrial training for his race; his call to Hampton as a teacher,\nwhich furnished him additional opportunity to prepare for his future career;\nhis life-work at Tuskegee, extending over a little more than a third of a\ncentury, beginning in 1881 with practically no equipment of any kind, with\nhimself as the only teacher, and with only a score and a half of students, and\nending with his untimely death a short time since, in the Southland to which\nhe was always so devotedly loyal, at the home he so dearly loved, located\nin the midst of one of the most noted educational communities in all the\nworld, with its property, valued in millions, its teachers numbered by hundreds, and its students enrolled by thousands: these are only a few of the\nmany achievements recorded in the life of the man whose memory we cherish, who had the power to turn emergencies into opportunities, and win\nvictories in the midst of conditions which ordinarily insure defeat.\nHow he made himself the master of his fate and won for himseK such\na prominent and permanent place in the educational world is an interesting\nstudy. Fortunately, the secret of his phenomenal success is not enshrouded\nin any mystery to be solved by some biographer with a theory of his own\n\n"}
{"page": 997, "printed_page": "985", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nBOOKER\n\nT. WASHINGTON— AN\n\nAPPRECIATION\n\n985\n\ninvention. Booker T. Washington is his own biographer. In Up from\nSlavery, with its wealth of interesting and instructive contents and its\ncharm of simple and direct style, he tells the wonderful story of his struggles\nand achievements. In it all there is not a single note of complaint or\nbitterness because of his hardships and not a word of boastfulness regarding\nhis attainments. Every difficulty which beset his pathway, he seems to\nhave expected and to have utilized as a means of growth and development,\nwhile every special recognition which resulted from his efforts came to him\nas a surprise for which he was always profoundly grateful.\nThe fundamental principle upon which he constructed his philosophy\nof life and built his hope of success is found in his own statement, frequently\nrepeated in modified form, that \"every persecuted individual and race\nshould get much consolation out of the great human law, which is universal\nand eternal, that merit, no matter under what skin found, is, in the long\nrun, recognized and rewarded.\"\nHe believed with all of the intensity of his being that merit, and merit\nonly, would win success and that any man would be recognized and rewarded\njust in proportion as he learns to do something well; learns to do it better\nthan someone else; learns to do a common thing in an uncommon manner;\nlearns to make his services of indispensable value.\nAs a natural outgrowth of his abiding faith in the success which merit\nis certain to win, he was able to say in the face of some of the most trying\ncircumstances which ever confronted a human soul:\nI will not say that I became discouraged, for, as I now look back over my life, I do\nnot recall that I ever became discouraged over anything that I set out to accomplish. I\nhave begun everything with the idea that I could succeed.\n\nThe success which he believed he could win by meriting it was not,\nhowever, in any sense, a selfish success. He earnestly strived to succeed\nin order that he might thereby be able the better to serve. In his autobiography we read:\nFrom my early childhood, I have had a desire to do something to make the world\nbetter, and then to be able to speak to the world about that thing.\n\nIt was this desire, aroused in his early childhood and deepened by the\nexperiences of each passing year, that impelled him to perform deeds of\nheroic self-sacrifice — literally to give his own life in unselfish service for\nothers — and that enabled him to tell the inspiring story of what he had done\nwith rare eloquence and power. How well he succeeded in realizing the\nfirst part of his desire \" to do something to make the world better,\" thousands\nof his own race who came under his influence at Tuskegee, and thousands\nof the white race who realize what he accompUshed for humanity, unite\nin bearing willing and convincing testimony. That he also succeeded in\nrealizing the second part of his desire, ''to be able to speak to the world\"\nabout what he had done, his numerous educational addresses, and published articles and books abundantly prove. And now that his voice is\n\n"}
{"page": 998, "printed_page": "986", "text": "pg6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\nsilent and he can no longer speak directly to the world, the noble institution\nat Tuskegee, to which he gave his life, still remains to speak, out of its\nsplendid history and with its future promise, most eloquently and forcefully\nof his great work.\nOn this occasion it is interesting to recall that Mr. Washington dated\nthe beginning of his public-speaking career with his first address before the\nNational Education Association at Madison in 1884. This was also his\nfirst address that dealt in any large measure with the general problem of\nthe races. It is not surprising that many white people, some of them\nfrom his home community, went to the meeting expecting to hear the\nSouth abused. They were all pleasantly surprised by not hearing a word\nof abuse, but, on the other hand, a full and generous recognition of all the\npraiseworthy things which the white people of Tuskegee and the South\nhad done to help in starting the school. In this address, as in all others\nwhich he made, he was guided by a few fixed principles, which were imbedded in deep-seated convictions, and from which he never deviated.\nThese principles, stated briefly, were a determination to say nothing at\nany time that he did not feel from the bottom of his heart to be true and\nright, never to say anything in an address in the North that he would\nnot be willing to say in the South, and an earnest desire to say something\nthat would cement the friendship of the races and bring about hearty\nco-operation between them.\nIn many respects, his greatest address before the National Education\nAssociation was delivered in 1900 at the Charleston meeting. On that\noccasion an unusual audience assembled under unusual conditions. The\ngreat hall in which the meeting was held had been built a short time before\nto accommodate the reunion of Confederate veterans. Of the eight\nthousand persons in attendance, at least one-third were colored people.\nSeated on the same platform were the speaker of the evening and other\nrepresentatives of the colored race, who, a few decades before, had been\nslaves, and some of the most prominent white citizens of the South, who had\nformerly owned slaves. To the credit of the founder of the great educational\ninstitution at Tuskegee, he felt that night, in an unusual manner and to an\nunusual degree, the weight of the heavy responsibility resting upon him.\nOnly those who were near him in that trying hour can comprehend the\nanxiety which burdened his soul and which manifested itself all too plainly\nin his trembhng body and embarrassed manner. How well he met that\nresponsibility and measured up to the opportunity which came with it, all\nwho heard him will always remember. In an address of remarkable power,\nreplete with humor and pathos and abounding in statements of fundamental\nsignificance to both races, driven home by unanswerable logic, and withal\ntactfully and eloquently phrased, this apostle of good sense made his plea\nfor the education of his race and their right to receive such recognition as\ntheir honest efforts to attain respectability and win success might merit.\n\n"}
{"page": 999, "printed_page": "987", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nBOOKER\n\nT. WASHINGTON— AN\n\nAPPRECIATION\n\n987\n\nTo the credit and honor of the citizens of Charleston and of the South\nwill always be remembered the cordial reception and hearing accorded to\nthe speaker, and the uniform courtesy shown to him and the members of his\nrace at that memorable meeting.\nAny just appreciation of the life and work of Booker T. Washington\nmust emphasize the high regard in which he -is held by the white people\nof all sections of our united country. When asked what he regarded as the\nmost important result of his work, he replied:\nI do not know which to put first, the effect of Tuskegee's work on the Negro, or the\neffect on the attitude of the white man to the Negro.\n\nIn his large and constructive task of winning the approval of all thoughtful southern white men and the cordial support of southern public opinion,\nhe succeeded, not by hard work alone, but by hard work directed by the\nrarest common-sense and the highest practical wisdom. In his many public addresses and published articles, there cannot be found a single unwise\nstatement or untimely remark.\nIn no one of his addresses, however, did he rise to a higher plane of\nthought and expression than in his first great address before the people\nof the South at the Atlanta Exposition in 1895 — an address which Clark\nHowell, the successor to the lamented and loved Henry Grady, declared\nto be \"the beginning of a moral revolution in America.\" It was in this\naddress that he used the historic sentence which revealed to his refined and\ncultured audience of southern citizens his rare sense and sound judgment,\nand which at once won for him the hearty sympathy and cordial support\nof the white people who heard him then for the first time. It is impossible\nto imagine or describe the scene which followed, when this, up to that\nhour, comparatively unknown leader, held his dusky hand high above his\nhead, with the fingers stretched wide apart, and said:\nIn all things that are purely social we can be as separate as the fingers, yet one as the\nhand in all things essential to mutual progress.\n\nThis address was a revelation to all who heard it or read it, and marks\nthe beginning of a newly awakened and more sympathetic interest in the\neducation and uplift of the colored race, and also of a better understanding\nof that relation between the races which is so essential to their mutual\nprogress.\nOf the many estimates of the character and work of Booker T. Washington which have been given, two have been selected for record in this appreciation. The first is by a leading representative of the white race, Walter H.\nPage, our ambassador to England. In his fine introduction to the latest\nedition of Up from Slavery published in 1914, he says:\nIt is well for our common country that the day is come when he and his work are\nregarded as highly in the South as in any section of the Union. I think that no man of\nthis generation has a more noteworthy achievement to his credit than this, and it is the\nachievement of the moral earnestness of the strong character of a man who has done a\ngreat national service.\n\n"}
{"page": 1000, "printed_page": "988", "text": "988\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nThe second is from a member of his own race, Emmet J. Scott, who so\nloyally served his principal for so many years as his private secretary:\nThe glory of his life was its dedication to the service of both races, North and South.\nHe will be remembered as an educational enthusiast whose sympathies and activities were\nbroad enough to include all races and movements looking to the betterment of mankind.\n\nIn years, as measured by the calendar, Booker T. Washington's life\nwas brief indeed. He did not live out man's allotted time on earth. In\nthat brief life, however, he traveled the long journey which marks the distance between the birth of a slave boy and the death of an acknowledged\nleader of his race, of an educator of international fame, and of a benefactor\nof mankind. Measured by deeds of heroic self-sacrificing service for others,\nhis life is limitless in its length and breadth and depth.\nMark Hopkins, the great college president, the teacher and inspirer\nof Samuel C. Armstrong; Samuel C. Armstrong, the great principal of the\nschool at Hampton, the teacher and inspirer of Booker T. Washington;\nBooker T. Washington, the great founder and principal of Tuskegee, the\nteacher and inspirer of thousands of men and women who today mourn his\ndeath and revere his memory: these are three of the immortals in the world\nof education, the influence of whose living and teaching will forever remain\nto bless humanity and to encourage and to inspire all who teach.\n\nHIGH POINTS IN THE LOS ANGELES\nJ. H. FRANCIS, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nFLAN\n\nOF SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES,\n\nCAL.\n\nThe first high point of the Los Angeles public schools I shall mention is\nthe high cost of living, the high cost of educational living. Those of us\nwho have read the reports of the survey of the Cleveland schools have\ndiscovered that we occupy the unique position of being among the cities\nwhich rank firsts if we are not the first of them all, in respect of average\ncost per pupil; and as regards this element of cost the report also declares\nthat we rank first in the cost of teachers' salaries. We pay, as I recall it\nnow, on a basis of average daily attendance something like $54 per pupil\nper year for the elementary schools, $87 for the intermediate, and $130 for\nthe high schools.\nWe are trying to build well in the material phases of education, not\nbecause the public can see the brick and mortar that goes into a building\nand we can take our visitors around and show them what we have done\nin the way of building, but because it adds somewhat to the efiiciency of\nthe school. But I think that we are approaching the time when we will\nbe able to get along with less of the luxuries in buildings and equipment\nand expend a larger proportion of our funds upon the intellect and the\nspirit of education.\n\n"}
{"page": 1001, "printed_page": "989", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHIGH\n\nPOINTS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nLOS\n\nANGELES\n\nPLAN\n\n989\n\nThis cost has increased for two reasons: (i) We have reduced the\nnumber of pupils per teacher; (2) we furnish more special teachers.\nIt is quite simple for a superintendent to lessen the cost of his system\nby adding to the enrolment per teacher, but it is a tremendously expensive\nthing in the development of the individual child. We do not believe that\nit is possible for a teacher to face forty different little personalities and\nindividualities, and assume the responsibility for their mental, spiritual,\nand physical development, and do it successfully. It is beyond human\npower. Education does not consist in passing a child thru a course of\nstudy of the minimum essentials, and stamping him as having completed\nthat course to the satisfaction of his teacher or teachers. It consists rather\nin creating an atmosphere that is free, that is intelligent, and that can\nunderstand and talk to each child.\nAs has been said, we furnish more teachers for special teaching, supplying special teachers for the larger buildings and for groups of smaller ones,\nfor music, drawing, cookery, gardening, and sometimes for sewing, sloyd,\nsocial work, home work, Batavia work, and so forth.\nI have been asked what our regular teachers do while these special\nteachers have charge of the pupils. I do not know. Really I do not care\nmuch more about it than that, for I know the real teacher will use this\ntime profitably, and the time-serving teacher is worthless anyhow with\nher time. There are a hundred ways in which the teacher may fit into a\nlarge elementary or high school, where she can use her time to the greatest\nprofit in handling individual problems while these special teachers are\nhandling the problems of their departments.\nThe rock toward which the educational ship is drifting is the financial\none. You and I must educate the people to believe that it is better to save\na child to himself before he runs into the reefs of his life than it is to expend\nmoney on police courts, jails, and juvenile courts trying to patch him up\nand protect society from him after he has been wrecked. The public must\nrecognize that the greatest asset of a nation is her boys and her girls, and\nthat instead of spending too much money today on offering these boys and\ngirls a chance at their better and bigger selves we are spending all too\nlittle.\nThe second point in our work is an attempt upon the part of our schools\nto lengthen the school day by offering shopwork, home economics work,\nand work in music, drawing, art, and playground activities before and\nafter school. To be sure, that attempt has been very seriously crippled\nthis year on account of lack of funds and for other reasons, but we have\nmade a fairly good start along a very significant line.\nSomeone has said: \"Give me control of the leisure time of our boys\nand girls, and you may have them all the rest of the time,\" and it is coming\nto be tremendously true. The greatest danger this nation faces today\ncomes from the unoccupied time of her boys and her girls, and the reason\n\n"}
{"page": 1002, "printed_page": "990", "text": "Qgo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nthat countless thousands of them '*go bad,\" as we call it, is not because\nwish to but because there is no place to \"go good.\"\ntheyThe\nsolution of the problem lies in having the public schools offer\nthem something to do that is worth their doing and that will occupy them\nmore than three or four hours a day out of twenty-four, and more than i8o\ndays out of the 365.\nIn the large cities of the nation the moving picture, one of the greatest\ninstrumentalities for education in modern times, has been allowed by\nus to be commercialized; and yet for the last ten years it has been the\nmost powerful single instrumentality in the education of the American\nyouth. The result for the coming generation cannot be measured. The\nfault lies not with the moving picture, but it lies with you and with me\nwho are professed educators, because we did not gather it up fifteen or\ntwenty years ago, and take it into our schoolhouses and into our churches,\ncontrolling the character of the pictures put on the film, and turning it\ntoward an educational development and the solution of educational problems. Ihave yet to see the boy who wouldn't rather do something worth\ndoing than something that is dissipating and degenerating, and when he\ndoes not do such things it is because there is no chance for him. Take a\ngreat city like Detroit, and other cities of the nation: what can your boy\nand mine do before school and after school, on Saturdays and during the\nlong summer months ? Opportunities must be offered him in school shops,\non school farms, in drawing centers, music centers, dramatic centers, in\nschool printing presses, and in other things that might be offered by the\nschools to take up the slack of his leisure time.\nWe are measuring the boy's experience with our experience as a boy,\nforgetting, however, that great social and economic changes have made\nhis life wholly different from the one we lived. When we were boys, there\nwas something to do and we had to do it. In the great cities today there\nis nothing to do, and the public schools must put into the lives of boys and\ngirls something that modern civilization has taken out of their lives. We\ncannot expect the kind of men and women that will keep our nation continuously growing in greatness unless we prepare our boys and girls for\ntheir responsibilities in life.\nThe third point is diversity. You have been hearing a great deal these\ndays about uniformity. This is about diversity. I have a theory that\nchildren do differ. As I look at the little fellows, and know that they have\ndifferent heredities, different environments, and different sets of experiences, Iam quite convinced that they themselves have certain points of\ndifference, and that the most striking feature of humanity is its differences\nrather than its likenesses, and that the attempt to make all alike is working\nagainst nature and will not succeed. So we have diversified both in courses\nof study and in organization of schools, and this has cost money. In school\nactivities, we have diversified in the way of nature-studies, taking children\n\n"}
{"page": 1003, "printed_page": "991", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHIGH\n\nPOINTS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nLOS\n\nANGELES\n\nPLAN\n\n991\n\nout into the country and down to the beaches, having picnics, intellectual\npicnics, and taking them into places of amusement, and getting them to\nlook at things as they are. You say you cannot do that without scientific\nbackground; but really some of the science of these boys who learn to\nhandle snakes and to become familiar with plants is almost equal to that\nof the laboratory expert who has given his life to studying the thing theoretically. At all events it is refreshing, and it has in it the elements of life.\nAnd we take our pupils three or four times a year out on the hills. Of\ncourse, you couldn't do that here. And we take them to the mountains,\nand down to the beaches, where they wander with their teachers, talking\nwith their teachers, and learning with their teachers.\nWe achieve diversity in the way of home gardening; diversity in the\nway of additional shop work; diversity in the way of additional music,\nwith an elementary-school orchestra organized four years ago, with twelve\nhundred little folks playing in it. The parents declare that these little\npeople are anxious to learn their private music lessons in order to get into\nthe orchestra. It is a center of life, a stimulation of activity and hopefulness for the future. If this nation is ever to be a musical nation, it will\nnot be because we have the great stars of the world play for us and sing\nfor us. It will be because we get the largest number of our boys and our\ngirls interested in music.\nThey say that we are crowding the courses of study. Surely we are.\nYet we are giving 85 per cent of our money, and 85 per cent of our time, to\nthe so-called academic studies, the \"essentials\" of education. We might\nextend the school day, for that is too much time and too much money to\ngive to what we term the essentials of education. After all, what are the\nessentials of education ? A certain group of studies, a certain amount of\neach of the studies of this group, given at a certain time. We take a little\nfellow at six years of age in the first grade. We expect him to read with a\ncertain degree of efiiciency and cover a certain amount of territory. If he\ndoes not, we say he is a failure. We send word home to his parents that\nhe is a failure. It is a crime against childhood. A little child cannot fail.\nWhat if he doesn't read as well as this boy by the side of him ? Give him\ntime. His mother doesn't worry if she has three boys and they do not all\ntalk at the same age or walk at the same age; and yet we great psychologists and philosophers get the little fellow, set him down in front of us, and\nask him to sit down and fold his hands and look up to us as if he really\nloved us, and read with the same degree of efiiciency as the child at the\nside of him who may have a different development and a different set of\nexperiences.\nThe time is coming when we will desist from this barbarity of school\nreports, and just follow that child in his tendencies and his developments.\nWe have now no definite information by which to tell the parent of the\nchild what his tendencies are. Under the new system, we will follow that\n\n"}
{"page": 1004, "printed_page": "992", "text": "pg2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\nchild carefully, watch his tendencies, and then, by the time he gets into the\nseventh grade, we will be able to say: \"His school history indicates that\npossibly this line of activity would be best for him, but not surely.\" After\nhe gets into that grade we will give him a chance to confirm it himself,\nand, when he gets to the high school, we may be able to give definite information that will help the parent and the boy, and say: \"We think\nyour ability lies along the line of literature, or art, or science, or mechanics\nor agriculture, or something else.\"\nWe have diversified the school also. I am going to give you a brief\nillustration of what we calU the \"Neighborhood School,\" where the school\nis organized to meet the needs of the neighborhood. It has a penny lunchroom where we feed the children; and lunch for the child if he does not\nhave his penny. If he does not, the teacher is in touch with the home and\nknows whether or not he ought to have the penny. In the last six or seven\nyears, the penny lunch alone has revolutionized the school.\nThe next high point is the intermediate school. I have learned a lot of\nthings about the intermediate schools that I did not know before, and that\nI do not now believe. I have heard that the high school has no right to\ntake the children from the elementary school, as if the children belonged to\nthe grade, instead of the grade belonging to the children. I have heard\nthat the intermediate school is directing the child toward a definite vocation in life. My conception of it is that the intermediate school is only\nwidening just a little the opportunities of the child to find himself somewhere. Ihave heard that the same thing can be done in the elementary\nschools. It is a question of numbers. There are no elementary schools in\nthe country that I know of that have a large enough number of seventh-,\neighth-, and ninth-grade children to offer them any very wide course of\nstudy or wide area of activities.\nI have heard that our democracy is in imminent danger because we are\ntaking the child and throwing him into castes. What about this universal\ndemocracy of which we boast ? Do we have it now ? Those of us who would\nconcede it would have to confess that there are few civilized nations in the\nworld today fundamentally less democratic than we are. This is due to\nthe fact of a lack of mingling among boys and girls who have different\naptitudes and following different lines of work. It is because the rich man\ndoesn't understand the poor man and the poor man doesn't understand\nthe rich man; because the scholar doesn't understand the workman and\nthe workman doesn't understand the scholar. If we are going to have\ndemocracy, it will be by 'the efforts of those who understand each other\nand because all of us have a chance to develop ourselves into efficiency\nalong lines in which we are working.\nWe have six intermediate high schools with seven thousand pupils, and\nso far we have accomplished this: one option in the seventh grade, two\noptions in the eighth grade, and more in the ninth grade. There is no\n\n"}
{"page": 1005, "printed_page": "993", "text": "Superintendence]\n\n}\n\nHIGH\n\nPOINTS\n\nIN THE\n\nLOS ANGELES\n\nPLAN\n\n993\n\nattempt at shaping of the boys and girls into any definite thing at all. We\nhave succeeded so far in bridging the gap between the eighth and ninth\ngrades, and, where we have had thousands of boys and girls dropping out\nof the ninth grade, we now have from 85 per cent to 87 per cent of them\ngoing thru the ninth grade of the intermediate school into the tenth grade.\nWhere we had a large number of boys and girls falling out of the eighth\ngrade at the end of the eighth grade in the regular elementary schools, we\nnow carry 85 per cent to 86 per cent from the eighth grade in the intermediate schools into the ninth grade, carrying a larger number of boys and\ngirls one year longer at least. We have not only done that, but we have\nsaved a half-year.\nWe have brought together a thousand boys and girls of the same age,\nof the same aptitudes, of the same hopes, and put them together where\nthey can work out the same problems.\nThere should be diversity in the elementary schools, but the kind of\ndiversity that comes in the eighth and ninth grades, and the seventh grade\ntoo, must be conceded to be a little different from the diversity of those\nelementary schools. You cannot get together, in the seventh and eighth\ngrades of the average school system, enough pupils of the same age and\ngrade to give a chance for this diversity that is needed. There has been a\nlot of talk about the change of the child. It is really a problem of mathematics. Itis a problem of offering at the right time the thing that could\nnot possibly be offered under the old administration.\nThese intermediate schools have practically eliminated failures from\nthe ninth grade. They have carried the children into the second year of\nthe tenth grade. They have saved the city a half-year of expenditure, and\nthey are working out the same problems, in the same way, that the high\nschools are working out.\nOur city established the intermediate school for the sake of the seventhand eighth-grade boys and girls, and not for the sake of the high schools.\nWe have told the high schools time and again that it is not the business of\nthe elementary schools to prepare children for the high schools, any more\nthan it is the business of the high schools to prepare boys and girls for the\ncolleges. Neither is it the business of the first grade to prepare boys and\ngirls for the second grade. It is the business of the first grade to have the\nfullest, freest, and deepest development of the first grade possible. If\nthat does not meet the needs of the second grade, let the second grade\nchange to meet the situation ; and, if the elementary schools are developing\nthe boys and girls as they ought to, and if the high schools are not satisfied,\nlet the high schools change their demands.\nWhat we need is the right kind of life for boys and girls.\n\n"}
{"page": 1006, "printed_page": "994", "text": "gp4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nSIGNIFICANT\nLEONARD\n\nP.\n\nAYRES,\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nDEVELOPMENTS\nSURVEYING\n\n[Detroit\n\nIN EDUCATIONAL\n\nOF EDUCATION,\nDIVISION\nDIRECTOR,\nFOUNDATION,\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\nRUSSELL\n\nSAGE\n\nTwo important conditions are shaping the school-survey movement.\nThe first is that school surveys are rapidly increasing in number. At the\npresent time, there are under way or definitely projected more school surveys\nthan all those combined that have so far been completed. That the movement is rapidly spreading is certain. It is here because the public want\nto know the facts about their schools, and the school survey is the most\nefficient means yet discovered for finding them out and making them known.\nThe second significant fact about school surveys is that they are steadily\nimproving in quality. It is almost literally true that every survey report\nthat has been published has in one or more conspicuous respects been\nsuperior to all its predecessors. This is because we began to make surveys\nwithout knowing how and have been learning as we went along.\nThe school survey differs from other reports on school systems in its\nfundamental philosophy and basic methods. The purpose of the survey\nis to educate the public. Its object is to tell the people in simple terms all\nthe salient facts about their public schools and then to rely on the common\nsense, the common insight, and the common purpose of the people as the\nfirst great resource in working out their problem. If we regard the survey\nin this broader way as an implement for social progress rather than a mere\nmethod of educational investigation, we shall realize that complete survey\nwork involves three steps.\nThe first step is a competently conducted study of the situation. The\nsecond is the education of the public in the findings of the study. The\nthird is doing something about it. This means utilizing the newly found\nfact basis for the purpose of constructive action designed to improve the\nsituation. It is in the second of these three steps that the most important\ndevelopments are now being made in survey methods. The survey has\nbegun to find out how to educate the public. It has begun to bridge the\ngap between knowing and doing.\nAlmost a year ago the city of Cleveland undertook a thoro study of its\neducational problems. The work began last April as an educational survey\nwhich includes the problems of industrial education as well as those of the\nregular school work, and which looks into the future as well as studies the\npresent. This survey is being carried on under the auspices of the Cleveland Foundation and with the co-operation of the Board of Education.\nSome twenty-five specialists have been engaged in the work for varying\nlengths of time and the entire expense will be about $35,000.\nThe reports of the Cleveland work are being published in twenty-five\nvolumes. This does not mean, however, that the report is to be so formid-\n\n"}
{"page": 1007, "printed_page": "995", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDEVELOPMENTS\n\nIN EDUCATIONAL\n\nSURVEYING\n\n995\n\nable as might appear from the mere statement of the number of volumes.\nIt means that the Cleveland Survey has developed a form of publication\nquite comparable to the sectional-unit idea in office furniture or modern\nbookcases. In Cleveland the entire survey work has been divided into\nrelatively small sections and a complete and independent treatise is being\nprepared on each section.\nThere are many advantages resulting from this form of publication and\nmost of them relate to securing superior results in educating the public;\nin bridging the gap between knowing and doing. The typical procedure\nis as follows: The specialist employed to study one feature of the work\nsubmits his report. It may have to do with health work, or provisions for\nexceptional children, or school buildings, or the teaching force, or any other\nphase of the educational work of the city.\nAfter the report is submitted, the director of the survey and other\nmembers of the staff work over it with the author to make sure that its\nfindings are accurate and that its recommendations are in harmony with\nthose of the other sections. The report is then put into what the office\nforce has come to term \"tentative final form\" and some twenty copies of\nit are made by the mimeograph process. These copies are then submitted\nto the members of the survey committee, the members of the board of\neducation, the superintendent of schools, and such interested school officials\nas the board or the superintendent may designate.\nFor example, a manuscript dealing with health work is submitted to\nthe chief medical inspector, while one having to do with buildings is submitted to the architect and the business director, and a meeting is held\nof all those persons to whom the manuscript has been submitted. At this\nmeeting, criticisms, corrections, and suggestions are discussed at great\nlength and in great detail. In addition to the verbal discussions, all of\nthe members are invited to submit written memoranda.\nThese conferences result in clearing up before publication questions\nof fact and questions of form. They do not clear away all the differences\nof opinion with respect to interpretation and recommendation. In these\nmatters the final decision is left in the hands of the survey director. This\nprocess of conference has resulted in mature deliberation concerning each\nfact presented and each recommendation offered. Some of the reports\nhave been rewritten as many as five times before being finally sent to the\nprinter. The representations of the members of the board of education\nand the school officials have resulted in some changes in every volume and\nin scores of changes in some of them. In the aggregate, some hundreds of\nalterations have been made as a result of the representations and arguments\nof the school people.\nAfter the report has gone thru this searching process of revision, it is\nprinted in the form of a small bound monograph of anywhere from 60 to 300\npages in length and usually having many diagrams, tables, and illustrations.\n\n"}
{"page": 1008, "printed_page": "996", "text": "gp6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nEach monograph, as it comes from the printer, is given to the public\nand to the newspapers at a public luncheon given in one of the leading hotels.\nThe director of the survey or the author of the monograph gives a talk of\na little more than a half-hour's duration presenting the gist of the report\npublished that week. Moreover, the reports are placed on sale at the\ntime of the meeting. A uniform charge of twenty-five cents is made for\nthe volumes altho it costs more than that to publish them. During the\nfirst few months of the work, the methods and problems of the survey were\ndiscussed at these luncheons, and during the last few weeks the findings have\nbeen discussed in the manner just described.\nAltho this work has now been going on for more than ten months, the\nweekly audiences have always comfortably filled the hall, and recently they\nhave been growing so large that the hotel accommodations have been\nentirely inadequate to care for them.\nAs the weekly luncheons have increased in popularity, the newspapers\nof the city have given increasing amounts of space to the consideration of\neducational problems and the discussion of the weekly reports. On more\nthan one occasion, the report of the weekly educational luncheon has backed\neverything else off the front page except the date and the weather.\nThis laborious process constitutes a new development in educational\npractice and in the technique of the school survey. We may call it bridging\nthe gap between knowing and doing, or we may term it a process of carrying\nthe community. It is a method of educating the public concerning its\neducational problems. Its object is to make the entire school system pass\nin complete review before the public eye. It makes the schools and the\npublic pay attention to each other. It presents the past, the present, and\nthe possible. Its aim is to place before the citizens a picture of the schools —\na picture so accurate that it cannot mislead, so simple that it cannot be\nmisunderstood, and so significant that it cannot be disregarded. The\nCleveland experience demonstrates that it is entirely possible to arouse the\npublic to this sort of interest in their school problems and then to sustain\nthat interest.\nThere are some developments in the character of the findings of the\nCleveland Survey that have come as a result of these new methods of bringing the school people and the public into the survey work. Since each\nsection of the report is a separate volume, it must be sufficiently complete\nto stand on its own legs. In order to meet this requirement, the different\nspecialists have been compelled to delve deeply into the fundamental factors\nconditioning their problems. Moreover, the Cleveland work has been\nconducted under specially favorable circumstances. The workers have had\nample time and there has been ample financial support. The work has\nenjoyed the co-operation of the school authorities and the reports have\nprofited by the searching criticism to which they have been subjected. As\na result of these conditions, the findings of the Cleveland Survey deal in\n\n"}
{"page": 1009, "printed_page": "997", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDEVELOPMENTS\n\nIN EDUCATIONAL\n\nSURVEYING\n\n997\n\nthe main with fundamental problems rather than with details; with the\nessential rather than with the contingent; and with what to do rather than\nhow to do it.\nThis newest sort of school survey work is illustrated by the section of\nthe Cleveland Survey devoted to measuring the quality of classroom instruction carried on under the direction of Charles H. Judd, of Chicago. At\nthe outset, we decided that in measuring classroom processes and products\nit was not so important to find out how the work in Cleveland compared\nwith that in Detroit, Boston, New York, and a dozen other cities, as it was\nto find out how the work in Cleveland compared with the Cleveland standard. We decided that the important thing was to find out what kind of\nprogress was being made thruout the system, grade after grade, and how\nthe achievements of different grades and schools compared with those of\nother grades and schools. The work proceeded, moreover, on the theory\nthat it was vastly more important to leave in the city a corps of teachers,\nprincipals, and supervisory officers understanding the use of testing methods\nand trained in the giving of the tests than it was merely to find out how the\nwork compared in excellence with that done somewhere else.\nAs a result of these decisions, some very interesting methods have been\ndeveloped for discovering the factors affecting progress and achievement\nin the basic school subjects. For example, the Survey has discovered and\nmapped out the neutral ground between speed and quality in handwriting.\nIn general, children who write rapidly write poorly and those who write\nwell write slowly. Nevertheless there is a point to which quality may be\ndeveloped without reducing speed and a point to which speed may be\nincreased without hurting quality. The Cleveland Survey has discovered\nthese points for that city for each grade.\nMoreover, a method has been developed by which to measure and record\nfor each school the progress made from grade to grade on both speed and\nquality combined. Again, several hundred teachers have been trained in\nthe use of the handwriting scale. In short, the methods of measuring\nachievement in handwriting are no longer mere scientific curiosities; they\nhave become valuable instruments of teaching and of supervision.\nThe tests in spelling comprised more than 2,100,000 individual spellings.\nThe tests were made up from tests that had previously been given to children in eighty-four other cities. In Cleveland two series of tests were given\n■— one with the words arranged in lists and the other with the words arranged\nin sentences. There has long been an active controversy as to the effects\nof the two methods on the accuracy of the results. In Cleveland the outcome will not give comfort to either party in this controversy, for the results\nshowed that the children spelled the words just as well in- the sentences as\nin the lists and just as well in the lists as in the sentences. Valuable data\nwere produced showing improvement from grade to grade and the comparisons between different schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 1010, "printed_page": "998", "text": "gp8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIDetroit\n\nIt is more important, however, from the point of view of school administration, that these tests resulted in finding definite standards of progress\nfrom grade to grade, from the third thru the eighth, in every fundamental\noperation in arithmetic.\nChildren in all the grades were tested in oral and silent reading. The\nstudies not only resulted in showing how much the children could read out\nloud or silently in a given period of time, but they developed a method for\nmeasuring how much the children comprehended and retained of what they\nhad read.\nTwo striking results stand out as products of these reading- tests. The\nfirst is that children read very much more rapidly to themselves than they\ndo aloud. The second and much more important showing is that in general\nthe fastest readers are the best readers and the slowest readers are the poorest readers. That is to say, the child who reads rapidly is apt to be the one\nwho retains and produces best what he has read, while the one who reads\nin a slow and stumbling manner is apt to retain but little of the meaning.\nTurning now from educational to administrative problems, the findings\nagain have for their object the analysis of the situation, rather than the\nweighing of it in the balance. Cleveland, like most other rapidly growing\ncities, has many overcrowded school buildings. The pressure for school\naccommodations is powerful while the shortage of funds is painful. In\nevery city in the land where these conditions obtain, attention has been\ndirected toward the administrative methods in use at Gary, Ind., by means\nof which increased numbers of children are accommodated in the school\nbuildings.\nDuring the past few years. Superintendent Shattuck O. Hartwell,\nformerly of Kalamazoo and now of Muskegon, Mich., has been carrying\nthru an important series of experiments to determine how far the Gary\nidea may be applied to the existing school buildings of a school system\nestablished and running along conventional lines. He has developed some\nvery important answers to these questions and put them into practical and\nsuccessful application in the city of Kalamazoo. One of the most interesting reports of the Cleveland Survey is the book by Superintendent\nHartwell on the platoon plan, which is the name applied to the Gary idea\nas he has modified it for use in existing school systems.\nThe aludy of the school and the immigrant has brought to light the\nfact that Cleveland, like other modern industrial cities, really has three\ngreat systems of education all simultaneously active. The first of these\nis the public school system. The second is the parochial school system.\nThe third is a system about which we know little but which is of great\nsocial import. It is the system of schools and classes conducted in the\nafternoon, in the evening, and on Sundays by the different nationality\ngroups for the purpose of instructing their children in their native languages.\nThousands of children in the city of Cleveland are enrolled in these classes\n\n"}
{"page": 1011, "printed_page": "999", "text": "Superintendence!\n\nDEVELOPMENTS\n\nIN EDUCATIONAL\n\nSURVEYING\n\n999\n\nand are doing this most arduous school work in addition to that of the regular\nschools.\nSome of the findings of the Survey are social rather than educational\nor administrative in nature, but they have important educational implications. For example, in the study of commercial work, an analysis of some\nthousands of office positions held by men and women, and boys and girls,\ndemonstrates with great clearness that the modern commercial work of\nmen is an entirely different thing from the commercial work of women.\nWith perfect definiteness the records show that the requirements of the\nwork, the lines of promotion, and the necessary preparation are of one sort\nfor the boys and men and of another and entirely different sort for the girls\nand women. These are facts which no city can afford to overlook in planning its high-school courses in commercial work.\nThe studies of the educational provisions for exceptional children have\nbrought to light the fundamental condition that these children consist of\ntwo great groups who may be designated as the socially competent and the\nsocially incompetent. The socially competent consist of all those who are\nof normal mentality and who will spend their lives in association with normal\npeople. They are the backward, the blind, the deaf, the crippled, the\nforeign, and the children of the open-air schools. Since they are socially\ncompetent and are to spend their lives in competition with the rest of us,\nthey should be educated in special classes in regular schools and have at\nleast part of their work in the regular classes with the normal children.\nThe socially incompetent children consist of the feeble-minded and the\nepileptics who may be cared for during their younger years by the public\nschools but who are so deficient that they must eventually be placed in\ninstitutions. The duty of the school system is to prepare these children\nfor self-support in institutional life, and the most reasonable way of doing\nthis in large cities is to segregate them in special schools.\nIn the field of industrial education, eight special studies covering the\nmost important industrial activities of the city are being conducted. Each\nstudy has three objects. It attempts to describe the industry in simple\nterms, not only portraying the nature of the work, but giving information\nconcerning wages, unemployment, and health conditions. Secondly, it\ntells how people may get into the industry and what the prospects of promotion are after they get in. In the third place, each study discusses education\nfor the industry, both before entering it and afterward.\nThese industrial studies have brought to light some interesting and\nimportant discoveries. In the past few years, we have heard a great deal\nof criticism directed toward the public schools because they were educating\nlarge numbers of pupils for commercial and professional work and very\nfew for industrial work. These criticisms have been accompanied by\nimpressive figures showing that there are a great many people engaged in\nindustrial work and very few in professional work. One thing that has\n\n"}
{"page": 1012, "printed_page": "1000", "text": "looo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nbeen entirely overlooked in making these comparisons is that most of our\nindustrial work is done by people of foreign birth, while our professional\npositions are held by people of native birth. Our school children are almost\nentirely of native birth altho many of them are of foreign parentage. When\nwe talk about their vocational destinations, we should remember that we\nare in the main discussing American-born people and that we must base\nour considerations on figures showing what American-born people are\ndoing. For Cleveland such a comparison indicates that for Americanbom boys the chance of becoming a lawyer is greater than the chance of\nbecoming a mason, and the chance of becoming a doctor is greater than that\nof becoming a tinsmith. Similar facts afi:ect each consideration of vocational education for men and for women and for every sort of vocational\ncareer.\nThere is another most important consideration conditioning every plan\nfor the organization of industrial education. This is the consideration\nof the community's capacity to absorb workmen trained for any given\noccupation. In Cleveland about four thousand boys leave the public\nschools each year. Most of them range in age from fourteen to eighteen\nand in school advancement from the sixth grade to the last high-school\nclass. They represent a cross-section of the city's adult manhood of a few\nyears hence.\nNow the census figures tell us that if present conditions maintain in\nthe future only about 25 in each 1,000 of these boys will be carpenters.\nSince about 4,000 boys leave school each year, it is probably true that there\nare about 100 future carpenters among them. Now Cleveland has more\nthan 100 elementary schools and 11 high schools and these 100 future\ncarpenters are widely scattered among them. Most of them are in the\nelementary schools, for few high-school boys become carpenters. Even\nif we knew which boys were destined to become carpenters and even if we\nknew when they would leave school and even if we should decide to give\nthem all trade preparatory education for the last two years of their school\nlife, we should still have an average trade class in carpentry of only two\nboys in each elementary school. This is administratively and educationally\nimpossible. It indicates something of the difiiculties involved in the organization ofpreparatory industrial education and illustrates the importance\nof analyzing the social factors controlling the situation.\nTo summarize: Among the recent developments in the methods of\nschool surveying there may be distinguished two trends which are specially\nsignificant. One of these is the attempt of contemporaneous surveys to\nanalyze the fundamental factors which constitute the real educational\nproblems. The second is the development of a new survey technic which\nspends time, uses energy, consumes money, and directs attention toward\neducating the community in the problems and tasks of their educational\nsystem, as well as in discovering and formulating the conditions themselves.\n\n"}
{"page": 1013, "printed_page": "1001", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nTHIRTIETH\n\nMAN\n\nlOOI\n\nThis is the process of making the schools and the public pay attention\nto each other. It is the process of bridging the gap between knowing\nand doing.\nIt is the method of carrying the community.\nThese newer developments in educational surveying are strange and\nnovel now, but next year or the year after that they will be familiar and\neven commonplace. They will soon be a part of the modern scientific\nmethod in education which was only emerging from theory and experiment\na scant ten years ago but which is profoundly reshaping our educational\nsystems today. Thus progress plods along from paradox to platitude.\n\nTHE THIRTIETH\nJOHN\n\nH.\n\nFINLEY,\n\nPRESIDENT,\n\nUNIVERSITY\nOF\nALBANY,\nN.Y.\n\nMAN\nTHE\n\nSTATE\n\nOF\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\n[After contrasting the unorganized public life of the frontier democracy\nof forty years ago on the prairies of Illinois, as he remembered it, with the\npresent public life of our great commonwealths. President Finley gave a\ndescription of a little one-room schoolhouse where he had gone to school.\nHe said in part:]\nThe schoolmaster was the only paid representative of the community,\nof society, of the state, within my horizon, for there was no postmaster,\nno policeman, no constable, no rural free delivery, and, so far as I know, no\nassessor, supervisor, or overseer of the poor.\nThe pupils were of little public concern, quite in contrast to the immigrant child coming to this democracy. They are guarded by many anxious\nordinances and laws, in which pubUc provision is made that his eyes shall\nbe properly opened; that he shall have a certain cubic Rootage of air space;\nthat contagious diseases shall be kept out of his path. They sterihze his\nmilk; filter his water; forbid his taking old-fashioned cough medicines\nor soothing syrups prepared by secret formulae; remove his adenoids and\ntonsils; vaccinate him; tell him how to avoid tuberculosis and to correct\nhis astigmatism or strabismus. They follow him with antitoxin and disinfectants; label poisons and put them out of his easy reach; label education and compel him to literacy ; police his ways; take him in an ambulance\nto a public hospital, if he is injured, and try to preserve the spark of life\nin him as long as possible before his name is added to the mortality column.\nForty years after this early experience with the crudities of pioneer\nadministration, I made an estimate of the number of persons giving service\nto the state, either directly or thru some municipality. As nearly as I\ncould determine then, one person in every thirty adults, at any rate in the\nmost thickly settled communities, was a public servant. .\nI then said that since the activity of the state was increasing (in that\nvery year 104 new boards and commissions had been voted in the various\n\n"}
{"page": 1014, "printed_page": "1002", "text": "I002\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\nstates), it would not be long before society found i in 30 too few. I\nhave just had a new estimate made, and I find that for the state of New York\nthe ratio even now is perhaps i in 28; it may be even i in 27 or 25.\nThink who this thirtieth man is. He sweeps the streets of the city and\nstarts the fires in the schoolhouse. He is pontifex of the country roads. He\nlights the lamps when the great lamp of heaven goes out, and extinguishes\nthe fires of the earth. With one hand he gathers our letters, and with the\nother he distributes them in the remotest cabins on the mountains. He\nweighs the wind, reads the portents of the clouds, gives augury of the heat\nand cold. He makes wells in the valleys among the hills, he fills the pook\nwith water, and carries it from those distant hills to the city. He tastes\nthe milk before a city child may drink it; he tests and labels the food in\nthe stores and shops; he corrects false balances and short measures. He\nkeeps watch over forest and stream; gives warning of rocks and shoals to\nmen at sea, and of plague and poison to those on land. He is warden of\nfish and bird and wild beast; he is host to the homeless and slielterless;\nhe is guardian and nurse to the child who comes friendless into the world\nand chaplain at the burial of the man who goes friendless out of it. He is\nassessor and collector of taxes — treasurer and comptroller; he is the teacher\nof seventeen million children, youths, men, and women; he is public\nlibrarian and maker of books, for the blind even; overseer of the poor, and\nsupervisor; superintendent, doctor, nurse, and guard in hospital, prison,\nand almshouse; coroner, and keeper of the potter's field. He is mayor,\njudge, public prosecutor, and sheriff. He is a soldier in the army and a\nsailor in the navy, general and admiral, legislator, justice, member of the\ncabinet, governor, and president.\nIn addition to this he is a member of numberless public commissions\nand boards, paid and unpaid, industrial and educational, scientific, philanthropic, administrative, with functions ranging all the way from the\ninspection of terrapin in one state and scythe stones in another state, to the\nregency of a state university.\nI have thought that if one who saw the real significance of the list of\nthese thirtieth men could express it, he would find in this list more vital\nstuff than that out of which the classics of literature have been written — a\npoem of men fighting fires in the forests and in the tenements; of men and\nwomen fighting pathogenic bacteria in the air, earth, and water; of men\nfighting flood and drought; of men and women fighting ignorance and sloth\nand passion in thousands of schoolrooms; of millions of public servants\nfighting uncleanHness, and corruption, and disease, and waste, with broom\nand statistics, with lens and meter and test tube and scalpel, and honest\nand expert eyes and clean and skilful hands.\nWho should not be proud to be a public servant!\nThe New York Sun a few months ago credited me with a contribution to\nfolk-lore in the creation of a mythical character, \"the happy taxpayer.\"\n\n"}
{"page": 1015, "printed_page": "1003", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nTHIRTIETH\n\nMAN\n\n'\n\nIOO3\n\nThe intimation of the editor was that three conditions were necessary\nto give this imagined person an almost real existence: that the taxes should\nbe equal; that they should be economically spent for the public good; and,\nabove all, that they should be low.\nI agree as to the first two incarnating quahties, but I think that the\nthird is not essential to the transmutation; for the three words potent to\ntransform the demi-sprite into a happy human citizen are equality^ economy ,\nand exaltation or glorification.\nIf we could but see our taxes touching with a healing hand the sick, or\nthe eyes of the blind, or the ears of the deaf, or touching with illuminating\nhope those who sit in despair, if we could but see taxes transforming,\nprotecting, teaching, carrying the community to a service greater than all\nwho pay them could give if they labored individually, we should pay\ntaxes as gladly as we give and labor and sufiEer for those who are\ndearest to us.\nThere are soldiers who are happy in exposing their lives for a country;\nthere are men who are happy in offering their hard-earned fortune for a\ncause; there are fathers who are happy in their self-denial for the sake of\na son's education; there are mothers who are happy in the very suffering\nthat makes other life possible. And there are citizens even now living in\nNew York (not alone in my imagination) who are happy in paying taxes\nfor a common good higher than their own.\nThe first book which I had a part in writing was a treatise on taxation.\nI should like to prepare another book on the same subject now. I should\nhave, of course, to devote chapters to the incidence, to the equalization,\nto the economic expenditure of taxes. But I should make the culminating\nchapter one on the \"hallowing\" of taxes, on ''How to Make People Happy\nin Paying Taxes.\"\nI would show, for example, how the public tax had been converted\ninto the training of a New York East Side boy, named Goethals, who would\nsome day dig the Panama Canal. I would show how taxes had been transmuted into the skill of a certain doctor who had saved thousands of lives,\nand of a brother who had organized the weather bureau. I would show\nhow taxes had taken an Italian boy, trained him, and then sent him to Cuba\nto expose his life in discovering how the yellow-fever germ is carried.\nSo I propose, wherever I go, the organization of local societies of \"The\nHappy Taxpayers,\" with the motto \"Equality, Economy, and Exaltation,\"\nand for working capital this purpose: millions for making the people of the\nstate happier, better, but not one dollar for avoidable incompetence or sloth\nor dishonesty in public service.\nAnd what we are spending for education is a pittance by the side of\nwhat we are spending for war. The people of Europe are spending each\nweek for war more than we spend in a year for education. And shall we\nsay that any sacrifice less than that which they are yonder making for their\n\n"}
{"page": 1016, "printed_page": "1004", "text": "1004\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\ncountry is too much for us to make for our children — since the children of\ntoday are tomorrow's state? What we do for their right training we do\nfor their defense.\nDEFINITENESS\nA. DUNCAN\n\nAND\n\nCOMPULSION\n\nIN EDUCATLON\n\nYOCUM, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH\nUNIVERSITY\nOF PENNSYLVANIA,\nPHILADELPHIA,\n\nAND\nPA.\n\nPRACTICE,\n\nSomewhere or other in his career, every radical, from some point of\nview or other, becomes a conservative. Sometimes it is because his propaganda has been well established and in turn is being attacked; more rarely\nit is because he comes to realize that even his most cherished aims are in\ndanger of being carried too far. Anyone who happens to be famiHar with\nmy own viewpoint knows that I believe in an education for efficiency in\nwhich practical preparation for everyday life plays a conspicuous part.\nBut as I have listened to recent discussions, I am beginning to believe that\nwe still need, tho in a new sense, the old watchword of W. T. Harris: \" Does\nit train the mind ?\" The recent tributes to his memory in the Journal of\nEducation have recalled for many of us his persistent attempt to exclude\nmanual training and physical culture from the public school, because he\nwas so long unconvinced that they developed the intellect, and his eager\nwelcome of the kindergarten when he became convinced that it did. My\nonly reason for taking part in this program is an equally firm belief that\neven tho there are no mental faculties in the old sense of a memory or an\nintellect that can be trained into general usefulness, general mental training\nstill survives informs not only as truly practical as vocational guidance and as\nnatural as Montessorianism, but essential to the efficiency of ecu:h.\nIn the complete educational readjustment now under way, practical\neducation and adaptation to child nature are temporarily the chief factors,\nbecause they are substituting definite and immediate forms of usefulness,\nwhich the common citizen can see for himself, for the hocuspocus of an\nacademic training which pretended to transform a knowledge of participial\nadjectives, pons asinorum, and the pancreatic fluid, into good citizenship,\nbusiness efficiency, and healthful living. Every stage of public education\nis being socialized. It is not so surprising to see teachers of history, who\nhave been trained in sociology and economics, neglectful of material that\nis unrelated to modern affairs, but teachers of Latin are busying themselves\nin listing the uses to which Latin can be put in everyday life, while even the\nInternational Commission on the Teaching of Mathematics justifies the\nteaching of geometry to the ordinary student on the ground that it is essential to the making of tesselated pavements and stained-glass windows. No\nwonder that one of the most distinguished among my own critics, fearful\nfor his literary ideals, protested that professors of pedagogy seemed to think\nthat *'The Ancient Mariner\" was written for no other purpose than the\n\n"}
{"page": 1017, "printed_page": "1005", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDEFINITENESS\n\nAND\n\nCOMPULSION\n\nIN EDUCATION\n\n1005\n\nteaching of kindness to animals. The recent advance of the kindergarten\nupon the first grade, and its consequent rescue from arrested development,\ntho partly due to the Montessorian popularizing of adaptation to child\nnature, is being made easier by the fact that the training of the primary\nschool is becoming practical and social.\nEven the genetic movement as a whole, seizing upon immediate practical usefulness as the only natural incentive to study, is for the time being\nlittle more than a phase of the panic toward the specific. Children are\nlearning to spell, not because they have been taught to love spelling, have\npride in their skill, or have formed the habit of noting the spelling of new\nwords, but in order to write a letter to the mayor or to make a list of manualtraining materials. Enough practical or specifically useful material must\nbe included in the course of study to teach adequately every essential phase\nof morality, health, industrial eflSciency, citizenship, social service, social\nintercourse, and individual leisure. But this is a very different thing from\nincluding every fact that is practical without regard to whether it is necessary\nto these essential ends, or excluding all other incentives and kinds of material,\nregardless of other forms of usefulness, and of relative educational values.\nIt is unnecessary that the just emphasis of the practical should blind\nthe eyes of teachers, parents, and pupils alike to the usefulness of the\ngeneral. If the new gospel of definiteness is rightly taught, the common\ncitizen and the ordinary teacher will perceive the usefulness of the general\nas readily as that of the specific. Its fundamental principle is not that\nevery fact or idea must have a specific or practical usefulness, but that it\nmust have a definite usefulness. Every fact that is taught need not immediately result in knowing a good cut of beef, or ability to qualify for a\nprimary election, but it must as definitely suggest some equally apparent\nform of usefulness. As compared with the general, the specifically useful\nhas the advantage of being self-apparent. It has to be definite and obvious.\nIt is useful or harmful in itself. If it is not definite, it is not specific. The\nrecent picture-play. The Birth of a Nation, for example, is certain to teach\nthe Ku Klux Clan so that it definitely suggests mob law and race prejudice,\nwhile under right instruction it can be made to teach even more certainly the\nnecessity for an impartial judiciary and just laws. It is some such definite\nassociation with life that makes it specific. If it is just listed in the school\ntextbook as a secret conspiracy against northern rule, it becomes an academic fact with no specific value whatever. Mere possibility of practical\nusefulness without the definite association which suggests it is not practical\nor specific. The discovery of coal in Pennsylvania is merely a bit of\nisolated information until it is definitely associated in the understanding\nand memory of the learner with the possibility of manufactures wherever\ncoal can be cheaply enough transported.\nWithout equal definiteness of suggestion for generally useful facts, their\npossible usefulness is highly improbable.\nBut if they ^re definitely\n\n"}
{"page": 1018, "printed_page": "1006", "text": "ioo6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nassociated with the two or three ideas that make them useful, the usefulness\nof generally useful facts can be made as probable and obvious as that of\nthe specific and immediately practical. My favorite illustration is the\nintroduction of the steamboat on the Ohio and Mississippi. It is put into\nthe textbook on account of its high degree of possible usefulness. But\nif it is merely listed in Madison's administration or under 1811, its usefulness is wholly a matter of chance. Associated with the opening of the\nMississippi to trade and settlement, it is useful only to the extent of arousing the mental satisfaction which always comes from associating an effect\nwith its cause. But if it is used definitely and certainly to associate lessened\ntime in transportation with increased trade and population, it not only\nexplains the opening of the West and the building of transcontinental\nrailroad lines, but the effect of every shortened commercial route from the\ndiscovery of new ways to the Indies to the opening of the Panama Canal.\nThis definiteness of suggested usefulness for what is generally useful\nis not self-apparent, as in the case of teaching the effect of poor ventilation\nor other specifically useful facts, but it can be made as apparent. And if\ngeneral usefulness is not made apparent enough for the common citizen\nand ordinary teacher to see it, it is unlikely that possibly useful facts will\never be generally useful to the pupils to whom they are taught. It is\njust as easy to teach the definite association which multiplies usefulness\nby making it general, as the specifically useful associations that must be\nadded one by one. Every teacher drills upon the meaning of circumference\nbecause it is practical. It is just as easy to drill upon the fact that circum\nmeans around in a great group of words — a suggestive association that\ndoes not result in good citizenship but that multiplies vocabulary.\nSurely no ordinary teacher would persist in having pupils waste time\nmemorizing lists of products for each country they study when she has\npointed out to her the fact that in infinitely less time they can permanently\nassociate with product in general such ideas as necessary natural conditions,\nlocalities, processes, uses, and markets, which with each new product will\nsugg^est a multitude of new ijjformation. In the one case the pupils vainly\ntry to remember a multitude of specifically useful details. In the other\nthey surely remember a few generally useful ideas that will suggest and help\nin retaining a thousand more.\nEven more apparent is the high relative value of generally useful\nhabits. The common citizen and the ordinary teacher see their superiority\nof usefulness without its being pointed out by illustrations. But if mathematics and the languages, long the sole means to general discipline, are to\nbe thrown on the scrap-heap; if industry, concentration, perseverance,\nobservation, inference, and cumulative reasoning are to be realized thru\npractical portions of all subjects, and if teachers of every branch are to be\nheld responsible for all generally useful discipline, what is everybody's\nbusiness is in grave danger of becoming nobody's business.\n\n"}
{"page": 1019, "printed_page": "1007", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDEFINITENESS\n\nAND\n\nCOMPULSION\n\nIN\n\nEDUCATION\n\n1007\n\nThe material within each branch best adapted to the teaching of each\nhabit must be specified and the formation of the general habit and the\nassociated conditions favorable to its transfer must become a conscious aim\nfor the teacher and a definite demand of supervisory authority. The\ndefinite associations favorable to the general application of every highly\nuseful idea and habit are as essential to efficiency as the fundamental\noperations to number.\nIf definiteness is thus essential to efficiency, it inexorably follows that\nthe compulsion possible only thru repetition in the sense of drill is equally\nessential. The Herbartian injunction continually to teach old facts in\nnew relationships defeats its own end if old facts are not also repeated in the\ndefinite association that makes them most useful. Even the general manysidedness sought by the fifth of the *' formal steps\" is retarded, if associations that just happen to come to teachers or pupils are added one by one,\nin place of multiplying associations a thousandfold by certainly memorizing\nthe few which will make the most general ideas definitely suggestive in the\ngreatest possible variety of ways. The type study is ineffective if the\nfew general associations that make it a type are not certainly memorized,\ntogether with the associations thru which their application and transfer\nare made probable.\nMore than this, no matter how general the multiplication of associations\nmay make the application of some practical fact, it will not remain practical ifit is not memorized and remembered in the associations that make\nit practical. Lincoln's birthday exercises may emotionalize the name of\nLincoln and multiply its associations and yet contribute only incidentally\nto religion or good citizenship, unless it has associated with it such practical\nideas as faith in divine providence and equality of human rights.\nI have come to believe that if we are about to enter upon a period of\nnational preparedness for defensive war, every heroic achievement of our\npatriotic past and every war in which our forefathers nobly fought must be\nso taught as definitely and surely to suggest not only the need for selfsacrifice and mighty deeds, but every resulting form of horror and misery,\nthru an emotional appeal that, in spite of military pageants and schoolboy\ndrills, will be strong enough to keep us, thruout all our future history as we\nare today, haters of conquest and lovers of peace.\nIt is not mere names and facts, but names and facts in the definite\nassociations on which their usefulness depends that should be emotionalized\nand made many-sided. And when they are found with high emotional\nusefulness for the learner in a particular period of development, thru their\nrecurrence in his experience or what they will transform for him into experience, they must be memorized and taught, no matter how unnatural they\nseem to be or how much more naturally they may be developed at some\nlater time. The analogy of education and growth has been carried too far.\nIt is only the brain that grows in the sense of developing what is already\n\n"}
{"page": 1020, "printed_page": "1008", "text": "iOo8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\nthere. The mind grows thru the definitely suggestive associations that are\nplanted in it. The mind of childhood is a kindergarten constituting in\nitself a favorable or unfavorable environment for the growth of ideas.\nEducation is as dependent upon the definite associations in which ideas\nare planted in the human mind as upon the racial inheritance, heredity,\nand individuality which they will find there to condition their growth.\nAnd after all is said and done, no racial tendency or individual idiosyncrasy\nis more natural than the human memory.\nThe most formidable obstacle to a movement having definiteness and\ncompulsion for its end is the fact that they are not as dramatic as they\nare obvious. If they could be given the popular appeal of industrial training or Montessorianism, they would contribute more than any other single\nfactor to hastening the day when education will be not only practical and\nnatural but efl&cient and controlling.\nAfter all, there is something dramatic in the definiteness that means\nmultiplying usefulness and raising it to the nth. power in place of adding\nuseful facts one by one; that compels each frequently recurring idea to\nsuggest its most useful associations; and that summons up for the generally\nuseful habit the geni of favorable conditions that can make it a wish come\ntrue for any field of experience and any realm of thought. If instruction\ncan put Aladdin's lamp within the learner's grasp, why should we scorn\nthe slavish drill that teaches him how to rub !\n\nMANNERS\nALICE M. CARMALT,\n\nAND\n\nMORALS-OUR\n\nPROBLEM\n\nASSISTANT PROFESSOR\nOF EDUCATION,\nPITTSBURGH, PITTSBURGH, PA.\n\nUNIVERSITY\n\nOF\n\nIn a regent address given by G. Stanley Hall at the University of Pittsburgh on \"The Great Philosophies of the World,\" he made use of the profoundly significant thought that neither philosophy nor civilization nor\neven religion itself has been able to avert this terrible calamity that is\ndevastating Europe today. Then he made an appeal to all educators\nthat we in America see to it that war does not appear in the eyes of our boys\nas a glorious and thrilling adventure, but that they should see it as it really\nis, in all its cost and horror.\nIn what way have our boys been trained to meet serious and ethical\nquestions that may and do arise every day, individually and nationally ?\nThis is a timely and significant thought for us all at this time, when a crisis\nseems approaching. George Eliot has said: *'To every man comes a\ncrisis when in a moment, without chance for reflection, he must decide\nand act instantly. What determines his decision? His whole past, the\ndaily choices between good and evil that he has made thruout his previous\nyears — these determine his decision.\" What training have we given our\n\n"}
{"page": 1021, "printed_page": "1009", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMANNERS\n\nAND\n\nMORALS— OUR\n\nPROBLEM\n\n1009\n\nboys and girls that they may be prepared for these momentous decisions ?\nAbout fifteen years ago, I was deeply impressed by a statement of a\nprominent lecturer that we are not training our boys and girls in manners\nand morals; that, as a consequence, our young men and women, as a\ngeneral rule, are neither well behaved nor moral in their reactions. I then\ndetermined that I would begin a careful study of the subject. I would\nselect boys and girls of middle teens, as at that period altruism blossoms.\nI would observe them in public places, when they were not under supervision and not on the playground, where some license is allowed. For\nfifteen years I have kept records and am being forced to certain conclusions.\nI am able to say that some of our youth are being trained to be considerate\nfor others and to base their decisions on the fundamental ethics of community life. By far the greater number, however, have shown a lack of\nboth manners and morals, ranging all the way from thoughtlessness to\npositive rudeness and heartlessness. Some actions were so significant as\nto be startling.\nThree lads of about eighteen, apparently from good homes, entered the\nstreet cars and sat near me. They began to discuss in audible tones their\nrecent experiences in wage-earning, chuckling gleefully over the opportunities they had found and improved to pad their expense list, publicly\nproclaiming themselves swindlers, and they did not know it. The alarming\nthing about it to me was that boys of their apparent opportunities should\nnot have been trained in the fundamental ethics of business relations.\nThere is, also, a lack of chivalry toward the weak, the old, and the helpless. The three great influences in our children's lives — the home, the\nchurch, and the school — have failed to make that lasting impression to\nwhich they have a right. In almost every instance that I have tabulated,\nthe offenders did not realize that they were violating any rules of conduct.\nThey had not been trained in the fundamental principles of right living nor\nthe daily application of the Golden Rule.\nI also observed and made records concerning the behavior and apparent\nstandards of our young men and women, for the boys and girls of yesterday are the young men and women of tomorrow. The conclusion is forced\nin upon me that among reputable young people today there are two classes :\nthose who act upon principles carefully thought out beforehand, and those\nwho act upon impulse, deciding questions that may arise largely upon the\nbasis of preference for one course rather than another.\nAn experience, some years ago, illustrates the former class. A fellowteacher and I were taking a short trip together and, busily engaged in conversation, wedid not notice that the conductor had not taken up our tickets.\nI asked my friend what she should do about it, and she said; glancing around:\n*1 suppose they have receptacles for rubbish.\" She tore up her ticket and\nlater dropped the pieces into a wastebasket. Curious to learn her reactions, Iasked her what a ticket meant to her. She thought a moment\n\n"}
{"page": 1022, "printed_page": "1010", "text": "loio\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nand then said slowly and thoughtfully: \"I suppose it is a sort of receipt;\nI enter into an agreement with a railroad company that for a sum of money\nit shall carry me a certain distance, and it gives me the ticket so I can show\nit to the conductor in case he challenges my right to ride. I have ridden\nunchallenged so the ticket has no further value.\" I have asked many\npersons since then what they would have done under such circumstances\nand they have replied: ''.Do ? I would have ridden it out the next chance\nI had. What do you suppose I care for the railroad company!\" She\ndidn't care anything for the railroad company, but she did care for herself\nand her own standards and she could not violate them for even an extra\nticket.\nThis incident and many others have impressed me with the truth that\nthere are two ends to any moral act — the one, affecting the external world,\nis the objective end; the other, affecting the person himself, is fastened to\nhis own moral nature and is subjective. It is vitally necessary that each\none of us shall every day live up to our own standards, recognizing what they\nare, and thereby growing to higher and nobler possibilities.\nThe problem of training our boys and girls aright is a complex one\naltogether too big for any single or simple treatment. The necessity for\ncharatrter as the supreme product of our schools has been recognized by\nevery speaker that I have heard from this platform this week. The world\nof business and the professional world alike need standards and the encouraging side of the present situation is that the standards are already in the\nprocess of formation. The profession of medicine has so sharply defined\nwhat a physician may and may not do that it is easy to separate the reputable physicians from the quacks. The legal-aid societies are for the safeguarding ofthe legal profession. Even the standards of university men\nare deservedly high, worked out by the upperclassmen themselves.\nBut how about the teaching profession? Is it easy to separate our\nreal teachers from our false ? Do we make our standards so clear that those\nin training for the most responsible of the professions know definitely\njust what they may and may not do ?\nThe first and immediate step to be taken is clear. We must become\nconscious of our standards. How can we make that deep impression on\nour boys and girls for which we hope and pray, if we have not definitely in\nmind the end for which we are working? The country is full of noble\nactions, unselfish deeds, and characters that would be a model for our\nyouth if only they understood them and could consciously make use of\nthem.\nIn the light of this thought, it is significant to note the nation-wide\nmovement to be explained to us later — a movement already undertaken\nto find out what are the standards of our best people. But need we wait\na year to find out their conclusions ? We can begin at once. The supervisors here in this hall should begin immediately to arouse the teachers\n\n"}
{"page": 1023, "printed_page": "1011", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMANNERS\n\nAND\n\nMORALS— OUR\n\nPROBLEM\n\nlOII\n\nunder their supervision to debate and discussion and to try to work\ndefinitely toward a solution.\nThe world, old and young, thrills to noble deeds and at the statement of\nfundamentals of virtue and unselfish service for others. On the sixth\nof last September, in the Court of the Universe, at the San Francisco\nExposition, a vast crowd had gathered to do honor to Goethals, the builder\nof the Panama Canal. The chairman of the day, in introducing the guest\nof honor, made a statement that aroused great enthusiasm in the audience.\nHe said that while all admitted the greatness of the achievement in building\nthe Canal, there is an even greater service that Goethals has done for the\ncountry in his action in refusing an honorarium from the United States as\na reward for his services on the Canal. Goethals gave as his reason for\nrefusing that he had been called upon by his country to serve her; he had\nresponded and had done his best; he had but done his duty as thousands\nof others are doing every day; he had been generously rewarded as to salary,\nand the incident was closed. A prolonged and enthusiastic response from\nall that immense crowd showed how ready we are to recognize the fundamental right thought when once it is voiced before us.\nToday, the words duty and honor are more rarely heard than when\nthe gentleman and gentlewoman of the old school were among us. They\nshould be household words. We should not ask that life be made easy\nfor our children but that the children be made strong to meet it.\nDr. Storrs, late of Brooklyn, who was settled for sixty years over one\nparish, preached wonderful sermons, and one that I had the great good\nfortune to hear made a deep impression on me. He was speaking of the\nchurch militant and he closed with these thoughts: Every nation has had\nits own mission to fulfil: the Hebrew nation, thru all the dark ages, kept\nalive the idea of the one God — the Hebrews had a genius for religion; the\nRoman nation worked out a system of laws and government, and under\nits protection the wonderful Spirit was born of the old Jewish race that was\nto give to Mosaic law a spiritual interpretation; the Grecian nation developed alanguage of such beauty that it could be used to record the history\nof that wonderful life; the teachings of that great Spirit finally inspired a\nsmall band of religionists to leave home and friends to seek a far-off land,\nwhere the greatest extent of fertile soil and temperate climate on the whole\nearth were awaiting them, where they were to help build the mightiest nation\nof all, because here was to be a nation that was to have for its fundamental\npurpose to make men.\nIt is in this nation that our work is to be done. Our work then is to\nmake men and women, and character-building is the fundamental, the\nall-important part of this work.\n\n"}
{"page": 1024, "printed_page": "1012", "text": "IOI2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nSCOUTING\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nAS AN EDUCATIONAL\n\nJAMES E. WEST, CHIEF SCOUT EXECUTIVE, BOY\nNEW YORK, N.Y.\n\n[Detroit\n\nASSET\n\nSCOUTS\n\nOF AMERICA,\n\nI am here today on behalf of the Boy Scouts of America — 182,622 men\nand boys — 143,782 boys under instruction as tenderfoot, second-class,\nand first-class scouts, and 38,840 carefully selected clean men of strong\ncharacter giving leadership without compensation, as members of local\ncouncils, troop committees, and scout commissioners, scoutmasters, or\nassistant scoutmasters — to ask you as representative educators of our\ncountry to accept the program of scouting as an educational asset.\nNot only do we desire your attention to what can be said in support\nof the claims that scouting is an educational asset, so that it may fully\njustify a place in your program, but we earnestly hope that the possibilities\nof this movement as an asset in the work to which you have committed\nyour lives will be made so clear that each of you here will become personally\ninterested in the proper development of the movement, so that, thru the\nresources which you command, it may become more largely available to\nthe boys of our country.\nI hope that I shall not give offense by claiming that the inadequacy of\nour public-school system to meet the full needs of the growing boy makes\nnecessary the boy-scout scheme or something similar to cope with presentday conditions. The school is handicapped by its traditions and by its\nlimited opportunity for control and influence in the life of the average\nboy. Even under favorable conditions, the school provides leadership\nfor only about one thousand of the five thousand hours a year a boy\nhas for activity. It is seldom that the school exerts such a hold on the\nboy as to furnish him with a motive or anything like a program for his\nactivities after he is released from the schoolroom for the day, or for his\nvacation period.\nThe complex conditions of present-day civilization add to the problem.\nUnfortunately the home and the church also fail to provide adequate\nleadership or a definite program for the time of the boy outside of the schoolroom. Modern invention and improved living facilities decrease the\ndemand upon the time of the boy for chores about the home. Generally\nspeaking, the boy has no opportunity to choose how he will spend his leisure\ntime. This is largely a matter of chance, governed by environment. With\nthe coming and going of the various seasons, his interest passes without\ndefinite program or any direction in the games and activities of the boys\nin his neighborhood.\nToo often the value of the schoolroom instruction and discipline is\nseriously affected by reason of the undirected activity of the boy outside\nof the school. The results of these conditions are shown in the continuance\nof the necessity for the state and municipality to provide increasing sums\n\n"}
{"page": 1025, "printed_page": "1013", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSCOUTING\n\nAS AN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSET\n\n1013\n\neach year for police supervision and for institutions to deal with inefficient\ncitizenship.\nBecause of a lack of education in character, too many of our boys and\nyoung men show an absence of self-discipline by indifference to a higher\nconscience.\nAnother element which contributes to the unsatisfactory results of our\npublic-school system is the fact that the program and method within the\nschool itself fails to give the boy early enough in life a chance to discover\nthe things he is by temperament and native ability best fitted to do — in\nother words, a chance to discover himself.\nIn the city of New York, of the forty thousand boys and girls who have\nnot passed beyond the grammar school, and yet receive their working papers\neach year, but a very small percentage even attempt to seek their first\nemployment because of any particular desire to foUow a given line of work,\nor because of any special training or ability to do any one thing efficiently.\nThe great proportion are willing to accept any opportunity for earning a\nfair wage. A small proportion of these are ambitious enough to accept\nthe opportunity of the night high schools to fit themselves along special\nlines, but the great proportion engage in blind-alley occupations and too\nmany become mere drifters and thus add to the burden of the community.\nIndeed, it was the definite evidence of the inadequacy of public-school\ninstruction in England that led Robert S. S. Baden-Powell to develop plans\nfor the training of the young men who were sent to him from the large\ncities of England, and finally led to the development of the boy-scout\nscheme. As he has expressed it, the great proportion of these young men\nwho were sent to him for service in South Africa as recruits were so dependent upon the conveniences of modern civilization that they virtually\nexpected to be tucked in at night. They lacked discipline, resourcefulness,\ninitiative, as well as practical knowledge of how to care for themselves.\nUnfortunately, as all who are familiar with the facts know, a somewhat\nsimilar condition was found among the young men who were enlisted for\nservice in the Spanish-American War. The lack of practical knowledge\non the part of the enlisted men, as well as the lack of leadership, has cost\nthis country very dearly.\nIn order to meet the condition as he found it, Baden-Powell, instead\nof giving the ordinary military training to the group of recruits, worked out\nplans for giving them what he called \"stunts in scouting.\" Men were sent\noff in small groups and compelled to shift for themselves in the woods and\nforests. Every effort was made to give these young men experiences similar\nto those which were common to the young man living in the rural communities.\nUpon returning to England, Baden-Powell was surprised to find that\nthe principles involved in his plans for dealing with men had been appHed\nin boys' schools.\n\nEventually he responded to the many invitations pressed\n\n"}
{"page": 1026, "printed_page": "1014", "text": "IOI4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[DetroJt\n\nupon him and set himself to the task of working out a program for boys.\nAs a result we have the wonderful movement known thruout the civiUzed\nworld as the scouting program.\nBaden-Powell insists that he should not be given credit for what it\ninvolves, because, as he says, he helped himself freely to all that was available, in this and other countries, in the way of programs of work with boys.\nNotwithstanding what he has to say, however, it is a fact that the plan\nof organization and psychology involved in the scouting program was distinctly new. Particularly is this so with reference to the idea of service\nwhich is a cardinal principle in the scouting program.\nThe appeal to the boy's imagination thru the word \"scout,\" the recognition of the principle of self-government, and the placing of a boy on his\nhonor, have all been very effective. Likewise the total absence of the use\nof the word \"don't\" or anything of a negative character has been effectively\ncared for by placing emphasis upon \"do.\"\nAs a scout, the boy willingly adopts as real and vital the universally\naccepted principles of life as set forth in the scout oath and law. This\neffectively influences the boy's nature and character so as better to prepare\nhim for that work which the church can best do.\nA scout promises upon his honor to do his duty to God and to his country, to obey the scout law, to help other people at all times, and to keep\nhimself physically strong, mentally awake, and morally straight.\nThe scout law, covering twelve fundamental principles of life, requires\na scout first of all to be trustworthy. That means he must not tell a lie,\ncheat, or deceive, but must keep every trust sacred. A scout is loyal to all\nto whom loyalty is due, including his scout leader, his home, his parents,\nand his country. A scout is helpful, that is, he is prepared, thru the special\nprogram of scouting activities, to save life, help injured persons, and to\ndo at least one worthwhile good turn daily. A scout is friendly to all,\na brother to every other scout. A scout is courteous, especially to women,\nchildren, and old people, and he must not take any pay for his acts of\ncourtesy or kindness. A scout is kind to animals and will not kill nor hurt\nany living creature needlessly. A scout is obedient; a scout is cheerful\neven when facing hardship and drudgery. A scout is thrifty; he not only\nrecognizes his obligation to pay his own way, but realizes his duty to help\ncarry the burden of worthy causes, and the needs of his country. A scout\nis brave and does what he knows is right in spite of jeers and threats. A\nscout is clean in body and thought, stands for clean speech, clean sport,\nclean habits, and travels with a clean crowd. Finally, a scout is reverent\ntoward God; not only is he faithful in his own religious duties, but he\nrespects the convictions of others in matters of custom and religion.\nEvery step in the scouting program is for character development and\ngood citizenship. The variety and interest, as well as the practical knowledge insured by the tenderfoot, second-class, first-class, and various merit\n\n"}
{"page": 1027, "printed_page": "1015", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSCOUTING\n\nAS AN\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nASSET\n\n1015\n\nbadge tests, are, after all, but a means for holding the interest of the boy,\npledged to the scout oath and law, under such leadership as will bring about\ncharacter development. The form of troop organization, the scoutmaster\nand his assistants, the local council, and, indeed, the National Council and\nall its officers, are but a means to this end. This character development\nmanifests itself in health, efficiency, chivalry, loyalty, patriotism, good\ncitizenship, and joyous living. Time will not permit a detailed description\nof the plan of organization and methods of procedure, but in order that\nall interested may be accurately informed we are placing in your hands\nwith our compliments a copy of the official Handbook giving all of this\ninformation.\nWe want you to look upon the boy-scout idea as a movement rather\nthan an organization, and to realize that we are merely seeking to supplement existing agencies for the education of the boy. The scout movement\nmak^s available a carefully selected leadership for the boy's leisure time\nand endeavors to supply the required environment and ambitions thru\ngames and out-door activities which lead a boy to become a better man and\nworthwhile citizen.\nWe want to help boys on leaving school to escape the evils of blindalley occupations — that is, such work as gives the boy a mere wage for the\nmoment, but leaves him stranded without any trade or handicraft to pursue\nwhen he is a man and so sends him as a recruit to the great army of unemployed, and what is often worse, the unemployable. Doing is learning,\nand when a scout in the formative stage of his life has this lesson thoroly\nimpressed upon his mind, he has learned to be resourceful. The simple\nself-help experience which a scout receives in his impressionable years\nprepares him to meet emergencies covering the entire range of experience\nwhich may develop later in his life.\nPlease keep it clear in mind that the scout movement is not seeking to\ndisplace established educational agencies, nor does it undervalue the absolute necessity of schoolroom instruction for all boys just as long as\npracticable.\nScoutcraf t includes instruction in first aid, life-saving, tracking, signaling, cycling, nature-study, seamanship, campcraft, woodcraft, chivalry,\nand all of the handicrafts.\nIn scouting the boy does not stand still. The opportunity and incentive for progress are always at hand. He first becomes a tenderfoot, then\na second-class scout, and then a first-class scout. After this the whole\nsphere of the scout program is made available by the boy's own application\nto qualify himself to pass tests for the various merit badges which cover\na wide range of practical and interesting subjects.\nWe find that a boy takes up a hobby with the same zest with which he\nplays tennis or football, and that this hobby under proper leadership may\nlead him to the realization of the thing he is best fitted to do as a life-work.\n\n"}
{"page": 1028, "printed_page": "1016", "text": "ioi6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nIn other words, we transfer the efforts of the boy from idle plays or harmful\nmischief to vital achievements.\nAs an organization, the boy-scout movement is not military in thought,\nform, or spirit, altho it does instil in boys the military virtues, such as honor,\nloyalty, obedience, and patriotism. It also gives boys a practical knowledge\nof the principles of hygiene, sanitation, and actual camping experience and\nphysical training. The uniform, the patrol, the troop, and the limited drills\nare not for military purposes, they are for unity, harmony, and rhythm of\nspirit that help in dealing and doing things together as scouts, that boys\nmay absorb the force and truth of the scout law which states that a scout\nis a friend of all and a brother of every other scout.\nScouting presents greater opportunities for the development of the boy\nreligiously than do other movements instituted solely for boys. Its aim\nto develop the boy physically, mentally, and morally is being realized very\nwidely.\nThe movement has been developed on such broad lines as to embrace\nall classes, all creeds, and at the same time to allow the greatest independence\nto individual organizations, officers, and boys.\nThe Boy Scouts of America maintain that no boy can grow into the\nbest kind of a citizen without recognizing his obligation to God. The\nrecognition of God as the ruling and leading power of the universe and\nthe grateful acknowledgment of his favors and blessings are necessary to\nthe best type of citizenship, and are a wholesome thing in the education of a\ngrowing boy. No matter what the boy may be — Catholic or Protestant or\nJew — this fundamental need of good citizenship should be kept before him.\nThe Boy Scouts of America, as an organized body, therefore, recognizes\nthe religious element in the training of the boy, but is absolutely nonsectarian in its attitude toward that religious training. Its policy is that\nthe religious organization or institution with which the scout troop or the\nindividual scout is associated should give definite attention to the boy's\nreligious life.\nIn thus making available to boys of all classes a common meetingground where they may play and compete and learn to know that the other\nfellow is not much different from themselves, the boy-scout movement is\nperforming a distinctive and important patriotic service, and again the\nobservance of the scout law, and the tremendous cumulative value of the\nrequired daily good turn, and the creation of better feeling among millions\nof scouts in our own and other lands, constitute a latent but powerful and\nrapidly growing factor for universal good will and the brotherhood of man.\nThe Boy Scouts of America has just celebrated its sixth anniversary. It\nhas troops organized in all parts of the country and in all of our possessions.\nDuring the past year there was an increase of 46 per cent in the enrolment.\nIn every community the best type of citizenship is represented in the leadership provided. Especially is this true where there is a chartered local coun-\n\n"}
{"page": 1029, "printed_page": "1017", "text": "Superintendence! SCOUTING\n\nAS AN EDUCATIONAL\n\nASSET\n\nIOI7\n\ncil. In such cases the responsibility for the selection of the leaders of groups\nof boys is delegated to the local authorities. Two-thirds of our troops,\nhowever, are working in communities where local councils have not yet\nbeen organized. In these cases the responsibility for certifying to the\nleadership of a group of boys is a difficult problem. It gives me great\npleasure on this occasion to testify to the practical service which has been\ngiven by school superintendents in our efforts to handle this problem. It is\nour invariable rule, wherever an application for a commission is presented\nwithout the recommendation of men who, because of the positions they hold\nin the community, command recognition, for us to call imutnediately upon\nthe school superintendent for co-operation. We usually ask if the superintendent would be willing to intrust his own boy to the leadership of the\nman who seeks the commission. ^ Ordinarily this brings about the proper\ninvestigation and a report which gives us a basis for action.\nA recent study of the qualifications of 7,067 men who hold commissions\nas scout-masters shows that about 65 per cent of them are college men\nand that over 80 per cent have either a high-school or a college education;\n1,655 give their occupation as clergymen, and 790 as public-school teachers;\nothers are professional men, journalists, students, and men engaged in\nmechanical or mercantile pursuits. In practically every one of the 350\nchartered councils, the public schools are definitely represented thru the\nservice of the school superintendent on the executive board and in many\ncases the school superintendent serves as president of the council.\nThe value of the scout movement as an educational asset has been\nrecognized by a number of our large universities by the definite encouragement given in developing leadership. Scout courses have been organized\nin the summer schools in the University of Wisconsin, University of California, University of Virginia, University of Texas, Teachers College of\nColumbia University, and at numerous other places.\nIt is with great pleasure that I can, by special permission, quote from\nJames E. Russell, Dean of Teachers College of Columbia University, as\nto scouting as an educational asset. He says:\nI regard the scout movement as one of the most valuable educational agencies of this\ngeneration. One lesson of the present European war is that American boys must be\ntrained in patriotism and in those homely virtues which would make for civic order and\nsocial stability. For this purpose I know of no means so effective as those employed\nby the boy scouts. I hope to see the time when every American schoolboy will look\nforward to becoming a good scout and will be trained to incorporate the ideas of the boy\nscout into his life as an American citizen.\nIt is practically impossible to do much in the way of military training with boys\nunder eighteen years of age. It must be taken seriously and its inclusion in the courses\nof our public schools should not be considered. Even Germany does not pretend to give\nmilitary training to boys, but sets aside several years after school life to this man's work\nThen it is taken seriously, and results in making trained soldiers. The most that can\nbe hoped for in this country is a preparatory training for boys which should include\ncharacteristics of the later life-work and give some idea of a live interest in the process\n\n"}
{"page": 1030, "printed_page": "1018", "text": "ioi8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\nof their later vocation. There must be a substitute and in my opinion it is before us now.\nThis substitute is the boy-scout movement.\nThe movement is distinctly non-military, but it should appeal as much to the most\nardent mihtarist as to the non-militarist. It is non-military in the same sense that\nmanual training is non-vocational or non-professional, but it is preparatory to good\ncitizenship and everyday service. It furnishes physical training to the boy and accustoms\nhim to outdoor life and camping. It gives him a purpose that is suited to his age and\nappeals to his boyish traits. It utilizes to good advantage the gang spirit. It is remarkably appealing in teaching him keen work and instils in him high ideals. This, in a sense,\nis more than military training ever can do, in that it develops character, initiative, and\nintelligence.\nGive me one million boy scouts grown into manhood and I will fear neither foreign\ndomination nor internal social disorder. But we ought to have more than one million\nto fall back upon. We ought to have five miUions of boy scouts in this country.\nThis entire movement should receive the support of the schools thruout the country.\n\nProfessor Roberts, of the Kansas State Agricultural College, in an article\non school science, gives another point of view. He says :\nThere is just one solitary place where your boy and mine can get this real kind of\nfimdamental training which teaches him how to be a man, how to take care of himself\nand others in emergencies, and that, as you know, is absolutely not in the public schools\nat all. It is in the organization of the boy scouts:\nContrast the methods of the scouts, for example, to the methods of the school. One\nis dynamic and the other is static. One develops to the maximum, encourages, indeed\nforces initiative; the other glorifies mihtary subservience to routine. The one not merely\nasks but demands originality and resourcefulness. The other requires imiformity at\nall costs and exalts above individual expression the ideal of discipline and order. The\none forces the boy to hammer himself into something individual; the other hammers the\nindividuality out of the boy.\n\nT. C. Hassell, principal of the Fair Park School, says:\nThe school cannot utilize all the energies of the boy. This splendid movement comes\nto our aid. The troublesome element is smaller since the scouts were organized. It\ntends to raise a higher standard among boys. Their personal appearance is better.\nCigarette smoking is on the wane, because of the example of the boy scouts.\n\nIn a letter just received from Robert S. S. Baden-Powell, permit me\nto quote the following:\nIt may be some encouragement to these gentlemen to know that our educationalists\nover here are now recognizing that our principle of encouraging active doing on the part\nof the individual instead of passive reception of ideas by the mass is practical education,\nas opposed to theoretical instruction, and they are therefore taking a close and sympathetic\ninterest in it.\nMoreover, the value of our system is now proved by results and not merely by theory .\nThe war has put the movement and its methods to the highest possible test; it has proved\nthe inherent vitality of the organization; it has shown that boys so prepared can respond\nto a sense of responsibility and duty at a time of national crisis to an extent never before\nrealized— which is patriotism far above ecstatic flag-waving; and in the by-product of\nsoldier-making the foundation of character given by the scout training is foimd to be as\nvaluable as it is in the making of citizens in other lines of life, whether civic, commercial,\nintellectual, or industrial. Indeed, in this aspect it offers visions of being able to meet\nin some degree the difficult question which just now is agitating America, namely, that of\npreparing for defense without the imposition of militarism.\n\n"}
{"page": 1031, "printed_page": "1019", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nNATIONAL\n\nMORALITY\n\nCODES\n\nCOMPETITION\n\n1019\n\nAll of us realize that the opinions of men are changing and that this is\na critical time in the history of our country. It is the responsibility distinctively ofthis group of people as well as all of us engaged in work with boys\nto keep calm and to help in securing deliberate consideration as to the\nadvisability of any of the many changes which are daily proposed affecting\nour national life and the education of the youth of our country. Those\nof us who are supporting the boy-scout movement firmly believe, as stated\nby Dr. Russell, that in the boy-scout movement can be found a program\nadequate to meet the needs of the growing boy in preparing him for the\nresponsibilities of citizenship. Certainly we are making a distinctive contribution topreparedness by instilling in boys a proper conception of their\nresponsibility to their country and by the development of the ideas of\nservice. In so far as the scheme of scouting can be utilized in part or in\nwhole by schools or other agencies working with boys, it is available simply\nfor the asking, independent of the definite affiliations of the group of boys\nwith the Boy Scouts of America. We ask, however, that no attempt be\nmade to call them boy scouts, or have them use the official uniform and\nbadges, unless they comply absolutely with the official regulations and\nmeet the prescribed standards. We hope that the schools of our country\nwill definitely accept scouting as an educational asset and will co-operate in\nthe organization of troops locally and in guiding the movement nationally,\nso that, to a larger extent than ever before, the future of our nation may be\nbenefited by the development of boys, not merely in scholastic training\nbut in character and social eflSciency. This is true education!\n\nTHE NATIONAL\n\nMORALITY\n\nCODES\n\nMILTON FAIRCHILD, CHAIRMAN, EXECUTIVE\nINSTITUTION FOR MORAL INSTRUCTION,\n\nCOMPETITION\nCOMMITTEE, NATIONAL\nWASHINGTON, D.C.\n\nA business man of large experience in general affairs has come to the\nconclusion, on his own initiative and as the result of thoro study, that the\nfundamental need of the nation is the moral or character education of\nchildren and youth. He has offered a prize of $5,000, the largest prize\never offered in an educational competition, for the best of seventy morality\ncodes, written by selected competitors, each of whom shall endeavor to\ninterpret intelligent public opinion as to what moral or character ideas\nought to be inculcated in American children and youth by the nation's\nschools and homes. The conduct of the national morality codes competition\nis in the hands of the Executive Committee of the National Institution\nfor Moral Instruction, Washington, D.C. One year,. Washington's birthday 19 16 to Washington's birthday 1917, will be allowed for this nation-wide\nstudy of public opinion, and for the formulation of the morality codes.\nAH seventy codes will be published by some one of the schoolbook publishers\n\n"}
{"page": 1032, "printed_page": "1020", "text": "I020\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\nin the form of school reference books, to be called \"Morality Books,\" which\nit is hoped will be placed on the teacher's desk in every schoolroom, country\nand city, thruout the nation, and in many homes. The price of the ''Morality Books\" will be as low as possible. A small royalty will be taken for\nthe treasury of the National Institution for Moral Instruction, which will\nbe used in research work to determine effective methods for character\neducation in schools and homes.\nThe success of such an undertaking as this depends on the co-operation\nof many, and co-operation depends on good will. Therefore let me explain\nseveral points which superintendents of schools will wish to have information on before they give the national morality codes competition their\ngood will and co-operation.\nThe National Institution for Moral Instruction is incorporated for\nresearch in character education of children and youth for no personal\nprofit. It contemplates the organization of a small faculty of specialists\nin this field of education, and the development of collaboration on the part\nof a selected group of educators and others from the entire nation, to the\nend that the wisdom of experience may be organized into a body of ideas\nand principles which can be used as the material of instruction in the\nmoral or character education of children and youth. It is an institution\nprimarily for study of the problems of character education. It is not a\npropagandist institution to force schools to do what superintendents do\nnot care to have them do; but a research institution to find out how superintendents can arrange to have the schools do effectively what they wish\nthe schools to do, namely produce character as a resultant from education.\nThe National Institution for Moral Instruction is an inside, not an\noutside, organization. Its executive committee is composed, in addition\nto the chairman, of P. P. Claxton, Willard S. Small, William C. Ruediger,\nand Margaret Bell Merrill, all actively engaged in education. The president of its board of directors is David Snedden, who will soon be professor\nof \"social education,\" in Teachers College, Columbia University. Its\ndirectorate is chosen from the different centers of educational research\nthruout the nation, with a sufiScient representation from the general public\nto insure breadth of experience. It is regarded as essential to progress in\ncharacter education that there be arrangements made for nation-wide\ncollaboration among educators, because generalizations in matters of morality ought to i^est on experience, and the experience of the individual is too\nnarrow for certitude in this field of knowledge.\nThe donor of this prize for the best code of morals for instruction of\nchildren and youth is anxious that the educators should believe that he is\nnot seeking any personal glory or indirect gain. He wishes to assist educators and others in developing this phase of education, because he believes\nit is neglected and needs developing for the good of the nation. He desires\nhis name to remain unknown, but, under the title \"advising treasurer/^\n\n"}
{"page": 1033, "printed_page": "1021", "text": "Superintendencej\n\nNATIONAL\n\nMORALITY\n\nCODES\n\nCOMPETITION\n\nI02I\n\nhe wishes to work out plans for adequate financial support for the National\nInstitution for Moral Instruction, and to have part in formulating broad\nplans for universal moral education of all the nation's boys and girls. I\nam permitted to say that he is not a resident of Washington, D.C., but of\none of the cities in the nation at large.\nThe national morality codes competition is a study and interpretation\nof intelligent public opinion rather than an interesting struggle among\nliterary people for a prize. In all but five states, the state superintendent\nof public instruction has accepted appointment as the co-operating educator.\nThe full list you will find printed in the announcement circular. Each\nco-operating educator has chosen and appointed the state representatives\nwho are to write the state morality codes in the competition. In states\nhaving a large population, more than one morality code writer has been\nchosen. The total number of code writers will be seventy.\nEach of the morality code writers is to endeavor to make a thoro study\nof public opinion in his state regarding the moral ideas which ought to be\ninculcated in the minds and hearts of children and youth, and in doing\nthis is to consult a large circle of advisers among teachers and parents.\nLetters of advice will be asked from all interested. The intelligent public\nopinion of the state is to be back of each morality code, not merely the\nindividual opinions of the code writers.\nThere will be two \"Morality Books,\" one for elementary schools and\none for high schools, for each code is to be written in two parts, the elementary part for boys and girls between nine and fourteen, and the highschool part for youths between fourteen and eighteen years of age. The\n\"Morality Books\" will be revised from time to time, and the schools will\nbe supplied continuously with a reference book from which any teacher\nand any pupil can find out what intelligent public opinion believes should\nbe taught American boys and girls as to right and wrong in the world of\nboys and girls.\nBut what is a \"code of morals\" ? Washington had a code; Franklin\nhad a code; Baron Rothschild had a code; hosts of people have written\nout for themselves short statements of their intentions as moral beings,\nand lived by them thru the storm and stress of this world life. The National\nInstitution for Moral Instruction has formulated a code covering the ethics\nclear\nessful Workers,\" which will make\ned \"The\ncallity\nof worka , mora\nwhat\ncode Code\nis like.of Succ\nI\nTHE\n\nETHICS\n\nOF WORK\n\nThis \"Code of Successful Workers\" has been formulated from personal experience\nby many men and women who have achieved great success as workers. It presents their\npersonal attitude toward their work, and reveals the sort of people they have striven to\nmake of themselves. It is true and reliable. It is offered as a means by which young\npeople can learn the requirements which success in work imposes on them. Those who\nwork by this code will find satisfaction, honor, and a good living in the world of work.\n\n"}
{"page": 1034, "printed_page": "1022", "text": "I022\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nThe Code of Successful Workers\nresolutions they make for themselves\n1. / mil respect all useful work and be courteous to the workers. Work of all kinds is\nessential to the success of the world, and benefits come to many from the service rendered\nby each honest worker. I will respect myself, therefore, when doing any useful work,\nand show respect for good work done by others, I will be courteous to all workers, regard\ntheir rights, and make life more agreeable for them when I can.\n2. / will know my work and have ambition to do it well. I will keep determined to\nsucceed in work, to master some one line, to develop aptitude and gain skill. I will\nkeep my mind concentrated on my work, and make work my chief interest. I will accumulate knowledge and experience.\n3. / will take the initiative and develop executive ability. I will use business sense,\nhave courage to make decisions and go ahead, be quick-witted, well balanced, and of\ngood insight.\nI will be^ adaptable, and make all I can of my powers of invention.\n4. / will be industrious and willing. I will bring enthusiasm to my work, be energetic\nand quick about it, and have endurance. I will be punctual, and always an attentive\nworker. I will be patient and persevering, and have system. I will keep myself in good\nhealth.\n5. / will be honest and truthful. I will regard property rights, be economical of\nmaterials, and put in full time. I will be frank and honorable in my treatment of others,\nand preserve my personal integrity.\n6. I will educate myself into strong personality. I will develop force of character and\nhave some worthy purpose in life. I will use my leisure wisely. I will be well informed,\nself-possessed, self-controlled, self-respecting, stable, open-minded and teachable, alert,\nobserving. I will be quick to understand, and of good memory. I will use my imagination, and be ready to take responsibilities. I will gain knowledge of human nature, show\nsympathy, and take an interest in people. I will be friendly, cheerful, harmonious, and\nalways tactful.\n7. / will be faithful to my work. I will hold to high ideals. I will be reliable, accurate,\nand careful. I will do my work right, for the people who need done the things I help to do.\nI will be thoro. I will keep my word.\n8. / will be loyal. I will take pride in my firm or company, factory, store, or farm.\nI will protect its interests, and help to make work successful. I will be unselfish and\nobedient in my service to my superiors, and do good team work. In professional work,\nI will hold to the ethics of my profession. In an institution, I will be true to its purposes.\nI will be devoted to my home.\nI will be loyal to the people with whom I work.\n9. / will be a gentleman — a lady. I will keep clean and neat, be pure and of good\nrepute, courteous and poUte to all. I will form wise personal habits.\n\nThe world does not owe me a living, but I am proud to make a good living\nfor myself.\nCopyrighted IQI4 by the National Institution for Moral Instruction, Washington, D.C.\n\nThis \" Code of Successful Workers \" differs from an individual's morality\ncode in that the experience of some two hundred people is the broader\nfoundation on which it rests for its generalizations. It has the authority\nof public opinion in the field of work. The \" Morality Books \" are to interpret the wisdom of many thousands of intelligent people. If a boy should\nwish to study carefully \"conduct becoming a gentleman,\" it would be\nimpossible for him to find a printed explanation of public opinion on this\ntopic. There is no school in the nation which provides a chance for any\n\n"}
{"page": 1035, "printed_page": "1023", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nNATIONAL\n\nMORALITY\n\nCODES\n\nCOMPETITION\n\n1023\n\nthoro study of public opinion on any of the many important phases of\nmorality. The schools have their geographies and histories, their books\nof nature, their arithmetics, etc., from which pupils can learn a host of\nfacts useful to them, but the wisdom of grown-up people as to how to live\nhas never been formulated for children as a body of knowledge. This\nmorality codes competition is to produce one important expression of\npublic opinion in a field of knowledge most intimately related to the vital\nneeds of the children.\nChildren force on parents the problems of moral education, and many\nfind themselves at a loss to decide what moral ideas to inculcate. This\nbook of morality codes will be a guide to both parents and teachers, and a\nbasis for harmony between school and home.\nNormal-school students can inform themselves by studying this book\nof moral codes as to what moral ideas they are expected to inculcate in\nthe minds of their pupils when they begin teaching. Their individual\nideas and experiences can be supplemented by a study of the wisdom which\nhas come to many others thru personal experiences in the large world of\nhuman affairs.\nThese \"Morality Books,\" it is believed, will be of great use to the\nteachers in their regular classroom and personal work with pupils, in cases\nof discipline, and when stimulating the moral growth of pupils. They\nwill be of use in normal schools as a means of preparing teachers for their\nwork as educators of character, and they will influence parents to support\nat home the morality which is taught at schools.\nWe have been making out a character chart by collaboration among\nseveral hundred people which seems to me to make clear the need of the\nchild for a thoro character education. The items in this character chart\ncan be regarded as the index to the \"Morality Books.\" The character\nof the perfect human being would be about as follows:\nIntellectual character , needed for wise thinking:\n1. Earnest, not trifling\n2. Sincere and open-minded, not diverted by personal interests\n3. Discerning, not superficial\n4. Alert, not indolent\n5. Accurate, not indefinite\n6. Useful, not merely interesting\n7. Inventive and constructive, not lacking initiative\n8. Rational and judicious, not over-emotional, hysterical, or melancholy\n9. Thoro, not illogical\n10. Keen in sense perceptions, not unobserving\nWorking character, needed for doing useful work:\n1. Purposeful, not led merely by likes and dislikes\n2. Teachable, not stubborn\n3. Obedient, not balky\n4. Cautious, not heedless\n5. Ambitious, not self-satisfied\n\n'\n\n"}
{"page": 1036, "printed_page": "1024", "text": "I024\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\n6. Persisting, not vacillating\n7. Industrious and energetic, not lazy and dilatory\n8. Attentive, not careless\n9. Decisive, not procrastinating\n10. Progressive, not opposed to change\n11. Thrifty, not wasteful\n12. Artistic, not slovenly\n13. Adaptable, not slow to fit into new surroundings\n14. Executive, not haphazard\nPersonal character, needed for doing right by oneself:\n1. Thoughtful, not merely impulsive\n2. Influenced by high ideals, not content with low standards\n3. Conscientious, not lawless\n4. Independent, not suggestible\n5. Self -controlled, not weak\n6. Refined, not coarse\n7. Self-respecting, not dissipated\nSocial character, needed for doing right by others:\n1. Genuine, not affected\n2. Honest, not thieving nor disposed to cheat\n3. Truthful, not given to lying and deceiving\n4. Honorable, not sneaking\n5. Just, not unfair\n6. Harmonious, not wrangling\n7. Forgiving, not vindictive\n8. Disposed to trust others, not suspicious\n9. Sociable, not exclusive nor snobbish\n10. Loyal, not treacherous\n11. Pure, not lewd\n12. Courteous, not rude\n13. Tactful, not brusque nor priggish\n14. Generous and sportsmanlike, not stingy nor jealous\n15. Public-spirited and patriotic, not selfish\n16. Respectful, not impudent nor flippant\nEmotional character, needed for the joy of living:\n1. Courageous, not timid\n2. Capable of true love, not cold-hearted\n3. Kindly, not cruel nor hateful\n4. Sympathetic, not self-centered\n5. Congenial, not repulsive\n6. Responsive to the beautiful, not indifferent\n7. Alive to truth, not uninterested\n8. Devoted to righteousness, not inclined to evil\n9. Humble, not conceited\n10. Patient, not irritable\n11. Tolerant and with a sense of humor, not angry over differences of opinion\n12. Hopeful, not pessimistic\n13. Reverent, not irreligious\nPhysical character, needed as a basis for human life:\n1. Well-developed body, not poorly nourished\n2. High resistance to disease, not susceptible\n3. Vital, not sluggish\n\nJ\n1\n\n"}
{"page": 1037, "printed_page": "1025", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHOW\n\nNOT\n\nTO TRAIN\n\nRURAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n1025\n\n4. Ready muscular control, not bungling\n5. Endurance, not quickly tired\n6. Strength, without disabilities\n7. Grace of figure and carriage, not frumpy\n8. Expressive face, not stolid\n9. Strong, musical voice, not choked nor rasping\n\nThe \"Morality Books\" with some such index as this are to contain the\nconvictions of the intelligent general public as to what is right in daily\nconduct for the child. These moral ideas which are the fruits of general\nexperience should be inculcated by some effective method in schools and\nhomes. No reference to methods or principles of moral instruction and\ntraining is to be made in the morality codes. Moral truth, the wisdom of\nhuman experience, should shine thru the code expressions. The words used\nshould appeal to the minds of children and youth, and be useful as a basis\nfor talks by teachers and parents, and for quotation in school and home\ndiscipline.\nThe code writers should strive for completeness, definiteness, and practicability ofmoral ideas in their application to childhood and youth, and\nfor clearness, simplicity, and appeal in literary expression. The code receiving the award must be easy to understand, sound and fundamental in its\ninterpretation of intelligent opinion regarding morality, and well written.\nLet me plead for interest in this nation-wide study and formulation of\nintelligent public opinion in matters of morality. I take it that there is\ngeneral agreement that the major purpose of education is to guide and\nstimulate each child to achieve the most perfect development of its personality. Intellectual education, vocational education, physical education,\nrepresent only important divisions of a complete education. The personal,\nsocial, and emotional life of a child also needs guidance in its development.\nThere is a character education which each child needs. In addition to the\ninformation which schools give, they should also educate the child into the\ncharacter power to live.\n\nROUND\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF STATE AND\n\nHOW\nEDWARD\n\nHYATT,\n\nSTATE\n\nTABLES\n\nNOT\n\nCOUNTY\n\nTO TRAIN\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSUPERINTENDENTS\n\nRURAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\nPUBLIC\n\nINSTRUCTION,\n\nSACRAMENTO,\n\nCAL.\n\nI feel some diffidence at expressing my notions on preparing rural teachers before\npeople representing so widespread and vast a continent as this. I only know our own\nconditions, and we are only one phase of the problem, a faraway phase, hanging on the\nextreme western fringe of the nation. You will understand that I am only undertaking\nto speak according to my own lights, and that these may not serve very far from home;\nmay be entirely unusitable for other regions in this great commonwealth.\n\n"}
{"page": 1038, "printed_page": "1026", "text": "I026\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nIn our part of the country, the great agency for producing rural teachers is the state\nnormal school. We have at present eight splendid normal schools scattered all the way\nup and down the state. Every one is located in a city— one at San Francisco, one at\nLos Angeles, one at San Diego, one at San Jose, and so on. A normal school is an asset\nfor a city— and only a city has enough momentum to grab it from a legislature.\nNow these excellent normal schools are fully open to all the young people of the\nstate who qualify. Theoretically, the rural people have the same rights there as others,\nand theoretically they prepare teachers for the rural schools in the same way as for the\ncity schools.\nBut practically and in fact, what happens ? What is so natural, so easy, and so cheap\nas for the swarms of city girls who graduate from the city high schools to enter at once a\nnormal school right at home ? They are not ready to marry, they want a little more\nschooling, they would like a job that pays real money — so why not ? It is actually easier\nand cheaper for them to take the normal course than to do anything else — easier and\ncheaper than to stay at home. Consequently, they do take it, in larger and larger numbers,\nnot consciously choosing the teacher's profession, but drifting into it.\nHow different the situation of the young people in the remote and inaccessible rural\nregions. When they graduate from their local schools, it is well-nigh impossible for them\nto go to normal school. They cannot go in any such way, with any such ease, such lack\nof additional expenditure, as the city girls do. They must tear up their old associations,\nthey must buy new clothes, must have money for transportation, must leave the home\nnest, must have cash in hand for every little act of life. They cannot do it. They have\nnot the money. They cannot leave their homes. Only the occasional one, the one with\nthe fixed ambition to be a teacher, can overcome the inertia necessary to break away and\ngo to the city in order to enter the normal school.\nConsequently, the great body of normal graduates are girls who are raised in the\ncities where the normal schools are located. The great body of normal graduates go out\nto teach first in the rural schools. In two years' time, if they are good, they may secure\nemployment in the city.\nThe final result, the result in the large way, the naturally to-be-expected result is\nthat the rural schools are taught by a body of young women who have never been in the\ncountry before, who scream at a cow, who take a fit at a horse, who cannot get up for\nbreakfast, who cannot sleep for lonesomeness because everything is so still. These are\ngood, honest, well-meaning girls, doing the best they can, remember.\nBut what can they do for rural children? What influences do they exert toward\nmaking them happy in their rural environment, toward teaching them to appreciate and\nenjoy rural pleasures, toward inducing them to stay on the farm ? These teachers cannot\ndo it. They are not built that way. It is as impossible as for the Ethiop to change\nhis skin. Their lives have been spent in the city. Their friends and pleasures are all\nthere. There is the heaven to which they will return as soon as they can finish their two\nyears of purgatory.\n\"Out of the fulness of the heart the mouth speaketh.\" In what direction, think you,\nwill be the whole trend of such a teacher's unconscious influence upon the children with\nwhom she associates for a year or two ? Where, to them, will lie the great things, the\nattractive things, the desirable things of life ? Where will they really desire to go as\nsoon as they can ? What will they dream about ? Where will they expect to seek their\nfortunes ?\nEven the ambitious country-bred teacher, who does break thru difficulty, overcome\ninertia, and go away to a normal school or college for a period of years, has his heart and\nhead full of the city. Naturally so. His own adventures and successes have been there,\nand he looks forward there to his future successes and adventures.\nErgo — I should say, that one of the ways certainly not to train rural teachers is by\nthe agency of a normal school located in and dominated by a city.\n\n"}
{"page": 1039, "printed_page": "1027", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nHOW\n\nNOT\n\nTO TRAIN\n\nRURAL\n\nTEACHERS\n\n1027\n\nI often hear the consolidated school, the centralized school, urged as the great panacea\nfor the ills of the rural children. Indeed, I have often urged it myself. It is a fascinating\nand inspiring idea — a strong populous school, with an enterprising, ambitious man for\nprincipal. What possibilities it would have! How it could organize, how inspire the\nyoung people! How it could have debating teams, literary societies, sports, athletics,\nstudent government, contests, clubs! How it could become the center of the civic life,\nand fill the community with wholesome enthusiasm! The picture is so attractive and\nso feasible that I have sometimes almost, but not quite, resigned my job, in order to\nwork it out myself in some fortunate neighborhood!\nBut let us hold our horses long enough to inquire as to the real influence of the centralized school upon the rural children, its power to create rural ideals, to build rural inclinations, rural tendencies.\nHowever it may be otherwhere, in our country it somehow nearly always happens\nthat the centralized school is located in the largest town in the neighborhood. The\nchildren are transported, yes, from the country to the town! and their minds are transported no less than their bodies! Their most impressionable years are spent away from\nthe country, in absorbing the things that will fit them for life in the city, and that\nwill probably unfit them for happiness, content, and success in the country.\nThe very best teachers now alive — those that get credit and renown, and money, and\nadvancement — are those who can most skilfully and efl&ciently inspire their pupils and\npoint them toward and train them for the great things of life — in the city! Really, they\ncannot do anything else. That is what they are trained for, that is their tradition,\nthat is what they know, that is what is expected of them, that is what they are\npaid to do.\nVery many wise and earnest men and women — the greatest and most famous of our\ntime — are now thinking and talking and writing about improving the conditions of rural\nlife. They see it as a vital necessity for the future power and prosperity of the nation.\nThey see that the people who possess the land and till it are really those upon whom our\ncountry must depend, and that it is placing the nation in jeopardy to let the land pass\ninto the hands of indigestible aliens or ignorant, brutalized peasants. They see it as a\nnecessity for our future to have our land owned and worked by solid, happy, intelligent\nAmerican citizens, and not at all by absentee landlords and their serfs. They perceive\ndanger to our institutions when the newly arrived Japanese or Italian is so efficient, so\nadapted to conditions, that he can drive the American off the farm and take possession\nof the soil.\nThese wise ones are pretty unanimous in loading a redirecting of rural thought and\nrural life upon that patient and suffering camel, the public school. They frankly confess\ntheir inability to teach new tricks to old dogs, and ask the schools to raise an altogether\nnew breed of pups. But to do so we must evolve a new breed of schools and a new breed\nof teachers to put into those schools. It is not merely a matter of education; it is a matter of thinking, of feeling, of hoping, of believing.\nWe cannot check the exodus from the country by something superficially applied\nfrom the outside. There must be something born in the children, some change in the\natmosphere they breathe, some alteration of their ambitions and aspirations. As it is,\nnearly everybody wants to go to the city — really hopes and desires to go, sometime.\nThe lonesome housewife doomed to drudgery; the mother, who sees the druggist's children and the doctor's offspring better off than hers; the farmer, working long hours,\nwithout the good clothes and smug appearance of the banker and lawyer; the girl dreaming of the fairy prince; the boy tired of the everlasting chores — they all want and hope\nand desire to go to the city — and sooner or later they go. For that matter, you went,\ndidn't you ? So did I. But we do not want the others to go.\nGiving the rural people greater profits, greater prosperity, will not do. Isn't it the\nprosperous farmers who are the greatest sinners ? Do they not lease their fine farms to\n\n"}
{"page": 1040, "printed_page": "1028", "text": "I028\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nimmigrants, and buy a place in town, so that their children may have \"advantages,\"\nso they will not have to work so hard ?\nThe results of the exodus are not only bad in a large way for the farming country,\nbut also in a large way for the people who move. On the farm, children are an asset;\nin the city, a liability. The poor man who leaves the farm dooms his family, present\nand prospective, to extinction. The expense of keeping it, the difficulty of securing plenty\nof wholesome food, abundance of wholesome air, exercise, and good growing conditions\nfor it will sooner or later wipe it out.\nThe rich man who leaves the farm for greater \"disadvantages\" in town is not much\nbetter. His children have no spur toward effort. They fritter themselves away on\nsociety, dissipation, sport, and what not. They, too, scatter and disappear from the\nearth in a generation or two. The city is always an extinguisher of the family in every way.\nNow if the sovereign people of this nation, with patriotic vision of the future, really\npropose to change these conditions, to turn the cityward tide, and if they really propose\nto lay the responsibility of effecting the change upon us school people, we undertake a\nvery vital and serious task — the task of making over a nation, of changing the heart of a\npeople, of making them appreciate and love and desire the things they do not, of giving\nthem hopes and pleasures and aspirations that now they have not.\nThe teachers who can do this are not yet bred; and to return to my text, the way\nnot to prepare them is any of the ways in which we have been preparing teachers. We\nhave been preparing them in exactly the opposite direction — to encourage, and stimulate,\nand spur on the procession to the city, not to stem or check or turn it!\nThe rural-mindedness so necessary to rural life cannot be produced in our old way,\nby a course. We must devise some new agency to do it with — automobiles, or aeroplanes,\nor high powers, or submarines, or something!\nIsn't that the way of the rest of the world ?\nRURAL\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nIN THE\n\nJENNIE BURKES, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT\n\nMOUNTAINS\n\nOF THE\n\nSOUTH\n\nOF CLAIBORNE COUNTY, CUMBERLAND\n\nGAP, TENN.\n\nWhen the subject of rural supervision in the mountain sections of the South was\nchosen, it was my plan to tell true stories of actual experiences as told or written to me\nby various county superintendents and supervisors whose everyday work is confined\nto the rural schools in the mountains. But I soon found that this story-telling would\ntake too much time and that I could not enter fully into the spirit of another's story.\n\"For the truth which another has won from nature or from life is not our truth\nuntil we have lived it. Only that becomes real or helpful to any man which has cost the\nsweat of his brow, the effort of his brain, or the anguish of his soul.\"\nThis, then, is my apology for confining my subject to the narrow horizon of my own\nexperience as superintendent of schools in the mountains of Tennessee.\nPerhaps the highest type of supervision for the rural schools in the mountains is\nexpected to come directly from the county superintendent. But his duties are so numerous that efficient supervision along any specific line becomes a physical impossibility.\nIf a supervisor is a person who changes a teacher from what he is to what he ought\nto be, we are willing to admit that much time and money have been wasted in the South\non account of the lack of such ideal supervision. However, investigation shows that\nwherever supervisors have been employed their supervision has generally tended toward\nthe upbuilding of our schools. It has also been found that a successful supervisor or\nsuperintendent in the mountains should be a rural-school specialist and a professional\neducator. He must have an exceptional degree of enthusiasm, a passion for service,\nthe courage of the uninitiated, and the nerve of an ex-president.\nClaiborne County lies in the Cumberland Mountains of eastern Tennessee. It is a\ntypical mountain country so far as ruggedness, bad roads, and low property assessment\n\n"}
{"page": 1041, "printed_page": "1029", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nRURAL\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTH\n\nIO29\n\nare concerned. Three years ago, when I became superintendent of the Claiborne County\nschools, I found myself confronted with every problem known to education. Our school\nfund was small on account of our very low assessment; our school term was only three\nand one-half months; our teachers were poorly paid, and likewise poorly qualified; our\nbuildings unspeakable, our equipment nothing.\nUndoubtedly our most valuable asset was a county board of education, consisting\nof five people who had little schooling but an abundance of common-sense, rugged honesty,\nwholesome spirit, and a willingness to do something for the betterment of our schools.\nWe learned that every board of education should have a clearly defined, definitely\nplanned school policy, so our slogan for the first year became \"Better schools and a\nlonger school term.\" After a series of educational campaigns conducted in every district\nof the county, the court met and raised our public-school levy from thirty-five to sixty\ncents, which in turn lengthened our school term from three and one-half months to five\nmonths, and permitted better salaries for our teachers.\nBefore our schools opened, the teachers were assembled in a county institute for\nthree weeks, where they were given special training in the public-school subjects and a\nlittle psychology.\nWith the courage which only the inexperienced know, we took our schools out of\npolitics, abandoned recklessly old customs of doing things, and established a new order\nof administration. The last straw was when the board employed a rural supervisor of\nschools. The people considered this action a piece of unheard-of extravagance and questioned its legality. The court at its next session took up the matter and voted against\nthe employment of a supervisor, by a majority of seventeen to five. When this honorable\nbody were told that they had absolutely nothing to do with the hiring of a superxdsor,\nthey settled back with this question: \"What will she do next?\"\nThe answer came a few weeks later when the county, state, and federal governments,\nunder the Smith-Lever bill, employed a county agricultural agent to help the farmers\nin their work. We hope that these agricultural object-lessons will speedily bring about\nan economic revolution, because it is an economic problem, fundamentally, that our\nmountain people have to face.\nThe indifference of the country people toward the schools, and the unsightly school\nbuildings and grounds, compelled us to adopt for our slogan the second year: \"A school\nimprovement association for every school.\"\nAppropriations from the county and state made it possible to have a very much\nbetter institute for our teachers the second year. For four weeks some of the best educators of the state gave courses, including practical psychology, public-school music,\nprimary methods, story-telling, games and plays, agriculture, home economics, and special\nlectures on history, English, and sanitation. At the close of this institute, the teachers\nunanimously adopted the following list of specifications for standardization (in the order\nof adoption) :\n1. School graded.\n2. Library and bookcase.\n3. House painted; roof, doors, windows, and locks repaired.\n4. School flag.\n5. Drinking-fountain or water-cooler with individual drinking-cups.\n6. Timepiece (clock preferred).\n7. Globe, maps, good blackboard, erasers, and waste-basket.\n8. Brooms, duster, and sprinkler, or oiled floors.\n9. Cloakrooms or racks for hats and caps.\n10. Flowers in yard, on table, or in window.\n11. Neat school grounds.\n12. Sanitary outhouses.\n13. First-aid remedies.\n14. Inventory showing everything received and added during the year.\n15. Two pictures, well-framed, and an additional picture each year.\n16 Call bell for class use.\n\n"}
{"page": 1042, "printed_page": "1030", "text": "I030\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\n17. Proper seating.\n18. Proper ventilation.\nig. Proper heating (stove jacketed).\n20. School improvement club.\n21. Activity of teacher in church and Sunday school.\n22. Attendance at teachers' meetings.\n23. Daily schedule posted (including daily study and recitation penods).\n24. Taking and reading at least one educational journal.\n25. Minimum of at 1-east three public gatherings in school.\n26. Visiting every home, or stating reason for failure.\n27. No use of tobacco nor alcohoUcs by teacher or pupils.\n28. Personal supervision of pupils at play.\n29. Neat personal appearance of teacher.\n30. Orderly assembUng and dismissing of pupils.\n31. Reading of Bible at opening exercises.\n32. Neatly kept register, with daily roll-call.\n33. Domestic arts in home or school; two exhibits by at least one-half of the girls.\n34. Manual training in home or school; exhibit at close of school, by at least onehalf of the boys.\n35. School exhibit at county fair.\n36. Subscription to at least one daily newspaper.\nEvery school that complies with 75 per cent of the items of standardization will be\nclassed a standard school; those that comply with 85 per cent of the items will be classed\nas superior schools.\nThis was a very progressive and courageous step on the part of the teachers, when\nwe consider that the best-equipped school in the county at that time could not measure\nup to half-standard. Every school made an effort toward standardization, and, thru\nthe earnest work of teachers, patrons, and pupils, at the close of the school year, there\nwere 29 superior schools and 52 standard schools, out of 102 schools in the county.\nWe know that our schools have not fulfilled their whole mission until they reflect\nthe everyday life and activities of the country people, so our slogan for the past year\nbecame \"Better education for all.\" Thru the volunteer service of some of our teachers, a\nnumber of moonlight schools were organized, and nearly one hundred adult illiterates\nwere taught to read and write, while scores of men and women extended their education\nin subjects of their choice.\nIn the mountain sections, the one-teacher school is at present a necessity. As our\nroads become improved and our people acquire a more comprehensive idea of the true\nmeaning of education, we may hope for consolidation in a small way, but the one-teacher\nschool, like the poor, I fear, will always be with us. Yet, in spite of existing conditions,\nthe board has abandoned by elimination or consolidation twelve small schools.\nWe beheved that in our valleys consolidation was possible, roads or no roads, if\nthe people really wanted it. We argued that if good roads will bring consolidation of\nschools, why won't consolidated schools bring good roads ? The state and county each\nappropriated $1,000 to foster the idea of consolidation, and this $2,000 was offered to the\ncommunity that would raise the largest amount toward the construction of a model\nconsolidated school building. Today there stands in Powell's Valley, on seven acres of\nland, a beautiful brick building where the children from three one-teacher schools and\none two-teacher school are enjoying advantages they never knew before.\nAt its very next session, the county court issued pike-road bonds to the amount of\n$377,000, so that good roads might go hand in hand with good schools in Claiborne\nCoimty!\nThis year our increased assessment will give us at least a six months' school term.\nOur teachers' salaries have been raised, so that we shall not hold a county institute but\nrequire our teachers to attend a state normal school or the summer school of the South.\nAnother county agent has been employed under the Smith-Lever bill to organize girls'\ncanning clubs, and to do extension work in home economics.\nWith all the forces I have\n\n"}
{"page": 1043, "printed_page": "1031", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATUS\n\nAND\n\nNEED\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nIO31\n\nmentioned hammering away on the same problems, we believe we have achieved a foothold in the wall of true education by which we may climb to better and higher standards.\nThere are many counties in Tennessee and the South that have accomplished more than\nwe have, but I know of none whose teaching force is so loyal in service, so willing to work,\nand so sweet about it.\nBy this time I hope I have proved that the rural teacher is the school. Of course,\nvisits from supervising teachers and the superintendent may inspire the efficient teacher\nand may help the inefficient teacher in her work, but if these visits are not frequent, the\nsupervision does very little good. Any supervision, however, is better than no supervision, for even that will help to keep the superintendent in closer touch with the schools\nthan if there were none. Much will be done for education when our teachers can be\nbrought to realize that the greatest problem we have is how to make our schools affect\nthe community life. And how to do it is a question that can be settled only by the individual teacher working for the greatest good of her own community. Thus the problem\nof rural supervision in the mountains lies largely with the teachers who must, in isolated\ncommunities, become the leaders of public opinion.\n\nTHE\n\nSTATUS\n\nA. C. MONAHAN,\n\nAND\n\nSPECIALIST,\n\nNEED\n\nOF RURAL\n\nTHE UNITED\nWASHINGTON,\n\nSTATES\nD.C.\n\nSUPERVISION\nBUREAU\n\nOF\n\nEDUCATION,\n\nA discussion of this subject is practically a discussion of the status of the rural-school\nsuperintendents, county or district, as we seem to understand by the term \"supervision\"\neverything included in the work of the superintendent. Our conception of what constitutes supervision is constantly changing. At first it was the management of the business\nside of the school system, later it became management of the business side plus the direction of the educational work of the school and the methods of teaching, and now in many\ncases it is the direction of the educational work only. This is indicated by two expressions\nin very common use thruout the coimtry, \"units of organization for administration,\"\nand \"units of organization for supervision.\" In our city systems the two units are identical. The unit is the territory under the management of a single board and also under\nthe supervision of a single superintendent; but in rural districts the two units are identical\nonly in the \"county unit\" states. In the superintendency unions of New England, each\na unit of supervision, the management rests with as many separate boards as there are\ntowns in the union; in the New York supervisory district, with as many separate boards\nas there are school districts in the supervisory district. In the 40 states employing coimty\nsuperintendents, in which the unit of supervision is therefore the county, the unit of\norganization for management and support in 4 is the township and in 22 the old local\nschool district.\nLet me outline briefly the various systems of rural supervision in the United States:\nIn New England, the city or town includes everything within the township lines, all\nunder the management of one board and under the charge of one superintendent. A\nlarge number of the city superintendents of New England therefore have charge of rural\nterritory as well as urban territory, and rural schools as well as urban schools. In the\nmore sparsely settled sections, two or more townships are joined together to form a\n\"union superintendency.\" In management each township is independent. The superintendent divides his time among his townships in proportion to the number of schools\nor teachers in each. In Vermont the superintendents are all appointed by the state board\nof education and paid by the state. The state board determines the boundaries of the\ndistricts, following township lines but disregarding county lines. The average district\ncontains from 100 to 120 square miles. The Massachusetts supervisory districts contain\nfrom 2 to 4 townships, with from 20 to 40 teachers. The townships retain control of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1044, "printed_page": "1032", "text": "10^2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\nmanagement, engage a superintendent certified and approved by the state department\nof education, and receive from the state a fund equal to one-half of the superintendent's\nsalary. This plan has been in operation for 28 years. Supervision of schools in the small\ntowns of Connecticut dates from 1Q03, in which year the legislature passed an act providing that towns with less than 10 teachers might petition the state board of education\nfor the appointment of a superintendent. The state board appointed the supervisor;\nthe town fixed his salary, paying one-fourth of it, the state paying three-fourths. In\n1907 the law was amended so that towns with as many as 20 teachers might ask for\na supervisor, provision being made for the payment of the entire salary by the state.\nAs a result there are now 93 towns in the state, in 32 supervisory districts, under 32\nsupervisors appointed and paid by the state, and an average of 30 teachers to each\nsupervisor.\nThe average New England superintendent of a union district has 17 schools, 34\nteachers, and 52 square miles of territory. Very few assistant superintendents are employed, as they are unnecessary in such small supervisory districts. Little allowance\nis made for traveling expenses, as but little is needed; however, very well-trained men, a\ngreat majority (83 per cent) being college graduates with successful teaching experience,\nare employed.\nThe results of this close supervision of rural schools in New England are identical\nwith those obtained in Connecticut, as summarized by C. D. Hine, secretary of the State\nBoard of Education, as follows:\n1. Better attendance.\n2. Decreased number of one-room schools thru consolidation.\n3. Increased number of trained teachers employed.\n4. Increase in the proportion of pupils graduating from the elementary schools and\nentering the high schools.\n5. Increased regularity and punctuality of children.\n6. Marked improvement in buildings.\n7. Unmistakable evidence of greater interest in schools on the part of school ofl&cers\nand parents.\nA study of the records of the small towns now having school supervision shows the\nfollowing interesting changes since 1903-4:\n1. Proportion of registered pupils attending school every day has risen from 77\nper cent to 82. 7 per cent.\n2. The number of one-room schools in these towns has decreased from 537 to 481,\nor 10 per cent.\n3. The number of normal graduates employed as teachers in these towns has increased\nfrom 211 to 382 — an increase of 55 per cent.\n4. The number of pupils attending high schools from these towns has increased from\n1,131 to 2,004, or 77 per cent.\nPerhaps one of the most significant results of supervision has been the elimination\nof waste effort and lost time in the schoolroom. The gain in efficiency by these economies\nis making possible the more rapid advancement of pupils. Already a reduction of the\nelementary-school course from the traditional nine years to eight has been effected in\nschools under state supervision. The gain thru economy of time and better organization\nof work will eventually mean the completion in the early years of the course of the necessary training in fundamental operations with numbers and in the mechanics of reading\nand penmanship. One or two years in the latter part of the course may be then devoted\nto practical studies directly helpful to pupils soon to leave school for work.\nThe New York system is similar to the New England system in many ways, the\nsupervisory district corresponding closely to the New England supervisory district in\nsize and formation. It is a development, however, from the county rather than from the\ntownship. The old county superintendents of New York were replaced January i, 191 2,\nby district superintendents, each county — with four exceptions — being divided into from\n2 to 8 supervisory districts. There are approximately 207 supervisory districts in the\nstate, and there are 57 counties, making an average of 4 to a county. The district boundaries coincide with the township boundaries: so the New York districts, like the New\nEngland districts, may be said to be made up of a union of townships.\nThe superin-\n\n"}
{"page": 1045, "printed_page": "1033", "text": "I\n\nSuperintendence]\n\nSTATUS\n\nAND\n\nNEED\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSUPERVISION\n\n1033\n\ntendents are selected by boards representing the townships in each supervisory district.\nThe average number of schools to each county superintendent is 52, the number of teachers 82, the number of square miles of territory 254.\nThe superintendents, like those in New England in the union supervisory districts,\nare approved by the state department of education and are practically all college-trained\nmen, approximately 68 per cent having two or more years' college work. The powers\nand duties conferred upon them are practically the same as those conferred upon the city\nsuperintendents in the states in which they are working.\nIn all the other states of the Union, with two exceptions, the supervision of rural\nschools is in the hands of county superintendents with or without assistants. These two\nexceptions are Virginia and Nevada. In Virginia the superintendent is a \"division\nsuperintendent,\" the division in most cases, as far as rural schools are concerned, being a\ncounty; in several cases it is two counties. In Nevada the supervision is under five\ndeputy state superintendents of public instruction. Arkansas might be cited as another\nexception, for Arkansas as yet employs county superintendents in but one-fourth of the\ncounties of the state. In the other counties there is no supervision.\nIn three States — Maryland, Florida, and Louisiana — the county superintendents\nhave under their supervision all cities in the counties, as well as the rural territory; in\nthe other states, cities are set apart under their own supervisory ofi&cers. In at least 30\nof the 40 states having county superintendents, assistant county superintendents under\none title or another are employed, the number varying from that of a certain state with\nnearly 100 counties, one of which only employs an assistant, to that of Ohio, with 88\ncounty superintendents and approximately 540 district superintendents. This plan is\nnew in Ohio, being the result of the school laws passed by the legislature in January, 19 14,\nand it is too early to know definitely what its results will be; however, it is very similar\nto the West Virginia plan, which has been 'in operation long enough to prove that it is\nvery satisfactory. The boards of education of the West Virginia magisterial districts,\ncivil districts corresponding to the eastern townships, employ district superintendents,\nor two adjacent districts may unite in employing a single superintendent. He is legally\nan assistant to the county superintendent. All districts have not employed such supervisors, but there are 82 altogether, enough so that one- third of the rural teachers in the\nstate are in supervised districts. Kentucky is trying a plan somewhat similar; it has\napproximately 200 rural supervisors or \"supervising principals,\" each confining his\nwork to one of the \"educational divisions\" of a county. Oregon's plan is also similar.\nBy legislative enactment of 191 1, counties with more than 60 teachers were divided\ninto supervisory districts, each district containing approximately 60 teachers, and a\nsupervisor appointed for the district is made responsible directly to the county\nsuperintendent for all of his work. The 1915 legislature made the plan optional\ninstead of mandatory, to be continued, however, until voted out by the school directors\nof the county.\nThese are all instances of plans where each supervisor has a definite portion of the\ncounty to which his work is confined. Other states have passed mandatory or permissive\nlaws for assistant county superintendents working thruout the entire county from the\ncounty superintendent's ofiice. Pennsylvania, for instance, requires every county with\n200 rural teachers to employ at least one assistant, with 400 teachers at least two, etc.\nWisconsin has a supervising teacher in each county. Illinois allows the county commissioners to employ assistants when they desire to do so; in Cook County they employ five.\nIn states with the county unit, the county boards of education, as a rule, may employ as\nmany assistants as they wish; the county boards of Maryland, for instance, have the\nsame privilege in employing assistants to the county superintendent that the city board\nof Baltimore has in employing assistants to the city superintendent. In one county with\n600 teachers the board employs nine assistants. In the county-unit states, probably 500\nrural-school supervisors or assistant superintendents are employed.\n\n"}
{"page": 1046, "printed_page": "1034", "text": "I034\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nThis all sounds as if in the 40 states with county supervision there are but few countysuperintendents without assisting supervisors; as a matter of fact, the number with\nsuch supervisors is very small in comparison to the total. In the approximately 2,830\ncounties in the 40 states, approximately 18 per cent employ assistants. In 10 states\nnone are employed; in 5, assistants are employed in 10 per cent or less than 10 per\ncent of the counties. Clerical assistance, in many cases only part-time, is furnished to\n29 per cent of the superintendents. It is noteworthy that the majority of assistants are\nemployed in 'county-unit states and relatively few or none in the district-unit states.\nThe ID states in which none are employed are all in the group organized for management\non the \"district\" plan.\nThe efficiency of the supervision of the county superintendents who are working\nwithout assistants (82 per cent of the total) depends upon many things: the size of the\nterritory under their supervision, the conditions of travel, the number of schools, teachers,\npupils, etc., the organization for the administration of the school affairs, the legal powers\nand duties conferred upon them, their education, training, and experience, the length of\nthe term of office for which they are elected or selected, and the method of election or\nselection.\nWe are making in the bureau, at the present time, a study of county supervision,\nand have definite data to indicate the difficulties of the county superintendent's job, if\nthe county superintendent makes a real attempt to supervise by visiting his schools.\nThe average territory of the county superintendent in the United States is 1,500\nsquare miles. In 13 states, practically all eastern states, the average for each state is\nless than 600 square miles; in 13 others, it is between 600 and 1,000; in 3, it is over 5,000.\n(The area of the state of Rhode Island is approximately 1,248 square miles.) The ruralschool term in the majority of these states is so short (five to eight months) and the roads\nso bad that the county superintendent cannot make many visits in a year; the average\ncoimty superintendent spends 36 per cent of his time visiting. In about one-half of the\nstates, the prevailing number of visits is one per year, in almost all of the others two per\nyear, the visits being from one-half to two hours in length. He has 84 school buildings,\n77 per cent of which are one-teacher buildings, and 132 teachers. In one state, the average\nis 217 buildings, 354 teachers; in four other states, the average number of teachers per\ncounty is over 200.\nFor travehng, the county superintendents are allowed traveling expenses in practically aU states, the amount, however, varying from almost nothing to about $800. In\npractically all states certain allowance is made for office expenses, including salaries of\nassistants and traveling expenses. The salaries paid the county superintendents vary in\ndifferent states, from $3,000 paid in New Jersey to each county superintendent to an\naverage of $720 paid in Wyoming. There are four states in which the average salary is\nless than $1,000 per year and there are three states in which the average is more than\n$2,000 per year. The average of the 40 state averages is $1 ,388. This sounds much better\nthan it ought, for minimum salaries paid in individual cases are very low. Ten county\nsuperintendents in the United States receive less than $300 per year; 24, more than $300\nbut less than $500; and 64 receive more than $500 but less than $700.\nThe legal powers and duties conferred upon the county superintendents vary very\ngreatly. In some states they are very limited, being little more than what the county\nsuperintendent can coax the school directors to allow him to do; in other states they are\nvery great. For instance, the county superintendent in Washington has the supervision\nof the work of common schools of his county, enforces the use of the course of study,\nenforces the rules and regulations required in the examination of teachers, and conducts\nthe examinations, holds teachers' institutes and county meetings of school directors,\nsuspends teachers for neglect of duty, enforces the compulsory education law, may require\nreports of school directors and teachers, and the plans for new school buildings must be\napproved by him before the building may be erected. In practice, he controls the estimate\n\n"}
{"page": 1047, "printed_page": "1035", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTATUS\n\nAND\n\nNEED\n\nOF RURAL\n\nSUPERVISION\n\nof expenses in each district and has much influence in the selection of teachers. He also\nselects the county board of education, a professional board consisting of himself and four\nothers, which is authorized to grade the eighth-grade examinations, to adopt textbooks\nfor the entire county, to prepare teachers' manuals, courses of study, rules and regulations\nfor governing circulating libraries, and to adopt such rules and regulations concerning\nthe schools of the county as are not inconsistent with the state laws or the regulations\nof the state board of education.\nVery much, of course, depends upon this superintendent's general education, training,\nand experience in school affairs. From our special inquiry relative to the schooling of\nthe county superintendents, we find that 6 per cent have attended elementary schools\nonly, 3 per cent have had one year of secondary school, 3 per cent two years of secondary\nschool, 4 per cent three years of secondary school, 20 per cent four years of secondaryschool work; 17 per cent have had one year or less than one year of higher education, 17\nper cent have had two years, 6 per cent have had three years, and 22 per cent have had\nfour years. In making this average, if we omit the coimty superintendents of Ohio, who\nare practically all college graduates, and Pennsylvania and Indiana, which have a large\nnumber of college graduates, the percentages of those with secondary education or less\nare much greater than just given and represent more nearly the average condition.\nIt is interesting to make a comparison of the general education of the county superintendents for the states where these officers are appointed as against the states in which\nthey are elected. We divided the 40 states with county superintendents into three\ngroups; the first, of which there are 13, being the states in which the superintendents\nare appointed; the second, of which there are 10, being the states in which the superintendents are elected by popular vote for four-year terms; the third, of which there are 17,\nthe states in which the superintendents are elected by popular vote for two-year terms.\nIn the first group, 2.5 per cent have attended elementary schools only\nIn the second group, 8.4 per cent have attended elementary schools only\nIn the third group, 6.6 per cent have attended elementary schools only\nIn the first group, 5.5 per cent have had more than an elementary and less than a\ncomplete high-school course\nIn the second group, 18 per cent have had more than an elementary and less than a\ncomplete high-school course\nIn the third group, 10 per cent have had more than an elementary and less than a\ncomplete high-school course\nIn the first group, 1 2 per cent have had the equivalent of a full high-school course\nIn the second group, 19 per cent have had the equivalent of a full high-school course\nIn the third group, 25 per cent have had the equivalent of a full high-school course\nIn the first group, 37 per cent have had college work of from less than on€ year up\nto three full years, and 43 per cent are graduates; in the second group, 39 per cent have\nhad college work of from less than one year up to three full years, and 12 per cent are\ngraduates; in the third group 41 per cent have had college work of from less than one year\nup to three years, and 17 per cent are graduates. If we compare the two groups, one\nincluding the 13 states in which the superintendents are appointed, the other the 27\nstates in which the superintendents are elected, we find the following:\nAmount of Schooling\nFrom one to three years secondary\nFull four years secondary\nFrom one to three years higher\n\n..\n\nFirst Group\n\nSecond Group\n\n2.5 per cent\n20 per cent\n5-5 per cent\n12.0\n37.0 per cent •80 per cent\n\n7.2 per\ncent 44.2 -j- per cent\n14.0\nper cent\n23.0 per\nper centl\ncent\n40.0\n^\n15.0 per cent/^^ ^ ^\" ^'^\"''\n\nThis seems to prove that for coimty superintendents a greater number of men and\nwomen who have received more general education and training are appointed by county\n\n"}
{"page": 1048, "printed_page": "1036", "text": "1036\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nboards than by popular election. It appears also that those appointed have had more\nteaching experience previous to selection than elected officers: the average for those\nappointed being 9.3 years, for those elected 8.9 years. This is an argument in favor of\nthe appointed county superintendent. Another argument might be found in the figures\nshowing the total number of the superintendents of the two groups who have been reap ointed or re-elected. Among the appointed superintendents, 36 per cent are serving\ntheir first terms; 29 per cent their second terms; 35 per cent their third or more than\nthird terms. Among the elected superintendents, 63 per cent are serving their first terms;\n26 per cent their second terms; and 11 per cent their third terms. The records of some\nof the states are interesting. One state has as high as 70 per cent of county superintendents who are serving their first terms; this, of course, is a state where the county superintendents are elected by popular vote. A study of the number of superintendents who\nhave been in ofiice more than eight years brings out the fact that most of these are in the\ngroup of appointed superintendents and very few in states where they are elected by\npopular vote. This may or may not be an argument for appointed superintendents.\nIt is a little off my subject to discuss the relative merits of the appointed versus the\nelected county superintendent. The status of this question is that in 21 states the rural\nsuperintendents are appointed, and in 27 they are elected. Of the former 21 states, 17\nare east of the Mississippi River. Alabama has passed the necessary legislation, and by\nthe addition of this state the number of states appointing their superintendents will become\n22 at the expiration of the terms of her present officers.\nWe have found other interesting facts in our study of county supervision. There\nare 547 women county superintendents, or 19.4 per cent of the total number. Our figures\nseem to show that the women superintendents as a class have had better general education\nand more professional training than the men; that they devote a larger percentage of\ntheir time to visiting schools; that the prevailing number of visits to each school is greater\nand the length of time spent with each teacher is longer. The women county superintendents, itwould seem, have fewer things outside of the regular work to engage their time .\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE\n\nOF SUPERINTENDENTS\nOF CITIES WITH\nPOPULATION OF OVER 250,000\n\nA FIRST STEP IN ESTABLISHING\nHERBERT\n\nS.\n\nWEET,\n\nTHE SIX-THREE-THREE\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOE\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nA\n\nORGANIZATION\n\nROCHESTER,\n\nN,\n\nY.\n\nLast September the city of Rochester opened its first school under the six-three-three\nplan. This plan was chosen primarily because school authorities believed that it presented\npossibilities of meeting the needs of the seventh- and eighth-grade boys and girls to a\nfar greater extent than we have been able to meet them heretofore. No one today denies\nthe value of manual training for boys and household arts work for girls, at least in the\nseventh and eighth grades. There are many, however, who argue, and we believe argue\nsoundly, that there is doubtful value in much of this work as it is usually given in the\nregular grammar school. In the first place, the time is insufficient. This objection is\nraised even more by parents than by school men. But by far the more serious objection\nis to the nature of the work itself. For boys it is usually general and disciplinary, is limited\nto simple forms of woodwork only, and lacks the purpose and motivation necessary to\nawaken either cultural or vocational interest. If the time element were the only one\ninvolved, it would be possible to lengthen the grammar-school days, but the expense\nincurred in any attempt to offer, in connection with each grammar school, the range and\nkind of manual-training facilities needed for these boys is absolutely prohibitive. This\nexpense is not only for original equipment, but it is for the necessarily high per capita\n\n"}
{"page": 1049, "printed_page": "1037", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE SIX-THREE-THREE\n\nORGANIZATION\n\ncost of instruction, considering the comparatively small number of boys found in even\nour largest grammar schools.\nFurthermore, few people doubt today that the boys and girls who are to study a\nforeign language ought to begin this study before the usual high-school period. Is it a fair\nproposition to say that at the eighth year the boy who has an interest in and an ability\nfor language should have the opportunity of spending more of his time on this subject,\nwhile the boy who has an interest in and an ability for the industrial arts should have\nthe opportunity of spending in this department the additional time that the former pupil\nspends on a foreign language ? We believed that such an arrangement should be possible.\nBut the limited numbers involved in even the largest grammar school in Rochester made\nthis limited difference impracticable. Any attempt at it would at the best be but a\nmakeshift. The fact is that in the last analysis the junior-high-school problem is essentially one of numbers.\nOf course the value of what has been said thus far rests upon the assumption that\nthere are needs among these seventh- and eighth-grade boys and girls that we have not\nbeen meeting under the usual grammar-grade organization. To deny this it is necessary\nto show that those pupils who withdrew from school, at least upon the completion of the\neighth-grade work, withdrew largely because of economic pressure in the home. Our\nevidence is quite to the contrary. Of those who completed the eighth-year work last\nJanuary under the junior-high-school organization, 94I per cent have remained for the\nninth-year work. A year ago, in exactly the same community, but under the grammarschool organization, only 51 per cent remained for ninth-year work. This unmistakably\nsuggests that there were needs among these upper-grade pupils that were not being met,\nand that the present junior-high-school type of work is meeting these needs.\nIn this attempt, however, to meet more adequately the needs of these upper-grade\npupils, there is danger of forcing or encouraging vocational selection at such an early age\nthat it may result in the lifelong injury of the pupil. The average age of the eighth-grade\ngraduates in the city of Rochester is fourteen and one-half years. Certainly any influence\nthat encourages choice of a specific vocation earlier than this cannot be defended by the\npublic school. This is an educational principle upon which there has been much discussion\nfrom time to time. This objection to what was regarded as early speciaUzation was the\none most urgently used against the extension of regular high-school courses beyond the\nlines of literary, pure science, and mathematics work.\nOn the other hand, any form of school organization that affords no opportunity for\nawakening vocational interests and encouraging vocational abilities before the time when\nvocational selection actually is made would seem to err in the other direction. We believed this to be a pronounced weakness in our former organization. Both parent and pupil\nwere forced to make some sort of selection of decided vocational importance to the pupil at\nthe completion of this eighth-grade work. In this particular community, nearly half of\nthe pupils who remained for the completion of these eight years of work were withdrawing\nfrom school. With these the selection was of vital vocational importance and yet chance\nrather than intelligence was to determine the outcome. The major part\" of these eighthgrade graduates who did continue in school, furthermore, were selecting the general or\ncollege preparatory courses of the upper high school; a smaller percentage, the trade\ncourses for boys and girls of secondary grade. The distribution of our high-school pupils\nis suggestive on this point. Of the total number, 66 per cent are in the general or college\npreparatory courses, 27 per cent in the commercial courses, and 7 per cent in the trade\ncourses. To the extent that the distribution of high-school pupils might be expected to\nreflect the vocational activities of the community, one would infer that two-thirds of all\nthe working people of Rochester are engaged in professional vocations, while only onethird are carrying on the business and industrial enterprises of the city. Of course no\none would expect or desire to find only those taking the college-preparatory courses of\nthe upper high school who anticipate going to college and later eRt^ring uppp professional\n\n"}
{"page": 1050, "printed_page": "1038", "text": "1038\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\ncareers. There are many in this course who are there for purposes of general education\nand no one will deny that this is a highly defensible purpose for every pupil who has an\ninterest in and the ability to profit by these literary, pure science, and mathematics courses.\nBut how many of those who are actually familiar with our upper high schools would care\nto defend the proposition that for two-thirds of all our grammar-school graduates the\ngeneral or college preparatory courses are the most helpful courses which they could\npossibly take during these four years of the high-school period ? There is ample evidence\nto any person familiar with the facts that this general education only too often means\naimless and ineffective education. And yet this is the traditional high-school course and\nconsequently, in the judgment of so many parents, quite the course to take. By no\nmeans infrequently does the parent of a boy who is making a signal failure of his work\nin this course in high school plead that the boy be allowed to go on, because the general\ncultural benefits of the high-school atmosphere will be of so much help to him in later\nlife — and this at the time in a boy's life when neither true culture nor real training can\ncome thru any medium that does not bring forth sustained effort on the part of the\nindividual. To the extent then that these two-thirds who are taking general or college\npreparatory courses represent those who will not gain results commensurate with the\ntime and energy spent, a continuance of the system is resulting in lifelong injury to pupils\nquite as effectively as is the learning of any particular trade at too early an age, provided\nthe learning of such a trade has been accomplished by hard and conscientious application.\nBut how are these interests and abilities to be determined? It is true that every\neighth-grade teacher has watched certain of her graduates go on into the literary, pure\nscience, and mathematics courses of the high school, knowing that they were doomed to\nfailure in these lines. Her coimsels availed little, however, when opposed by the traditional emphasis upon those high-school courses which may lead ultimately into professional\nlife. But even in these cases the teacher has based her judgment more upon what the\npupil has failed to do in courses given than upon what he has accomplished in other directions. This is obviously true because the grammar school has no facilities with which\nto make any adequate test along lines other than those which do lead to the general courses\nof the upper high school.\nSchool authorities in Rochester believed that so long as these broader facilities for\nevoking the pupils' interest and abilities in the great field of manual arts were not made a\nreasonably adequate part of their lives before the compulsory education law had been\nsatisfied, the steady withdrawal of such a large percentage of the eighth-grade graduates\nfrom this commimity and the traditional selection of the literary high-school courses on\nthe part of so many others who would gain but meager profit from such courses would\ninevitably continue. The only way to guarantee these facilities was to make them a part\nof the pupils' school work before the compulsory attendance requirement had released\nits hold upon the child. The problem then lay in preserving a sensible balance between\nthe one extreme represented by the single- teacher plan of grammar-school organization,\nand the other extreme of premature specialization. This could be done only by insistence\nthat the courses for seventh- and eighth-grade pupils under the junior-high-school organization should provide so far as possible a range of activities sufficiently broad to bring '\nout individual interests and capacities, and that they should be emphatically preparatory\nand prevocational. The following statement of the work given to these seventh- and\neighth-grade\npupils under this organization will best show how this attempt has been\nmade.\nManual training and household arts. — A minimum of three hours per week is required\nof every pupil during the first two years. A maximum of twelve hours per week is allowed\nduring the latter half of the first year and during the second year. For the boys there\nare the following shops, each in charge of a master mechanic: printing, sheet-metal,\nplumbing, gas-engine, joinery, cabinet-assembly, pattern-making, mill-work, painting,\nand decorating. For the girls the work includes plain sewing, millinery, dressmaking,\n\n"}
{"page": 1051, "printed_page": "1039", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nSI X-TH REE-THREE\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n1039\n\nlaundry work, and cookery. Those boys who take the mmimum time for this work during\nthese two years are given the choice of shops, so far as conditions will permit. The same\nprinciple holds with those who take the maximum amount, except that no pupil is allowed\nto spend more than ten weeks in any one of these shops during this period. The aim here\nis to test special interest and ability, to give some insight into the trade field, and to give\nsuch hand training as is consistent with the maturity of the pupil. In so far as this aim\nis realized, such a pupil, if obliged to leave school at the end of his eighth year, will have\nreceived some training for his work that will be comparable in value to the preparation\ngiven the boy who is to have the advantages of a full high-school course. If on the other\nhand he is to continue in school along trade lines, he will be much more able to select\nintelligently his special trade.\nEnglish^ incl'uding spelling, writing, grammar, composition, and literature. — ^This work\nis required of all pupils during the first two years. Those pupils, however, who give the\nmaximum time to the manual training and the household arts after the first half-year,\nspend less school time on technical grammar and literature than do the other pupils.\nSuch pupils are required, however, to read outside of school hours a certain amount of\ngood literature. The texts for this are assigned by the teacher, who guides and directs\nthe reading, and who at certain intervals discusses with these pupils the significant points\nin the literature read. It is interesting to note how already these pupils are associating\nthe reading of a good book with the leisure time in the home.\nArithmetic. — ^This subject is required of all pupils during the first two years. After\nthe first half-year, those who are taking the maximum time in the manual training and\nhousehold arts find their application of the principles in connection with this manual\nwork. In like manner those who are interested rather in business or commercial lines\nfind their special application in the different phases of business arithmetic.\nDrawing. — This is required of all pupils during the first two years. The emphasis\nis put upon the mechanical or freehand drawing, according to the nature of the other\nwork of the pupil.\nGeography. — This is required of all pupils during the first year. Commercial geography isalso taken during the entire second year by those who are putting special emphasis\nupon the business or commercial work.\nUnited States history, civics, and current topics. — These are required of all pupils\nduring the first two years.\nElementary science and physical education. — ^These are required of all pupils during\nthe first two years.\nMusic. — This is required of all pupils during th6 first half-year; of all except those\nwho are taking the maximum time in the manual training and household arts during\nthe second half-year; and of those pupils only who plan to go on to the upper high school\nduring the second year.\nForeign language, Latin, or German. — ^This is allowed at the beginning of the second\nyear for those pupils who plan to enter the language courses of the upper high school.\nGeneral mathematics. — This course includes arithmetic, concrete geometry, and elementary principles in algebra. It is taken during the second year and is designed to prepare more helpfully for the specialized courses of mathematics of the upper high school.\nThe school day begins at 8:30 and closes at 4:15, with one and one-quarter hours for\nnoon intermission. This gives a school day of six and one-half hours, which is an increase\nof more than 20 per cent over the usual length of the school day in the elementary school.\nThis day is divided into four periods of one hour and thirty minutes each. This length of\nperiod has two advantages. In the first place it allows time for definite training in the\npreparation of lessons. In the second place, it makes possible a less abrupt transition\nfrom the single-teacher plan of the elementary grades to the fully departmentalized work\nof the upper high school, by having subject groups rather than single subjects taught\nby certain teachers. For example, Latin, English grammar, and composition are taught\n\n"}
{"page": 1052, "printed_page": "1040", "text": "I040\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nby the same teacher, while English literature, United States history, civics, and current\ntopics are taught by another teacher.\nA review of the above requirements for the first two years of this junior high school,\ncorresponding to the seventh and eighth grades of the regular grammar school, makes\nclear the following:\n1. That during the first half-year all pupils are required to take the same course.\nThis gives a half-year in which to consult the home and study the entire elementaryschool record of each pupil before making any attempt to meet individual needs thru\ndifferentiated courses.\n2. That during the remainder of the first year a very conservative differentiation is\nmade. This affords a half-year in which to verify the assignment before the sharper\ndifferentiation of the second year takes place.\n3. That the final choice as to course does not come until the completion of the second\nyear. This is the time when precisely this kind of a choice must be made by the pupil\nwho completes the grammar-grade work. At this time the pupils who have emphasized\nthe manual-training or the household-arts work under the differentiations previously\nallowed are free to enter the college-preparatory courses of the upper high school if they\nso desire. They will not have had the foreign-language nor the general mathematics\ncourses of the eighth year, but even so they will be quite as well prepared for this work\nas are the graduates of the regular grammar schools. This is not an opinion, but a statement of fact based upon five years of experience in the Rochester Shop School for Boys.\n4. That aside from the foreign language of the second year all subjects are substantially those now commonly offered to seventh- and eighth-grade pupils.\n5. That no specialized commercial subjects, such as shorthand and bookkeeping,\nare offered during the first two years. Those pupils who show special interest in the commercial work offered are simply given a preparation for later specialized commercial\nsubjects thru a partial application of arithmetic and English, for example, to business\npractice. This is regarded as most helpful for the pupil whether he goes into the commercial courses of the upper high school or into the business ofl&ce upon the completion of\nthe junior high-school work.\n6. That no pupil is allowed to center his interest upon any specialized trade during\nthe first two years. The maximum time spent in this line necessitates work in at least\nsix different shops. Such a provision is designed to bring out vocational interest, to give\nsome insight into the trade field, and to give such elementary hand training as is consistent with the maturity of the pupil.\n7. That all boys during the first two years are receiving their manual training thru\nthe working out of practical problems in various shops. This gives a purpose or a motive\nto the work which is of value in awakening both vocational and cultural interests. The\nboys who later are to go on to the language courses of the upper high school are working\nin the same shops as are the boys who are to go later into the trades. They are simply\nspending less time in these shops, because they have less need for this work. The same\nprinciple holds with the girls in the household-arts work.\n8. That in short the whole work of these two years is preparatory and prevocational.\nThe simple attempt is made to provide a range of facilities and a sufficient amount of\ntime to bring out special aptitudes and then to give such development of these aptitudes\nas is consistent. Thus when the time comes for the pupil to decide upon his high-school\ncourse or upon his course in the world he will have received some insight into the vocational\nsphere, whether professional, business, or industrial, in which he will later find himself.\nThe attempt to avoid premature specialization and yet bring out and develop individual aptitudes has not been confined to courses of study. It has been applied to the\ntask of selecting and training teachers as well as to the methods of organizing the school.\nThe selection of teachers for such a school is at the same time the most important\nand the most difficult probleir which presents itself. Assuming that teaching experience\n\n"}
{"page": 1053, "printed_page": "1041", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nSIX-THREE-THREE\n\nORGANIZATION\n\n1 04 1\n\nis indispensable, the choice lies between the experienced high-school teachers with college\ntraining and the experienced grade teachers, usually without such training. The former\nwill be strong in subject knowledge but not so strong in their knowledge of seventh- and\neighth-grade boys and girls. They will furthermore be inclined to regard work in the\njunior high school as offering less advanced positions, even tho salary conditions are the\nsame. The latter will be less strong in subject knowledge but stronger in their practical\nknowledge of upper-grade children. They will furthermore regard work in the junior\nhigh school as an advancement, and will be conscious of the need of supplementary\ntraining. This attitude of mind speaks volumes in favor of the experienced grade teachers.\nOnce it was decided to select experienced grade teachers, the problem of intelligent\nselection presented itself. Accordingly, one year before the junior high school was to\nopen, a series of Saturday morning institutes was begun. Classes were organized in\nLatin, German, English, elementary science, and mathematics. These were for applicants\nfor teaching positions in the academic course. Specially trained teachers were available\nfor the commercial and household- and industrial-arts courses, tho Saturday morning\ninstitutes were organized and carried on thru the year in these courses also. The major\nemphasis in these latter was on courses of study.\nTo these courses every experienced grade teacher in the system who met the minimum\nrequirements and who cared to apply was admitted. Every applicant for a position as\nteacher of mathematics in the junior high school was required to have had, for example,\nthe full mathematics courses of the upper high school. To continue with this subject of\nmathematics as illustrative of the principle which prevailed in these institutes, three\ndefinite things were accomplished. In the first place, an opportunity was given for\ndrawing up in outline a course of study in general mathematics for the eighth grade or\nsecond-year junior-high-school pupils of the academic course. It was exceedingly important that this should be done and that it should be done with great care, since this course\nwas to prepare the pupil for the specialized mathematics courses of the upper high school.\nFurthermore, no textbook had been written to meet this particular condition. Had we\nconfined ourselves to the arithmetic, or taken the straight high-school course in algebra,\nthe task would have been simple. The institute was in charge of the head of the department of mathematics in the high school to which the pupils of this particular junior\nhigh school would later go. He knew the high-school needs and was naturally in a position\nto indicate the best line of preparation. In the institute class, on the other hand, were\nthe experienced grade teachers with their knowledge of the capacity and limitations of\nupper-grade pupils. These seemed to be favorable conditions for working out courses\nof study. The working-out of such courses, therefore, was one important thing to be done\nin these institutes. In the second place, these institutes gave to the grade teachers an\nopportunity for subject-matter review in algebra and geometry. And, lastV, the work\nof the teachers in these institutes constituted one important factor in the ultimate selection of teachers. What has been said of this course in general mathematics was equally\ntrue in principle of each of the other courses.\nThe general organization of the school can be presented with comparative brevity.\nThere are no departmental heads as we know them in the usual high-school organization.\nAt the head of the school stands the principal, a strong, experienced grammar-school\nman. Associated with him and giving his whole time to the instructional side is a director\nof junior-high-school academic work. He also is an experienced grammar-school principal\nof exceptional ability in this particular field. His task is to relate and co-ordinate the\nacademic work of the entire school, regardless of the department in which it is given.\nThis makes for unity and it greatly facilitates the transfer of pupils from one course to\nanother when there is a demonstrated need. One man is in general charge of the shops,\none woman has the corresponding place in the household-arts work, and the director of\ncommercial education for the entire system is taking immediate charge of the commercial\ndepartment.\n\nThe high-school departmental heads who carried thru the institute work\n\n"}
{"page": 1054, "printed_page": "1042", "text": "I042\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nof last year are consulting engineers. Their interest has been pronounced and their contributions important. In fact, in the main they are coming to the school for a regular\nperiod each day, there to teach a class of eighth-grade pupils, while the regular teacher\nand often the director of academic work are present also to offer their contributions\nand assistance: such is the desire of these high-school men to know at first hand the\npowers and limitations of the grade pupil. This ought to contribute much to the solution of another commonly recognized problem, that of securing a closer working relation\nbetween the upper grades and the high schools.\nThis is an exceedingly simple type of organization and it will doubtless impress some\nas being too simple. On the other hand, those who are familiar with the usual departmental work of the upper high school, which only too often becomes compartmental, will\nfind at least a partial defense for the plan outlined above. As later junior high schools\nare organized in Rochester, this director of academic work will extend his field as the\nunifying force for all, and such additional sub-directors will be assigned as experience\nproves desirable.\nIn conclusion, Rochester submits the following defense for this junior high school:\n1. It has thus far increased by 15 per cent the number of pupils who have remained\nfor eight years of work. This argues well for the reduction of eliminations from the seventh\nand eighth grades.\n2. It has increased from 51 per cent to 94^ per cent the number of pupils who have\ncompleted the eight years of work and who are still remaining in school.\n3. It has, thus far, produced a much saner distribution of high-school pupils. Whereas\nthe distribution of all our high-school pupils is 66 per cent in the general or collegepreparatory courses, 27 per cent in commercial courses, and only 7 per cent in the industrial\nand household-arts courses, the distribution of ninth-year pupils in the junior high school\nis 33 per cent in the general or college-preparatory courses, 33 per cent in the commercial\ncourses, and 34 per cent in the industrial- and household-arts courses. We believe this\nto be a significant change, whether viewed from the standpoint of the distribution of vocational activities in the community or from the standpoint of a distribution that will give\nmaximum training benefits to the pupils themselves. No one can say that this one- third\nin the general or college-preparatory course includes all pupils who might gain the maximum benefit from this course. On the other hiand, no one familiar with the great mortality\namong first-year pupils in this course under the traditional distribution, and also familiar\nwith the number of those who do remain and who seemingly fail to derive benefits commensurate with the time and energy spent in these courses, can be very apprehensive\nlest general culture will suffer under this changed distribution.\nIt would obviously be unreasonable to draw any conclusions concerning the merits\nof this school with less than a year of actual experience upon which to base such conclusions. Furthermore, one could not defend tracing the greatly increased number of pupils\nwho are remaining for ninth-year work to any single cause, such, for example, as the\ndifferentiated courses. Changed economic conditions in the community may be an\nimportant factor here. The least that can be said, however, is that the experience thus\nfar indicates that this junior high school will prove th be an educational investment that\nwill pay abundant returns.\n\nTHE\n\nDETERMINATION\n\nHENRY\n\nSNYDER,\n\nOF EDUCATIONAL\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nJERSEY\n\nPOLICIES\nCITY,\n\nN.\n\nJ.\n\nThe prevalence of public discussion of the aims and work of the public schools, discussion, bythe way, which is often needlessly virulent, is due not only to the demands\nof changing social and industrial conditions, as has often been observed, but to what\nhas not always been kept in mind by school men, that is, to the wider diffusion of education\n\n"}
{"page": 1055, "printed_page": "1043", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nDETERMINATION\n\nOF EDUCATIONAL\n\nPOLICIES\n\n1043\n\namong the people and to the consequently larger body of individuals who are capable of\npresenting and advocating progressive educational policies.\nThese discussions necessarily take the form of criticism of the school policies which\nhave been followed and of those who have approved of or presented them. It is true that\nin the past those who have been connected with the professional staffs, the superintendents\nand teachers, have been largely responsible for the policies which have governed educational departments, simply and solely because their professional knowledge and experience\nhave led their communities to expect and require this leadership of them. A consideration\nof the provisions of state school codes and of the laws governing the management of\nschool districts discloses the fact, remarkable in view of the practice which has been\nfollowed and which has been mentioned, that state school laws do not, except in a very\nfew cases, give superintendents power to fix policies. When such power is given, it is\ngenerally bestowed by means of local rules, which can be revoked at any time. I need\ncite only such familiar but important illustrations as the determination and modification\nof courses of study, the fixing of the standard of the qualifications of teachers, and of the\nmethods of selecting teachers. The responsibility of the superintendent may therefore\nbe said to be one that is not imposed by law, but one that is personal and informal.\nIn spite of this limitation of their statutory powers, and in spite of their well-known and\njustifiable conservatism, it is undoubtedly true that superintendents and teachers have\ngenerally responded quickly and effectively to progressive public demands, and that,\nwhere such demands have not met with favorable response, they have met irremovable\nfinancial or other obstructions, or have been opposed by the traditional views of those\nwho remembered the details of their own training and who were influential in educational\ncounsels. Then, too, it must be remembered that communities are not tolerant of educational mistakes, particularly if they involve financial expense. The great industrial\nconcerns of the country and the great business houses do not hesitate to spend thousands\nof dollars in experimentation, involving oftentimes the relentless consignment to the\nscrap-heap of machinery, of devices, and plans, and schemes, all of which have been costly?\nwhich have been demonstrated by experiment to be failures, but which have also been\nthe steps which have led to progress. No such freedom is permitted to the superintendent*\nnor should there be complaint that this is so, for he is dealing, not with lifeless material*\nbut with the future lives of human beings; yet the contrast is cited here to indicate the\nlimitation upon his opportunities for educational usefulness. His progress must necessarily be safe and slow. In view of all the circumstances, is it not a tribute to the capabilities ofthe superintendents and teachers of the country, and, at the same time, evidence\nof the confidence of the people in them, that they have been permitted to lead in fixing\nand maintaining educational policies ?\nCircumstances of their employment have forced school men to study changing conditions which surround the young, and to watch for signs which indicated the necessity of\nchanges in policy. Consequently most of the important changes whose aim has been the\nlinking up of school work with the practical affairs of life have, been the result of their\ninitiative. On the other hand, many of the so-called fads have found their way into the\nschools because of external pressure.\nIn the study of the formulation or determination of educational policies, there is\none truth which we cannot escape. School men are not only employed and paid to instruct\nthe young or to direct such instruction, but are required by the very terms of their\nemployment to keep themselves accurately informed regarding the external conditions\nwhich necessitate changes in the character, extent, duration of instruction, and operation\nof the schools. It is as inevitable, therefore, as it is appropriate, that they should always\nparticipate in fixing school poUcies. On the other hand, the layman, who, tho he may\nbe interested in the work of the schools, is deeply and vitally interested in his own personal\nand professional interests, has not generally the time to study educational problems, and\nis not and cannot be required to co-operate.\n\n"}
{"page": 1056, "printed_page": "1044", "text": "I044\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nAnd yet, it is very desirable that the co-operation of the intelligent, observant citizen\nbe secured. This adaptation of school work to the subsequent living and industrial\nconditions of the pupil, of which so much is said and which is so important, calls for a\ncareful study of occupations, of the qualifications which parents and employers and the\nfuture careers of children demand. So diverse are occupations, and so intricate are the\ninterrelations of industrial and professional pursuits, that it is not safe for the school\nman to rely wholly upon his own reasoning or observation for his conclusions. He is\nfortimate if he has the aid of an educational investigation or survey which has been made\nin a thoro and systematic way. Even in this event he cannot always feel secure, because\nthe surveyors, whether they are experienced in teaching or supervision or not, must base\ntheir conclusions on their own standards, which are not the same in all cases, and which\nfrequently provoke as many protests from different sources as the subjects of the investigations themselves. In such cases one is tempted to ask: \"Who will survey the surveyors ?\" If he has not such aid, and this is usually the case, he must invoke the suggestions\nof interested citizens, but must be sure that those who co-operate have as broad a view\nof the educational field, are as enthusiastic in purpose, and as eager to secure full and\naccurate information, as he.\nIn this part of the discussion, I have had in mind largely the policies which concern\nmatters of instruction; but there are others which concern the general operation or\nmanagement of schools, in the determination of which the layman must assist. They\nmay be national in scope, such as policies regarding compulsory school attendance, and\nthe closely allied question of child labor — policies which are so involved in the industries\nand in the interests of employers, and which so affect not only the lives of children but\nthe prices of commodities, that it is desirable that the laws regarding them should be\nuniform. There are others which are of state- wide application, such as the financial\nsupport of the state school system. Others still are only of local application. It is obvious\nthat the school man cannot alone satisfactorily decide the many questions involved. It\nis obvious, also, that the citizens consulted in the discussion of these questions must\npossess widely different, but thoro qualifications.\nIt is not necessary for me to say that we must seek the aid of the educational theorist,\nwhom it is as popular for the layman to decry as it is common for us to applaud him.\nHe has always been, and still is, of incalculable value to schools and school systems.\nI need not cite historical illustrations. They are familiar to all. All must remember that\nthere must be a theory before there can be a policy.\nState school codes are only bundles of school policies. Most of them are accumulations, made gradually in the development and expansion of school systems, and dictated\nby experience. A few are the products of prolonged and deliberate study conducted by\npersons specially selected for the purpose, who consulted many kinds of interested individuals. In these cases the methods followed were quite similar. When I read these\nand at the same time remember that the method of their formulation was practically\nthe same, I wonder why they differ in so many important respects. It may be said that\nthe conditions in the several states concerned demanded different policies, or that there\nwere customs or traditions which could not be obliterated. While these explanations\nmay apply in some cases, they cannot apply in all. I fear that in many cases the policies\nadopted represent the preponderating views of the framers of the codes, and it may be\nsaid that this is, to some extent at least, inevitable. This consideration would lead one\nto the conclusion that it is hopeless to expect a imiformity in statement or application\nin respect even to policies in which there should be no variation. It may be said that\nit does not matter if there is wide difference, but there is actually much error and consequent injury to the schools. When we consider the present rapid progress in the work\nof the schools, the intense attention which the people are devoting to them, the spirit of\ninquiry which permeates them, the many thoro and profitable educational investigations\nwhich are in progress, is it too much to hope that it will be possible for a body of well-\n\n"}
{"page": 1057, "printed_page": "1045", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF FOREIGNERS\n\nFOR CITIZENSHIP\n\n1045\n\nqualified persons representing the schools and all other important interests, school men\nand laymen, to create a school code for the states which in general may be considered best\nfor all, and which may make provision for exceptions demanded by local conditions and\nunalterable customs or traditions ?\nWe are all famihar with the ideal schools and school systems which the imaginations\nof educational theorists have created,^ and know how impossible it has been to achieve\nthem practically; but they have served a valuable purpose in furnishing ideals. So also a\nschool code constructed as suggested and embodying the views and reflecting the experience, not of a single individual, but of many, would have the merit of expressing soimd\neducational and public policy, would combine in one performance the labor and expense\nwhich otherwise would be duplicated many times, and would furnish an ideal which\nmany might not reach, but which all would strive to approach.\nAt present there is an unnecessary clashing of interests and opinions. There must\nbe some effective way of reaching correct conclusions in educational matters, of adopting\nsound policies, of checking up the school man's opinions and conclusions with those of\nthe layman, the man who is directly interested, as parent or employer, in the product\nof the schools. Just now, where there is collision and controversy, the question is usually,\n\"Who shall determine educational policy?\" An unnecessary question! The question\nought to be, \"How can the efforts of all thoughtful people be so combined as to lead to\nreliable conclusions?\"\nTHE\nRAYMOND\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF FOREIGNERS\n\nFOR AMERICAN\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\nF. CRIST, DEPUTY COMMISSIONER OF NATURALIZATION, BUREAU\nTION, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT\nOF LABOR, WASHINGTON,\n\nOF NATURALIZAD.C.\n\nYou superintendents represent 19 cities, each of over 250,000 population. Your\ncities contained, at the time of the last census, 4,832,150 foreigners, while in the states\nincluding the cities there was a population of 15,561,680. Since that time, 3,000,000\nforeigners have taken up permanent residence in this country. The bulk of these foreigners will be found in your cities. From this you can see that the burden of the work,\njudged by numbers, is upon you. The burden of the work in its complexity, in addition\nto its numbers, is also upon you. For example, when I learned that in one of the large\ncities of this country one school district covers 90 square miles; that the people live in\nvans; that in one school with an annual registration of 4,000 there were more than 4,000\ntransferees to and out of the school; that it takes hours to go from one part of the school\ndistrict to another; that even in the largest cities the school authorities are hampered\nfor lack of funds — when I learned these and many other startling facts regarding the\nconditions under which you are all laboring, and against which you are struggling, I\ncommenced to realize that upon you, in the largest cities, rests the greatest burden. The\nlargest cities, with their inherent power, are really more unprepared to deal with the\nschool problems than many of the smaller cities and towns. For example, the superintendent ofschools of a small town was visited by one of our chief examiners, and they\ndiscussed this plan of national preparedness. Without any hesitation the superintendent\nof schools got out into the community and in forty-eight hours had secured an enrohnent\nof over sixty adult foreigners — almost the entire adult foreign population — had obtained\nthe volunteer service of the teachers in sufficient numbers to carry on this work, and funds\nfrom private sources to finance the work; and now Gulfport, Miss., is in line with the\nother 600 cities and towns thruout the country that are teaching citizenship preparedness,\nwhile the Bureau of Naturalization is each month sending to them the names of all foreigners who apply for citizenship.\nIn Clarksburg, W.Va., without any funds, without any teachers, without any specific\nauthority for the opening of night schools, the superintendent, after a conference with one\nof our chief examiners, started a local campaign, and in an incredibly short time secured\n\n"}
{"page": 1058, "printed_page": "1046", "text": "jo^5\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nIDetroit\n\nthe\nthe volunteer teachers, secured the fund?, and opened the night schools; and now\ncitizenship\nteaching\nblast\nfull\nworking\nnight schools for adult foreigners in that city are\nsecured\npreparedness. They also, under the plan of the Bureau of Naturalization, have\nthe attendance of the immigrants who are not candidates for citizenship.\nThese things may be done in the smaller cities, but for you— you in the larger cities—\nyour position is thoroly understood by us in the federal government. The national\ngovernment can do all things incumbent upon it; but, when the time comes to do an\nindividual thing, it is never accomplished except by the hardest struggles and fights, and\nmost complete mastery of every detail of it. Congress opposes us until we show absolute\ngilt-edge cause for an appropriation to be made, and so it is with you. You are part of a\ntremendous municipal organization. You may have to show two hundred cents of returns\nfor every dollar that you get. You are not contractors for, or builders of, public buildings; you are not those who can display, as the result of their efforts, public monuments.\nYou belong to that underpaid, overworked, most intelligent, loyal, and faithful body of\nmen and women who are striving to build ideals, intangible, indefinite, but nevertheless\npersonal, ideals. Your results, tho not as visible as the city skyscrapers, are, nevertheless, far more forceful in maintaining the integrity of our social, political, moral, and\nindustrial fabric.\nA call has been made from various parts of the country for contributions from the\ngovernment to maintain this work. While I have not given much thought to this, it\noccurs to me that if there should be any financial relief afforded it should be to the large\ncities. First, in your cities the foreign element is a menace. Vice grows up in its midst.\nThere the influences of foreign sovereignties, institutions, ideas, and ideals are strongest.\nHence, I say, any governmental aid should first be directed to the large centers which are\nteeming with foreign population.\nYou have 4,832,150 of the total foreign population. Generally speaking, 80 per\ncent of the students in the foreign classes owe no allegiance to- this country. We have\nbeen advised that, of the 4,000 enrolled in this city of Detroit, 95 per cent are non-citizens.\nThe greatest work that you can do in citizenship preparedness is to enlarge the intellectual capacity of these foreigners, and give them a better understanding of our institutions; inthis way you will arouse in them a desire for American citizenship to such an\nextent that they will come forward and make their applications.\nThe course in citizenship which the Bureau of Naturalization has placed in the hands\nof each school teacher in the United States, where it has been possible to do so, has been\nprepared largely by you indirectly, but directly in the Bureau of Naturalization on the\nbasis of your written reports of the work and of the courses of instruction which you have\nbeen giving to the foreigners for years past. It is intended to give to each individual foreigner a most intimate understanding of our government.\nYour teachers will tell you that each foreigner is intensely eager to learn everything\nand anything about America. You should have your teachers discuss citizenship.\nBring it into the limelight of the public-school curriculum. Keep it ever before the\nstudent body. Let them understand that the teacher is ready at any moment to assist\nthe foreigner who desires aid in filling out his preliminary naturalization papers.\nThe bureau has furnished a syllabus of the naturalization law to each school teacher\nwherever it knows that a foreign class exists. It has also furnished them with the preliminary naturalization forms. Now we want you to see to it that all teachers who have\nfailed to receive these forms are supplied with them. We want you to get into this\nwork and arouse their interest to the utmost.\nFrom one of the cities represented here today, word came to the Bureau of Naturalization that co-operation would be deferred until next year. After a conference with one\nof the representatives of the Bureau of Naturalization, however, the superintendent of\nschools agreed to co-operate immediately, and the newspaper reports received from that\ncity show that over 5,000 foreigners are enrolled in its citizenship classes. What has been\n\n"}
{"page": 1059, "printed_page": "1047", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATION\n\nOF FOREIGNERS\n\nFOR\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\ndone in one city can be done in all cities, if the same interest, the same detennination, the\nsame farsighted vision actuates you.\nSuperintendent Roberts, of Chicago, who is here today, recently stated that the\ngreatest difficulty in dealing with the education of adult foreigners was to get them into\nthe schools. Let me strongly emphasize the advantage to be gained from the free use\nof the student body in bringing into the night classes their compatriots and friends. Here\nthe common bond of one tongue will be found most effective and efficient. Thru them\nthe candidates for citizenship who do not respond because of timidity, diffidence, ignorance,\nand other reasons leading them to ignore the call of the United States government upon\nthem for their betterment, may be reached. Not only may they be reached by the\nmethod outlined, but also the immigrant who never has heretofore been reached by any\nconcerted action upon the part of the public-school authorities.\nThe Bureau of Naturalization sends the names of candidates for citizenship, upon\nindividual cards, to the superintendents of schools in every city and town co-operating\nwith it. At the same time, it sends a personally addressed letter to each candidate and\nanother to his wife, whose name has also been sent to the school authorities on a separate\ncard. The face of the card affords an opportunity for an educational rating for the use\nof the Bureau of Naturalization as well as for the public schools, and spaces are provided\nfor information with regard to the candidate and his wife. The card [shown below] will\nbe seen upon examination to afford a complete means for a full record regarding each\ncandidate.\n\nNATURALIZATION EDUCATIONAL\nForm Nat. Ed. i\nUnited States Department of Labor\nBureau of Naturalization\nName\nResidence\nOccupation\nNationalty\n\nRECORD\n(City)\nv,\n(Name\nof;'A'^\"i\\\nSchool)\nAge\nArrived in U.S\nDecln. of Int.\n\nSchool Record\nrist year.\nDate of school entrance/ ,\n\\2d\nyear.\nName of wife .\n\nLength of attendance! \\ 2d,year\n\n. .^\nnights\n\nEducational Rating of Declarant\nAt EntranceIlliterate\n\nAt Entrance\nYes\nNo\n\nSpeaks English\n(See note)\n\nReads in native language Yes\nNo\n\nReads English\n(See note)\n\nWrites in native language\nYes\nNo\n\nWrites English\n(See note)\n\nEnd of ist Year\n\nEnd of 2d Year\n\nPrpvioin; f^Hiiratinn\n\nNote.— Show WelI=W., Fdr=F., Poor=P., None=N.\n\nWhen the cards are received from the Bureau of Naturalization, they should be\ndistributed according to the addresses which they show to the local buildings in the most\nappropriate way, according to the local conditions. When received in the school buildings, they should be circulated thru the classrooms until each teacher has taken all of the\ncards which relate to the students in his class. The names on the remaining cards will\n\n"}
{"page": 1060, "printed_page": "1048", "text": "1048\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nbe those of the candidates for citizenship who have failed to respond to the call made to\nthem by the United States government to go to school. They should be read to the\nstudent body, the names of acquaintances assigned to the various members, and assignments made by nationalities of the remaining names. The teachers should inspire the\nstudents in their classes with enthusiasm in securing the attendance of their friends and\ncompatriots whose names are upon the cards. They should also be inspired to bring in\ntheir friends of the immigrant body who do not come forward either for citizenship or\nfor education. By following out this system persistently to the last analysis, the contact\nand the influence for good of the public schools will be broadened in a way never heretofore felt, and extended into a field never before entered.\nThe public schools in the large cities generally run not more than nine months in the\nyear. The Bureau of Naturalization believes that the highest co-operation with the\npublic schools only can be obtained when the schools remain open the year round. Superintendent Condon, of Cincinnati, told me recently that the public schools under his supervision would maintain citizenship classes thruout the year.\nThe citizenship classes are the ones in which the Bureau of Naturalization is, of\ncourse, primarily interested. The Bureau contains experts on all citizenship matters.\nIt is the duly constituted authority upon these matters, by act of Congress. It has been\ncalled upon by the superintendents of schools, including those of the largest cities, to\nprepare a course, and take the lead in this citizenship educational work. I have personally\nhad this appeal made to me in various parts of the country by superintendents of schools\nin the largest cities.\nWe do not intend to become educators ourselves, for that is a task which is well\nplaced with the public schools of the entire country. But we are offering the support\nof the national government, and its expert knowledge and acquaintance with the foreign\nelements of the country, as it relates to citizenship. The Department of Labor and the\nBureau of Immigration, with its thoro familiarity with and authority in all matters\nrelating to the immigrant, offers this aid likewise.\nThis is a gigantic task, but it can be accomplished, and accomplished in accordance\nwith the highest expectations, if we secure your co-operation. It can be extended and\nshould be extended into the day work in the upper-grade schools and the high schools,\nso that the native-born Americans may be given an opportunity, for the first time in the\nhistory of the country, to receive training in that highest of all professions, the profession of\nself-government. As you well know, all other professions open to men and women have\nbeen given the best consideration in training that it is possible for the best minds to\nproduce; but it remains for you of the public schools of the entire country to co-operate\nwith the United States government in perfecting a training for this great profession and\ncalling of self-government.\nThe course which the Bureau of Naturalization has submitted to you is admitted to\nhave imperfections. It is open to criticism. We desire and want your criticism. We\nwant the best results to be obtained. We want you to apply it thoroly in the public\nschools under your supervision, and then we wish to have the benefit of your experience\nin constructive criticism of it. It is new in its application to the adult. It comes\nfrom the United States government to you. You have been asking for governmental\nhelp. It is offered to you, and the subject of which it treats is indeed well worth while.\nWe are planning to hold a convention of you superintendents, officers, and teachers\nof the public schools, not only from the largest cities but from all of the cities and towns\nwhere the public schools are co-operating with the national government. We expect\nto have this convention in Washington during the week immediately following the National\nEducation Association convention in New York. The great purpose of this convention\nis to afford you an opportunity to perfect a textbook for the use of the student body and,\nif the plans of the Bureau of Naturalization carry, it will present a copy of this book to\neach alien student who is a candidate for citizenship and attends the public schools.\n\n"}
{"page": 1061, "printed_page": "1049", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nROUND\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nIO49\n\nTABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES WITH\nA POPULATION BETWEEN 25,000 AND 250,000\n\nCOMMUNITY\nFRED\n\nM.\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nHUNTER,\n\nAS A MEANS\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nOF MOTIVATION\nLINCOLN,\n\nNEBR.\n\nDr. Ayres says that the mortality from the ninth grade to the twelfth grade in 386\ncities of the country averages over 70 per cent, that for every 1,000 pupils entering, 56\ncomplete the prescribed course of the school system. The survey of the Massachusetts\nIndustrial Commission concluded that over 70 per cent of those who leave school at an\nearly age in the industrial cities of Massachusetts do so because of indifference toward\nschool and not because of poverty or economic necessity. Alice P. Burrows finds, in a survey made in the Borough of Manhattan, below Fourteenth Street, of the families of children\nleaving school at an early age, that 67 per cent leave because of dislike of school, not\nbecause of poverty. It is evident that some unit of the school organization must adapt\nitself to bring the new generation of each needy group to the fullest and best ideals oi\nAmerican life and citizenship. This is the meaning of the revolution taking place before\nour very eyes. Why the establishment of an elaborate and expensive system of industrial\neducation ? Why the growth of those testing laboratories of taste and inclination — the\nprevocational groups and schools ? Why a system of vocational guidance ? Why special\ntreatment for the subnormals and retarded? Why systems of double promotion and\nvarying rates of progress from class to class, breaking up the old lockstep system ? Why\ndifferentiated courses and special schools? All because the doctrine of social service is\nbecoming the underlying principle of our educational philosophy.\nThe question is clearly before the classroom teacher. There is a creed of service —\nlet me give it in the words of the great Dewey:\nI believe that all education proceeds by participation of the individual in the social\nconsciousness of the race.\nI believe that the only true education comes thru the stimulation of the child's\npowers by the demands of the social situations in which he finds himself.\nI believe that the school must represent present life — life as real and vital to the child\nas that which he carries on in his home, in the neighborhood, or on the playground.\nI believe that, education being a social process, the school is simply that form of\ncommunity life in which all those agencies are concentrated that will be most effective\nin bringing the child to share in the inherited resources of the race and to use his own\npowers for social ends.\nThe apostle of this creed measures success by asking: \"How much do I know about\nthis group of children? What are their physical characteristics, home environment,\nand social inheritance ? What are their previous records and natural tendencies ? How\ncan I make the school of most service to them ? What can I do that I have not done\nthat will bring out the best there is in them and lead them to be efficient men and\nwomen?\"\nThe adoption by the classroom teacher of this socialized creed means the socialization\nof the classroom processes. The over-activity and over-talkativeness of the teacher is\nno longer the chief stimulus to individual growth. The skill of the teacher shows itself\nrather in the resourceful guidance of a group of minds actively engaged in solving a real\nlife-problem; in directing these minds in research and the collection of data; in leading\ntheir criticism of one another to correct estimation of values, and to formation of sound\njudgments and conclusions. The major activity of the classroom becomes an interplay of the minds of the pupils, instead of a stereotyped test of memory of subject-matter,\nwith the predominant initiative and activity on the part of the teacher. A belief in the\ncreed of service and its adoption by the teacher is synonymous with the socialization of\nthe classroom process.\n\n"}
{"page": 1062, "printed_page": "1050", "text": "I050\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\nThe life of any community is teeming with activities about which children think,\ntalk, and form conclusions in their life outside of the schoolroom. They use their own\ninitiative in handling such problems as apply to their own welfare or happiness; their\nestimate of values and their judgments are tnily their own. Thus practice which later\nlife demands as a preparation for its weightier questions is furnished.\nDr. Dewey tells of a swimming-school in which the pupils learned the process by\ngoing thru the motions of swimming in a perfect manner. A graduate of this school was\nasked what he did when he got into the water. His laconic reply was \"Sunk.\" If we\nare to do more than the swimming instructor, our classrooms must come to represent\nsomething more than they ever have in the past. They must use as the chief material of\ninstruction the problems of real community life which surround the school on every side.\nThe real basis of instruction must be participation in these activities. Thinking as it is\ndone in later life must be begun in the schoolroom in the consideration of these problems\nand activities; in collection and organization of data upon phases of them; in the choice\nof the real values to be used in their solution; and in the formation of right conclusions\nconcerning them. The formal subject-matter must have only an incidental relationship\nto this main end; it must be used as a factor and an active aid in the process, but it can\nnever take a real place as a fundamental factor if it is regarded as merely a store of information laid up for future use.\nTwo types of motivation problems should enter prominently into our classroom\nactivities: first, those which have to do directly with the life and career of the individual\nchild; second, those which have to do with the co-operation of a large number of children\nthinking, acting, and working out their ideals in a group.\nThe proper use of the first type of problem derived from outside life constitutes\nvocational or educational guidance; the second, training for citizenship. No schoolroom,\nno school system, can realize the modern ideal of service, can apply the Christian doctrine\nof the Good Samaritan, without the universal use of both.\nLet me suggest a few examples of the way in which motivation has affected the\nindividual child. The following paragraph is a sample written in connection with the\ndaily practice paragraph writing in English composition by a sixth-grade boy, the son\nof a Russo-German barkeeper. The study of the businesses of the town surrounding his\nschool community inspired the ideal expressed by this boy.\nMy Aim\n\nMy aim for the future is to have a business some day and to be useful to my city.\nTherefore, I am trying to prepare for that now. That is what everybody should aim for.\nOne should know how to handle his business. This comes only in one's school daysyouth's precious days— and everybody can get a good education, become well trained,\nand become a reliable man some day.\n\nAs an example of English expression, this does not rate exactly as a classic, but it\ndoes represent a type of vital stimulation of thought which in this particular case resulted\nin this boy's remaining in school for a high-school career. He is now working his way\nthru the high school, and bids fair, as he says in his paragraph, to become useful to his\ncity some day.\n\nListen to this paragraph from a thirteen-year-old girl in the seventh grade, who has\nbeen thinking along right lines without the slightest suggestion of squeamish sentimentalism:\n\nWhat I Want to Be when I Am a Woman\nWhen I become a woman, I want to be a housewife. I have two main reasons,\ni^irst,\ncare for1 love\nthem.a home and enjoy caring for one; second, I enjoy children and also like to\n\nThis sort of motivation from one of the great and vital activities of life is surely\nworthy of a place in our schoolrooms.\n\n"}
{"page": 1063, "printed_page": "1051", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nIO5I\n\nHere is one from an eighth-grade boy, to whom a profession has become an object\nof serious thought. :\nMy Vocation\nI think I would like to be a doctor so I could help other people. I would work so\npeople thought my work was worth what I asked for it. In this way I think a person could\nbe a good citizen and serve his country. There is much suffering because people have\nnot the money to spend. In this case, I would follow my grandfather's idea and treat them\nfor nothing. He never became rich, but everybody loved him. Love is better than riches.\nWhat a world of possibilities presents itself to the social-minded teacher in the\ntranscription of this little oral composition given by a twelve-year-old boy in an English\nclass of a prevocational school in a city with a weU-developed system of motivation.\nThe First Money\n\nI Ever Earned\n\nAbout seven years ago my father was an engineer on the railroad. One night in a\nfierce snowstorm, he ran his train into another train and killed a man. They said that he\nwas not guilty because it was not his fault. He felt so bad and it worried him so that he\ngave up his job. He bought a ten-acre tract of land and we raised vegetables. In about\ntwo years, my father died. Mother says he died of a broken heart. After this my mother,\nmy little sister, and I worked very hard to raise the vegetables and my biggest brother\npeddled them. One evening mother called us all to her and told us we would have to give\nup the place and do something else as we could not go to school and keep up the place.\nShe said we had best sell and go downtown. We bought a home and mother takes in\nwashing and we children help her all we can.\nLast fall at fair time, as I was passing the fair grounds, I thought maybe if I asked\nthe manager for a job he would give me one. So I did. He told me to come the next\nmorning. I worked all week and made ten dollars. That was the first money I ever\nearned. I bought these clothes and my books and gave the little I had left to mother.\nI want to grow up to be an honest man. I want to earn enough to make me comfortable but not enough to make me unhappy. I would like to be an engineer, but every\ntime I mention it mother cries so I do not know for sure what I will do.\nWould it be safe to guess that a boy with an ideal of this kind would become a worthy\ncitizen ? Do you think it would be safe to risk this boy, grown to manhood, as a neighbor\nand fellow-townsman ?\nIn our town group-motivation has taken place largely thru two general methods of\nattack: first, thru some project undertaken in the classrooms of the junior-high-school\norganization; second, thru external organizations having to do with all of the schools of\nthe city. The classroom-project tj^e of motivation is well represented by this paragraph\nupon arithmetic work and its relation to other subjects by an eighth-grade girl of one of\nour schools. This school is located near a large addition to the city of Lincoln recently\nplatted and sold by real-estate promoters. The project was inspired by a visit of the class\nto this rapidly growing portion of the town.\nA new and practical plan has been developed in the arithmetic class of the Eighth A\nunder the direction of Miss Cooley and continued with Miss Snyder. The work is that\nof planning and building our own homes.\nThe first step of the work was that of choosing the lot and finding out the cost of it.\nThe size suggested by the teacher was 100 feet by 150 feet. In the English class, compositions were written on the subjects: \"Why I Chose This Lot,\" and \"Facts to Consider\nWhen Choosing a Lot.\"\nThe second step was making or copying plans for the house and \"lot arrangement.\"\nAt the same time a composition was written about \"The Value of Landscape Gardening,\"\nwhich showed the advantage of planning the arrangement of the lot compared with that\nof arranging the lot with little thought.\nIn the art class, the floor and side elevations will be made in the blueprint and the\n'\ninterior elevations will be in water colors.\nWhen the Eighth A's were figuring on excavation in the arithmetic class, the principal\nand the pupils visited a new building near the school where the excavation had just been\ncompleted. It was there the less important facts were acquired about the construction\nof homes.\nThe next step was the finding of pictures to illustrate the yard and interior views.\n\n"}
{"page": 1064, "printed_page": "1052", "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1052\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nWhen the plans are finished, all compositions completed, and the cost of all estiwill be put in book form, thus giving a complete semester's work\nmated, these articles\nin the arithmetic\nclass.\n. , ,\n,.,-,.,.\nj •„,,\n,\nThis class is the first to start such a practical plan which is believed will help the\nmen and women of tomorrow in their home-building problems.\nThe other type of motivation is represented by our school- and home-garden activities.\nSpring and summer gardening offer an endless resource, not only for the classroom but\nfor a multitude of educational activities outside of the classroom. The system which\nhas developed with us has included community gardens in eight of our schools and some\nI, GOO to 1,200 home gardens constructed by the pupils. The stimulus of this sort of motivation ishown by the group earnings at various occupations during the past summer in\neight of these schools:\nSchools\n\nGrades\n\nEarnings\n$2,284.49\n105.63\n\nI\n2\n\n4-8\n\n4\n\n6:::::::\":::::.:....\n7\n8\n\nI'-l\n\n2,799.83\n1,927.45\n3,454.42\n\n6-8\n\n5,184.32\n2,046.58\n3,582.82\n\nTotal\n\nThe more pronounced contribution, however, to our motivation has been our Junior\nCivic and Industrial League, which was organized February 5, 19 14, in accordance with a\nreport submitted by a special committee appointed by the Board of Directors of the\nLincoln Commercial Club.\nEach school having grades above the fifth has a club. All of these clubs constitute\nthe league.\nThe purposes of the organization are : (i) to study the civic and industrial life of\nthe city by first-hand observation; (2) to learn what opportunities the industrial life of\nthe city offers to young men; (3) to teach its members to think seriously and wisely concerning the various vocations studied; (4) to assist in preparing its members to take an\nactive and efficient place in these vocations; (5) to connect more closely the work of the\npublic schools with the life of the community; (6) to teach its members to aid effectively\nin meeting the civic needs of the community and to assist every civic institution in promoting the general welfare of our city.\nAny boy in the fifth grade or above may become a member of the club in his school\nupon committing to memory and reciting to his teacher the \"ephebic oath,\" which is\nas follows:\nWe will never bring disgrace to this our city by any act of dishonesty or cowardice.\nWe will fight for the ideals and sacred things of the city both alone and with many. We\nwill revere and obey the city's laws and do our best to incite a like respect and reverence\nin those above us who are prone to annul or set them at naught. We will strive unceasingly to quicken the pubUc's sense of civic duty. Thus in all these ways we will transmit\nthis\nto us.city not only not less but greater, better,- and more beautiful than it was transmitted\nEach Thursday morning at 9:30, some one of the clubs holds a half-hour meeting\nat the Commercial Club rooms. Such topics as \"The Clean-up Campaign,\" \"Playgrounds,\" and other movements of public interest were taken up and supported by the\nvarious clubs during the past year. Fifteen of the prominent business and professional\nmen have addressed the boys at these meetings. The character of the talks is indicated\nby the following list of topics:\n1. What constitutes a good citizen?\n2. How boys may become good citizens.\n3. How boys may help to make the city better, more beautiful, and more prosperous.\n\n"}
{"page": 1065, "printed_page": "1053", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nACTIVITIES\n\nIO53\n\n4. Necessity for some useful work.\n5. Respect for hard and useful work.\n6. Opportunity for boys in his (this particular business man's) line of business.\n7. What this line of business requires in the way of preparation.\n8. How to go about preparing specifically for this line of work.\nDuring the school year, the various clubs of the league made 122 visits to 36 of\nLincoln's business houses and civic institutions. These visits were distributed as follows:\nState Capitol (sessions of state legislature)\n12 visits\nPost-ofl&ce\n5\nCourt House\n4\nCity Hall\n3\nFire Department\n2\nUniversity Farm\n5\nUniversity Museiun\n2\nUnited States Weather Bureau\ni\nNebraska Daily State Journal Ofiice\n8\nLincoln Daily Star Office\ni\nLincoln Telephone Company\n9\nFirst National Bank\n7\nLincoln Safe Deposit Company (Lincoln Clearing House)\ni\nBankers Life Insurance Company\n2\nCushman Motor Works\n9\nHavelock Railroad Shops\n7\nLee Broom and Duster Company\n3\nHarpham Brothers Company\n3\nInternational Harvester Company\n>. . . . 6\nEnterprise Planing Mill Company\ni\nLincoln Flour Mills\n2\nGooch Milling Company\n4\nLincoln Packing Company\n3\nH. P. Lau, wholesale grocery\n3\nCurtis, Towle & Paine factory\ni\nBeatrice Creamery Company\n4\nRoberts Dairy Company\n4\nWoodruff Bank Note Company\n2\nWestern Glass and Paint Company\ni\nJacob North & Company\ni\nNebraska Buick Auto Company\ni\nVan Sickle Glass and Paint Company\ni\nLincoln Paint and Color Company\ni\nLincoln Box Factory\ni\nCapitol Grocery\ni\nLincoln Hotel\ni\nTotal\n\n122\n\nMembership in the various clubs of the league was as follows for 19 14-15:\nBancroft\n84\nBelmont\n20\nBryant\n97\nCapitol\n120\nClinton\n118\nElliott\n159\nEverett\n78\nHawthorne\n20\nHayward\n76\nHigh School\n324\nMcKinley\n67\nPark\n'.\n106\nPrescott\n126\nSaratoga\n^\n72\nWhittier\n116\nTotal\n\n1,583\n\n"}
{"page": 1066, "printed_page": "1054", "text": "io^4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\nAn organization among the girls similar to that of the boys held its meetings at the\ncity Y.W.C.A. The membership of the girls' league was 1,474. Their visits to civic and\nindustrial institutions numbered 105, distributed like the visits of the boys.\nThe projects undertaken by the clubs of these two leagues afforded genuine practice\nof the philosophy of good citizenship. During clean-up week the work of the Woman's\nClub, Commercial Club, and City Health Department committees was based upon a\nsurvey of the city made by the members of these leagues. Many of the unsightly and\nill-kept places of the city were cleaned up as a result of the work and the recommendations\nof these boys and girls.\nThe Efficiency List\nThe Lincoln Commercial Club, under the leadership of Secretary W. S. Whitten,\nand President C. C. Quiggle, (1913-14), H. K. Burket (1914-15), and Frank Richards\n(1915-16), has not only fathered and promoted the Junior Civic and Industrial League,\nbut has instituted within that organization a system of recognizing and rewarding merit\nin boyish education and accomplishment. Early in the year the following letter was\nsent to the business men of the city:\nLincoln, Nebraska\nDecember 26, 19 14\nMr. John Smith,\nLincoln, Nebraska\nDear Mr. Smith: As an employer of young men, you are interested in securing\nthose who can make themselves of most value to you and your business or profession.\nIt is likewise of vital interest not only to such young men themselves but to the city as a\nwhole that they be able to give the best possible service to their employers and prepare\nthemselves for continued efficiency and promotion.\nThere are in our schools many young men who must begin work at an early age.\nIt is the purpose of the public schools in connection with* the Lincoln Commercial Club\nto keep a permanent \"Efficiency List\" of such of these young men as may be able to\nreach a definite standard of reliability and efficiency. The list will be always available\nand will be sent from time to time to any business or professional man who desires it.\nOnly such boys as have on their merits shown the following qualifications are placed on\nthe list:\n1. An age of fourteen years\n2. Good Character\nAs shown by:\na) Truthfulness\nh) Obedience\nc) Industry\nd) Good Habits\nNote: — No boy shall be eligible who smokes or drinks. If a boy has been\na smoker, he shall show by a year's abstinence from this habit\nthat he has permanently given it up.\n3. Knowledge of Lincoln and Nebraska.\nAs shown by his ability to pass with a standing of 90 per cent a test given\nupon Lincoln and Nebraska.\n4. Ability to write a good business letter of one ordinary page in legible hand without\n^ error in spelling.\n5. Ability to express himself .in courteous yet concise and businesslike terms to his\n^ employer and business associates.\n6. Ability to perform the four fundamental operations and simple fractions in arithmetic with speed and accuracy.\nWe trust such a recommendation as this efficiency list contemplates will be of\nservice to you, for it is the desire of both the Commercial Club and the schools to be\nof the broadest possible usefulness to the community which supports them.\n\n"}
{"page": 1067, "printed_page": "1055", "text": "Superintendence!\n\nTEACHING\n\nTENURE\n\nI05S\n\nIf you have suggestions as to the qualifications to be desired in young men whom\nyou employ, they will be very highly apprecitaed if sent to either the secretary of the\nCommercial Club or to the superintendent of schools.\nMost respectfully yours,\n[Signed by the Secretary of the Commercial\nClub and the Superintendent of Schools.]\nMembers of the League who qualified by the end of the school year and were recommended asindicated in the above letter were placed on the \"EflBciency List\" of the\nLincoln Commercial Club and this list was sent to all large employers at the opening of\nthe summer vacation. These boys were likewise given an \"Efficiency Certificate\" by\nSecretary Whitten of the Commercial Club as evidence of their qualifications.\n\nTEACHING\n\nTENURE\n\nJOHN F. KEATING, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF SCHOOLS, PUEBLO, COLO.\n\nThe problem of the tenure of teachers, principals, and superintendents is not new in\nthe educational world, but it is an increasingly vital problem awaiting solution.\nThe ways and means, or methods, of securing permanency of tenure are matters of\ndetail to be worked out thru committees or groups of educational and business experts.\nWhat is first needed is a nation-wide appreciation of the wastefulness of the present\nmethod of \"hiring and firing\" teachers, principals, and superintendents, and a realization that there must be found a way of eliminating this waste.\nIt may be urged that these wasteful methods are necessary in a democracy. They\nmay have been unavoidable in the beginnings of our democracy, but the perpetuity of all\nthat is best in the institutions of our democracy will depend upon the substituting of\nrefined and efficient methods for the crude and wasteful ones. This should be and I\nbelieve now is in a large measure the tendency in our whole national life.\nAlready in a few of the large cities permanency of tenure for teachers and principals is\nan established fact, and for superintendents has become almost established. Also in a\nfew states of the Union the state department of public instruction has been taken out of\npolitics. The former crude and thriftless method is no longer followed, but men of\nexperience, training, and known fitness are appointed to the headship of the state's educational interests, and greater permanency, conditioned only on good behavior and efficient\nservice, is assured these men. The success of this plan must ultimately commend it to all\nstates.\nIt is not in the province of this paper to discuss tenure of state superintendents,\nbut is not the question pertinent by way of illustration? Of what possible advantage\ncan it be to the schools of any state to elect every two or even four years a new and untried\nman in the place of the one who has mastered the situation and has reached the place of\nhigh efficiency in his work ? Why retire this efficient public servant in so vital a field as\neducation, just when he has really become useful? Undoubtedly in our democracy\nthere must be some place left for the battledore and shuttlecock of politics, but God\nforbid that it continue in our schools, where it can be most harmful and least helpful.\nIn the election of city superintendents, there seems to be a relation between the\nmanner of selecting them and permanency of tenure. There is the hit-or-miss manner\nof choosing a superintendent. Neither educational nor professional standards are\nemployed by the board in making its selection. Board members are not in the nature\nof things experts in things educational, but they are intensely practical, and they choose\nby the standards they know — personal impressions made by the candidate, the weight of\nsome influential citizen who may or may not have a personal ax to grind. All this because\nwe, as educators, have not yet worked out a series of standards or norms that would serve\n\n"}
{"page": 1068, "printed_page": "1056", "text": "jo^6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nIn these days\nto assist boards in determining the fitness of the candidate for the place.\nof measurements and surveys these are being worked out, and the future is bright with\nhope.\nProbably the most used method is known as the \" trial and failure method.\" This is\nin the absence of guiding standards. The board decides to elect for a year on trial. As a\nrule this probation is too short and failure to satisfy the board or the community is invited.\nThe selecting for short periods is a prominent cause of uncertainty of tenure for superintendents. Hence in the smaller cities we see a veritable procession of superintendents.\nThey scarcely dare unpack their trunks. Indeed, the wise ones keep their trunks packed\n\nand checked, ready to move on at a moment's notice.\nAs an illustration of the prevalence of short tenure among superintendents, the state\nof Michigan is as nearly typical as any. As reported to the Bureau of Education, Michigan had, in 1913, 51 cities with between 4,000 and 25,000 inhabitants. In these 51\nsuperintendencies, 25 superintendents served less than 5 years; 39, or 76 per cent, out of\n51 were elected for one-year terms.\nWith the exercise of greater care in selecting these officials, there would be little reason\nfor removal. The fact that teachers, principals, and superintendents can be so easily removed creates a feeling of unrest in a community and a wish at the first criticism to\nremedy the situation by a change. Permanent tenure for an average teacher, principal,\nor superintendent is better for the schools than the hazards of frequent changes. Difficulty ofremoval would throw on the board and community the necessity of co-operating\nwith the school management.\nIn any discussion of teacher tenure, the story of the progress of civil service in the\nadministering of many of the most vital departments of our national government is most\ninteresting and enhghtening. So successfully has the civil-service plan worked that no\npoUtical party hoping to gain control of the government dares advocate in its platform\na return to the spoils system. Yet there was a time when a national election meant an\nalmost complete change of federal officials. The practical sense of the American people\nrescued the government from much of this folly and consequent inefficiency. Why in the\nname of the interests of the school children of America should their teacher, principal,\nor superintendent be more affected by a spring school election than is a letter-carrier by a\nnational election ?\nIt should Aot be possible for a board of education to dismiss for other than welldefined reasons, and not then until the superintendent has had due notice, and has had\nan opportunity to appeal his case to an impartial board or committee on the matter. This,\nI am aware, deprives the employing board of the power to discharge a superintendent, but\nas we are now organized it should be deprived of this power.\nWhen there have been worked out standards of efficiency for superintendents, whereby\nboards may be guided, and possibly a legalized system of demerits, as in the civil service\nof the government, the power to discharge may be restored to the board with these legal\nsafeguards.\nBut you say this is not Germany, this is not France, this is democratic America, and\nsuch methods are impracticable. Are they ? Did not a great state university recently\ndecide that it would not again discharge a member of its faculty thru its board of regents\nacting alone ? That board in its own defense has seen fit to have the university faculty\nassist in determining whether a professor shall be discharged or not. Even our great\ncorporations are taking advanced ground. In some of our great industrial plants the\n\"straw boss\" or foreman cannot summarily discharge a workman. The workman has\nthe right to appeal. Of course many of the changes annually occurring in superintendencies in smaller cities are due to small salaries and the desire of the superintendents to\nbetter their condition.\nThese small salaries in turn are often due to the feeling on the part of the board\nmembers that by letting the present incumbent go out, no matter how efficient he is, they\n\n"}
{"page": 1069, "printed_page": "1057", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTEACHING\n\nTENURE\n\nIO57\n\ncan secure a new man at a lower salary for the first year and so establish for themselves,\namong the taxpayers, a reputation for money-saving.\nAgain, many superintendents leave because of the feeUng of unrest, due to the lack\nof appreciation for their services and the possibihty of being dismissed thru a mere whim\nof the board or thru the political connivance of a disgruntled minority. The superintendent's first term should be for three years, probation years. During this time he\nshould be rigidly tested, his work surveyed by experts, and, if he makes good, he should\nthen be given an indeterminate contract, with reasonable hope of increased remuneration\nfor efficient service, to the full ability of the district to pay. Then will superintendents\ncease to be birds of passage, restless not so much because of larger pay and wider fields\nahead, but because of the uncertainty of their present positions.\nAs a concrete illustration of how school politics works, I know and you know a city of\nbetween 25,000 and 250,000 inhabitants — and the city I know may or may not be the\ncity you know — where within the last year or two, owing to school politics, the city and\nthe school system have been turned topsy-turvy by a spring school election. The newly\nelected board members felt that they had a commission straight from the people to reform\nat one fell swoop the imperfections and shortcomings of the city's schools. The board\nproceeded almost immediately to dismiss teachers, principals, and even the superintendent,\nwithout warning, without any plan of co-operation for the making of efl&cient public\nservants out of these teachers. The teachers were not warned, and were not given an\nopportunity to offer a defense or a chance to make good. We are better organized in\nbehalf of our criminals than we are in behalf of our teachers. We will give the average\ncriminal another chance. I submit that what occurred in this city was unethical, unbusinesslike, even brutal. Please understand that I do not condemn the board members as\nindividuals. They are gentlemen by nature and training, courteous, honest, and kind,\nand among their neighbors have a reputation for sincerity and fairness. That is, they\ndid have before they were elected to the board of education. The fault lies largely in the\nsystem. Boards, like the teachers, are at the mercy of the system. Politics and personal\nfavoritism had undoubtedly been at work in the schools before their election, and no\nmachinery had been provided for the standardizing of the schools and the measuring of\nteaching and inspectional ej05ciency. Teachers had been appointed by pull. Why not\ndischarge them in due and ancient form ?\nSuch things will not happen when we have thoroly systematized our school administration and have made' legal the custom of selecting one head for the school system and\nholding him responsible for the work of the schools; when he is directed by order of the\nboard of education to appoint all principals, teachers, janitors, and engineers, with\nauthority to see that each employee lives up to the established standards of service. And\nthey will five up to them when they know that politics has been eliminated, that pull\ncounts for nothing, and that a trained and competent superintendent is the real executive\nhead of the schools.\nKeeping up the efficiency of teachers in service is a real problem. Many efforts have\nbeen made to solve it, with many consequent partial failures. But a long step will be\ntaken towards its solution when boards of education generally take the position of the\nSan Antonio board in stating clearly the board's relation to the superintendent:\nTeachers, once you have been elected by us, our direct relation with you as teachers\nceases to exist. Whatever we have to say in regard to your work will be said thru the\nsuperintendent; and whatever you have to say to us in this same regard should go thru\nthe same channel.\nThus far in this discussion reference has been chiefly to tenure of superintendents and\nprincipals, while little has been said except by implication in regard to the tenure of\nteachers. Little will need to be said when superintendents and principals against whom\nthe political winds beat hardest are assured permanency of tenure. Permanency of\ntenure at the top will make for permanency of tenure thruout the system.\n\n"}
{"page": 1070, "printed_page": "1058", "text": "lO^g\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nWhen boards of education can by law insure permanency of tenure to the superintendent and cleariy define his powers and duties, the efficient, growing teacher, nominated\nand practically appointed by the superintendent (in an organized city system of schools\nthe board should never nominate teachers) will be secure in her position. She will have\nincreased pride in her work as she realizes that she holds her position thru efficient service\nand not thru personal, social, reUgious, racial, fraternal, or political pull.\nI am aware that in that most excellent report, the Portland Survey, criticism is made\nof the law making it difficult to dismiss teachers even for inefficiency and failure to grow.\nIt is indicated in that report that some of the poor teaching in that city is due to the\nfeeling of security of tenure on the part of some teachers. No doubt the law, arising in\nthe manner that it did, established while the schools were in the condition shown in the\nreport, should be repealed, or, better, amended. Apparently either no standards or very\nlow standards had been established in these schools for the measuring of the teachers'\nwork.\nThat permanency of tenure and feeling of security are the sole or impelling causes\nof inefficiency among teachers is difficult to believe. Permanency of tenure in our great\nand truly beneficial postal system has made for efficiency. Has the fact that the federal\nSupreme Court appointments are for life in any wise impaired the efficiency of that\ntribimal ? The contrary is true. Fearlessly does this court render its decisions and the\nnation uncomplainingly abides by its verdicts. Will all this not be true of the teacher\nwhen she is as carefully selected and as favorably environed as these ?\n\nA STUDY\n\nOF DEVIATE\nC. EDWARD\n\nJONES,\n\nCHILDREN— THE PROBLEM\nAND SUBNORMALITY\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nOF DELINQUENCY\nALBANY, N.Y.\n\nTo what extent has the feeble-minded pupil been recognized as a part of the school\nsystem? No one doubts his existence, not as a rare specimen, but as a part of the community; whether he be 2, 4, or 6 per cent of that community matters little. Investigators read of him, psychiatrists classify him, and legislatures pass laws in regard to his\nsegregation into classes for instruction. So beneficial has it been to the school and to the\ncommunity to be free of him that comparatively little attention has been given to him as\nan individual member of society, or to his possible specific function in society. The\nsuperintendent of schools must recognize him, however, not as an evil of which he is freed\nby placement in special classes, but as an individual for whom he must provide in school,\nwhom he must recognize and prepare for life with the same sincerity. as that with which\nhe meets his grade, his high-school, or vocational classes.\nThis must be done from two standpoints — conduct and scholarship. For several\nyears in the city of Albany we have maintained a truant school. The regulation was that\na deUnquent or incorrigible should be committed to such an institution for fifty days. If\nhis conduct there was good he was returned to his grade, and if he again transgressed\nhe was committed for another fifty days. At the end of this period, he was again sent\nback to the grades. If for the third time he was in trouble, he was committed to an\ninstitution. That is, the truant school was regarded as a place of punishment for incipient\ncriminals — practically the same plan as that followed in police courts in the case of minor\noffenses. What saved the school was the humane and intelligent instruction given therein,\nfor, without theory, the instructor realized the needs of this class.\nSome two years ago we submitted to the Binet tests all of the pupils of this school,\nwith the following result: gper cent were found to be imbecile cases; 46 moron; 30 borderline; Iepileptic delinquent; i backward boy with no delinquent tendencies evident; and\n13 backward delinquents.\n\n"}
{"page": 1071, "printed_page": "1059", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTUDY\n\nOF DEVIATE\n\nCHILDREN\n\nIO59\n\nSo much for the mental condition. In addition to that we found in regard to the\nfamily relationships that while 40 per cent had not had relatives in this school, 44 had had\nat least one relative and sixteen more than one. Therefore, 60 per cent had had one or\nmore relatives in this school. Had the school been running longer this ratio would probably have been materially increased.\nThen, to extend the investigation beyond our own administration, the test was applied\nto some fifty girls in a house of detention, with the result that nearly all of them were\nfound to be either borderline cases or actually feeble-minded. This is in accord with the\nresults of tests in the Hudson Training School, an institution for delinquent girls, also\nwith those of the investigation of Bluemel in regard to the girls of the State Industrial\nSchool of Colorado, whom he finds to average four and a half years retarded.\nThis gave us the basis for our conclusion that delinquency, truancy, and feeblemindedness were closely related. In the meantime, we had organized special classes for\nour sub-normals in several schools, but entirely separate from the truant school. After\nthis investigation, we began to organize our work with this as a basis — that all of these\nare but different phases of the same problem of deviate cases. Delinquents and subnormals were sent to the class where they could be helped the most, and in no case were\nthey sent for a definite period. In a large proportion, possibly 90 per cent, of the cases\nof serious discipline in school, mental retardation is present. It may be the girl of sixteen\nwith the mentality of ten years, struggling with the desires of the adolescent; it may be\nthe boy of twelve who stopped growing at eight years of age; or the more serious case of\nthe boy of sixteen or over who knows no mental experience beyond that of eleven years.\nDr. Goddard, in his recent book. The Criminal Imbecile, has shown this to be one of the\nmost serious types; from it may develop the insane lover, the docile dupe of the intelligent\nleader, the brutal criminal, or, in the case of girls, almost inevitably the immoral woman.\nNone of this is new to the institution worker, and, while it has been theoretically recognized, ithas as yet in few cases been seriously acted upon by school authorities.\nThis brings us to the conviction that the purposes and character of discipline must be\nradically changed. Its primary purpose in school is no longer to punish the individual,\nnor even to set an example for society; but the problem is one of finding the activity fitted\nto train this individual who is mentally dwarfed and retarded. This brings us then to the\nactual consideration of school work. It is not enough that these feeble-minded and\ndelinquents be segregated and placed in the special class, where special class means the\nungraded dump for the schools of a particular section: but these unfortunates, these\nchildren of the one talent, require expert grading. This does not mean that the class\nteacher is, or in any probability every will be, fitted to do this work. It requires the skill\nand experience of a highly trained specialist. One serious reason for the failure or indififerent success of these classes has been the fact that the so-called grading has been done by\nthose who know practically nothing of the underlying principles that govern it. Then\nwe must realize that not only are these pupils below age, but also that their bodies and\nminds are not of the same maturity, that in almost every case the mental age is permanent,\nand that at that age they must be prepared for life. In this connection the recent article\nby C. S. Bluemel on the Binet tests applied to juvenile court delinquents in Denver is\nparticularly interesting.\nHe finds that the older the child, the greater is the retardation.\nIn regard to the book work, the teachers must be taught to recognize definitely that it\nis useless to force a child mentally five years old to read, and that if he is only ten years\nold technical grammar and advanced arithmetic are impossibilities. But the book work\nis not the most difl&cult problem, provided we actually recognize the age limit. It is on\nthe side of manual training that the resources of an educational system will be most\nseverely taxed. This work must be selected and graded with all the skill that experience\ncan command. There is a place for book work, but it must be determined by the age\nof the pupil. What can we teach the boy who will always be five or even ten years of\nage? It must be simply rough shopwork under direction, or for the girl the most\n\n"}
{"page": 1072, "printed_page": "1060", "text": "io6o\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nelementary work about the house.\nAnd even the eleven-year-old, while he may do some\nskilful work, it^must always be under supervision.\nWhen as superintendents we recognize and do our duty as such, we realize that the\nlarger part of the work is still left undone. In most of our cities, even with compulsory\neducation, these boys and girls leave us as soon as the law permits. It is sad that the law\npermits this class of people to commit crime and then punishes them for it. In morality\nas in material things, the ounce of prevention is of value. Here our duty to society\nbeyond that of our profession begins. The state has provided for its insane and for its\ncriminal classes, yet it waits till these classes are produced. It is a higher duty, and one\nthat demands the intelligence and help of every man knowing the problem, as far as\npossible to provide for the restraint and to prevent the reproduction of these classes. At\nthe present time, it is an established fact that 85 per cent of the feeble-minded are at large\nin society. Only the lowest-grade cases are confined, and these because of their very\nnature are the least harmful. The greater number are still free in the community,\ndebased and debasing society. Of far more danger is the adult of only eleven years who\nmay be led into crime, the deluded youth seeking revenge upon some innocent woman,\nor the girl coming inevitably into a life of vice. These are the ones who for society's\nsake need care and supervision, a home where they may be made happy and at the same\ntime so restricted that they cannot reproduce their kind. In our own work as superintendents we are making the start. It is our duty to find these pupils, to classify them,\nto carry their training out to the very borderline of their possibilities and powers, to bend\nevery effort which as trained men and women we can command to make it possible\nfor them to earn a living and live within their cramped restrictions a life as happy and\nhealthful as possible. But as men we need to be at the fore in urging our state, city, or\ndistrict to provide wisely for these after they have gone beyond our final control. They\nare in society and they are a part of it. If prison problems are to be solved with intelligence, ifpunishment is to be remodeled and vice and immorality are actually to be checked,\nwe must face this problem from its foundation, look to its causes, just as we have done in\nregard to the great white plague — tuberculosis. It is a long, long road, but when we start\nat the beginning there is a possibility of real progress.\n\nVACATION-CLUB\nJ. H.\n\nBEVERIDGE,\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nWORK\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nCOUNCIL\n\nBLUFFS,\n\nIOWA\n\nFor the most part vacation-club work for boys and girls has been a county rather\nthan a city activity. The purpose of this address will be to deal with the movement as\na city activity. It should be understood in the beginning that a middle-western cityschool district, usually called an independent school district, often embraces a large amount\nof territory that may be used for agricultural purposes and other activities of a similar\nnature.\nOur specialist in the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D.C., in charge\nof such club work, has defined it as \"the performance of a definite farm, garden, or farmhouse interest enterprise.\" It aims to teach better methods of agriculture and home\neconomics. The work may be extended so as to include almost every home activity\nwhich is of interest to boys and girls. It finds its best support thru the extension\ndepartments of the agricultural colleges working in conjunction with the public\nschools.\nIn the state of Iowa, during the past year, eighteen different activities were more or\nless encouraged by the extension departments of the Iowa agricultural colleges. These\nactivities are as follows:\n\n"}
{"page": 1073, "printed_page": "1061", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nVACATION-CLUB\n\nAcre of Corn Club\nGarden and Canning (Tomato) Club\nPoultry Club\nPotato Club\nGardening Club (i sq. rd.)\nCooking Club\nSewing Club\nManual-Training Club\nCanning and Marketing Club\n\nWORK\n\nIO61\n\nGrain and Seed Club\nBaby Beef Club\nBaby Pork Club\nBee Club\nHome Work and Play Club\nFarmer-Boy Club\nHome-Girl Club\nFather and Son Corn Club\nHome Work— School Credit Club\n\nThe purposes of such work are:\n1. To provide wholesome activities for boys and girls during the long vacation period\nthat will supplement the regular school work so as to reinforce principles already learned in\nthe school and to teach other things seldom thought of or considered in schoolroom activities.\n2. To socialize education. At the present time most progressive educators believe\nin the socialized curriculum. They believe that the school work should be closely associated \"with the actual life and interest of the pupil and also with his future life as a working member of society.\" Vacation-club work furnishes ample opportunity for socializing\neducation. In summer gardening, for example, the child comes to understand the value\nof soil, the principles of plant growth, and the beauty of flowers. He learns to appreciate\nsomething of the relationship existing between himself and his environment. The girl\nsees something real in sewing, in cooking, and in canning. When the boy cultivates his\nown garden, feeds and cares for his own animals, makes and spends his own money, he\nreacts to a real situation in life.\n3. To teach the boys and girls industry, thrift, economy, persistence, and application\nto things that are worth while.\n4. To motivate effort. The boy is given an opportunity to enrol himself for that\nparticular activity in which he has, for some reason, become interested. He has the\nprivilege of engaging in the activity that is in line with his particular bent. He is encouraged to compete with others on an equal footing and is encouraged to produce the best\nresult possible. He sees, in the concrete, some material reward which he may attain thru\nhis efforts. Some have objected to the giving of prizes, especially money prizes, for such\nwork. But so long as these prizes are comparatively small, it seems to the writer that\nsuch a criticism is not valid, at least until society is constructed on a more spiritual basis\nthan it is at present.\n5. To encourage children to look forward to that which ought to be in education.\nThe thing that ought to be is that which draws us on beyond the thing that is, to the higher\nideal. It is this which causes one to put forth his best effort. It encourages the children\nto look forward toward better training in higher institutions of learning. It undoubtedly\nstimulates a better citizenship by encouraging the child to render service not only to\nhimself but to his family and to the community of which he is a part. Especially in the\ngarden work, children are encouraged to make waste places not only useful but at the\nsame time beautiful. It furnishes children with profitable recreation and acquaints them\nwith some of nature's secrets.\nHaving given some of the objects to be attained thru vacation-club work, we will give\nour attention to the way in which this work was carried forward in a middle-western city\nin the summer of 1915.\nAt the invitation of the city superintendent, co-operating with active leaders in the\nmothers' clubs of the city, E. C. Bishop, of the Extension Department of the Iowa State\nCollege, Ames, Iowa, was asked to visit the Council Bluffs schools and give short talks\nin the various school districts of the city relative to boys' and girls' club work as' carried\non in the state and as to how this work might be carried on in the city.\nThe principals of the several schools and members of the parent-teacher organization followed up this work by presenting the matter to the pupils from various standpoints,\n\n"}
{"page": 1074, "printed_page": "1062", "text": "io62\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nencouraging the children to enrol in such clubs as they might be interested in, always with\nthis precaution, that pupils should enrol when they were sure they had the continuity\nof purpose to stick to the undertaking to the end.\nIt was thought best for our city to undertake the work in only eight of the eighteen\ndifferent clubs suggested by the agricultural colleges, as follows:\n1. Vegetable and Flower Gardening\n5- Poultry\n2. Canning\n6. Baby Pork\n3. Cookmg\n7- Acre of Corn\n4. Sewing\n8. Manual Training\nThis is a sample of the enrolment card:\nCouncil Bluffs Iowa State Extension Club for Boys and Girls\nI desire to become a member of the Boys' and Girls' Club Work in the following\ndepartment:\n(Indicate by X and underscore.)\n1. Acre of Com Club\n2. Gardening and Canning (Tomato) Club\n3. Gardening Club (i sq. rd.)\n4. Cooking Club\n5. Sewing Club\n6. Baby Pork Club\n7. Manual Training\n8. Poultry\nMy purpose is to do my work well.\nSchool\nGrade\nDate\nAddress\n\nName\n\nA specific date was set for the completion of the enrolment and cards of enrolment\nwere filed in the office of the superintendent of city schools.\nThe extension department of the state college met the members of the mothers'\nclubs of the several school districts of the city and gave instruction in the cold-pack\nmethod of canning fruits and vegetables. Further instruction was given to those girls\nwho enrolled in this department of the work.\nThru an expert, our high-school teacher of agriculture employed for that purpose,\nand thru the assistance of the teachers and parents interested in the work, it was possible\nto have instruction given in every activity undertaken. The instructor in domestic art\nin the grade school was employed by the mothers' clubs of the city to give instruction in\njewing to such girls enrolled in sewing as had had no particular instruction in school in\nthis work.\nWe were fortunate in securing the services of a capable and experienced man to\nsupervise the club work — one who had had previous experience in county club work.\nBut in securing him it was necessary for the city to extend the work of the Acre of Com\nClub contest over the county. One advantage of this eQdeavor was slight financial aid\nsecured from the government. The Board of Education gave $250 for the support of\nthe work. The remainder of the funds were secured thru the energy and activity of the\nmothers' clubs and the administrative department of the public schools, principally thru\ntwo endeavors: the May Festival, and a high-class musical. The receipts of these two\nentertainments were about $1,600.\nAn executive board for carrying forward the club work was formed. This board\nconsisted of the superintendent of city schools, one member from the Board of Education,\nand three representatives from the Parent-Teacher Association.\nParents and teachers, working together, had charge of the work in each of the twelve\nschool districts in the city (three not being represented), but the burden of the work was\nwith the club expert who visited all gardens, instructed the children in preparation of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1075, "printed_page": "1063", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSHORT-UNIT\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nCOURSES\n\n1063\n\nsoil, the care and cultivation of plants and flowers, the care of animals, and other things\ntoo numerous to mention.\nEvery child was required to keep account of time spent in the activity in which he\nwas engaged, the money spent for all purposes, the amount of his sales, and the gain or\nloss entailed. Two exhibits of the work of the children were held.\nAt the first exhibit, of garden products alone, 103 children exhibited products and\n$32 was given in prizes for this work. Only about one-fifth of the children engaged in\ngardening made exhibits.\nIn the second exhibit, representing all departments, 784 different children took part.\nThere were over three thousand exhibits. The value of products produced during the\nsummer was slightly over $5,000, so far as data has been collected. Cash prizes were\ngiven amounting to $140, but this did not include the expense of thirteen short courses in\nthe Iowa agricultural colleges, three Y.M.C.A. and three Y.W.C.A. memberships, and a\ntrip to the exhibition at San Francisco, won by a boy in the Acre of Corn Club contest.\nThe September exhibit was held in the city auditorium, a building 95X112 feet.\nBooths were built by each school after a design made by the mothers' club of each school\ndistrict. Each booth was 12X20 feet. These booths were decorated by the mothers,\neach differently, but all attractively. The outer space was reserved for the exhibits of\nlive stock and complete garden displays.\nAltho there was a downpour of rain for the entire day, six thousand people attended\nthe exhibit.\nIt cost the Parent-Teacher Association $326 to hold this exhibit, but it was worth\nmuch more than this to the city. In fact, the worth cannot be measured, for the cooperation secured, the interest awakened, the enthusiasm for better things made manifest,\nthe intellectual and spiritual uplift stimulated, are not measurable quantities.\nWhat were the results attained ?\nSome of the results have already been indicated. Every purpose of boys' and girls'\nclub work stated in the beginning of the discussion was attained.\nOne girl, Christine Larson, won the state prize in canning. She had loi varieties\nof products. A boy in the independent school district won the county prize in the Acre\nof Corn Club contest, indicating that city boys may become more efficient in farming\nthan farm boys. Three children, one a girl, won state prizes in the Baby Pork Club contest.\nIn every activity, the record kept was made an important feature of the work, thus\ngiving the child a motive for effort in expression and in accounting. Parents who had\nup to this time manifested little interest in school became enthusiastic workers. Those\nwho had never had social contact with one another learned to confer with and make concessions to one another, and thus the most democratic institution of our country, the public\nschool, became really democratic for parents as well as for pupils.\n\nSHORT-UNIT\nMILLARD\n\nB. KING, EXPERT\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nCOURSES\n\nASSISTANT IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION,\nINSTRUCTION,\nHARRISBURG,\nPA.\n\nDEPARTMENT\n\nOF PUBLIC\n\nThe purpose of this paper is to describe the short-unit course, to explain some of the\nresults which have been secured in industrial schools by the use of the short-unit course,\nand how the conclusion was reached that the short-unit course was the one best adapted\nto meet the needs of the worker.\nThe conditions which confront the giving of instruction in a part-time or an evening\ntrade-extension school are many. The majority of the pupils enrolled in the part-time\nor evening industrial school are wage-earners who have families to support. They must\n\n"}
{"page": 1076, "printed_page": "1064", "text": "io64\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nincrease their earning capacity, and they turn to the evening industrial schools for the\ninstruction upon which they may realize in a comparatively short time. In most instances\nthey know what they need. Their time is limited. In many industries the hours are\nlong. \"Overtime\" work, sickness, holidays, and lodge and union meetings frequently\ninterfere with the regular attendance at the evening school. Instructors who are masters\nof their subjects are hard to secure. All these conditions make it impossible to lay out\na fixed course of study that will give the help the worker needs. These varying conditions\ncan be met only by having a very flexible course, or a number of courses.\nThe short-unit course is based upon the proposition that if all the subject-matter of\nthe courses commonly offered in evening industrial schools be broken up and reorganized\ninto a number of units so that definite instruction in a particular subject can be given in\na short length of time, the flexibility so desirable and necessary in a course of study for\nan industrial school is secured, and the school can better meet the varying and changing\nconditions in an industrial community.\nAs a concrete example of what can be accomplished by the use of short-unit courses,\nI propose to discuss the evening mining school and the manner in which the short-unit\ncourses were applied to this particular type of school.\nIn 1905, mining courses were first given under the auspices of the Y.M.C.A., and a\nyear or so later mining institutes were organized for the purpose of encouraging its members to study and also to afford a sort of a clearing-house whereby the members could\ntell their associates of the things they had learned while working in the mines.\nWhile a large number of mine workers enrolled for the Y.M.C.A. courses, by the\nend of the year the enrolment had dropped to a very small percentage of what it had\nbeen at the opening. The institutes then attempted to run schools for the workers, and,\nafter a precarious existence, the public-school authorities were finally asked to be responsible for these schools.\nThe first attempt upon the part of any of the public schools in Pennsylvania to teach\nbranches allied to the anthracite-mining industry was in the year 191 1, when the Newport\nTownship school board opened evening schools. This example was followed the next\nyear by Nanticoke and the following year by Shamokin and other school districts.\nThe public schools were now confronted with the problem of caring for mature\nworkers — men who had worked from six to twenty years in the mines, and realized that\nthey could go no farther until they were better prepared.\nUnfortunately, the first year the public-school system conducted the evening mining\nschools, the same -courses and methods of teaching were used as were formerly used, and\nthe results were not encouraging. The question of how best to meet the needs of mine\nworkers had not been answered.\nTwo statements frequently made by responsible persons were that the public schools\ncould not conduct the evening schools for workers as successfully as the Y.M.C.A. or the\ninstitutes, and that there was no use in wasting public money for something which the\npublic schools could not do. To silence this criticism of the public schools, it was necessary to show by actual results that the schools could cope with the situation. With this\nin mind, the organization and methods then in use, which had been in use in the schools\nwhen conducted by the mining institutes and by the Y.M.C.A., were studied and a\nnumber of causes for their lack of success were found, among which may be mentioned:\n(i) the lack of knowledge of the needs of the workers on the part of the teachers and of\nthe school authorities; (2) the lack of the right kind of material for presentation to the\nclass; (3) the fact that the courses were extended over too great a length of time before\nanything definite was accomplished. It was necessary for a man to enrol in October,\nand to wait until probably the first day of April, before he could receive instruction in\nsome one thing which he needed.\nTo remedy these three conditions was the next step. It was much easier to discover\nwhy the schools had not been a success than to replace the existing teachers, courses of\n\n"}
{"page": 1077, "printed_page": "1065", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSHORT-UNIT\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nCOURSES\n\n1065\n\nstudy, and organization, with something altogether new and untried in Pennsylvania.\nIt was impossible to change everything at one time, so new courses were organized and\nmen who had a background of practical experience were employed as teachers; in fact,\nmen were employed as teachers who worked during the day as mine foreman, assistant\nmine foreman, fire bosses, or inside bosses. New courses of study were organized in which\nthe following subjects were taught: shot firing; timbering; haulage; drainage; safety\nlamps; mining arithmetic; mining law; mine accidents; methods of mining; ventilation\nand gases.\nIn spite of the fact that practical men had been employed as teachers and new\ncourses had been planned, the attendance of the schools did not materially increase.\nOf course, the practical men knew nothing of teaching, and this was, of course, a drawback to the schools. However, the experienced teachers who had no first-hand knowledge\nof mines could not hold the men. Finally it was decided to place an experienced science\nteacher in the classroom together with the practical man. Even with this combination,\nthe average attendance was not gratifying.\nAs a last resort, the entire subject-matter of the course was reorganized. In order\nto do this, it was necessary that the mining industry be analyzed to determine what was\nrequired of each man employed in or about the mines. In this analysis it was discovered\nthat there were 51 classified inside and 27 classified outside jobs. At a first glance the\nsituation confronting the school was appalling, because no school could hope to give\ntraining for 78 different jobs. The teaching force alone would have been as large as the\nstudent body and the courses would have been years in length.\nThe situation was made more complex by the fact that from the industrial history\nof 75 men, selected in a haphazard manner from 4,000 mine workers, it was discovered\nthat no two of these 75 men who had started in as slate-pickers or door-boys had traveled\nthe same route as they advanced step by step to the positions of petty officials and bosses. ,\nFrom a closer analysis of the conditions in the mining industry, and of the requirements of each man for his particular job, it was learned that all of the men who worked\ninside of the mines needed a knowledge of gases, ventilation, electricity, map reading,\nand arithmetic. Courses were outlined and lessons prepared by a mine inspector who\nhad had a number of years of practical experience in the mines. Yet even after the\nintroduction of these new courses, dealing directly with the mining industry, with the\nemployment of practical teachers, and the use of the lessons prepared by a practical miner,\nthe schools did not advance as was expected. The best material available for teachers\nhad been secured, there was no question as to the value of the subject-matter presented,\nand yet the workers were not being reached.\nInquiry of these men who were attending school and of those who had enrolled but\ndid not stay brought forth a volley of replies such as \"Want help for tomorrow, not five\nyears from now,\" \"Have to go too long to get anything I need,\" \"Can't see any use in\ntaking so much stuff.\" The men knew what they wanted and needed better than the\nschool people, and finally after many blunders the schools gave them what they needed:\ndefinite instruction adapted to one or more of the many needs of the miners, and given\nin a short length of time.\nThe subject-matter was broken up into short-unit courses, such as five lessons in\nsafety lamps; sixteen lessons in ventilation; five lessons in mine gases; ten lessons in\ntimbering; and twenty lessons in mining arithmetic, divided into five lessons in decimals,\nfive lessons in proportion, five in percentage, and five in powers and routes, as applied to\nthe mining industry. These courses were then put in operation, and inside of two months\na change was noticeable in the attendance of the schools. By the end of the year, we were\nable to maintain as high as a 65 per cent average attendance in the schools, which was a\nthing unheard of up until that time.\nIn the course of conversation with the men, you no longer heard the criticism of the\nschools that they could not get what they needed.\nSome of the schools are now organized\n\n"}
{"page": 1078, "printed_page": "1066", "text": "lo66\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\non such a basis that a man may attend school and receive instruction in gases; if he feels\nthat he does not need any of the other courses given, he need not continue his work.\nIt is now possible for a man to secure instruction in a subject on one night and put it\ndirectly to use the next day. This was not possible before, as he had to attend for as\nmany as 50 or 60 nights before he received the information he most needed. These courses\nhave been arranged in two ways: sequential and non-sequential. In the majority of\ncases, the sequential organization of the courses is used; that is, the various units are\ngiven in order of their sequence. Yet this does not destroy the positive effect of the\nshort-unit course. On the other hand, in schools where there is a large corps of teachers,\nit is possible to give the short-unit courses in a non-sequential way; that is, the courses\nare given without any regard whatever to what precedes or what follows.\nA school has been organized in a town of 1,500 population in the bituminous region\nof Pennsylvania in which instruction is given in the following short-unit courses: timberhaulage, 4 lessons; drainage, 4 lessons; mine gases, 10 lessons; explosives,\n5\ning, lessons;\n4 lessons; mine accidents, 4 lessons; methods of mining, 10 lessons; and ventilation,\nII lessons.\nThese courses have been arranged in a sequential order, because there are not a\nsufficient number of men attending the school to justify the holding of more than one\ncourse at a time. Some of the men have taken all of the short-unit courses. However,\nthere will be some who will not take the course in timbering, but will take the course in\nmine gases and explosives; others who take the course in mine gases will not take that\nin mine accidents or methods of mining, and so on.\nIn this particular case, the short-unit course has a great advantage, inasmuch as it\nmakes it possible to employ men who are the best informed men in the region in haulage,\ntimbering, mine accidents, explosives, mine gases, drainage, and methods of mining;\nwhereas, if the courses were not broken up into these smaller units, it would be necessary\nto employ a man who has had some experience in all of these different branches but who\nis not a specialist in any particular one.\nThis same course for a larger community could be arranged in a non-sequential manner; that is, the courses in timbering, haulage, and mine gases would probably be given\non the same evening, a teacher being employed for each one of these particular subjects,\nwhile the men would take only the courses which they needed. Under the old system,\nJohn Smith, who desired a course in drainage, would have enrolled on the 24th day of\nSeptember, and, after studying timbering and haulage, he would eventually have received\nsome instruction in drainage. With the course of study organized in short-unit courses,\nhe would not need to attend until the 2d day of November, at which time the work in\ndrainage would be given in this school.\nFrom the results which have been obtained in the evening school since the shortimit courses were put in operation, we are convinced that they offer a practical solution for\nmeeting directly the needs of the worker, for the following reasons: (i) it is now possible\nto give definite instruction to the worker when he needs the help; (2) it eliminates all\nthe material which does not bear definitely upon the worker's occupation; (3) it is possible\nto procure specialists in the industry to give the courses. This is especially valuable, as\nit eliminates the \"jack-of-all-trades\" teacher in the small community, and in the large\ncommunity reduces the total number of hours to be paid for by the school authorities;\n(4) it is possible for the worker to use at once the instruction which he receives; (5) it is\nnow possible for men to take any of the courses which they need at the time they are\ngiven; (6) it is possible to reach a larger number of workers than formerly. The personnel ofthe school has, in many instances, been quite different at the close of the term\nfrom what it was at the beginning.\nDuring the last two years more men have attended the evening mining schools and\nsuccessfully passed the state examination for mine papers than ever before in the history\nof the schools. The enrolment this year has increased and more schools have been\n\n"}
{"page": 1079, "printed_page": "1067", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nMEASUREMENTS\n\nOF A SCHOOL\n\nSYSTEM\n\n1067\n\norganized on the strength of the results of the schools which were in operation last year.\nThe mine workers, the teachers, and the employers are in hearty accord as to the efficiency\nof this method of organization.\nWhile the mining schools alone have been dealt with in this paper, unit courses are\nbeing introduced as rapidly as possible in the other evening and continuation industrial\nschools and household-arts schools of the state.\nPossibly the statements which I have made concerning the operation of the shortunit courses in the mining schools would have more weight if some idea concerning the\nsize of the mining industry were given. In the year 1912, there were 245,257,361 tons\nof coal produced in 220 working days. To mine and prepare this coal, valued at\n$350,000,000, required the services of 368,340 men.\nWhile a great deal of material which does not deal with the short-unit course is given\nin this paper, it is given with the purpose of showing that the short-unit courses were not\nadopted before other methods had been tried, and that their adoption was due to a\ngradual evolution of the methods of teaching the mature workers.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES WITH\nA POPULATION UNDER 25,000\nRELIABLE\n\nOTIS\n\nG.\n\nWILSON,\n\nMEASUREMENTS\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF A SCHOOL SYSTEM\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nFAIRMONT,\n\nW.VA.\n\nOf the numerous factors that should be considered in measuring a school system, I\npropose to discuss, all too briefly, three: the school census, medical supervision, and\nbusiness accounting.\nA reasonably tangible factor in measuring a school system is the annual school\ncensus. The school census as an enumeration of children of legal school age within the\ndistrict is not a measurement. The census should be more than a list of the names, a\nrecord of the ages and nationalities of school youth within the district for the purpose\nprimarily of establishing a basis for securing state revenue. Boards of education are\nlegally bound to see that every child of compulsory school age goes to school somewhere.\nHow may boards intelligently discharge this obUgation unless they know with reasonable\ncertainty how many children there are of legal school age, who they are, and where they\nare, if not in school ? It should be a matter of vital concern to school officials to know the\nwhereabouts of children not only of compulsory school age, but of those beyond the\ncompulsory age. It should be known what becomes of children under twenty-one years\nof age when they stop school. Do they become workers or loafers? Is the school\nattractive enough to hold children regardless of their legal freedom, or is it so unattractive\nthat reaching the compulsory-age limit is a signal for leaving school, whether employment\nis in sight or not ? And, if employed, are they legally employed ? If in school are they\nin the pubUc school, private school, parochial school ? The census figures should answer\nthese questions with readiness and precision. Only in this way may a community know\nwhere the children are whom it aims to educate, and whether its aims are being realized.\nSchool officials should concern themselves with the question of the ratio of school enrolment to the school census, with the ratio of school attendance to the school census, and\nwith the ratio of what is being done to w^hat it is aimed to do. The answers to these\nquestions will determine at least one factor in measuring the efficiency of a school system.\nThe census affords the key to the answers.\nThe returns of the annual census should be tabulated and should be compared with\nschool attendance.\nHerein lies the value of the census.\nIt should be used after it is\n\n"}
{"page": 1080, "printed_page": "1068", "text": "I068\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\nmade as a necessary instrument of any school administration that seeks to know in full\nmeasure the scope of its responsibility to the community.\nThe important uses of the census warrant boards of education in establishing a department of school census, placing in charge a competent census clerk. A competent clerk,\nwith the co-operation of the truant officers, school nurses, city police, and other interested\npersons, may make the annual census continuous and at all times reliably accurate. As\ncensus should also record the\nsuggested by the Cleveland survey committee: \"Thecityschool\nin such ways as to show for all of\nresults of each new enumeration on maps of the\nthe districts the amount of increase or decrease of child population. This information\ncould then be utilized as an aid m shaping the building policy of the school system.\"\nA second important factor in measuring the efficiency of a school system is the nature\nand scope of health or medical supervision. For the most part, we have passed thru the\nstage of medical supervision known as medical inspection, the primary purpose of which\nwas to discover existing physical defects of the child and report the same to the parents,\nwith the request that the defect be brought to the attention of the family physician.\nWith this important tho incomplete service of inspection performed, the child was free\nas before to continue his attendance at school, regardless of the attention paid to the\nschool physician's notice and recommendation.\nWith all its imperfections, this type of medical inspection served its day very well.\nBut with the awakening of the physical conscience thruout the United States in recent\nyears, the demand for follow-up procedure in the inspection of children has broadened\nthe scope of medical inspection and given us medical supervision. Medical inspection\nlocates and reports physical defects of children; but medical supervision lotates, reports,\nand follows up defects. It does more than that; it seeks to prevent defects by treating\nsymptoms.\nThe one is corrective, the other is preventive as well as corrective.\nInvestigations have disclosed that, without a definite plan for the following up of\nnotifications to parents by school physicians, only about 5 to 30 per cent of the recommendations will be acted upon. An efficient follow-up plan brings the figures to 85 or 90\nper cent. The most effective plan for securing the desired result is the employment of\nthe school nurse, who goes into the home and sympathetically and tactfully presents the\nchild's case to the parents. If one visit of the nurse is not sufficient, then another and\nand another is made. As a general proposition, a good nurse in medical supervision of\nschools is as valuable as a good physician. The practice in schools having the best regulated medical supervision is to have a limited service of competent school physicians and\nplenty of nurse help. The physicians should be experts in child hygiene and should be\ntactful enough in directing the health work thru the nurses to secure the co-operation not\nonly of teachers and parents but of local physicians, hospitals, charity organizations, and\nother helpful agencies whose co-operation is needed.\nMedical supervision should extend in some measure to the different varieties of schoolhealth agencies that have been organized as a result of the recent development of publichealth opinion. Play and playgrounds, physical training, open-air schools, schools for\ndelinquent children, and probably the teaching of hygiene in the school curriculum are\nagencies that to some extent should come under the control of an efficient health supervisor.\nFor each pupil enrolled in school, there should be kept an individual health card\nwhich shows clearly his health history. The card should contain specific data of the physical examinations, and note should be made of all recommendations that have been acted\nupon. Such a record would reveal the need of health supervision and would test the\nefficiency of the medical supervision as it apphes to the follow-up procedure.\nA third reasonably tangible factor in reliably measuring a school system is the method\nof busmess accounting employed by school officials.\nThe evident tendency in recent years toward better business efficiency in all lines of\nactivity involving investment and returns has created a demand, more or less insistent,\nfor business efficiency in matters affecting the expenditure of public money.\nThe amount\n\n"}
{"page": 1081, "printed_page": "1069", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nEFFICIENT\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\n1069\n\nof money spent for education during the past few years has increased out of all proportion\nto the number of children to be educated. School taxes have risen enormously, and still\nthe cry is for more money. And the increase in taxes creates a demand upon boards for\nfacts and figures concerning expenditures. Communities want to know how money\nderived from public taxation is spent, why it is spent, and what the returns are. To this\nend many boards of education have been making an earnest effort to give the public full\nknowledge of the manner in which the work of the board and schools is carried on.\nThe tendency is toward standardization in business transactions, in school costs and\naccounts. Merely keeping an account of the revenue received and expended is no longer\nadequate. Statements of the amounts spent for fuel, light, janitor service, teachers'\nsalaries, textbooks, insurance, and other items are valuable as aids in making the annual\nestimate or budget, but from the standpoint of estimating units of service they are too\ngeneral and too vague to be valuable. School boards and superintendents should know\nhow much the performance of any service costs and how it compares with like costs\nelsewhere. It is very important, therefore, if modern business methods of efficiency are\nto be practiced by boards of education, that school costs and accounts be standardized\nto the end that units of service be intelligently and definitely established.\nFor all schools and for each kind of school the costs should be determined. Furthermore, the cost per pupil in all subjects of instruction should be computed and compared\nwith similar previous costs and like costs elsewhere. So, also, should units of service be\nestabUshed for expenditures for fuel, light, apparatus, supplies, insurance, textbooks,\nmedical supervision, and the like. With these specific tests in matters of cost, together\nwith other tests to determine pupils' abilities along various lines and hence to determine\nthe ratio between cost and returns, a wise administrator has sufficient data to enable him\nto measure the efficiency of his schools along certain definite lines.\nFurther discussion of measurements that should be employed in determining the\nefficiency of a school system would include, among others, these additional topics: the\nprogress of pupils thru the school system; standards of qualifications of teachers; improvement of teachers in service; quality of instruction; the course of study; nature and scope\nof supervision; provision for delinquent and exceptional children; co-operative agencies;\nvocational guidance; the school plant and school equipment.\n\nTHE\n\nETHICAL AS THE ESSENTIAL FACTOR IN TRAINING\nEFFICIENT CITIZENSHIP IN A DEMOCRACY\nCHARLES\n\nW. COOKSON, SUPERINTENDENT\n\nFOR\n\nOF SCHOOLS, TROY, OHIO\n\n\"The times that try men's souls are over,\" said Tom Paine when he heard of the\nTreaty of Paris in 1783. Subsequent history has proved the folly of this conclusion.\nThe struggle of the individual and of the nation for greater efficiency, whether we call\nit education or evolution, is the problem of the ages. With the growth of a complex\nsociety, adequate educational processes become more abstract. To prepare for efficient\ncitizenship in the democracy is the task of the schools, for the school is the only agent\nunder the control of the state and the nation by which the young may be trained for the\nresponsibilities of adult life.\nOften it has been said that the home and the church must do many things in the training for citizenship, and certain specific duties are assigned to each of these institutions.\nHowever beautiful the theory may be, the principle does not hold good. In the first\nplace, that part of the home which has survived the innovations of the club and the\nfactory often creates conditions which the school must regulate. The adoption of\ncompulsory-education laws and strenuous efforts in many places to enforce them warrant\nthe above statements. The churches, with their multiplicity of organizations, are not\nreaching the masses. The state and tbe §cb9Ql cannot solace themselves in the presence of\n\n"}
{"page": 1082, "printed_page": "1070", "text": "loyo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nthis condition and assure themselves that their share of the educational process is being\nadequately carried out. Education is a public policy, and the American government\nstands for the entire separation of church and state. It will be fatal, therefore, for the\nstate and the nation, to depend upon an institution outside of their jurisdiction to give to\nthe new generation the spiritual training without which eflScient citizenship is impossible.\nThat the homes which still exist, the churches — for such persons as they do reach — and\nsociety are aids, no one will gainsay; but the point of contention is the inadequacy of the\nresults as determined by the number reached.\nThere are many great problems ahead of us as a nation, but the really greatest problem is how to make better men and better women of us all. John Stewart Mill says:\n\"The worth of the nation is the worth of the individual.\" It may be said, then, that no\ninstitution or organization for the advancement of public uprightness has any assurance of\nsuccess that is not based on personal integrity and personal courage. No scheme of\nsocialism, no punishment for fraud or graft, no legislative enactments or governmental\nedicts can be of service in making efficient citizenship unless they are based upon considerations ofthe influence these courses will have upon the individual.\nIn the discussion of any question, there is often a necessity for the establishment\nof limits and boundaries by definitions, in order that no misunderstanding may arise in\nthe use of the terms employed. Ethics in this discussion is to have the broad general\ndefinition of moral duty. It is to mean \"the outward sign of harmonious spiritual development.\" Itwill refer to the discipline or training in those elemental virtues of truthfulness, honesty, sobriety, and self-sacrifice; it will mean moral reactions manifested in joy,\npeace, longsuffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, temperance, which are the fruits\nof the spirit and which are necessary traits of character for citizenship in a democracy.\nMy thesis, then, is that the things of the spirit must not only be taught, but that they\nmust be tested by moral reactions in order to insure to posterity those characteristics of\nmind and heart which are necessary for the maintenance of the republic, that universal\nrighteousness necessary in order that the individual may make the proper application\nof his opportunities to his duties and so adjust his life that he will meet the needs of\ncitizenship and national perpetuity.\nIt has been said, and said repeatedly, by the most thoughtful that the education which\nneglects the spiritual is a farce. Notwithstanding this fact, the intellectual predominates in the school measurements. Teachers are rated very largely by marks in scholarship; pupils are promoted on the basis of their ability to pass certain mental tests; students\nare graduated from college and university when they have gained definite intellectual\naccomplishments; yet all recognize that intellectual education alone never has and\nnever will save a nation, uplift a people, sanctify a home, purify a ballot, aid in lawrespecting or law-enforcing, or cause an individual to be transfigured into the likeness\nof Him who spake as never man spake. A single illustration will suffice. Dr. Gunsaulus,\npresident of Armour Institute, was walking with a friend in State Street, Chicago, one\nSunday afternoon when they noticed a crowd thronging about a public assembly room.\nCuriosity led them to go in. Just as they entered, the speaker on the platform was\nthrilling his audience by saying, \"I am learning to make deadly explosives at PhiU^\nArmour's expense.\" Dr. Gunsaulus recognized the most talented, most intellectual\nstudent in the mstitution. It only confirms what Ralph Waldo Trine says: \"The education ofthe head without the softening and refining influence of the heart only increases\none's power for evil.\"\nIt is a crime to teach a child to read unless at the same time he is taught to read that\nwhich will be uplifting, purifying, ennobling. It is criminal to teach the intellect unless,\nat the same time, those principles are taught which will inculcate a practical knowledge\nof the universal brotherhood of man and the fatherhood of God. It is a farce to give a\nman high ideals without furnishing the means whereby those ideals may function in action\nworthy of the best in an American citizen.\n\n"}
{"page": 1083, "printed_page": "1071", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTRAINING\n\nFOR\n\nEFFICIENT\n\nCITIZENSHIP\n\n1071\n\nThe application is easily understood. In this present time, the unlettered may be\na part of an unorganized band in guerrilla warfare, shooting from ambush at a venturesome\nfrontiersman and driving his cattle from the ranch. The educated are a part of vast\narmies with forty-two-centimeter guns, bomb-dropping aerial navies, submarines, with\ndeadly projectiles, dreadnaughts and superdreadnaughts; and all the world is put under\ntribute for savages to carry on a war of annihilation. Poisoned bullets, suffocation gases,\nand blockades to starve the non-combatants are some of the results of intellectual and\nscholastic culture.\nNote the contrast. When the government opened Oklahoma to settlers, in the mad\nrush for advantageous positions, a little girl was lost. The cry of a child lost went out\nthru the rabble struggling for homes. The selection of locations was abandoned and\nsearch was made for the little one who was supposedly without protection. During the\nafternoon, on thru the night, into the next day went the searching party, when some of\nthe members came upon a wolf which had been killed in a sanguine struggle. A little\nfarther on a second wolf was found with it vitals torn from its body; and nearby in a little\nclump of bushes was the child imharmed, sweetly sleeping, with the family dog lying\ndead across her body. Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay down his\nlife for his friend. In our day, when civilization across the water seems to have collapsed,\nit is refreshing to turn to the brute creation for examples of the destruction of self for the\npreservation of others.\nIn the study of those elements which should be emphasized in the making of citizenship, there are no differences with those who are working along the line of vocational training as a solution for national eflSiciency. In fact, all will agree that vocational education\nis a necessity growing out of the character of our social order. Manual skill will not save\na republic, moreover. Men in America af^ not starving for bread, but they are starving\nfor the good, the true; the beautiful. To make two blades of grass grow where one grew\nbefore is a valuable contribution to the wealth of the country, but to make boys and\ngirls exercise self-restraint, practice the virtues, recognize every man as a brother, is a\nGodlike performance. The need of bread may cause a man to commit a crime, but the\nabsence of the attributes of the soul makes him a criminal whether he ever breaks the\nstatutes or not.\nThe schools have glorified knowledge. \"Knowledge is power\" has been carved in\nstone and placed over the doors of school buildings. It has been used as copy for practice\nin penmanship. It has been a gem for memory work. It has been the text for addresses\nbefore student bodies on aU kinds of occasions. True knowledge is power, but power is\nselfish, and selfishness is antagonistic to eflicient citizenship in a republic. Education will\ntake on a new aspect when knowledge is regarded as the by-product of the schools, and\ncharacter-building becomes the goal of the vision which prompts the levying of vast sums\nof money for educational purposes. When the acquisition of knowledge is secondary and\nthe training for citizenship is fundamental, then scrutinizing surveys and statistical\nreports will give record? of self-sacrifice, of service, of devotion to duty.\nMany methods have been presented for the teaching of ethics. There are just two\nwhich are applicable to this discussion; two methods of instruction which, if made a part\nof the school policy, will result in better manhood mentally and physically as well as\nspiritually. Considering that less than 10 per cent of the young men who offered themselves to the marine corps last year were accepted, it is perfectly clear that some methods\nmust be devised by which the unfit 90 per cent may be prepared to fill a place of usefulness inour common country.\nThe first and most important method for the creation of ethical concepts is thru the\npersonality of the teacher. It must be understood, however, that the individual who\nstands behind the desk is not always the teacher. It may be an older pupil in the room\nor one in the alley who is shaping the life of the school much more forcibly than the\nso-called teacher.\n\n"}
{"page": 1084, "printed_page": "1072", "text": "I072\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nfDetroit\n\nThe school, like a great mirror, reflects the soul of the teacher. '' As is the teacher, so\nis the school,\" is truer than usually supposed. Children imitate; they copy; they take\non the master spirit of the environment in which they live, be it good or bad. The\norientals have a proverb that the grapes turned purple by looking at their fellows, and an\nEnglish naturalist asserts that he has heard a sparrow singing the nightingale's song.\nOn one occasion a gentleman was tellmg me about his canary and described him as an\norgan canary. The qualifying word attracted attention and led to inquiry as to the\nmeaning of the term. The explanation was logical. A trainer had devised a mechanical\ncontrivance which would produce certain musical tones. The birds to be trained were\nplaced in little boxes in the room with the musical toy, and there, hour after hour, day\nafter day, week after week, they heard no soimd except the song to be learned. My\ninformant remarked that they often sing no notes other than those they learned in their\ntraining school, their college of music. With proper humility we might say: If the throat\nof the little yellow songster can be so changed that he will sing a different song than\nnature intended him to sing, how much more ought we to be able to teach the boys and\ngirls of America so that there would be no minor strains of despair because of misspent\nand unprofitable lives, and no discords, in the great chorus of human endeavor!\nJames J. Hill, the wizard in railroad organization, in addressing some Y.M.C.A.\nboys said: \"We have tried athletics, social recreation, music, education, and all have\nfailed. The only thing that will better our railroad men is religion. If you have lots of\nthat, bring it along and put your associations on the Great Northern.\" If a cool, calculating, impassionate business man in a moment of careful investigation could declare\nthat the railroad system needed more religion, as it was the only thing which had not been\ntried to increase the efficiency of the men, with equal propriety we may coijifidently say\nthat we have tried many devices with marked success, but the one element that we all\nneed is more of the religion of life that is worthy of imitation.\nThe adoption of a religious creed does not necessarily function in the practice of\nethical virtues. Men have dropped munificent sums into the collection box on Sunday\nfor sweet charity, or to spread the gospel of their faith among the benighted; but on any\nother day of the week they may drive a dishonest bargain and rob the innocent. Men\nhave bowed on Sunday at the altar of the church in which they worshiped, and on Monday have gone blood-mad, unwilling to trust the law's delay, and taken one of their\nfellow-citizens from the bastile and hung his bullet-riddled body to a near-by tree.\nThus it has been shown that little reliance can be placed in unrestrained and untrained\nhuman nature, subject to specific temptations no matter what may be their profession;\nbut with the practice of self-sacrifice, self-restraint, self-abnegation, with systematic\ndrill in integrity, honesty, sobriety, truthfulness, temperance, purity, we may hope to\nblot out from the body politic those who will trade their franchise for a mess of pottage\nor sell themselves and their constituencies for thirty pieces of silver.\nThe teacher must be spiritual as well as intellectual. He must give up self for\nothers, if a boy or a girl is to receive a new birth. Arithmetic, algebra, Latin may be\ntaught without any diminution or destruction of self, but boys and girls never.\nThe second method to be presented in this discussion is the emphasis of the spiritual\nin literature. The Scriptures present the basic principles for instruction in the things of\nthe spirit. There are communities where the adoption of the Testaments for this work\nwould be objectionable; yet there are few school units that would offer criticism against\nthe teaching of Abraham's faith, Solomon's wisdom, Ruth's filial devotion. If there be\nobjections to the Bible, then the material in the textbooks will serve the double purpose\nof literary standards and spiritual stimuli.\nA few examples will help to make my meaning clear. We fand fault with Longfellow's the \"Psalm of Life\" as literature, but there can be no criticism of his clear,\nunequivocal faith in the immortality of the soul as expressed in the poem.\n\n"}
{"page": 1085, "printed_page": "1073", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nRESEARCH\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n1073\n\nWilliam CuUen Bryant had failed in some of his ambitions. The future looked dark\nto him, and, as he crossed the country seeking a new situation, a solitary wild duck, with\nits form \"darkly painted on the crimson sky,\" crossed before him. He mused upon\n\"the Power\" which guided its course, and his apostrophe to the bird, when it had entirely\ndisappeared from sight, contains his unswerving faith in divine justice:\nThou'rt gone, the abyss of heaven\nHath swallowed up thy form; yet, on my heart\nDeeply has sunk the lesson thou hast given,\nAnd shall not soon depart.\nHe who, from zone to zone.\nGuides thru the boundless sky thy certain flight,\nIn the long way that I must tread alone,\nWill lead my steps aright.\nThe self-crucifixion of Enoch Arden for those he loved, in that beautiful story without\nsin, has made many a high-school boy and high-school girl live a more xmselfish life.\nThe universal brotherhood of man, irrespective \"of race, color, or previous conditions\nof servitude\" is portrayed in \"The Vision of Sir Launfal.\" Phoebe Gary's awakening\nin \"Nearer Home,\" the nearness of the spirit world in \"The Ancient Marnier,\" and Longfellow's return to faith in \"The Bridge,\" are a few of the many illustrations which may\nbe put into the hands of the pupils; and then, with the magic touch of the spiritual in\nthe teacher, the young life reflects the moral reactions from the ethical concepts\nacquired.\nWhen the teachers of America with uncovered heads stand within the threshold of\nthe office, the recitation room, the laboratory, the gymnasium, before the pupils appear\nin the morning, and, no matter what creed they profess, petition the Great Jehovah for\nwisdom and power to do the work by example and by precept which is necessary to be\ndone in order to make for universal brotherhood and fatherhood; and when, after the\nday's work is over and the children are gone, with the devotion of kinship they say:\n\"Father, I thank Thee that I am permitted to be an American teacher and have a part\nin buildmg and fortifying a great nation\"; and when the children catch the master\nspirit, we will cease to be troubled about unpreparedness and inefi&ciency in national\ncrises in this democractic government.\n\nROUND\n\nTABLE OF DIRECTORS\n\nTHE\n\nPHASES\n\nGEORGE\n\nTWO\n\nMELCHER,\n\nOF EDUCATIONAL\n\nOF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH\nTHE PUBLIC SCHOOLS\n\nDIRECTOR,\n\nBUREAU\n\nOF RESEARCH\n\nAND\n\nAND\n\nRESEARCH\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\nEFFICIENCY,\n\nKANSAS\n\nIN\n\nCITY, MO.\n\nFor generations schools have been conducted on opinion. All other forms of business\nof great magnitude that involve the expenditure of vast sums of money and affect the\nwelfare of thousands of people are being reduced to a basis of fact. The present tendency\nin the educational world is to substitute fact for opinion. Effective supervision must be\nbased on fact, riot on theory and opinion. In order to secure the necessary facts on\nwhich to base wise and eflScient supervision, careful and scientific inquiries must be made\nand definite tests and standards must be established and used in measuring educational\nefl&ciency. By the application of such tests, we may reach facts— conclusions free from\npersonal opinion or bias. Shovild not schools render accounts, both financial and educational, as trustworthy and systematic as the accounts of any other business ? Professor\nHanus, of Harvard College, one of the best authorities on school administration in America,\nsays that efficient management of a school system depends upon \"habitual and well-\n\n"}
{"page": 1086, "printed_page": "1074", "text": "jo^4\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\norganized self-examination within the school system, including adequate appraisal by the\nstafif of the results achieved, and well-conducted experiments to confirm or refute educational opinion within and without the school system.\"\nThe two important phases of research and efiiciency in the public schools are the\nfinancial and the educational. Let us first consider the financial aspect of the question.\nFrom one-sixth to one-third of the current maintenance fund in the public-school system\nis devoted to other purposes than paying for the personal service of instruction and supervision. The expenditure of all this money should be supervised by the superintendent.\nThese expenditures may be under the immediate direction of such officers as the chief\nengineer or superintendent of buildings, the architect, the purchasing agent, the chief\nattendance officer, and the secretary of the board of directors.\nIn order that the expenditure in these various departments may be wisely made, it is\nnecessary that standards of cost be established. There are so many factors that enter\ninto the determining of the cost of any item that it is not an easy matter to establish standards in school finances. For example, in studying the cost of heating school buildings in\ndifferent school systems, or school buildings in the same system, cost may be compared\non the basis of the cost per pupil, or the cost per thousand cubic feet of space to be heated,\nor the percentage of the entire cost invested in fuel. So many factors enter into the\ndetermining of this cost that any single basis of comparison may be unfair. Some of the\nfactors that must be considered are : (i) the kind of fuel and the relative cost of the various\nkinds of fuel; (2) the amount of air space per pupil to be heated; this item will be greatly\ninfluenced by the presence in the school building, or the absence, of gymnasiums, auditoriums, and playrooms, and it must also be known whether these auditoriums are used\nfull time or part time; (3) the character of the building; (4) the kind of heating plant;\n(5) in comparison with other cities, temperature and climate must be considered.\nAt a glance, one can see that comparisons based on the cost per pupil may be unfair,\nsince one building may have playrooms, auditoriums, and gymnasiums to be heated, while\nothers have only the schoolrooms. Again, one building may place 30 pupils in a room\n24X30 feet and another may place 50 in a room of the same size. Comparisons based on\nthe cost per thousand cubic feet of air space to be heated may be unfair because the kind\nof heating plants in the buildings may be entirely different or the amount of ventilation\nmay vary from building to building. Furthermore, the percentage of the entire cost, a\nmethod of comparison often used in comparing one city with another, is a very unfair basis,\nsince this percentage is apparently low in cities that pay high salaries for teachers. It\ncosts just as much to heat a given room for a teacher receiving $500 per year as it does to\nheat the room when the teacher is receiving $1,000 per year. The cost per thousand\ncubic feet of air space to be heated is possibly the fairest of all means of comparison when a\nsingle basis must be used.\nNot only should the cost of heating be carefully standardized, but also the cost of\nlight and water, cost of janitor service, cost of janitor's supplies, and the cost of supplies\nfor instruction. A school system should know the cost per pupil of writing-paper, pencils,\ndrawing-material, pens, regular textbooks, and supplementary books. It is true that\ncertain factors will cause variations in these items, but if it is known by the persons responsible for the expenditure that there will be careful checking on each item of expense, and\nthat comparisons of the various buildings will be made, greater economy will be exercised\nin the use of materials. The economy brought about by the mere knowledge that the\nchecking will be made pays several times for the expense of checking.\nFurthermore, as regards the matter of cost accounting, a school system should know\nthe cost of each subject of instruction. It should know the cost per pupil hour in the high\nschool for each subject, the cost per pupil hour of elementary-school work, the cost per\npupil hour of special subjects, such as manual training and domestic science, and the cost\nper pupU hour of kindergarten work. In the erection of new buildings, the cost per\n\n"}
{"page": 1087, "printed_page": "1075", "text": "SuFerintendence]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nRESEARCH\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n1075\n\nroom or the cost according to cubical contents should be known. The cost of repairs on\nbuildings should be carefully checked and studied.\nThe second phase of research and efficiency relates directly to the department of\ninstruction. The research work in the department of instruction may be considered under\nfive heads: (i) measuring general school results in terms of school progress; (2) measuring\nand standardizing achievements in school subjects; (3) conducting experiments and\nmaking measurements to test the value of methods of teaching or plans of organization;\n(4) testing the suitability of the material suggested in courses of study for the various\ngrades, and standardizing the subject-matter for each grade; (5) contributing to the\neducational world, as a final result of this other work, a body of scientifically tested educational principles.\nBureaus of efficiency are now engaged very largely in checking up general results\nand measuring school achievements objectively. It is probable that, in a few years, the\nmost important work of these bureaus will be centered on the last three phases mentioned\nabove. Up to the present time, however, so little work has been done along these lines\nthat only this mention will be made of them here.\nUnder the first division are studied such topics as retardation, over-ageness,\npromotions, non-promotions, causes of retardation and over-ageness, causes of nonpromotion, and opportunity in the school for individual progress. Accurate data on\nthese points can be obtained only when the school has a system of cumulative record\ncards so that the progress of pupils thru the various grades can be known accurately.\nFor example, in Kansas City we have a seven-year elementary-school course. At the\npresent time, cumulative record cards are used in the system., but they have been in use\nonly two years. In June, 19 15, it was desired to know the length of time reqviired by the\ngraduates of the elementary school to complete the course. In Part I of the Fifteenth\nYearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, pages 126 to 130, there is an\naccount of the method used to determine this important point. The results of this investigation showed that 6 per cent of the class completed the elementary -school course in six\nyears or less, and 40 per cent in seven years, making a total of 46 per cent who completed the\ncourse in seven years or less. Forty per cent required eight years to complete the course,\nand only 14 per cent required more than eight years. In the same Yearbook, page 143,\nDr. Starch, of the University of Wisconsin, has suggested that one-third of the elementaryschool pupils should complete the elementary-school coiirse in seven years, one-third in\neight years, and one-third should require more than eight years. Assuming that our\nfigures in Kansas City are practically correct at the present time, nearly one-half of our\npupils complete the elementary-school course in less than seven years, and only one-seventh\nrequire more than eight years. This splendid showing is made with an elementary-school\ncourse of study that embraces an excessive amount of technical grammar, abstract arithmetic, and rigid work in other subjects, and would seem to indicate that, by the elimination\nof much useless, non-functioning material now in the elementary-school course, it would\nbe possible so to organize the course of study that at least one-fifth of the elementaryschool pupils would complete the elementary-school course in six years, three-fifths in\nseven years, and one-fifth in eight years, or in an average period of seven years. Since\nthe average time required to complete the elementary-school course in eight-grade\nsystems is almost eight and one-half years, this organization would save one and onehalf years.\nIt is the consensus of opinion that there is generally too much retardation in the\nelementary schools. Hence, the subject of school progress is worthy of continued and\ncareful consideration by school administrators. On pages 130 to 132, of the Fifteenth\nYearbook, is found a discussion of opportunity for individuals in the Kansas City elementary schools. This study indicates that in the Kansas City as in other school systems too little opportunity is given the bright pupil for individual progress.\n\n"}
{"page": 1088, "printed_page": "1076", "text": "1076\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Daroit\n\nA study was made, during the past year, of the causes of non-promotion. This\nsubject was studied from two angles: (i) for each case of non-promotion the opinion of\nthe teacher was ascertained; (2) the regularity of attendance of the promoted and nonpromoted pupils was compared. According to the teachers' estimates, 52 per cent of the\nnon-promotions were due to non-attendance. Assuming that a pupil cannot complete\na given course satisfactorily unless he attends at least 80 per cent of the time, it was found\nthat 60 per cent of the non-promotions were caused by non-attendance. Of the pupils\nwho were not promoted, only 40 per cent had attended more than four-fifths of the time\nschool was in session; but 60 per cent had attended less than four-fifths of the time, or\nhad been absent more than 20 per cent of the time. Of the pupils who were promoted,\nII per cent had been absent more than 20 per cent of the time.\nThis study makes it evident that the most serious problem in non-promotion is nonattendance. This is a proper problem for solution, but it must be met by the co-operative\nefforts of the school, the home, and society. In fact, the chief burden falls upon society,\nfor most of the causes of non-attendance are social or economic and cannot be overcome\nby the school alone.\nAs regards the second division of the subject, it may be said that only a beginning has\nbeen made in measuring school achievements objectively. Many types of school work\nlend themselves readily to objective measurement, and for some such types of school work\nscales have been devised. For other such types of school work, scales and standards are\nnow in process of formulation and definition. However, many forms of school achievement do not lend themselves readily to objective measurement, since they are so highly\nspiritual and so elusive that it has not yet been possible to devise scales for estimating\ntheir value. Such achievements are often almost by-products of the educational processes,\nbut, like the by-products of many manufacturing operations, these results are sometimes\nthe most valuable part of the product. While many forms of school achievement cannot\nyet be measured objectively, it is confidently believed that in the future more scales will\nbe devised, so that ultimately it will be possible to measure objectively, either directly or\nindirectly, most of the principal types of school achievement.\nWhile only a few subjects have been measured, these measurements have revealed\nmany valuable facts for the use of teachers and supervisors. The results of the measurements have shown that not only do the pupils in the same grade vary more than teachers\nand principals have realized, but also that rooms in the different schools in the city vary\nmore than was believed possible before the application of such accurate scales. While it was\nknown that rooms vary from building to building, the magnitude of this variation has been\nmade clear by such measurements. Even in the same school, the variations between rooms\nis often greater than has been realized by the principal or teachers. For example, in\nKansas City entire third-grade rooms were found that wrote better than seventh-grade\nrooms in other schools, and better than sixth-, fifth-, and fourth-grade rooms. In handwriting, some buildings made an average gain during the year of nearly two Thorndike\npoints. However, other buildings made practically no gain. In accurate copying, some\nbuildings were seven times as good as other buUdings. Similar differences were found in\nspelling and arithmetic. In fact, it was found that almost one-fourth of the pupils of the\ncity in the fourth grade did better in the fundamental operations of arithmetic, on exactly\nthe same test, than did the poorest fourth of the seventh-grade pupils. Similar striking\ndifferences were noted in the results of the tests in the various subjects.\nSome will properly ask: \"Were not these differences due to variations in nationality,\nin community life, and in social conditions, etc. ? \" Some of them were, but the majority\nwere not. For example, two schools of similar foreign population are about at opposite\nends of the scale in certain of these tests. Of two schools consisting of similar American\npopulation, one stands in the highest group of schools and the other in the lowest group\nin certain tests. A school sometimes ranks high in one test and low in another. These\n\n"}
{"page": 1089, "printed_page": "1077", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nRESEARCH\n\nAND\n\nEFFICIENCY\n\n1077\n\nresults are in harmony with the results that have been secured in every large city system\nthat has been tested.\nThe more one studies the results at first hand, the more convinced he is that this great\nvariation is largely a question of teachers and wise direction of teachers. When trained\nteachers are guided by clear and definite purposes, the teaching is most effective. School\nprincipals and school superintendents may render valuable service to the schools by giving\ndefinite purpose to each teacher's work. Many teachers already have a clear conception\nof the end to be attained and are securing valuable and tangible results. Many others are\nworking just as earnestly, seriously, and industriously, and failing to secure satisfactory\nresults.\nWhy?\nI shall give Mr. Bobbitt's answer:\nThe taproot of effective teaching is to know in specific terms what one is after. The\ncentral cause of ineffective teaching is lack of knowledge of specific ends and a substitute\nconception that what one is to do is teach certain textbooks that somebody else has\nselected; to teach certain topics laid down in the course of study, also arranged by somebody else; to follow in unthinking fashion the dictates of others in all these matters;\nnot to be guilty of li\\ang, responsible thought; and, in general, to grind away at the\ncourse of study and textbook machinery without any other thought as to the outcome than\nthat pupils may be able to pass the examinations that belong with this type of school\nmachinery.\nThe greatest service that principals and supervisors can render their teachers is to\ngive them clear-cut specific ends to be reached in each grade in each kind of work. We\nhave had too much generalization. The generaUzations should be only the summaries\nof particulars and should not be given to teachers; but each teacher should make his own\ngeneralizations from the details that come under his observation and into his experience.\nAccurate objective measuring of school results will aid materially in giving more\ndefinite and specific aims to our teachers in cpnducting their work. Some of the distinct\nadvantages of the use of scales and objective measures are: (i) they eliminate personal\nopinion and bias and give impartial results; (2) they make possible an accurate comparison\nof the progress of each pupil from grade to grade; (3) they enable school principals and\nteachers to determine the progress made by groups of pupils as they pass from grade to\ngrade thru the school; (4) they enable impartial comparisons to be made of the work of\nrooms in the same buildings, and also of rooms or grades in one building with corresponding rooms or grades in other buildings; (5) they enable comparisons of the work in the\ndifferent buildings to be made; (6) they enable accurate comparisons of work in different\ncities to be made; (7) they give an accurate scheme for comparing the results of different\nmethods of teaching given subjects and also of different plans of school organization;\n(8) they give the teacher a very accurate means of measuring his own pupils, which is\npossibly the most important result. Teachers are now learning that these new viewpoints\nenable them to improve very materially their classroom work.\nObjective measurements bring out individual differences and class differences that\nare surprising. For example, in accurate copying, the best seventh-grade class in the\nKansas City schools made only one-seventh as many errors per pupil as the poorest\nseventh-grade class. In the Courtis research tests in arithmetic, the best fourth-grade\nclass had five times the medium speed of the poorest one, and seven times the median in\naccuracy. Such differences raise important questions in the minds of principals and\nteachers.\nOur supervisor of writing has been collecting specimens of writing at the beginning\nof each year and at the end of each year. Until our bureau undertook the study of penmanship, he had not fully realized that some buildings actually made almost no progress\nin the quality of writing during the year, and that other buildings made a progress of two\nThorndike points, and that as a result of this great variation in progress in the quaUty of\nhandwriting there were several third-grade rooms in the city that last May wrote better\nthan several seventh-grade rooms.\n\n"}
{"page": 1090, "printed_page": "1078", "text": "joyS\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nA comparison of the October papers with the May papers in writing revealed the fact\nthat the different schools had no common aim in teaching handwriting and that they had\nno standard for speed and quality for the different grades. Some schools reduced their\nspeed during the year and improved the quality of their handwriting; others aimed to\nsecure speed, and did so at the sacrifice of the quality of the handwriting. Often in the\nsame building the aims of the teachers seemed at variance.\nWithout question, definite standards of quality and speed in handwriting should be\nestablished for each grade and the teachers given specific goals to be reached. In general\nin Kansas City, when both quality and speed are considered, the greatest progress in writing\nwas made in the fourth grade; the sixth grade ranked second, the fifth grade ranked third,\nthe seventh grade came fourth, and the third grade ranked fifth. However, if speed alone\nis considered, the third grade made the greatest progress, but, in making progress m speed,\nit made almost no progress in quality; and many rooms lost in quality.\nThis study in writing only indicates a condition that is general in our school systems,\nand shows the need of more accurate measurements and more definite aims on the part of\nour teachers.\n\nSTANDARDIZATION\nSTUART\n\nA. COURTIS,\n\nSUPERVISOR\n\nOF TEACHERS'\nOF EDUCATIONAL\n\nEXAMINATIONS\nRESEARCH,\n\nDETROIT,\n\nMICH.\n\nIt is hardly necessary to remind this audience of the rapid growth of the movement\nfor the use of measurement in education. Five years ago, had anyone suggested the\npossibility of a meeting of this kind, he would have been looked upon as a person of unsound\nmind; but today, from one end of this country to the other, measurement has an established place. It is true that, so far, measurement has been used mainly by those interested\nin survey work, by students of education, or by superintendents and teachers doing a\nlittle experimental work out of mere curiosity. Yet, during the meetings this week, the\npoint has been emphasized over and over again that measurement should be of direct\nvalue to the teacher, and again and again the warning has been sounded that, if steps\nare not taken by those interested in the movement to make standard tests and scales\npracticable for daily use in the classroom, a reaction against measurement is bound to\nset in. I wish this afternoon to emphasize this warning and to indicate the steps taken\nhere in Detroit to meet this need. As Director of Educational Research in a large city\nsystem, I am more directly interested in the improvement of the efficiency of teaching\neffort than I am in the more general problems of purely scientific research.\nIn all forms of educational measurement the standard test is an essential feature.\nNow, standard tests are little more than standard examinations. It is true that they\nmeasure single and very simple abilities, and that the conditions under which they are\ngiven and scored are very carefully controlled. Nevertheless, in all their essential features\nthey are primarily examinations. They become \"standard\" tests only in two ways.\nOne type of test is called \"standard,\" because the text itself has been standardized by\ngiving it to a large number of children, so that norms of performance have been established.\nThe other type may be called \"standard\" for a different reason. Where the abilities\nmeasured are very simple and the factors involved few in number, the analysis of the\ntesting material may be so complete and so perfect as to make it possible to construct\nduplicate tests exactly equal in value to the first. It is, of course, just as necessary to\nstandardize such tests as it is to standardize those of the first type, but when such a test\nhas been used in one extensive investigation, the scores that will be obtained in the use\nof all subsequent editions of it can be predicted with certainty.\nAt the present time almost all standard tests are of the first type, for the simple\nreason that very little knowledge exists in regard to the factors which determine the diffi-\n\n"}
{"page": 1091, "printed_page": "1079", "text": "Superintendence!\n\nSTANDARDIZATION\n\nOF TEACHERS'\n\nEXAMINATIONS\n\n1079\n\nculty of such tests. For instance, the Ayres spelling scale is constructed on the basis of\nthe actual performances of many children; Thorndike's handwriting scale is based upon\nthe judgment of many teachers. So Kelly's reading tests and many other tests of the\nsame kind are useful measures only after standard values have been assigned to every\nquestion in accordance with the performances of many children. The other type of test,\nhowever, is much more to be desired, and it is possible but difl5cult to make. For instance,\nthe paragraphs of Gray's reading scale gradually increase in diflSculty. This fact is proved\nby the failure of first-grade children to read successfully more than the first paragraph\nor two of this scale. The second grade is able to penetrate farther into the paragraphs of\nthe scale. No one knows, however, just what it is that makes paragraph three more\ndifficult than paragraph two and less diflScult than paragraph four. In addition, which\nis a much simpler ability, the various factors to be controlled are definitely known. Test i ,\nSeries B, of the Standard Research Tests, for instance, can be duplicated endlessly without\nchanging in the slightest the difl&culty of the test itself. At the present time, three such\neditions of the tests have been issued, and a fourth is to be constructed soon.\nThe value of Gray's reading scale would be very greatly increased were it possible\nto duplicate at will the various paragraphs of the scale; and as an illustration of the kind\nof research work which must be completed before this type of standard test in reading\ncan be constructed, I wish to present a consideration of the factors whose effect must be\ndetermined.\nAs I see it, the factors to be considered are of three kinds. The first of these is purely\nmechanical, dealing with such qualities as size of type, form of letters, spacing of letters\nand words, etc.; the second series of factors are those which depend upon the content, or\nthought elements, of the paragraph or sentence; the third series of factors are those which\nmust be controlled in the giving and scoring of the tests. I shall discuss each of these in\nturn.\nTo make my discussion concrete, consider as a basic sentence (Fig. i),\nThe girl is running down the street.\n\n(29 letters)\n\nFig. I\nPrinted in eight-point type with conventional spacing, this sentence, which contains 29\nletters, makes a line 2^ inches long. The problem, then, is to construct a second sentence\nwhich shall be equal, in diflSculty of reading, to the first.\nLet us consider the mechanical features involved, the first of which is structure.\nThe sentence, \"The boy is climbing up the tree,\" parallels in number of words and in\ngeneral structure the basic sentence. It is three letters shorter, to be sure, but as far as\nstructure is concerned is nearly the equal of the first. If, however, the sentence were\nchanged to \" Which girl ran upstairs ?\" it would be impossible to say without trial whether\nthe new sentence is more or less difl&cult than the original sentence. We need, therefore,\ncareful evaluation of the differences in difl&culty, if any, which are due to the structure\nof the sentence alone.\nI have already referred to a second factor which must be considered, \"length.\"\nFor, if instead of the basic sentence, \"The girl is running down the street,\" we were to\nuse \"The pretty little girl is running down the street, chasing her black dog,\" we know\nwithout trial that the sentence would take more time to read and would involve a greater\nnumber of eye movements. We need to determine very accurately, however, what the\neffect of such an increase in length from 29 to 59 letters would be. Is the longer sentence\ntwice as difl&cult as the first, or only once and a half ? For in the duplication of any paragraph of a set form, there is bound to be some variation in the length of constituent\nsentences.\n\n"}
{"page": 1092, "printed_page": "1080", "text": "NA TIONAL\n\njo8o\n\nEDUCA\n\nTION ASSOCIA TION\n\n[Detroit\n\nSo in the printing of our tests, we must be careful as to the size of the type and as\nprinted\nto the spacing. For instance, in Fig. 2, notice that in one case our basic sentence is\ntype.\nsix-point\nin\nother\nin large primer and in the\n\na.\nb.\n\nThe girl is running\ndown the street.\nThe girl is running down the street.\nFig. 2\n\nEven to the adult, the difference in difficulty of reading is evident. The exact value\nof this factor also must be determined before we can measure the degree of development\nin reading in passing from the readers of the elementary grades to those of the later years.\nSimilarly, in Fig. 3, there is given an illustration of the basic sentence printed in\ncondensed type closely spaced, and in type widely spaced.\n\na. The girl is running down tlie street.\nb.\n\nThe\n\ngirl is running\nstreet. Fig. 3\n\ndown\n\nthe\n\nNot only are there differences in the distance the eye must travel, which would affect\nthe time of reading and, therefore, the relative difficulty of thp two sentences, but the\npsychological effect of the two styles of printing upon even the adult mind is marked.\nIn similar fashion, any change in length or character of the actual line of type, entirely\naside from the length of the sentence, also produces a change in difficulty. Those who\nhave worked with children in the first and second grades know that a distinct step in\nadvance has been made when a child can read a sentence in the forms given in Fig. 4\na.\n\nThe girl\nb.\nis running down\nthe street.\nFig.\n\nThe girl is running\ndown the street.\n\ninstead of in the form in which the basic sentence is first given (Fig. i). These changes\nin mechanical features seem trivial to those who have given them no attention, but to\nthose whose work lies in this field they are known to be of the very greatest importance.\nThe average teacher is astonished to find that trivial changes in conditions cause children\nto appear to have forgotten all they have ever learned. But if the reader will look at Fig. 5 ,\nin which the basic sentence is printed upside down,\n5\n•;9ai;s aq^ UMopFig.Suiuuni\nsi pi3 aqx\n\nhe will realize that so slight a thing as a change of position may throw his reading habits\nalmost entirely out of gear.\nIn addition to all the factors mentioned, there is the diffiulty due to differences in\nthe ease of word recognition. In changing from the sentence, \"The girl is running down\nthe street,\" to the sentence, \"The boy is clmibing up the tree,\" if \"boy\" is easier to recognize than \"girl,\" if \"running\" is easier to recognize than \"climb,\" if \"street\" is easier\nto recognize than \"tree,\" the resultant value of the second sentence may be less than\nthat of the first, altho every other factor has been kept carefully the same. This, how-\n\n"}
{"page": 1093, "printed_page": "1081", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTANDARDIZATION\n\nOF TEACHERS'\n\nEXAMINATIONS\n\n1081\n\never, is a point about which we have no information whatever, and even on the mechanical\nside it is impossible at present to construct, with any certainty of the result, two sentences\nof equal value.\nIf we now leave the mechanical factors and turn to the content factors, we shall\nfind an even more serious situation. Consider, for instance, the three sentences: \"The\ngirl is running down the street,\" \"The boy is climbing up the tree,\" \"The misanthrope\nis sulking in his den.\" These sentences in structure, size of type, number of letters, etc.,\nare of nearly the same value, but even for the adult reader there will be differences in\ndifficulty, due to the fact that in the third sentence the thought element, aroused by the\nstimulus of the printed words, is very different.\nThe major element in the content situation is probably the familiarity of the reader\nwith the particular word forms used; a second important element is the incentive which\nleads to the act of reading. All content difficulties are to be evaluated in terms of experience. The difficulty of a word for a reader is probably determined by the frequency\nand recency of its use and by the interest and emotional atmosphere surrounding the\nconditions of its use. It is, of course, hopeless to attempt to evaluate completely the\nrelative difficulties of different words for individual children; but it would be perfectly\npossible to analyze the vocabularies of children in terms of average frequency and conditions ofuse. Such an analysis of the English language for different ages and types of\nlife is urgently needed. If such data were available, tests of nearly equal value could be\nconstructed, and the process of determining the exact value of the various units by the\nreactions of unselected groups of children would be very greatly shortened.\nThe third set of factors governing the equality of tests are those which have to do\nwith the testing conditions themselves. The incentive of the children to put forth their\nbest efforts will be determined largely by the instructions, personality, and general manner\nof the examiner. Teachers, as a rule, try to secure from each child the utmost possible\nperformance, and are very quick to resent the efforts of scientific men to control conditions\nunder which tests are given, in order to keep them uniform. The results from child to\nchild, however, are not comparable, unless the instructions and general procedure are\nthe same for all. The factor of personality is a difficult one to control, but there is some\nevidence tending to show that the differences produced by this factor are not large, providing conscientious care is taken to fulfil standard conditions. A far more important\nfactor is the question of the timing of the test. Scrupulous care must be taken to keep\nexact time. In a test of one minute's duration, a variation of one second at the beginning\nand at the end will make a total variation of 3 per cent in the result. So with the length\nof the test. If a test is so short that all are able to finish in a given time, the subjects\nmeasured will appear to be of equal ability. On the other hand, if the test had been long\nenough to keep all occupied for a longer interval, large individual differences in scores\nwould have been revealed. So, too, a test of short duration in addition is a different thing\nfrom a test, with exactly the same type of examples, of long duration, because of the\nvariation in results caused by differences in the effects of practice and fatigue.\nIn similar fashion, we need much more information in regard to the effects of physical\nconditions. We all understand that in a test in reading a proper degree in illumination\nis essential for the best work, that the most gifted person would make the same score as\nthe imbecile if both were required to read in absolute darkness; but we have not paid\nenough attention to the effects of small differences in light, temperature, humidity, etc.,\nand we have not evaluated at all the effects of the position and physiological condition\nof the subject under examination.\nEven after all the elements in the tests themselves, or in the conditions under which\nthe tests are given, have been accurately measured and controlled, the results secured\nwill be influenced by the methods of scoring and tabulating. The primary need, of course,\nis for standard marking. It is essential that a given unit have the same value for all,\nbut it is equally essential that the tabulations of the results be made in the same manner\n\n"}
{"page": 1094, "printed_page": "1082", "text": "I082\n\nEDUCATION\n\nNATIONAL\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nfor all. If one city defines efficiency of a test in addition on the basis of the percentage\nof the children who can work at average speed with perfect accuracy, while another city\ndefines efficiency on the basis of the percentage of the children able to work at average\nspeed with 80 per cent accuracy or better, it is evident that, altho the actual data secured\nin the two cities may be precisely the same, the statement in regard to efficiency in the\nrespective cities would differ widely. In this connection, let me make a plea for approximate methods and greater simplicity of procedure. We know at the present time that\nthe results of any single test, no matter how carefully controlled, contain a large gross\nerror of approximately 10 per cent caused by the variability which is a constant characIt would seem foolish, therefore, to carry correlation\nteristic ofall human performances.\nTest A.\n\n(Lesson 13)\n\nForm B.\n\nForm A\n\n76\n134\n152\n56\n\n68\n118\n\n120\n\n152\n\n97\n\n165\n\n85\n163\n\n97\n\n16\n\n78\n125\n57\n\nMulriply\n\nU38\n\n\"\n\n112\n\n79\n126\n\nA\n\nMultiply\n51\n47\n\n13\n\nDiviae\n\nit^sn\n\n32T575\n\nsrJTnr\n\n311741\n\n43TS55\n\n7115555\n\n34)T787\nSCORES\n\nT»w_\nRi(U_\n\nDETROIT\n\nSTANDARD\nLESSON\n\nNo. 13\n\nPUBUC\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nPRACTICE TESTS\nTESTA\n\n(Lmmm\n\n1311S99\n\n112)\n\n^\"'*^\n\nT\"-* —\n\nF«. A\n\n«ifM-_\n\n«*• —\n\nDETROIT\n\nSTANDARD\nLESSON\n\nNo. 13\n\nPUBLIC\n\n24)1155\n\nSCHOOLS\n\nPRACTICE TESTS\nTESTA\n\n(Uttow 112)\n\nFig. 6\ncoefficients to the fourth decimal place with data which are reliable only for the first digit.\nIt seems foolish to try to determine whether a given specimen of handwriting is to be\ngraded ii . 2 or ii .8 on the Thomdike scale, when the average variation in the judgment\nfrom which the scale values were determined amounts to many units of the scale. In\nthis connection, it is interesting to note the very great change in value of all such judgments when the same sets of samples are submitted to judges with very different training.\nIn Detroit we use muscular-movement writing, and it is very difficult for teachers trained\nto consider the merits of handwriting from the point of view of muscular movement to\nuse accurately such scales as the Ay res and Thorndike handwriting scales, no samples\nof which conform to their standards of judgment.\nFrom all that has been said, it will be evident that the actual construction of tests\nand the planning of testing conditions is a scientific activity, calling for a large amount\nof technical skill and experience. When a test has been constructed and the conditions\nunder which it is to be given have been determined, administering, scoring, and tabulating\nare purely mechanical steps, which may be carried out by any person of average Intel-\n\n"}
{"page": 1095, "printed_page": "1083", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTANDARDIZATION\n\nOF TEACHERS'\n\nEXAMINATIONS\n\n1083\n\nligence and a small amount of special training. The real problem confronting directors\nof educational research, therefore, is that of devising tests or examinations which will\nbe valid according to the most rigorous scientific standards, but which can be administered\nby classroom teachers and which will yield definite knowledge, of value to the ordinary\nclassroom teacher. In my judgment, measurement is certain to prove ineffective in school\nwork, except for purposes of supervisory control, unless it is possible to put into the hands\nof all our teachers instnmients designed primarily to aid them in measuring the effects\nof their own efforts.\nBy way of a concrete illustration of the type of test referred to, I present in Fig. 6 a\ntest in arithmetic.\nIn Detroit we use the Standard PracClass Record\n^\nDETROIT PUBLIC SCHOOLS\ntice Tests. The assignment for the term\nconsists of lessons ranging from very simple\nDepartment or Educational Rcskarch\n^NACncC TCSTS IN AMITMMCTie\nexamples in the four fundamental operations to the longest examples that a child\nin the grades is likely to be called upon to\n'^*'\nReport or TEST.-^.p^^i.-*-^-**^\nsolve. There are 48 lessons of equal dij65l,^ch» .1^?/a^ ^ .0Z^^<ry-O</.\nculty, and they are so arranged that it is\nSchooir^i^?^2<-<-xWio.-s^rade\n0/ f.Siatm\n^C .possible for each child to progress at his\nown rate and work in his own way without\ninterfering in any way with the group\nIsi Trial 2nd'r>W\nformation. Our experimental work in the\nTotal number of children in class —\n—\npast has proved conclusively that the children most likely to be injured by such drill\nNumber having perfect papers\n— ■\nwork are those who at the beginning of the\nPer cent, having perfect papers\nyear already possess those habits of speed\nNumber missing but one example\nand accuracy which the practice lessons are\ndesigned to generate. An attempt has been\nPer cent, missing but one example ■-.\nmade, therefore, to imbed in the practice\nNumber excused from Lesson Hoi^Az./\nwork a form of standard test which will\nenable a teacher both to eliminate those\nPer cent, excused from Leison Nos. /rr.LiL —\n; _.\nwho are up to standard and to measure the\nEfficiency /J.\n. Efficiency Previous Trial\nGain — -^T^^\"^\neffects of her teaching. The test shown in\nOily Results:— Efficiency Gain\nPercent ticused—\nthe illustration covers the abilities repreOr« copy of this rvporl fs to be teni to th< 0«piriiMn< ot Eda;j(ioa«l\nHeSHrcb (nd ilie oilier is to b* keptFig.\non file ia\n7 Ale lehooL\nsented in the first 12 lessons. The factors\nwhich determine the difl&culty of this test\nare so completely known that it is possible\nto construct as mahy editions of the test as may be desired, so that a teacher may\nmeasure a child over and over again and yet be sure that a change in the scores is\nnot due to a change in the measuring instrument itself. In the illustration two forms of\nthis test are shown.\nDuring the first week of the term all the children are measured twice with this test.\nThose who are up to standard are excused from drill and have the time for study in more\nimportant work. The others take the practice lessons, and at the end of six or seven\nweeks of drill the tests are repeated.\nUpon completing a test, the teacher fills out a record sheet which is sent to the department and from which tabulations of city-wide results are made. In Fig. 7 an actual\nrecord for an eighth-grade class is shown. The tests were giveii on February 8 and 9.\nThere were 25 children in the class, and on the first day three had perfect papers, on\nthe second day two. The average number having perfect papers was, therefore, 10 per\ncent of the class, and the figure for eflaciency^ at the bottom of the report should have\n»The reader should note that \"efficiency\" as here defined means merely the percentage of the children\nwho have completed their training.\n\n"}
{"page": 1096, "printed_page": "1084", "text": "io84\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nbeen 10 per cent instead of 12 per cent as written by the teacher. On the first day there\nwere in this group of 25 children two children who came within one example of having\nperfect papers. Altogether there were five children who were excused from drill upon\nlessons i to 12. This means that the three children who were perfect the first day were\nnot the same as the two children who were perfect the second day. Under the conditions under which these tests are used, children perfect either day are excused from\ndrill, so that in this class one-fifth of the children had the drill time free to spend upon\nother lessons.\nThese practice tests are in use in 50 schools with 13,000 children and some 434 classes.\nThe median eflaciency for the entire city is 2.3 per cent; the median per cent of the classes\nexcused for the entire city is 2 . 8 per cent. These results, when reported to the teacher,\nwill be written in on the last line of the class-record sheet, and in this particular case the\nteacher will see at once that the material in her class is superior to that of the city at large.\nAt the end of seven weeks, the teachers of the city, on a given date, wiU repeat these\nmeasurements. From the reports sent in at that time, a second city-wide tabulation will\nbe made, and, from a comparison of the two results, it will be possible to determine the\naverage gain for the different grades.\nThese will be reported back to the\nTeachers' Record\ns_ teachers and each one will be able to tell\nTEACHER'S RECORD SHEET 3\n_\nat once whether her teaching efforts have\n♦j\nGrade 7\nproduced a greater or less effect than\nName\n^\n^ JirrvM\nSchoo fcZ^-vtxu*-^\nthose of other teachers.\nNM«i oJ C»..Ur,n\nStor,\n10 U.MI\nScor, Nud^ ^ Tn J. 1. r.^H< n^c...l.U,\nEach teacher, also, keeps a daily\n1 2 3 4 5 6 ^ 8 9\nII 12\nA\nA\n10\n29\n/\nrecord\nlike that shown in Fig. 8.\n3 Z 2 3 3 1 2 / Z 2\n_\nI JV^ JWz5<?\nIS 6 7 S a 6 * 2 s ? 5 ^\naC5n*y^>w~^\nThis record is to be interpreted as\n*\nJ\n3\n£\n^\nc£\n£\n-.1^^/3.60^\n24.\nfZ\nfollows: John Smith in the first test\n1 '2\nworked correctly only 24 of the 29\n24Fig. 8\nexamples in Test A. He was, therefore,\nrequired to take the drills. He was able to complete Lesson i in three trials. Lesson 2 in\ntwo trials, and so on. In the second test his score was 29 examples, proving that he had\nbenefited by his drills. May Brown, on the other hand, had in the initial test a score\nof only 10 examples correctly worked,<: and required a very large number of trials to\ncomplete each lesson. Her score in the second test (24) shows that, while her training\nhas helped her greatly, it is not yet complete. Tom Black had an initial score of 12,\nand after ten weeks of work, in which apparently he was completing each lesson in 4 or\n5 trials, his score in the final test was 12, indicating that there was no transfer from the\npractice work to the examination. Such a child is at once reported to the department\nfor investigation and special assistance.\nThe illustration which has been given represents the attempt to control the construction oftests and the conditions under which they are given and scored so completely\nthat the results obtained by different teachers are comparable. Our experiment in Detroit\n—which is, of course, very limited, as the tests were used for the first time this yearseems to indicate that our efforts have been successful. But it is also certain that for very\nmany years the ordinary teacher's examination will be the chief instrument by which the\nteacher may measure both the development of the child and the success of her own effort.\nAccordingly,\" there is a third type of standardization possible, which Detroit is also\nattempting.\n\nAt the beginning of the year, principals were asked to hand in copies of all examinations that were given in their schools. An analysis of these was begun, to determine the\nessential elements of a standard examination for a given grade. A sixth-grade examination\nm arithmetic was standardized by C. W. Stone. Why should not Detroit standardize\nexaminations for every grade and every subject? This does not mean at all that\nevery\nteacher must give the same examinations, but that a book of standard examinations\nmay\n\n"}
{"page": 1097, "printed_page": "1085", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nSTANDARDIZATION\n\nOF TEACHERS'\n\nEXAMINATIONS\n\n1085\n\nbe issued later, in which typical examinations for every grade may be shown, with detailed\ndirections for giving and rating the various questions. A teacher would be free to select\nmodel questions from any grade or type, or to make up new questions at will. But for\neach type of question, or for an examination as a whole, the standard models would\nfurnish a guide as to method of rating and as to relative difficulty.\nThe construction of the standard models will, of course, require many years of work,\nbut the most essential step is making a beginning, and that step has been taken in Detroit.\nAlready significant results have been secured and suggestions developed for future experimental work and for the construction of tests. For instance, questions on the writing\nof numbers occur in every grade. In the B-2 grade, 39 per cent of the questions deal\nwith this point, in the A-2 grade but 5 per cent. In the A-4 grade, the number has\ndropped to 2 per cent of the total questions asked, and the percentage for this topic remains\nat about this figure, being also 2 per cent of the total number of questions asked in the\neighth grade. Evidently a standard test covering this one point is needed, and the contruction of such a test will be undertaken in the immediate future.\nIn precisely similar fashion, it has been found that questions dealing with the mere\nmechanics of addition of fractions are about 2 per cent of the total number of questions\nin the A-3 examinations, about 10 per cent of the B-4 questions, 9 per cent of the B-5\nquestions, 6 per cent of the A-5, and i per cent of the B-6. From this point on they\noccur less frequently than once in one hundred questions. It is very evident from these\nfigures that the addition of fractions is learned in grades B-4 to A-5. An examination\nof the questions themselves shows a certain increase in difficulty in these grades. The\ndepartment, therefore, will formulate in a very definite way typical questions in the\naddition of fractions for these grades. It will determine, by the direct giving and scoring\nof these standard questions, their relative difficulty. Finally, both the questions themselves, and the standards derived from them, together with the information secured as\nto the factors to be controlled in the construction of questions of equal difficulty, will\nbe issued in such form that the information will be available for all the teachers of the city.\nSimilar analysis of the questions in the history, geography, and English-composition\npapers is now under way.\nThe most important conclusion so far drawn from this work is that a very large\nnumber of elements are ordinarily covered in a conventional examination. Questions\ninvolving thought and the use of knowledge occur with questions involving purely mechanical skills. Moreover, it is the general custom to divide the credits equally amOng the\nquestions in the examinations without regard to their real character or difficulty. Under\nthese conditions, a mark of 75 per cent has no meaning, for it is not 75 per cent of a\ngiven desired ability, but of a complex of abilities, and may indicate merely that the\nchild has neither the information nor the skill to do any of the work adequately. In the\nopinion of the writer, questions involving the development of skills, such, for instance,\nas the addition of whole numbers, or the addition of fractions, or the reading of Arabic\nnumbers, should not occur in final examinations. Each specific skill can be adequately\nmeasured only by a test composed wholly of examples of a single type. The best examination, also, is not that represented by the score of a single performance on a certain day.\nHuman effort is too variable and human skill too easily upset to make it fair to have\npromotions depend upon such chance scores. For these mechanical skills promotions\nshould depend upon the median performance of a large number of trials thru the term; i.e.,\nthey should depend upon the daily increase in amount and quality of scores toward the\nstandard, thru a long period of time. If a child has shown consistent development in\nrepeated tests during the term, a single poor performance on a certain day has little significance.\nOn the other hand, questions involving thought and power to do are of quite a\ndifferent character. We are today in desperate need of a measuring scale for ability in\nthinking and reasoning. The department is undertaking the measurement of reasoning\n\n"}
{"page": 1098, "printed_page": "1086", "text": "NATIONAL\n\njo36\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nproblems in arithmetic, following the general plans of Buckingham and Ayres in spelling.\nHow rapidly this work can proceed no one can tell, but in this, as in the other types of\nstandardization suggested above, progress will depend greatly upon the co-operative\nefforts of many workers; and if this paper stimulates the efforts of other members of this\norganization along these same lines, it will have served its purpose.\n\nIMPROVING\nFRANK\n\nW.\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nBALLOU,\n\nTHRU\n\nEDUCATIONAL\n\nMEASUREMENT\n\nINVESTIGATION\nOF EDUCATIONAL\nDEPARTMENT\nDIRECTOR,\nMEASUREMENT, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, BOSTON, MASS.\n\nAND\n\nThe Department of Educational Investigation and Measurement in Boston is undertaking its measurement work on the theory that \"the ultimate purpose of all educational\nmeasurement is to increase the effectiveness of the instruction which the child receives.\"\nTHREE STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF IMPROVEMENT\n\nIn the process of improving educational results thru educational measurement, three\nquite distinct steps are involved:\n1. The quahty of the educational results now being obtained must be measured by\nthe best available standard tests as a basis for determining just what the present educational achievement is. This involves also analyzing that achievement and judging it in\nthe light of what, for a better term, may be called a standard achievement.\n2. After the present educational achievement has been thus analyzed, suggestions\nmust be made for improvement where results are unsatisfactory. These suggestions may\nbe given in informal conferences with individual teachers or with groups, or they may\nbe presented to teachers in the form of printed reports. The sagacious superintendent\nor school ofl&cial will not put them into the form of ofl&cial orders.\n3. When a reasonable time.has elapsed after the suggestions have been made, similar\nstandard tests must be repeated to determine what effect, if any, the suggestions have had\non the instruction. These second tests should not be given until the teachers have had\nample time in which to put the suggestions into operation. The suggestions cannot be\nmade today and the tests given tomorrow, or even next week.\nPRESENT\n\nSTATUS\n\nOF EDUCATIONAL\n\nMEASUREMENT\n\nIN BOSTON\n\nIn Boston, as elsewhere, the measurement of educational results is in its initial\nstages. In Boston the first step in the above program has been taken in several subjects; the second step has been taken in a few cases; but the third step has not as yet\nbeen taken in any subject except for the four fundamental operations in arithmetic. It\nis the purpose of this paper to outline, briefly, the educational-measurement work which\nhas been started in Boston, and to review more fully the results which have been achieved\nfor the four fundamental operations in arithmetic, because that is the subject which has\nreceived special attention for a sufficient length of time to warrant the expectation of\nmeasurable results.\nThe work which has already been undertaken in Boston to determine the present\neducational achievements will now be briefly described.\nI. Accurate copying. — One of the eight requirements in English for graduation from\nan elementary school, defined by the committee on standards in English and approved\nand put into effect by the Board of Superintendents, reads:\nA graduate of an elementary school should be able to copy at least twelve lines of\nsimple prose or poetry and a bill of at least seven items. Copying is not an end in itself,\nbut a means to an end. The pupils should be made to see that accuracy in arithmetic,\nlanguage, and other subjects may depend largely on accuracy in copying.\n\n"}
{"page": 1099, "printed_page": "1087", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nIMPROVING\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nTHRU\n\nMEASUREMENT\n\n1087\n\nA standard test was prepared by the department and given to 4,944 first-year highschool pupils in November after they had been in the high school only about two months.\nFor our purpose they were considered only elementary-school graduates. In this test\nthe department was concerned with finding out to what extent elementary-school graduates measure up to this theoretical standard.\nThe standard for accurate copying, based on the median achievement of those 4,944\npupils, is stated as follows:\nA boy graduating from the elementary school should be able to copy fifteen and a\nhalf lines (four and a half inches long, or thirty ems of ten-point type) of ordinary prose\nin fifteen minutes, making not more than five errors of any kind (spelling, punctuation,\ncapitalization, words added, words omitted, wrong words used, misplaced words, uncrossed\n^'s, and undotted i's).\nA girl graduating from the elementary school should be able to copy sixteen lines of\nordinary prose in fifteen minutes, making not more than three errors of any kind. (Length\nof line and kinds of errors same as above.)\nA mixed class of boys and girls should be able to copy sixteen lines of ordinary prose\nin fifteen minutes, making not more than four errors of any kind. (Length of Ime and\nkinds of errors same as above.)\nIn due time, after teachers have had opportunity to study the successes and failures\nof pupils in this test, and also have had opportunity to improve their instruction, another\ntest of the same kind will be given to measure the improvement.\n2. Spelling. — The department is proceeding on the assumption that one of the\nreasons for the lack of ability to spell on the part of some pupils lies in the fact that\nteachers are spreading their instruction over too many words, many of which are practically useless to the pupil. As a means of economizing the time of teacher and pupil,\nand improving the pupil's ability to spell, the department is preparing a course of study\nfor each grade, which shall consist primarily of words used voluntarily by normal pupils\nin their written work.\nIn making up the lists of words for each grade, teachers were asked to furnish lists of\nalleged diflScult words. The teachers' lists have revealed two things: first, that mere\nopinion or a priori reasoning is not an adequate basis for determining the degree of dij6&culty of spelling for given words, because many of the alleged difiicult words were spelled\ncorrectly by 990 out of 1,000 pupils in a rigid test given last May; secondly, that many\nof the words which teachers have reported as being diflficult to spell are words which\nelementary-school pupils should not be expected to spell. Teachers have been trying\nto teach such words as convalescence, coup6, crochet, diaphragm, dilatory, equilibrium,\nfictitious, hypotenuse, impenetrability, knuckles, licorice, malleable, mayonnaise, naphtha,\nphlegm, quadrilateral, reminiscence, sovereignty, and zephyr when the children are\nmisspelling such common words as business, divide, either, enough, fourth, library,\nninety, similar, straight, their, there, and which. Limiting instruction to a reasonable\nlist of words, and thereby economizing the time and energy of both teacher and pupil,\nis the first step which Boston has taken toward improvement in spelling.\nBoston has also taken another step to promote better spelling. As a result of the\ntests given last May, the degree of difiiculty of each word in the spelling-lists for the\nvarious grades has been determined according to the ability of 1,000 pupils to spell it.\nEach word has thus been standardized, so that each teacher knows what words are most\ndifficult for the children of her grade. She likewise knows with what degree of accuracy\nthe children of her class ought to spell the assigned words.\nOne further step has been taken in Boston. A committee of Boston teachers has been\norganized to study the various methods of teaching spelling. This committee has\nreviewed all the periodical and other literature touching on this subject which has been\npublished during the last several years. The recommendations of each educational\nwriter on methods in spelling were discussed by the committee, and each teacher during\nthe next ten weeks is to carry on in her school an experiment involving some phase of the\n\n"}
{"page": 1100, "printed_page": "1088", "text": "jo88\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nmethods of teaching spelling. At the close of this year's work a printed report for teachers\nwill set forth the results of these experiments.\n3. Geography. — The first and second steps in the above program have also been taken\nin the subject of geography. A test was recently given covering certain phases of the\ngeography of the United States and Europe. Exactly the same test was given to 594\neighth-grade pupils, to 166 third-year high-school pupils, and to 83 first-year pupils in\nthe Boston Normal School. The most surprising result shown by this test is that so\nlittle of what has been taught in the sixth grade remams in the minds of eighth-grade,\nhigh-school, or normal-school pupils. This test has indicated the urgent need of defining\nthe minimum essentials in the course of study, if pupils graduating from the elementary\nschool are to carry with them a knowledge of those common facts of geography which\nshould be the intellectual possession of every person.\n4. Penmanship.— T)i& quality of the handwriting of elementary-school graduates has\nalso been studied. A random selection of 600 papers was made from the 4,944 papers\nwritten in the test in accurate copying. These papers were studied by a committee of\nsix Boston teachers who are especially proficient in the teaching of penmanship. The\npapers were rated according to the Ayres scale for adult handwriting, disregarding the\neven-numbered specimens in that scale.\nThe committee has also analyzed the merits and defects of these specimens of handwriting, and a report is being prepared for distribution among the teachers of the city.\nThe department believes that merely calling the attention of teachers to the merits and\ndefects of the handwriting of the children is to promote systematic improvement.\n5. Addition of fractions. — In December a test in the addition of fractions, prepared\nby the department, was given in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades of the elementary\nschools. The usual procedure of analyzing the results and printing a report for the use of\nteachers will be followed.\n6. Four fundamentals in arithmetic. — Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and\ndivision are the only phases of any subject in which educational measurement has been\ncarried on for a sufficient length of time to make it reasonable to expect any tangible\nresults therefrom. The remaining portion of this paper will describe the methods\nemployed to utilize the results of the Courtis tests in Boston, and the improved results\nwhich have been obtained for the four fundamental operations.\nThe Courtis standard tests were introduced into Boston in October, 191 2, when Mr.\nCourtis was employed by the School Committee to make a study of the results of arithmetic instruction. Since that time the Courtis standard tests have been given five times\nin Boston.\nThe introduction of the tests into the city has been gradual. They were first given\nin twenty-one of the seventy elementary schools of the city. Gradually from ten to\nfifteen more schools have been added in the five successive testing periods, until in May,\n1915, all of the seventy elementary schools were tested, involving 214 buildings and\n55.277 pupils.\nMETHODS\n\nEMPLOYED\n\nTO\n\nIMPROVE\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nBefore taking up a detailed account of the results of testing work in arithmetic, it\nwill be well to consider the use which has been made from time to time of the results of\nthat testing work. This will illustrate not only how the improvement in the four fundamental operations in arithmetic has been brought about, but it will also show the methods\nby which the department undertakes the improvement of instruction in any subject.\nI. Standards have been established. — Objective standards of achievement in the four\nfundamental operations in arithmetic have been established for Grades IV to VIII in\nthe elementary schools. These standards have been established on the basis of the median\nachievement of all the pupils in all the schools tested. These standards not only represent\nthe present educational achievement of the elementary schools in the four fundamental\noperations, but they indicate a reasonable achievement for any class of normal pupils.\n\n"}
{"page": 1101, "printed_page": "1089", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nIMPROVING\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nTHRU\n\nMEASUREMENT\n\n1089\n\nAs in other cities, Boston finds great variation in the achievement of pupils and\nclasses — a condition which appears to a considerable extent as unnecessary as it is educationally disadvantageous. The lower 29 per cent of the eighth-grade pupils have no\nmore ability than the upper 29 per cent of the fourth-grade pupils. Ultimately this\nvariation should be reduced thru a better educational classification of pupils. If these\nobjective standards become the end to be attained by pupil and teacher, and if they\nbecome an incentive for both to put forth their best efforts or to economize time, as the\ncase may be, the results cannot be other than a more homogeneous group of pupils in each\nclass and grade.\n2. Formal reports have been made. — The report made to each teacher places her in a\nposition to know how her class stands in comparison with the established standard for\nthat grade. What is still more important, these reports tell her which pupils made low\nscores and probably need special attention and which pupils made high scores, and hence\nshould not be subjected to any unnecessary further drill.\nA report has been made to each principal after each test, showing the relative standing of his school in the city and of each class in his school. Every principal may find from\nthese reports which classes stand relatively low and should have special attention in his\nsupervision. These reports have been made as professional and more or less confidential\nreports from the director of the department to the principal of the school. Detailed\ncomparison of the work of one teacher with that of another, which is likely to arouse\ncontroversy or hard feeling, has been studiously avoided. The form of the report has\nbeen such as to protect the individual teacher, and no publicity has attended it. What\nofficial use is made of the report is left entirely to the discretion of each principal.\nThe superintendent has been furnished with copies of all statistical tabulations and\nreports for his information and for such individual use as he cares to make of them.\nInasmuch as educational measurement is at present fairly well begun in Boston, the\nBoard of Superintendents and the department are now engaged in working out a plan for\nplacing the results of educational measurement in the hands of each assistant superintendent, tobe used in his supervision of schools and teachers. When such a plan has\nbeen perfected, the necessary official machinery will have been set up for securing the\nmost effective and far-reaching benefits from the work of the department.\nFrom the above description it is clear that the results thus far achieved in educational\nmeasurement have been brought about without administrative pressure of any kind.\nThe department has no authority whatever over principals, and has not undertaken to\ndirect them. Whatever has been accomplished has been brought about thru the professional attitude of principals and teachers toward this problem of economizing time and\neffort in the obtaining of a satisfactory result. The credit for the achievement belongs,\ntherefore, to the principals and teachers rather than to the department of which the\nwriter is director.\n3 . Printed bulletins have been distributed. — In addition to the reports just described, the\ndepartment has prepared bulletins analyzing the statistical results, explaining their significance, and suggesting methods of improving unsatisfactory results. These bulletins have\nbeen published as School Committee documents and a copy has been given to each teacher.\n4. Systematic practice material has been introduced. — Undoubtedly the most important\nmeans of improving instruction in the four fundamental operations in arithmetic has\nbeen the introduction of systematic practice material or exercises which take the place\nof the former general class drill in which every child practiced on the same exercise. The\nCourtis tests have demonstrated conclusively that the mass or class-drill exercises in\naddition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are ineffective and uneconomical.\nMass drills provide unnecessary practice for the more capable third of the class, and hence\nare uneconomical; they do not provide enough practice for the less capable third of the\nclass, and hence are ineffective. An economic distribution of drill requires that it provide\na m^ans of reaching the individual needs of the forty pupils of the class.\n\n"}
{"page": 1102, "printed_page": "1090", "text": "logo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nThe department has not insisted on the use of any particular kind of practice material.\nReports from the principals show that over 80 per cent are using one or more of five\ndifferent kinds. The department has felt that each principal should be left to use that\neducational material which he and his teachers believe to be most effective, but the\ndepartment then expects these principals and teachers to produce satisfactory results.\nThis brief sketch will give a general notion of the methods by which the department\nbelieves the educational results in various subjects can be improved. Undoubtedly the\nobjective standards of achievement, the various reports made to teachers, to principals,\nand to the superintendent, the printing of bulletins for general distribution, the introduction ofscientific practice material, have all contributed something toward the improvement of results in arithmetic. Of more pronounced effect probably than any of these\nfactors, however, has been the stunulation among teachers of an inquiring attitude toward\nthe whole problem of arithmetic instruction. The results of the tests have shown the\nneed of improvement; they have shown that the problem of arithmetic teaching is not\nyet solved, and they have prompted many teachers to study their own work as the first\nstep toward improving methods of instruction.\nMEASURING\n\nIMPROVEMENT\n\nIN\n\nARITHMETICAL\n\nRESULTS\n\nCourtis standard tests, Series A, were given during the first year the Courtis tests\nwere used in Boston, three years ago; and Series B has been used since then. Unfortunately, for our purpose, this makes it impossible to compare the achievement of pupils in\n191 2, when the tests were first given, with the achievement in 1915, after three years' use.\nA most significant comparison can be made, however, between the results achieved\nin May, 19 15, in the schools where the tests had been given for a period of three years\nand the results obtained in schools where the tests were given in May, 1915, for the first\ntime. This comparison will show the cumulative effect of giving the tests in a group\nof schools over a three-year period. To make this comparison, the seventy elementary\nschools of Boston were divided into three groups and the results tabulated accordingly.\nGroup A schools in the following discussion are those in which the tests have been\ngiven since 1912. In Group A there are twenty-nine schools and 18,391 pupils represented.\nGroup B schools are those which were added during the second year or the first half\nof the third year of testing. They are schools which have been tested for periods of from\none to two years, schools in which the effects of the testing may legitimately vary. In\nGroup B there are seventeen schools and 15,241 pupils represented.\nGroup C schools are those in which the tests were given for the first time in May,\n1915. They are schools which have not been affected by the Courtis testing work in the\ncity, except in so far as general discussion of the work has affected individual teachers\nor principals. It should be said, however, that principals of these schools have had opportunity tointroduce the practice material, and that several of them have done so. If these\nschools had not been at all affected by the system of educational measurement in the city,\nthe superiority of the schools tested would have been even greater than it is. In Group C\nthere are seventeen districts and 11,836 pupils represented.\nIn the following comparisons particular attention will be directed to the achievements\nof Group A schools and Group C schools, because these two groups represent the two\nextremes, the former having received the full effect of the testing work and the latter\nsupposedly not any.\nIt should be understood that the schools tested by Mr. Courtis in 191 2-13 were so\nselected as to represent the varying conditions found in the city. This same care has\nbeen taken in adding schools from year to year, so that one group of schools possesses no\ninherent superiority over another group.\nBy way of summary let it be noted: (i) that all the public elementary schools of\nthe city are involved in this comparison; (2) that each group (A-B-C) is representative\n\n"}
{"page": 1103, "printed_page": "1091", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nIMPROVING\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nTHRU\n\nMEASUREMENT\n\n1091\n\nof the varying conditions in the city; and (3) that the number of pupils involved is\nsufficiently large to constitute a reliable basis of comparison,\nCOMPARISON\n\nOF MEDIAN SCORES OF GROUP A, GROUP B, AND GROUP C\nSCHOOLS BY SUBJECTS.\nMAY, I915\nTABLE\n\nI\n\nAddition\nGroup A\nGrade\n\n9.3\n8.2\n\n79.07\n77.50\n78.17\n72.93\n70.00\n\nB\n\nGROxn> C\nAccuracy\n\nAccuracy\n\nAccuracy\nSpeed\n14.4\n12.9\nII. S\n\nVIII\nVII\nVI\nV\nIV\n\nGroup\n\nper cent\nper cent\nper cent\nper cent\nper cent\n\nSpeed\n10.4\n13.\nII. 61\n\n77 . 84 per cent\n74- IS per cent\n72.72 per cent\n71.61 per cent\n65.15 per cent\n\nSpeed\n12.6\nII. 6\nII.\n0 4I\n7-7\n\n76 . 41 per cent\n74.24 per cent\n74 . 14 per\n68.64\nper cent\ncent\n63.11 per cent\n\nThe arrangement of the above table makes\n7.6 a comparison easy. For example, in the\naddition tests in Grade VIII, Group A schools achieved a median score of 14.4 examples\nattempted, with an accuracy of 79.07 per cent; Group C schools achieved a median\nscore of 1 2 . 6 examples attempted, with an accuracy of 76 . 41 per cent. From a comparison of these scores we find that in addition Group A schools show a superiority over\nGroup C schools of i . 8 examples attempted. This is a superiority of 14 . 3 per cent in\namount of work done, and the table also shows a superiority of 2 . 66 per cent in accuracy\nfor Group A schools.\nTABLE\n\nII\n\nSubtraction\nGroup\nGrade\n\n9 3\n7.9\n\nGroup\n\nB\n12.4\n\"•5\n\nAccuracy\nSpeed\n12.9\n14.6\nii-S\n\nVIII\nVII\nVI\nV\nIV\n\nGroup\n\nA\n\n89 . 73 per cent\n87.57 per cent\n88 . 01 per cent\n85 . 14 per cent\n83 . 63 per cent\n\nAccuracy\n\nII. 7\nSpeed\n10.7\n131\n\n88.77 per cent\n86 . 26 per cent\n8s . 69 per cent\n84.44\nper cent\n81 . 56 per\ncent\n\n9.4\n7.5\n\nSpeed\nII. 0\n\nC\nAccuracy\n\n86.02 per cent\n84.02 per cent\n80.64 per cent\n78.28 per cent\n\nThis comparison shows that, in subtraction, Group A schools possess a superiority\nover Group C schools of 2 . 2 examples attempted, or of 17.7 per cent.\nIn achieving this\n9.0\nincrease of 17.7 per cent in the amount of work done. Group A schools\n7-1 have also at the\nsame time surpassed Group C schools in accuracy by 2.81 per cent.\nTABLE\n\nIII\n\nMultiplication\nGroup\n\nGroup A\nGrade\nAccuracy\n\nVIII\nVII\nVI\nV. .\nIV\n\nSpeed\n12. 1\n10.8\n9-5\n■ 7-6\n6.1\n\n82 . 58 per cent\n81.58 percent\n78.45 percent\n75.69 per cent\n70.95 per cent\n\n10.3\nSpeed\nII. 2\n8.8\n7-7\n5 9\n\nGroup\n\nB\n\nC\nAccuracy\n\nAccuracy\n81 . 19 per cent\n79.28\n76.67\n76.01\n67.45\n\nper cent\nper cent\nper cent\nper ecnt\n\nSpeed\n10.8\n10. 1\n\n80.42 per cent\n\n9-4\n\n79.93 per cent\n70.97 per cent\n\nThis comparison shows that, in multiplication. Group A schools possess a superiority\nover Group C schools of 1.3 examples attempted, or of 12 per cent. Group A schools\nsurpass Group C schools in accuracy by 2.16 per cent.\n\n"}
{"page": 1104, "printed_page": "1092", "text": "NATIONAL\n\n1092\n\nEDUCATION\nTABLE\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n(Detroit\n\nIV\n\nDivision\nGroup B\n\nGroup A\nGSADE\n\nvni\nvn\n\nVI\nV\nIV\n\nAccuracy\n\nAccuracy\n\n12.7\n8.0\nSpeed\n10.9\n\nSpeed\n93 . 46 per cent\n89.34 per cent\n88 . 09 per cent\n78 . 98 per cent\n65 . 85 per cent\n\n6.2\n4-7\n\nGroup C\nAccuracy\n\n12.0\n\n92.08 per cent\n87.63 per cent\n85 . 03 per cent\n80.05 per cent\n59.11 per cent\n\n0.6\n\nXI.O\nSpeed\n\n11\n6.2\n\n89.72 per cent\n86.37 per cent\n73 •. 68\n63\nII per\nper cent\ncent\n\nThis comparison shows that, in division,4.6Group A schools possess a superiority over\nGroup C schools of i . 7 examples attempted, or of 15 . 5 per cent in amount of work done.\n4.8\nIn doing this increased amount of work, Group A schools have at the same time increased\nthe accuracy with which the work has been done, so that they now surpass Group C schools\nin accuracy by 3 . 74 per cent.\nIn the preceding discussion comparisons have been limited to Group A and Group C\nschools and to the results in Grade VIII. The following table, based on the preceding\ntables, institutes a comparison concerning all three groups of schools and the five grades\nfrom the fourth to the eighth, inclusive. The table shows the difference between the\nspeed median and accuracy median achieved in Group A and in Group B and Group C\nschools respectively.\nThe following table is to be interpreted as follows: In Grade VIII the pupils in\nGroup A schools exceed in ability the pupils in Group B schools by a median score of i . 3\nV\n\n■4\n\nAddition\n\n-I\n\nTABLE\n\nGroup B Schools\n\n1-3\n\nVIII\nVII\nVI\nV...\nIV\n\n•5\n\nGroup C Schools\n\n1-3\n\n1.3\n\nIn Speed\n\nIn Accuracy\n\nIn Speed\n\nIn Accuracy\n\n1 . 23 per cent\n3.35 per cent\n5.\n45 per\ncent\n1.32\nper cent\n\n1.8\n\nI.I\n\n4.85 per cent\n\n1-4\n\n2 . 66 per cent\n3 . 26 per cent\n4.03 per cent\nper cent\n64.29\n. 89 per\ncent\n\ni-S\n\n•S\n•3\n\nSubtraction\nVIII\nVII.\nVI..\nV...\nIV..\n\n1.2\n\n.9\n•S\n.7\n— .1\n\nVIII\nvi:\nvi:\n\nVI\nV.\nVII\nIV\n\n;■■\n\nIV\n\n;■■\n\nvm\nvn.\n\nVI..\nV...\nIV..\n\n.2\n\n. 96 per cent\n1.31 per cent\n2.32 per cent\n. 70 per cent\n3.07 per cent\n\n2.•72\n\n■3\n•3\n\n1.3\n\n2.81 per cent\n2 . 65 per cent\n— .72 per cent\n4 . 50 per cent\n5.35 per cent\n\nMultiplication\n1 . 39 per cent\n2 . 30 per cent\n1 . 78 per cent\n-.32 per cent\n3 . so per cent\n\n2.16 per cent\n. so per\ncent\n— I1.48\nper cent\n.1\n\n4.72 per cent\n7 • 34 per cent\n\nDivision\n\n3 . 74 per cent\n2.97 per cent\n1.37 per cent\n5.30 per cent\n3 . 74 per cent\n\nI\n\n"}
{"page": 1105, "printed_page": "1093", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nIMPROVING\n\nINSTRUCTION\n\nTHRU\n\nMEASUREMENT\n\n1093\n\nexamples attempted and by i . 23 per cent in the accuracy with which they do their work;\nthe same pupils surpass the pupils in Group C schools by a median score of i . 8 examples\nattempted and by 2 . 66 per cent in the accuracy with which they do their work.\nIn the ten cases where the number is preceded by a minus sign the median for Group A\nschools is lower than the median for the group given. In the seventy cases where no sign\nprecedes the figure the advantage is in favor of Group A schools.\nA few brief statements, without discussion, will summarize the conclusions to be drawn\nfrom this comparative table:\n1. In the amount of work done in the four fundamental operations, Group A schools\nshow superiority over Group B schools in sixteen out of twenty comparisons and over\nGroup C schools in eighteen out of twenty comparisons.\n2. In the accuracy with which the work is done, Group A schools show superiority\nover both Group B and Group C schools in seventeen out of twenty comparisons.\n3. The ten cases in which Group A schools are surpassed in speed or accuracy by\nGroup B or Group C schools are distributed as follows:\nTABLE VI\n\nGrade\nGrade\nGrade\nGrade\nGrade\n\nGroup B\n\nGroup C\n\nTotal\n\nVIII\nVII\nVI\nV\nIV\n\n0\n0\n0\n\n0\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n0\n2\nI\nI\n\nTotal\n\n6\n\n4\n\n6\n\n7\n\n10\n\nIt is to be expected that in the earlier grades the differences between those schools\ntested and those not tested will be found to be small, because the cumulative effect of\ntesting work can be hoped for only after several years of effort, and hence must always\nbe found largely in the upper grades.\nSIGNIFICANT OBSERVATIONS\n\n1. The difference in amount of work done as shown in a comparison of Group A,\nGroup B, and Group C schools is slight in the earlier grades and gradually grows more\npronounced, until in the eighth grade the superiority of Group A schools over Group C\nschools is from 12 to 17.7 per cent.\n2. This gain of from 12 to 17.7 per cent in the amount of work done has also been\naccompanied by an actual increase in the accuracy with which that work is done. Altho\nthe idea has not been developed in this paper, it is proper to point out that in all testing\nwork undertaken by the department those pupils who do most work do it most accurately.\nThis is a refutation of the contention of would-be critics that pupils are inaccurate in the\nCourtis tests because they are hurried in their work.\n3. The fact that the 18,391 pupils represented in Group A schools are graduating\nfrom the elementary school or are going into the next grade with varying degrees of\nsuperiority up to 17.7 per cent over the 11,839 pupils who have not been tested is altogether due directly or indirectly to the system of educational measurement in Boston.\n4. It is also a significant fact that this achievement has been brought about without\nthe exercise of any administrative pressure of any kind whatsoever. The results are\nwholly due to the desire of principals and teachers to make the best possible use of the\ntime of teachers and pupils in securing a reasonably satisfactory educational result.\n5. These results seem to prove two important propositions: (i) that the scientific\nmeasurement of educational results is possible and practicable in a large city school\nsystem; and (2) that educational measurement may be a means of improving those\neducational results.\n\n"}
{"page": 1106, "printed_page": "1094", "text": "NATIONAL\n\njo^4\n\nROUND\n\nEDUCATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nTABLE OF COMPULSORY EDUCATION,\nCENSUS, AND CHILD WELFARE\n\nSCHOOL\n\nDOES A STRICT ENFORCEMENT OP THE COMPULSORY-EDUCATION\nASSIST TEACHERS AND SUPERVISORS IN THEIR WORK?\nEDWARD\n\nB.\n\nSHALLOW,\n\nASSOCIATE\n\nCITY\n\nSUPERINTENDENT\n\nOF\n\nSCHOOLS,\n\nNEW\n\nYORK,\n\nLAW\nN.Y.\n\nOn May i, 19 14, a Bureau of Attendance, School Census, and Child Welfare was\norganized in the city of New York. In the work of this bureau, an attempt is made to\nhave an up-to-date record of every child of school age within the city, to see that all such\nchildren are kept regularly in school, if they are fit to attend, and to bring to the aid of\nchildren who need help the assistance of social welfare agencies. Thru the work of this\nbureau, we have gathered much useful information while enforcing the law.\nIn the brief time at my disposal, I shall try to tell you how a strict enforcement of\nthe compulsory-education law helps the work of teachers by increasing attendance,\nreducing retardation, and conserving a teacher's nervous energy.\nI. Increasing attendance.— The. 327 square miles of territory in the city of New York\nare divided into attendance districts, for the purposes of taking the school census and of\nenforcing the compulsory-education law. In this territory, there are approximately\n1,326,500 persons between five and eighteen years of age; 850,000 of these are enrolled in\npublic schools. During the past year, the percentage of attendance on the register was\n90 per cent.\nThe following regulations governing the admission, transfer, and discharge of pupils\nin the city of New York may be of interest. Before these regulations were in force,\nthousands of children disappeared while transferring from one school to another.\nThe regulations provide that:\nNo pupil enrolled in a public school shall be discharged except by order of the principal for one of the following causes, which must be well established in each case: (i) proper\nand known admission to another school or to an institution; (2) the issuance of a duly\nauthorized transfer; (3) commitment to a truant school or other reformatory institution;\n(4) transfer or expulsion in accordance with subdivisions 3, 4, and 5 of section 48 of the\nby-laws; (5) commitment to a charitable institution by a parent or guardian, a court, or a\npublic officer; (6) notice from the director of attendance that an employment certificate\nhas been issued and that the name of the child has been placed on the general suspense\nregister; (7) death; (8) marriage; (9) graduation; in such case, the principal shall\nreport the name of the child to the bureau of attendance, if it has not received a transfer\nto another school, or at the time of graduation has not obtained an emplo)Tiient certificate;\n(10) withdrawal by parent for any one of the following reasons: (a) instruction at home by\na competent teacher, provided the district superintendent of the district in which the\nchild lives has been notified and has approved the amount and the character of instruction(&) physical disability certified as to cause and duration by a physician or other person\nduly recognized by the regents of the state of New York, provided the duration of such\nph3rsical disability shall amoimt to one month; (c) mental disability when duly certified\nas sufficient for discharge by the city superintendent of schools; (11) permanent removal\nfrom the dty; (12) inability to locate the residence of the pupil, when such fact shall have\nbeen duly reported to the principal of the school by the director of attendance.\nThe director of attendance shall maintain a general suspense register on which shall\nbe placed the names of children residing in the city of New York, imder sixteen years of\nage, who have been discharged and who are not regularly enrolled in a recognized school.\nHe may require reports concerning the admission, transfer, and discharge of children from\nthe public schools, and may arrange with schools not under the control of the board of\neducation for similar reports.\n\n"}
{"page": 1107, "printed_page": "1095", "text": "Superintendenccl\n\nTHE\n\nCOMPULSORY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nLAW\n\n109s\n\nImmigrant children admitted under bond by the immigration authorities to attend\nschool for a given time shall not be discharged before the expiration of that time, except\nby permission of the director of attendance, nor shall a school record of attendance be\nissued to any such immigrant child to enable it to obtain an employment certificate,\nexcept by permission of the director of attendance.\nWhen a pupil leaves school thru promotion or authorized transfer, a duplicate of his\nor her record card at the time of promotion or transfer shall be forwarded to the principal\nof the school to which such pupil is transferred.\nThe date and cause of discharge shall be entered immediately on the original and the\nduplicate of the record card of such pupil discharged as hereinbefore provided.\nEvery child is required to attend a school situated in the school district in which he\nresides. Within said district he shall attend the school nearest his residence. These\nrequirements may be suspended by the city superintendent of schools.\nThe better method of enforcing the compulsory-education law, made affective in\nMay, 1 9 14, in the city of New York, and a stricter accountability of each attendance\nofficer for the amount of work done each day, have done much, not only in increasing\nattendance at school but in preventing juvenile delinquency. Yet the law is not\nstrictly enforced; this is not due to the method provided for doing the work, but\nrather to the inadequate financial support which the departments gets from the city\ngovernment.\nAn evidence that a better enforcement of the compulsory-education law has increased\nattendance in the city of New York, may be seen in the fact that twelve years ago the\nattendance was only 86 per cent of the average register in public schools, whereas last year\nit was 90 per cent. A difference of 4 per cent less attendance in the enrolment of the\nNew York schools for the past year would mean that 34,000 enrolled children had not\nattended school regularly.\nThe most notable example of a city which is fairly successful in accounting for all the\nchildren of school age within its limits is the city of London. There the compulsory-school\nage is from five to fourteen years, and there the teachers are relieved from the anxiety of\nlooking after absentees. The Bureau of School Attendance inspects the registers of every\nschool to find out who is absent. The teaching staff has only to note the fact of\nabsence.\nThe attendance department in the public schools of London accounts for all children\nof compulsory-school age within the city. Within the six years from 1905 to 19 10, there\nwere on the rolls of London schools from 97 . 3 per cent to 97 . 5 per cent of all the children\nof compulsory-school age.\nUnder a strict enforcement of the compulsory-education law in London, the percentage of attendance in public schools steadily increased for ten years, and showed a\ngain of nearly 10 per cent. Under the same public supervision, the gain in attendance was\nat the same rate in private and parochial schools. An effort is made to accoimt for every\nchild of compulsory-school age, and, if such a child is not in school, to give a satisfactory\nreason for his absence.\nBut how can any city, large or small, have a proper supervision of the school attendance of its children without an effective organization and a suitable force of agents for\ntaking a school census and compelling attendance ? In most American cities hitherto, the\nwork of attendance officers has been largely a laughing-stock. The statistics of six years\nago showed the following facts:\nNew York had 9,300 school children for each attendance officer'\nBoston had 5,800 school children for each attendance officer\nPhiladelphia had 4,700 school children for each attendance officer\nDublin had 2,600 school children for each attendance officer\nGlasgow had 2,104 school children for each attendance officer\nLondon had 2,086 school children for each attendance officer\n\n"}
{"page": 1108, "printed_page": "1096", "text": "1096\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n[Detroit\n\nIn keeping with the careless way in which American school boards generally look upon\nthe matter of keeping children of compulsory-school age in school is the attitude of magistrates in enforcing parental responsibility.\nIn towns where there are no children's courts, the same magistrate or justice of the\npeace before whom adults charged with felonies are arraigned is also called upon to hear\ncharges against \"hookey-players\" and their negligent parents, and against those who\nemploy children illegally. The magistrate's view of these, to him, minor afifairs is generally\none of justice tempered with too much mercy, and parents are not held to a proper accoimtability. Why, the dignified man on the bench may have \"played hookey\" himself forty\nor fifty years ago! The question comes to his mind: \"Is non-attendance at school such\na serious offense?\" But the London magistrates think it is, because in one year they\npunished 10,600 adults for keeping children out of school. In the same year. New York —\nwith about the same school enrolment — pimished 1,500 adults for the same offense.\nPhiladelphia in the same year enforced a greater responsibility than New York. In\nGermany, the punishment for keeping children from school during the compulsoryschool age is accepted as almost certain, unless a valid reason can be given for absence.\nBut illegal absence from school, and especially truancy, meant much less fifty years\nago in this coimtry. Then, when the population was more largely rural, if a boy was a\ntruant he usually went a-fishing, or played games in open fields, or went for a day to a\ncircus in his own or a neighboring town. Now, if he plays truant in a large city, he is\nlikely to fall into the worst of companionship, to consort with loafers and juvenile criminals,\nand to learn vice and crime. Statistics show that most of the juvenile criminals have\nbeen at some time truants.\nThe following excerpt from Bulletin No. 573 of the United States Bureau of Education,\nentitled Compulsory School Attendance, is also significant as showing the effect of a strict\nenforcement of the compulsory-education law in increasing attendance:\nAn experiment was conducted by the truancy department of the Indianapolis schools\nseveral years ago by having the truant officer visit the school daily and obtain the names\nof all absentees. AH cases of absence were visited, even tho a good excuse, such as sickness, was known to exist. Altho many children were excluded at that time, as medical\ninspection had been recently introduced, the absentees during the four-months' period\nwere 20 per cent less than for the corresponding period of the preceding year. The method\nW£is discontinued, as it imposed too much work upon the officer, whose duties were already\nheavy. Money so expended would, however, bear dividends far beyond those accruing to\nthe more or less haphazard method under present conditions.\nAs stated in this report, money expended in a strict enforcement of the compulsoryeducation law would bear good dividends. But if we are to accoimt for every child of\nschool age and see that he is in school, cities should do more in providing suitable special\nclasses and schools for the physically and mentally defective, for the blind, the deaf,\nthe crippled, and the mentally abnormal. Some cities have made good beginnings along\nthese lines. Such efforts would do much in saving ultimate expense for charitable and\ncorrectional institutions for adults.\nIn one attendance district in the city of New York, comprising 35 schools, the percentage ofattendance has increased in every school during the past two years, since the\nwork of the attendance Bureau has been brought xmder an efficient system. Where\nformerly there was uncertamty and speculation as to how much work each attendance\nofficer was actually doing each day, now it is a matter of definiteness and responsibility.\nIf a pupil is detained from school temporarily thru sickness, poverty, or neglect, his case\nis not neglected. He is returned to school at the earliest possible time.\n2. Reduction of retardation in studies. — When we consider the waste in money and\ntime, both to the individual and to the community, occasioned by the retardation of\nchildren in school, and realize that much of such retardation is due to unnecessary and\npreventable absence, it will be seen that money expended in a strict enforcement of\ncompulsory-education laws is largely offset by money saved in teachers' salaries and\n\n"}
{"page": 1109, "printed_page": "1097", "text": "SuperintendenceJ\n\nTHE\n\nCOMPULSORY\n\nEDUCATION\n\nLAW\n\nIO97\n\nschool equipment. The truth of this statement is, it would seem, axiomatic. An appeal\nto common experience is sufficient to justify it. A proper record of promotions and nonpromotions in almost any community will show this.\nThe following extracts from the records of the bureau of attendance in the dty of\nNew York are pertinent:\nThe significance of the practice of extending the attendance service beyond the mere\ncontrol of truancy by police methods is further emphasized by the summary of facts\nregarding the relation of absence to non-promotion.\nIn a study made of non-promotions in New York a few years ago, nearly one-half of\nthe pupils who failed of promotion were absent over two-fifths of the school term, and\n70 per cent were absent from school at least 30 days during the half-year. These data,\nfurthermore, take account only of the pupils who failed of promotion on June 30.\nImportant as it imquestionably is to discover and control truancy in its incipiency,\nit is obvious that the occasional truant is not the only problem-maker. A conservative\nprogram of attendance control must find effective means for dealing with the very large\nnumber of children who by sporadic absence for trivial causes not only lessen their own\nchances for making satisfactory progress in school, but, by requiring an undue amount of\nthe attention of teachers, handicap those pupils who are reg\\dar in attendance.\n3. Saving in nervous energy of teachers and supervisors. — ^That well-planned and\nenthusiastic teaching is facilitated by the regularity of the attendance of pupils needs no\ndemonstration. A school organization which works smoothly naturally makes no extra\ndraughts on the nervous energy of the teacher. But where irregularity in the attendance\nof the pupils is common, it is difficult to plan and difficult to execute. Where a teacher's\ntime is divided between teaching and acting as attendance officer, energy which should\nbe given to teaching is lost.\nIt was seriously proposed in one of our large cities last year that the attendanceofficer force should be reduced or dispensed with, and that the teachers should, before\nand after school hours, investigate all absences of pupils by visits to their homes.\nThat a teacher should visit homes of pupils in a rural community, or even in a smaller\ncity, is advisable. Such visits often help the teacher in knowing how to deal with certain\npupils and in getting in touch with parents. But in a large cosmopolitan city, I would\nnot ask teachers to visit homes. The disadvantages of the practice in such places are too\ngreat for the results obtained. Attendance officers should be engaged, if possible, who\nhave both the spirit and the earnestness of the teacher and of the missionary. Such\nofficers' visits to homes may result in as much, or possibly more, good than the visit of a\nteacher.\nIn conclusion, let me urge upon the officials of every large city-school system the\nimportance of having an efficient bureau, both for the taking of an up-to-date school\ncensus, and for a prompt, strict, and efficient enforcement of the compulsory-education law.\nAnd let me add that, in iny judgment, the time is not far distant when the large American\ncities will have to know, at all times, not only who the school children are, and where they\nare, but also who the adult residents of the city are, what their occupations are, and where\nthey may be found. Then such cities may be able to know what percentage of their\nchildren of school age are in school.\n\nDISCUSSION\n\n■\n\nHenry D. Hervey, superintendent of schools. Auburn, N. Y. — ^As applied to the\nfield of education, democracy demands absolute equality of educational opportunity for\nall. It demands that every human being capable of being educated shall be given his fair\nand equal chance to attain the largest measure of self-development. We have made\nprogress toward the realization of this ideal in the past. Schools have been made free and\naccessible to all. The principle that schools supported by all should meet the needs of all\nhas been fairly well established, tho progress in the discovery of varying types to be\n\n"}
{"page": 1110, "printed_page": "1098", "text": "lopS\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\n,\n\n[Detroit\n\neducated, and in the adaptation of courses and methods to meet the needs of these varying types when discovered, has been slow and is as yet far from complete. Whether\nthe faith which the people now fondly place in the public schools will continue unshaken\ndepends largely upon the sincerity, the vigor, and the skill with which this supreme\ntask of discovery and adaptation is prosecuted. No greater calamity could befall the\nschools and the nation than to have that faith destroyed.\nBut the policy of free education in a democracy demands not only that there shall\nbe a school for every child with instruction skilfully adapted to meet his individual need;\nit demands also and equally that every child shall be in school and in fit condition to\nreceive and to profit by the instruction offered. A free school is a mockery to the child\nwho is not free to enter. It is a mockery to the child who, by reason of physical or mental\nlimitations, cannot assimilate what is taught. The democratic ideal demands a school\noffering to each what is best for each, with freedom for each to take what is offered.\nWith increasing energy, intelligence, and efficiency, the majority of the states have protected each child in his right to attend the school— the majority of the states, but not\nall; hence the Keating-Owen bill.\nWhat justification or necessity is there for this bill ? The Keating-Owen bill is based\non the belief that self-preservation is the first law of a nation; that good citizens are\nnecessary to the welfare, to the very life, of the state; that good citizens are as necessary\nin one section of the nation as in another; that good citizens can be produced only thru\neducation; that child labor interferes with education, spoils the future citizen in the\nmaking, rendering him alike unfit for full productive efficiency in his maturer years and\nfor future, education; that the children of the nation have as much right to protection\nin one section of the nation as in another; that the nation has no right to permit the\nwanton waste of the physical and mental capital of the coming generation in any part\nof its domain; that the prerequisite and fundamental condition of all preparedness is\nintelligent citizenship; that Macaulay was right when over sixty years ago, speaking in\nthe House of Parliament on the evils of child labor, he said: \"If ever we are forced to yield\nthe foremost place among commercial nations, we shall yield it to some people preeminently vigorous in mind and body\"; that the moral law should be nationalized; that\nthe feeling of human brotherhood is not a matter of geography; that the personal responsibility of a citizen for the rights, the welfare, and the happiness of the nation's children\ndoes not end with the boundary lines of his own state; that the enlightened and patriotic\nconsumer who abhors child labor because he knows the cost to the child and to the state\nhas a right to be freed from the possibility of buying unwittingly goods that bear the taint\nof such labor; that the manufacturer doing business in a state that protects its children\nshould not be forced to compete with a manufacturer in a state that delivers its children\nover to destruction; in a word, that what affects the peace, the prosperity, the happiness,\nand the greatness of the nation as a whole is the supreme concern of the whole nation;\nthat if the protection of the childhood of the nation is the supreme duty of the nation,\nthen the nation must perform that duty in the only way open to it, namely, by national\nlegislation along the lines indicated in the Keating-Owen bill.\nWho that knows conditions as they exist in certain portions of our country today\ncan longer doubt the wisdom, the justice, and the necessity of immediate federal\nlegislation ? If there be such a doubter, let him consider what it means in terms of physical\nand mental deterioration, loss of youth, loss of educational opportunity, and loss of future\neconomic efficiency that 27,000 children between ten and fourteen years of age are at\nthis moment working in factories; that 17,000 more between ten and sixteen years of\nage are working in mines; that 122,000 between ten and sixteen years of age are working\nin factories in states where they may work nine, ten, or eleven hours a day; that 29,000\nbetween ten and sixteen years of age work in factories in states where they may work\nat night; and that hundreds of thousands more, tho working in states that have placed\n\n"}
{"page": 1111, "printed_page": "1099", "text": "Superintendence]\n\nTHE\n\nCOMPULSORY\n\nEDUCATIOIf\n\nLAW\n\n1099\n\nenlightened child-labor laws on their statute-books, are not being sufficiently protected\nbecause of lax enforcement or non-enforcement of these laws.\n, A single word, in closing, with reference to the Lockwood continuing census bill\nnow before the New York legislature. In my judgment, this bill should become law, and\nshould serve as a model in other states, for the following reasons:\n1. A continuing census is the only kind that is either serviceable or sensible. A\nschool census that is up to date only once a year or once in four years is on a par with an\nattendance officer who is on the job once a week or once a month.\n2. A school census as ordinarily taken by a few hungry ward heelers who are thereby\nrewarded for loyalty to the \"grand old party\" is inaccurate at best, is wasteful of public\nmoney, and is out of date before the figures can be compiled.\n3. The Lockwood bill groups together the agencies that belong together — the censustaking agencies, the compulsory-attendance agencies, and the child- welfare agencies.\nChild-welfare work must go hand in hand with the enforcement of the compulsory-education law. Few children stay away from school from choice. Back of almost every case\nof chronic truancy is the enfeebled home, or the home divided against itself, or no home\nat all. The .child is a victim not a transgressor.\n4. Under this bill all these agencies are centered in the board of education and the\nsuperintendent of schools, and all employees are appointed by the board and are made\ndirectly and solely responsible to it.\n5 . The home is given its fair share of responsibility. The parent must report promptly\nto the census bureau when his child becomes of school age, when he moves from one school\nto another, when he goes to work; and, upon moving to another city in the state, he must\nreport immediately the names of all children in his family under eighteen years of age.\n6. The census bureau is empowered to collect data with reference to illiteracy and\nthe enforcement of the child-labor laws and is given power to enforce these laws.\n7. A parent who fails in his duty under the law may be fined and imprisoned, and a\nlity that fails in its duty may forfeit its entire state appropriation.\n\n"}
{"page": 1112, "printed_page": "1100", "text": ""}
{"page": 1113, "printed_page": "1101", "text": "GENERAL INDEX\n[Names of authors of formal papers are set in small capitals]\nAbbot, Clarence M. — Discussion, 749\nAbrams, a. W. — Collection, Organization,\nand Circulation of Visual Aids to Instruction byState Bureaus, 745\nAccounting and Bookkeeping Courses,\nHow Teachers Can Increase the Efficiency of (Robert H, Montgomery),\n387\nAct of Incorporation, i\nAddress (Martin G. Brumbaugh), 979;\n(WOODBRIDGE\n\nN. FERRIS), 976;\n\n(FrANK\n\nB. Willis), 981\nAddresses of Welcome (Charles B.\nAlexander) ,31; (John H. Finley) , 30;\n(Fred L. Keeler), 901; (William H.\nMaxwell), 34; (John P. Mitchel),\n32; (GusTAVE StraubenmIjller), 35;\n(Charles S. Whitman), 29; (William\nG. WiLLCOx), 33, 338\nAdministration and Method in HighSchool Physical Training for Girls\n(Josephine Beiderhase), 801\nAfter-Care Work in Springfield, Massachusetts (Frances E. Cheney), 892\nAhern, John F. — What Should Be the\nMusical Equipment of the SecondarySchool Graduate? 582\nAlexander, Charles B. — Address of\nWelcome, 31\nAlexander, Georgia — Discussion, 420\nAllison, Samuel B. — The Work of the\nTeacher of the Special Class, 887\nAlsberg, Elsa — Education of the Immigrant, 786\nAmerican Citizenship, The Education of\nForeigners for (Raymond F. Crist), 1045\nAndrews, Fannie Fern — What the Public Schools Can Do toward the Maintenance ofPermanent Peace, 93\nArchitect, After the (C. B. J. Snyder), 345\nArchitectural and Decorative Art, The\nInfluence of (Lloyd Warren), 467\nArmstrong, Donald B. — Social Aspects\nof School Hygiene, 756\nArt a Vitalizing Force in Education\n(Annette J. Warner), 483\nArt Education for House Furnishing\n(William S. Coffin), 489\nArt Education, The Domain of (Thomas\nM. Balliet), 493\nArt Instinct Universal, Tie (Florence E.\nEllis), 504\n\nArt in the Kindergarten (Grace Cornell),\n307\n\nArt-Teaching versus Practical Life (Arthur\nH. Chamberlain), 496\nArt, Practical, The Essentials in Making\n(Ellsworth Woodward), 508\nArt Training, Differentiation in, to Suit\nIndividual\nPupil's Needs\n(Royal\nB.\nFarnum), 512\nAthletics for Girls in the Elementary\nO'K\neefe),The693Organization of (Emily A.\nSchools,\nAusten, Willard — Educational Value of\nBibliographic Training, 664\n\nAymar, Mary A. — Discussion, 832\nAyres, Leonard P. — Significant Developments in Educational Surveying, 994\nBaccalaureate Degree as an Obstacle to\nEducational Progress (Barclay W.\nBradley), 321\n\nBaer, Clara Gregory — ^The Health of\nCollege Women, 690\nBagley, W. C. — The Minimum Essentials\nversus the Differentiated Course of\nStudy in the Seventh and Eighth Grades,\nBahr, Ida M. — Public Libraries for the\nBlind, 821\nBaker, S. Josephine — ^The Work of the\nNew958 York City Bureau of Child Hygiene, 752\nBaker-Low Henrietta — ^The Child\nVoice: Responsibility\nof the Community\ntoward\nIt, 592\nBalliet, Thomas M. — Normal-School\nCurricula — ^A Critique, 458; Practical\nMeans of Unifying the Work of the\nKindergarten and the Primary Grades,\n438 ; The Domain of Art Education, 493 ;\nThe Elective System — Its Functions and\nTeachers,\n735 318; Training of Science\nIts Limitations,\nBallou, Frank W. — Improving Instruction thru Educational Measurement,\n1086\n\nBanker, Howard J.— The Necessity for\nAfter Care of Children Discharged from\nSpecial Classes, 888\nBartholomew, W. E. — Fundamental Aims\nin the Teaching of Bookkeeping, 362\nBaylor, Adelaide S. — Discussion, 245\n\n"}
{"page": 1114, "printed_page": "1102", "text": "II02\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nBeach, Frank A.— Music in the Normal\nSchool, 587\nBeals, M. B.— Discussion, 824\nBecht, J. George— The Public School and\nthe New American Spirit, 935\nBeggs, Walter J.— Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Secondary Education, 517\nBeiderhase, Josephine — Administration\nand Method in High-School Physical\nTraining for Girls, 801\nBerry, Gordon L. — Saving the Sight of\nSchool Children, 821\nBeveridge,\nJ. H. — Vacation-Club Work,\n1060\nBexell, J. A. — ^Thrift and Its Relation to\nBanking, 210\nBeygrau,\nF. R. — Typewriting\nin the\nPublic Schools, 367\nBibliographic Training, Educational Value\nof (WiLLARD Austen), 664\nBig-Sister Movement, The (Mrs. Sidney\nC. Borg), 850\nBiGELOW, Maurice A. — ^The Home from\nthe Standpoint of Health, 463\nBinet Scale and the Diagnosis of FeebleMindedness,\nThe (Lewis M. Terman),\n879\nBlair, Francis G. — Response to Address\nof Welcome, 904\nBlake, Kate D. — ^Thrift in Relation to the\nHome, 220\nBlind Children, Education of, with Special\nReference to the Public Schools of the\nCity of New York (Andrew W. Edson),\n820\nBlind, Public Libraries for the (Ida M.\nBahr), 821\nBoards of Education, to Whom Responsible? (A.E. Winship), 946\nBoards of Education, Functions and\nMethods of (Beatrice Winser), 343\nBooker T. Washington — ^An Appreciation\n(O. T. Corson), 983\nBookkeeping, Fundamental Aims in the\nTeaching of (W. E, Bartholomew), 362\nBoRG, Mrs. Sidney C— The Big-Sister\nMovement, 850\nBostwick, Arthur E.— General Principles\nInvolved in the Joint Administration of\nthe High-School Library and the Public\nLibrary, 660\n80s\nBoy Scouts of America (James E. West),\nBradford, Mary D.— The Necessity of\nChanges in the Curriculum of the Upper\nElementary Grades, Both in SubjectMatter and in Content, 407\nBradley, Barclay W.— The Baccalaureate Degree as an Obstacle to Educational\nProgress, 321\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nBrown, J. Stanley— Secretary's Minutes\n. (New York Meeting), 246\nBrownlee, Raymond B. — Discussion, 720\nBruce, Frank M. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of School Administration,\n337\nBrumbaugh, Martin G. — Address, 979\nBryan,\nWilliam77 Jennings — Citizenship\nin a Republic,\nBullowa, Alma M. — The Need of Speech\nWork in the High Schools, 870\nBureau of Standards, The Relation of, to\nPhysical Research and to the Teaching\nof Physics (Frank A. Wolff), 713\nBurkes, Jennie — Rural Supervision in the\nMountains of the South, 1028\nBuRRis, W. P. — Discussion, 230\nBurrit, M. C. — The Farm Bureau as an\nAgent in Local Development, 614\nBusiness English: A Summary of Principles (James F. Hosic), 393\nBusiness English and Advertising in Business High Schools, The Teaching of\n(George Burton Hotchkiss), 383\nBusiness Man and the Public Service\n(Jacob M. Loeb), 351\nBusiness Schools, The Service of, at the\nClose of 325\nthe Great War (James C.\nEgbert),\nButler, Nicholas Murray — What\nGoing On in the World, 907\nBy-Laws, 5\n\nIs\n\nCalendar of Meetings, 13\nCampbell, Marion A. — Educational Work\nof a State Commission, 819\nCarmalt, Alice M. — Manners and Morals\n— Our Problem, 1008\nCertain, C. C. — Report of Conmaittee\non Problems of High-School Libraries,\n547\nChamberlain, Arthur H. — Art-Teaching\nversus Practical Life, 496\nCharitable Organizations Help (Babette\nGoldman), 825\nChemistry, Applied, in Secondary Schools\n(Chester B. Curtis), 702\nChemistry, Applied, The New York State\nSyllabus of (William J. Hancock), 705\nChemistry,\nthe Teaching\nAbstract Method\n(W. G. inWhitman),\n704 of— An\nCheney, Frances E. — After-Care Work in\nSpringfield, Massachusetts, 892; Secretary's Minutes, Department of Special\nEducation, 811\nChild Hygiene, First Aid to the Uninjured\n(Woods Hutchinson), 762\nChild Hygiene, The Work of the New York\nCity Bureau of (S. Josephine Baker),\n\n"}
{"page": 1115, "printed_page": "1103", "text": "1 103\n\nINDEX\nChild Labor and Its Relation to Illiteracy\n(A. J. M'cKelway), 817\nChild Voice: Responsibility of the Community toward It (Henrietta BakerLow), 592\n\nConnelley, Clifford B.— The Place of\nSchools,\n415\nthe Corporation\nand the Continuation\n\nChurchill, Thomas W. — Making the\nHigh School Democratic, 524; The\nSuperintendent as the Layman Sees\nHim, 940\nCitizenship in a Republic (William\nJennings Bryan), 77\n\n1069\nCooKSON,\nCharles W.— The Ethical as\nthe Essential Factor in Training for\nEfficient Citizenship in a Democracy,\n\nClark, Taliaferro — ^The Physical Care\nof Rural-School Children, 771\nCoffin, William Sloane — Art E^ducation\nfor House Furnishing, 489\nCoffman, Lotus D. — The Minimum\nEssentials versus the Differentiated\nCourse of Study in the Seventh and\nEighth Grades, 953\nColburn, Jessie B. — Discussion, 849\nCollege Administration, Present Tendencies\nin (Stephen Duggan),\n\n312\n\nCollege, The Junior (James M. Wood),\n151\n\nCollege Women, The Health of (Clara\nGregory Baer), 690\nCollins, Ada R. — The Content and\nPresentation of Shorthand and Typewriting, 393\nCommercial Education, Practical, an Experiment in,in the National City Bank\nof New York (F. C. Schwedtman), 329\nCommercial Geography as an Element in\nBusiness Education (J. Paul Goode),\n391\nCommittee\non Education, Council of\nJewish Women, Report of (Fannie Saxe\nLong), 792\nCommittee on Health Problems in Educa285 tion, Report of (Charles H. Keyes),\n\nCommittee on High-School Libraries, Report of (Mary E. Hall), 671\nCommittee on Problems of High-School\nLibraries, Report of (C. C. Certain),\n547; (Jesse B. Davis), 553; (Mary E.\nHall), 548; (Florence M. Hopkins),\n556; (Hanna Logasa), 557; (Ella S.\nMorgan), 552, 555\nCommittee on University and College\nLibraries, Report of the (Harriet A.\nWood), 655\nCommittee, Report of the Elementary\nSchool (Orpha Maud Peters), 676;\n(Effie L. Power), 675; (Renee B.\nStern), 678\nCommittee Reports (Ada R. Collins),\n393; (J. Paul Goode), 391; (James\nF.\nHosic), 393\nCommunity Activities as a Means of\nMotivation (Fred M. Hunter), 1049\n\nConservation of Natural Resources thru\nEducation (Leon W. Goldrich), 722\n\nCooper, Frank Irving — SchooUiouses\nand the Fire Hazard, 764\nCooperation between Educators and Physicians in Classes for Cripples (Henry\nLing Taylor), 827\nCooperation in Health Administration\n(WiLLARD S. Small), 776\nten, 307\nCornell, Grace — Art in the KindergarCorporation and the Continuation Schools,\nThe Place of (Clifford B. Connelley),\n415\nCorson,\nO. T.— Booker\nAn Appreciation,\n983 T. Washington—\nCottages for Teachers (Josephine Corliss\nPreston), 142\n\nCourse of Study as a Test of Efficiency of\nSupervision (A. Duncan Yocum), 254\nCourtis, Stuart A. — Standardization of\nTeachers' Examinations, 1078\nCrabtree, James W. — Preparing Teachers\nfor Leadership in All Special Education,\n122\n\nCrampton,\nSecretary's\nMinutes,\nDepartment C. W.\nof —Child\nHygiene,\n751;\nThe\nNew\nYork\nSystem\nof\nPhysical\nTraining, 685\nCrawford,\nCaroline — The Drama\nLife in the Lyrics of the Folk, 680\n\nof\n\nCreamer, Mrs. D. B.— The Work of the\nWidener Memorial Industrial Training\nSchool for Crippled Children, 826\nCreelman, G. C. — Some Suggestions for\nImproving\nthe Rural-School Curricula,\n1045\n947\nCrist, Raymond\nForeigners for\n\nF. — The Education of\nAmerican\nCitizenship,\n\nElementa\nof the Upper\nCurriculum\nry\nGrades, The, Necessity of Changes in the,\nBoth in Subject-Matter and in Content\n(Mary D. Bradford), 407\nCurtis, Chester B. — Applied Chemistry\nin Secondary Schools, 702\nDavidson, William M. — The Library in\nthe Modern High School, 538\nDavis, Jesse B. — Educational Guidance\nthru the High-School Library, 553\nDavis, John W.— The Work of the Bureau\nof Attendance, New York City Schools,\n858\n\n"}
{"page": 1116, "printed_page": "1104", "text": "II04\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nDavis, Kary C— Field Exercises in Their\nRelation to Agricultural Teaching, 619\nDavis, Katherine Bement— Delinquency\nand Mental Defect, 815\nDeaf Child, The Physical Side of the\n(George B. McAuliffe), 833\nDebate: The Best Organization for\nAmerican Schools Is a Plan Which Shall\nDivide These Schools into Six Years of\nElementary Training and Six Years of\nSecondary Training (Charles H. Judd),\n\nDuggan,\nStephen — Present Tendencies\nin College Administration, 312\nEconomics in the Commercial High School\n(Cheesman a. Herrick), 375\nEdson, Andrew W. — Education of Blind\nChildren with Special Reference to the\nPublic Schools of the City of New York,\n820\n\nEducation,\nKoo), 165 Chinese (V. K. Wellington\nEducation, Definiteness and Compulsion\nin (A. Duncan\n\n917\n\nDefining the Work of Physical Training in\nRelation to Playground and Recreation\nActivities (Rowland Haynes), 695\nDefiniteness and Compulsion in Education\n(A. Duncan\n\nYocum), 1104\n\nDelinquency and Mental Defect (Katherine Bement Davis) ,815\n84s\nDelinquent,\nThe (Edgar Dubs Shimer),\nDemocracy, Preparation thru Education\nfor a (James Y. Joyner), 79\nDemocracy, The Common School as an\nInstrument of (Carroll G. Pearse), 82\nDemonstration-Play School of the University of California (Mrs. C. W.\nHetherington), 298\nDempsey, Clarence H. — Thrift in Relation to Industries, 205\nDennis, L. H. — The Home Project in\nSecondary-School Agriculture, 622\nDepartment of Business Education, 361;\nof Child Hygiene, 751; of Classroom\nTeachers, 637; of Elementary Education, 397; of Higher Education, 311;\nof Kindergarten Education, 289; Library, 653; of Music Education, 575;\nNational Council of Education, 195, 246;\nof Normal Schools, 441, 449; of Physical\nEducation, 681; of Rural ajid Agricultural Education, 613; of School Administration, 337; of School Patrons, 783;\nof Science Instruction, 699; of Secondary\nEducation, 517; of Special Education,\n811; of Superintendence, 895; of Vocational Education and Practical Arts, 461\nDetermination of Educational Policies\n(Henry\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nSnyder), 1042\n\nDewey, John— Method of Science-Teaching, 729; Nationalizing Education, 183\nDifferentiated Course of Study for Normal\nSchools (J. AsBURY Pitman), 450\nDodd, Alvin E.— Vocational Education\nand Government Aid, 479\nDoes a Strict Enforcement of the Compulsory Education Law Assist Teachers\nand Supervisors ia Their Work? (Edward B. Shallow), 1094\nDrama of Life in the Lyrics of the Folk\n(Caroline Crawford), 680\n\nYocum), 1004\n\nH. 1Appe\nEducation\nan Age of Service (Joseph\n83 l),for 473\nEducation, National Aid to Vocational\n(Homer H. Seerley), 114\nEducation, Nationalizing (John Dewey),\nEducat\nof Foreig\nfor Ameri\ncan\nners F. Crist),\nion\nCitizenship\n(Raymond\n1045\nEducation, Some International Aspects of\nPublic (William G. McAdoo), 170\nEducation, The War and (G. Stanley\nHall), 86\n\nEducation, Vocational Qohn D. Shoop)\nIII\n\nEducational Policies, The Determination of\n(Henry Snyder), 1042\n\nEducational Research and Efl&ciency in the\nPublic Schools,\nMelcher),\n1073 Two Phases of (George\nEducational\nValues\nWhich\nthe Child\nCarries Over from the Kindergarten into\nthe Primary Grades (Mary D. Hill), 429\nEducational Work of a State Commission\n(Marion A. Campbell), 819\nEducational Work, Possible Modifications\n254Our, Likely to Come as a Result of the\nin\nGreat War (James E. Russell), 324\nEfl&ciency of Supervision, The Course of\nStudy as a Test of (A. Duncan Yocum),\nEgbert,\nC. — The Service of BusiWar, ness\n325James\nSchools at the Close of the Great\nEggleston, J. D. — First Aid to the\nCountry Teacher — a Suggestion as to\nVitalizing the Country Schools thru\nOur Present Teachers, 58\nElective System— Its Functions and Its\nLimitation (Thomas M. Baillet), 318\nElhuff, Lewis — The Relation of General\nScience\nto Later\nChemistry,\n710 Courses in Physics and\nEllis, Florence E. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Vocation and Practical\nArts, 461; The Art Instinct Universal,\n504\n\nEssentials in Making Art Practical (Ellsworth W^oodward), 508\n\n"}
{"page": 1117, "printed_page": "1105", "text": "INDEX\nEthical as the Essential Factor in Training\nfor Efl&cient Citizenship in a Democracy\n(Charles W. Cookson), 1069\nEvERAL, Amy S.— The Girl Delinquent,\n846\nExamination, Our Old Friend the (William\nMcAndrew), 527\nExperiment in Practical Commercial Education inthe National City Bank of New\nYork (F. C. Schwedtman), 329\nExtension Work in Normal Schools (Carl\nW. Salser), 441\nFahey, Sara Helena — Moral Education:\nWhat the School Can Do, 638\nFairchild, Milton — ^The National Morality Codes^Competition, 1019\nFarm Bureau as an Agent in Local Development (M. C. Burrit), 614\nFarnum, Royal B. — Differentiation in\nArt\nTraining\nto Suit Individual Pupil's\nNeeds,\n512\nFerris, Woodbredge N. — Address, 976\nFess, Simeon D. — ^The Possibilities of a\nNational University at the Capital, 189\nField Exercises in Their Relation to Agri619\ncultural Teaching (Kary C. Davis),\nFinegan, Thomas E. — Functions of the\nState in Local Administration, 348\nFiNLEY, John H. — Address of Welcome, 30;\nThe Thirtieth Man, looi\nFirst Aid to the Country Teacher — A Suggestion as to Vitalizing the Country\nSchools thru Our Present Teachers (J. D.\nEggleston), 58\nFiTTS, Ada M. — How to Fill the Gap\nbetween the Special Classes and Institutions, 889\nFolk-Song (LuiSE Haessler), 608\nFord Idea in Education (Samuel S.\nMarcus), 910\n\nForeign Service, Educational Preparation\nfor (Glen Levin Swiggett), 127\nFoster, Warren\nRecreation, 49\n\nDunham — Organized\n\nFrancis, J. H. — High Points in the Los\nAngeles Plan, 988\nFresh-Air Classes in Public Schools, The\nNeed of (Harriet A. Tupper), 860\nFrissell, Hollis B. — The Education of\nthe Negro, 106\nFungi, Studying, as a Pastime (W. A.\nMurrill), 726\nFuRST, Clyde — Pensions for Public-School\nTeachers, 137\nGallup, Anna B. — Discussion, 503\nGeisman, Siegfried — Organized Charity\nand the Delinquent, 851\nGirl Delinquent (Amy S. Everal), 846\n\nGoLDBERGER, I. H. — The New York System of School Hygiene, 778\nGoldman,\nBabette\n— Charitable Organization Help,\n825\nGoLDRiCH, Leon W.— The Conservation of\nNatural Resources thru Education, 722\nGompers,\nSamue\"l — ^The 175\nAmerican School\nand the Workingman,\nGooDE, J. Paul — Commercial Geography\nas an Element in Business Education, 391\nGraduate School of Education, The Function of (C. W. A. Luckey), 225\nGreene, James Sonnett — The Mission\nof the Speech Specialist, 864\nGreene, Marian P. — ^Literature for the\nKindergarten Child, 303\nGreetings (David B. Johnson), 934\nGruver, Elbert A. — Discussion, 836\nHaessler, Luise— The Folk-Song, 608\nHall, G. Stanley— The War and Education, 86\nHall, Mary E. — Report of Committee on\nHigh-School Libraries, 671; Report of\nCommittee 548\non Problems of High-School\nLibraries,\nHancock, William J.— The New York\nState Syllabus of Applied Chemistry, 705\nHarden, Frances E. — The Teachers'\nResponsibility\nCommunity, 784as a Civic Factor in the\nHayden, p. C. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Music Education, 575\nHayes, Lydia Y. — History of the Education ofthe Blind — Methods and Ideals, 819\nHaynes, Rowland — Defining the Work of\nPhysical Training in Relation to Playground and Recreation Activities, 695\nHealey, Horace G. — Penmanship in Business High Schools, 365; Secretary's\nMinutes,\ntion, 361 Department of Business EducaHealth of College Women (Clara Gregory\nBaer), 690\nHealth Problems in Education, Report of\nCommittee on (Charles H. Keyes), 285\nHeckman, Samuel B. — Discussion, 882\nHerrick, Cheesman a. — Economics in the\nCommercial High Schpol, 375; What\nHigh-School Studies Are of Most Worth,\n533\nHervey, Henry D. — Discussion, 1097\nHetherington, Mrs. ■ C. W. — The\nDemonstration-Play School of the University of California, 298\nHigh Points in the Los Angeles Plan (J. H.\nFrancis), 988\nHigh-School Libraries, The Need for an\nAggressive Campaign for Better\n(Charles Hughes Johnston), 539\n\n"}
{"page": 1118, "printed_page": "1106", "text": ":io6\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION 637ASSOCIATION\n\nHigh-School Library, The Relation of the,\nto Vocational and Technical Courses\n(Walter D. Hood), 543\nHigh-School Studies, What, Are of Most\nWorth? (Cheesman A. Herrick),\n533\nHiLDT, John C— Discussion, 531\nValues\nHill, Mary D.— Educationalfrom\nthe\nWhich the Child Carries Over\nKindergarten into the Primary Grades,\n429\n\ntens of YesterHill, Patty S.— Kindergar\nday and Tomorrow, 294\nof the Blindof the Education\nHistory\n819\nand Ideals (Lydia Y. Hayes),\nMethods\n\nJohnson,\n— Secretary's\nMinutes,Estelle\nDepartment ofM.Classroom\nTeachers,\nJohnson, Richard Otto — Measurement\nof Efficiency in Schools for the Deaf,\n836\n157\nJohnson, Robert Underwood — A Teacher— Inscribed to the Beautiful Memory\nof One Who Gave Her Life to Her Work,\nJohnston, Charles Hughes — The Junior\nHigh School, 145; The Need for an\nAggressive\nCampaign\nSchool Libraries,\n539 for Better HighJohnston,\nEmmaSchool\nL. — Course,\nVocational\nthruout the\n645 Guidance\n\nHome from the Standpoint of Health\n(Maurice A. Bigelow), 463\nHome Project in Secondary-School Agriculture (L. H. Dennis), 622\nHood, Walter D.— The Relation of the\nHigh-School Library to Vocational and\nTechnical Courses, 543\n\nJones, C. Edward — A Study of Deviate\nChildren — the Problem of Delinquency\nand Subnormality, 1058\n\nHopkins, Florence M. — Instructional\nPhase of School-Library Work, 556\n\nJUDD,\nCharles H.Schools\n— The Best\nfor American\nIs a Organization\nPlan Which\nShall Divide These Schools into Six\nYears of Elementary Training and Six\nYears of Secondary Training, 917\n\nHosic, James F. — Business English: _A\nSummary of Principles, 393; Waste in\nEducation, 648\nHoTCHKiss, George Burton — ^The Teaching of Business English and Advertising\nin Business High Schools, 383\nHoYT, Franklin C. — ^The Juvenile Court\nof New York City, 842\nHunter, Fred M. — Community Activities\nas a Means of Motivation, 1049; The\nSocialized Recitation, loi\nHutchinson, Woods — Child Hygiene,\nFirst Aid to the Uninjured, 762\nHyatt,\nEdward — How\nNot to Train\nRural Teachers, 1025\nHygiene, A Practical Course of Study in\n(Francis M. Walters), 759\nIlliteracy, The Elimination\nof (Cora\nWilson Stewart), 54\nImmigrant,\nEducation\nof the\n(Els a\nAlsberg), 786\nImproving Instruction thru Educational\nMeasurement\n(Frank\nW. Ballou),\n1086\n\nIntensive Study of Large Topics (Charles\nA. McMurry), 411\nIntroductory Explanation of the Analytic\nSynthetic Method of Teaching Reading\nto Deaf Children (D. Frances Kauffman), 829\nIs There a Need for More Reality in\nthe\nElementary-School\nCurriculum ?\n(Georgia Alexander),\n\n420\n\nJohnson,\nDavid\nB. — Greetings,\nPresident's Address, 36\n\n934;\n\nJoYNER,\n— Preparation\nthru\nEducationJames\nfor a Y.\nDemocracy,\n79; Rural\nEducation, 269; Secretary's Minutes\n(New York Meeting), 246\n\nJunior High School (Charles Hughes\nJohnston), 145\nJuvenilelin C.Court\nNew York City (FrankHoyt),of 842\nKauffman, D. Francis— Introductory\nExplanation of the Analytic Synthetic\nMethod of Teaching Reading to Deaf\nChildren, 829\n1055\n\nKearns,\nCarrie Wallace— The Problem,\n828\nKeating, John\n\nF. — Teaching Tenure,\n\nKeeler, Fred L. — Address of Welcome,\nKeyes, Charles H. — A Memorial to\nZachariah Xenophon Snyder, 222; Report\nof Committee on Health Problems in\nEducation, 285\n901\n\nKiLPATRiCK,\nTests, 841 Walter\n\nM. — The Pintner\n\nKindergarten and Primary Grades, Practical Means of Unifying the Work of the\n(J. L. Meriam), 433\nKindergarten and the Primary, Relation\nof the, in the School of Childhood, University ofPittsburgh (Meredith Smith) ,\n290\n\nKindergarten Child, Literature for the\n(Marian P. Greene) , 303\nKindergartens of Yesterday and Tomorrow\n(Patty S. Hill), 294\nKing,\nMillard\nCourses,\n1063 B.— Short-Unit Industrial\n\n"}
{"page": 1119, "printed_page": "1107", "text": "INDEX\nKiNKELDEY, Otto — Music Educatioii and\nPublic Libraries, 596\n\nMcAndrew,\nWilliam527— Our Old Friend,\nthe Examination,\n\nKirk, John R. — The Place of the Normal\nSchool in a Democracy, 73\n\nMcAuliffe, George B. — The Physical\nSide of the Deaf Child, 833; Tone and\nHearing, 868\n\nKnox,\nMargaret\n— The Principal's\nof View\nof the Selection\nof ChildrenPoint\nfor\nSpecial Classes, 877\nKoo, V. K. Wellington — Chinese Education, 165\n\nMcCarty, W. J.— The Organization of a\nBusiness-Practice and Office-Routine\nCourse and How to Make It a Success\nin Business High Schools, 370\n\nKrause, Louise B. — The Relation of the\nLibrary to Business Education, 379\n\nMcClancy,\nV. S. — Preserving\nthe Family, Joseph\n853\n\nLane, C. H. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Rural and Agricultural Education, 613\n\ntion, 397 Bertha M. — Secretary's MinMcCoNKEY,\nutes, Department of Elementary Educa-\n\nLeague to Enforce World-Peace (William\nH. Taft), 41\n\nMcDonald, Dennis J.— Speech-Improvement, 862\nMcKelway, a. J.— Child Labor and Its\nRelation to Illiteracy, 817\n\nLee, Joseph — The Education of School\nCommittees, 340\nLeonard, M. C. — Discussion, 728\nLewis, Leo Rich — Mechanical Inventions\nas an Aid to the Teaching of Music, 606\nLibraries, Report of Committee on HighSchool (Mary E. Hall), 671\nLibraries, University and College, Report of\nCommittee on (Harriet A. Wood), 655\nLibrary Administration (Mary Sullivan),\n546\nLibrary\nin the Modern High School\n(William M. Davidson), 538\nLibrary, the High-School, Joint Administration of,by the Board of Education and\nthe Public Library (Bessie Sargeant\nSmith), 656\nLibrary, The Relation of the, to Business\nEducation (Louise B. Krause), 379\nLibrary, The Rural-School (Orpha Maud\nPeters), 676\nLiterature for the Kindergarten Child\n(Marian P. Greene), 303\nLocal Administration, Functions of the\nState in (Thomas E. Finegan), 348\nLoEB, Jacob M. — The Business Man and\nthe Public Service, 351\nLoGASA, Hanna — ^The Librarian's Contribution, to the Educational Standards\nof the High School, 557\nLong, Fannie Saxe — Report of Committee on Education, Council of Jewish\nWomen, 792\nLos Angeles Plan, High Points in (J. H.\nFrancis), 988\nLucKEY, C. W. A.— The Function of the\nGraduate School of Education, 225\nLyon, Miss — Speech-Improvement in the\nChicago Public Schools, 869\nLyrics of the Folk, The Drama of Life in\nthe (Caroline Crawford), 680\nMcAdoo, William G. — Some International Aspects of Public Education, 170\n\nMcKenny, Virginia S. — Report of the\nSouthern Association of College Women,\n795.\nMcManus,\n— Social Service in\nthe Public Elizabeth\nSchools, 797\nMcMuRRY,\nCharles\nA. —411\n^The Intensive\nStudy of Large\nTopics,\nMaking the High School Democratic\n(Thomas W. Churchill), 524\nManners and Morals — Our Problem (Alice\nM. Carmalt), 1008\nMarquis,\nSamuel\nEducation,\n910 S. — The Ford Idea in\nMartin,\nO. B. — Mass\nInstruction thru\nGroup Training,\n97\nMass Instruction thru Group Training\n(O. B. Martin), 97\ncome, 34\nMaxwell, William H. — Address of WelMeasurement of Efficiency in Schools for\nthe Deaf (Richard Otto Johnson), 836\nMechanical Inventions as an Aid to the\nTeaching of Music (Leo Rich Lewis),\n606\nMelcher, George — The Two Phases of\nEducational Research and Efficiency in\nthe Public Schools, 1073\nMemorial to Zachariah Xenophon Snyder\n(Charles H. Keyes), 222\nMeriam, J. L. — Practical Means of Unifying the Work of the Kindergarten and\nthe Primary Grades, 433\nMilitary Training in the High School: Why\nand How? (W. S. Small), 570\nMilitary\nUniversal (Leonard\nWood), Training,\n159\nSchool,John\n567 M.— The Reorganized High\nMills,\nMinimum Essentials versus the Differentiated Course of Study in the Seventh and\nEighth Grades (Lotus D. Coffman),\n953\n\n"}
{"page": 1120, "printed_page": null, "text": "iio8\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n\nMisfit Child (Thomas W. Salmon), 817\n, John Purroy— Address of\nMitchell\nWelcome, 32\n\nOrganization of the Upper Elementary\nGrades Contrasted with the Organization of Lower Elementary Grades and\nthe High School (John D. Shoop), 403\n\nMitchell, Vethake E.— Oral Deformities\nin\n874Their Relation to Defective Speech,\n\nOrganized Charity and the Delmquent\n(Siegfried Geisman), 851\nFoster), Recreation\n49\nOrganized\n(Warren Dunham\n\nMoNAHAN, A. C— The Status and Need of\nRural Supervision, 103 1\nMoNTGdMERY, ROBERT H. — How Teachers\nCan Increase the Eflficiency of Accounting and Bookkeeping Courses, 387\nMoral Education: What the School Can\nDo (Sara Helena Fahey), 638\nMorgan, Ella S. — Report of Committee\non Problems of High-School Libraries,\n552; The High-School Library and History Teaching, 555\nMurrill, W. a.— Studying Fungi as a\nPastime, 726\nMuseum as the New Force in PublicSchool Development (Henry Fairfield\nOsborne), 739\nMuseums and Schools, The Relationship\nbetween (Paul M. Rea), 500\nMusic, Absolute, in the Elementary Schools\n(Frederic H. Ripley), 577\nMusic Education and Public Libraries\n(Otto Kinkeldey), 596\nMusic in the Normal School (Frank A.\nBeach), 587\nNational Morality Codes Competition\n(Milton Fairchild), 1019\n\nNational Uniyersity at the Capital, The\nPossibilities of (Simeon D. Fess), 189\nNational Welfare and Rural Schools\n(Thomas D. Wood), 232\nNatural Resources, Conservation of, thru\nEducation (Leon W. Goldrich), 722\nNegro, The Education of the (Hollis B.\nFrissell), 106\n\nNew Ideal in Education — ^Better Parents\nfor Better Children (Helen C. Putnam),\n240\n\nNormal-School\nCurricula — A\nCritique\n(Thomas M. Balliet), 458\nNormal School, The Place of the, in a\nDemocracy (John R. ^irk), 73\nNormal Schools, Extension Work in (Carl\nW. Salser), 441\nOfl&cers for 1915-16, 15\nO'Keefe, Emily A.— The Organization of\nAthletics for Girls in the Elementary\nSchools, 693\nOral Deformities in Their Relation to De874\nfective Speech (Vethake E. Mitchell),\nOrganization of a Business-Practice and\nOfl&ce-Routine Course and How to Make\nIt a Success in Business High Schools\n(W. J. McCarty), 370\n\nOsBORN, Henry Fairfield — ^The Museum as the New739Force in Public-School\nDevelopment,\nOwen, William B. — Normal-School Preparation for Thrift-Teaching, 281; Secretary's Minutes (New York Meeting),\n246; Secretary's\nMinutes,\nCouncil\nof Education,\n195 The National\nPackard, John C. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Science Instruction, 699\nPalmer,\nScience Charles\nNeeds, 708S. — What Elementary\nPalmer, Luella A. — Practical Means of\nUnifying the Work of the Kindergarten\nand the Primary Grades, 435\nPeace, A League to Enforce World(William H. Taft), 41\nPeace, What the Public Schools Can Do\ntoward the Maintenance of Permanent\n(Fannie Fern Andrews), 93\nPearse, Carroll G. — ^The Best Organization for American Schools Is a Plan\nWhich Shall Divide These Schools into\nSix Years of Elementary Training and\nSix Years of Secondary Training, 925;\nThe Common School as an Instrument\nof Democracy, 82\nPenmanship in Business High Schools\n(Horace G. Healey), 365\nPensions for Public-School Teachers\n(Clyde Furst), 137\nPeters,\nLibrary,Orpha\n676 Maud — ^The Rural-School\nPhysical\nRural-School Children\n69s Care of\n(Taliaferro\nClark), 771\nPhysical Training in Relation to Playground and Recreation Activities, Defining the Work of (Rowland Haynes),\nPhysical Training in the Schools (Gustave\nSTRAUBENMtJLLER),\n\n682\n\nPhysical Training, The New York System\nof (C. Ward Crampton), 685\nPintner Tests (Walter M. Kilpatrick),\n841\n\nPitman,\nJ. Asbury — A Differentiated\nCourse of Study for Normal Schools,\nPlace of the University in a Democracy\n(Charles R. Van Hise), 68\nPower,\nEffie\nL. — Report\nof\nthe\n450\nElementary-School Committee, 675\n\n"}
{"page": 1121, "printed_page": null, "text": "INDEX\nPreparing Teachers for Leadership in all\nSpecial Education (James W. Crabtree), 122\n\nPreserving the Family (Joseph V. S.\nMcClancy), 853\nPresident's Address (David B.Johnson), 36\nPreston, Josephine CoRLiss^Teachers*\nCottages, 142\nPrincipal's Point of View of the Selection\nof Children for Special Classes (Margaret Knox), 877\nProblem of the Deaf (Carrie Wallace\nKearns), 828\nPsychology of Esthetic Experience in\nMusic (Margaret Floy Washburn),\n600\n\nPublic-Library Administration (Arthur\nE. Bostwick), 660; Discussion, 663\nPublic School and the New American\nSpirit (J. George Becht), 935\nPutnam, Helen C. — Discussion, 252;\nThe New Ideal in Education — Better\nParents of Better Children, 240\nRacial Weil-Being, Educational and Psychological Aspects of (Robert M.\nYerkes), 248\nRathmann, C. G. — ^The Value and Importance ofthe School Museum, 741\nRea, Paul M. — ^The Relationship between\nMuseums and Schools, 500\nRecitation, The Socialized (Fred M.\nHunter), ioi\nRecreation, Organized (Warren Dunham\nFoster), 49\nRedfield, William C. — Industrial Education, 119\nReed, Mrs. Frank A. — Speech Work\nin the Detroit Public Schools, 870\nReigart, John F. — Speech-Correction as\na School Problem, 873\nRelation of the Kindergarten and the\nPrimary in the School of Childhood,\nUniversity of Pittsburgh (Meredith\nSmith), 290\n\nReport of the Elementary-School Committee (Orpha Maud Peters), 676;\n(ErriE L.\nStern),\n678 Power), 675; (Renee B.\nReport of the Southern Association\nMcKenny),\nof CoUege 795Women (Virginia S.\nResidual Hearing, The Utilization of\n(John Dutton Wright), 834\nResponse\nto Address\nof Welcome (Francis\nG. Blair),\n904\nRhythm (Pattie Thomason), 830\nRice, O. S. — Discussion, 669\nRiGGS, James G. — Training of Teachers\nfor Special Classes, 884\nRipley, Frederic H. — Absolute Music\nin the Elementary Schools, 577\nRoberts, Dimon H. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Normal Schools, 441\nTeachers, C.\n734 H. — ^Training of Science\nRobison,\nRose,\nGrace\nD. — Secretary's\nMinutes,\nLibrary\nDepartment,\n653\nRose,\nRuralWickliffe—\nSchools, 235National Welfare and\nRouse, John E. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Higher Education, 311\nRural Education (James Y. Joyner), 269\nRural Home and the Farm Woman (David\nB. Johnson), 36\nRural School and the Reading Habit\n(Henry N. Sanborn), 626\nRural-School Extension Work by the New\nYork State College of Agriculture\n(Edward M. Tuttle), 632\nRural Schools, National Welfare and\n(Thomas D. Wood), 232\nRural Supervision in the Mountains of the\nSouth (Jennie Burkes), 1028\nRural Supervision, The Status and Need\nof (A. C. Monahan), 103 1\nRural Teachers, How Not to Train (Edward Hyatt), 1025\n\nReliable Measurements of a School System (Otis G. Wilson), 1067\nReorganized High School (John M.\nMills), 567\nReply (Ella Flagg Young), 356\n\nRussell, James E. — Possible Modifications in Our Educational Work Likely\nto Come as a Result of the Great War,\n817\n\nReport of Committee on Education, Council of Jewish Women (Fannie Saxe\nLong), 792\n\nSalmon, Thomas W.— The Misfit Child,\n\nLeport of Committee on High-School\nLibraries (Mary E. Hall), 671\nLeport of Committee on Problems of HighSchool Libraries (C. C. Certain), 547;\n(Jesse B. Davis), 5^3; (Mary E.\nHall), 548; (Florence M. Hopkins),\n556; (Hanna Logasa), 557; (Ella S.\nMorgan), 552, 555\n\nRyne\nEdward\nHigh\nSchool,\n519 — ^Socialization of the\n324 arson,\n\nSalser, Carl W. — Extension Work in\nNormal Schools, 441Sanborn, Henry N.— The Rural School\nand the Reading Habit, 626\nSaving the Sight of School Children (Gordon L. Berry), 821\nSchool Committees, The Education of\n(Joseph Lee), 340\n\n"}
{"page": 1122, "printed_page": null, "text": "mo\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nASSOCIATION\n289\n\nSchoolhouses and the Fire Hazard (Frank\nI. Cooper), 764\nSchool Hygiene, Social Aspects of (Donald\nB. Armstrong), 756\nSchool Hygiene, The New York System\nof (I. H. Goldberger), 778\nSchool Museum, The Value and Importance of the (C. G. Rathmann), 741\nSchools, The Secular Free (Ella Flagg\nYoung), 63\nScHWEDTMAN, F. C. — ^An Experiment in\nPractical Commercial Education in the\nNational City Bank of New York, 329\nScience, Applied, in the College Course\n(Robert H. Spahr), 716\nScience, General, The Relation of, to Later\nCourses\nin Physics and\nChemistry\n(Lewis Elhuff), 710\n\nScience Teachers,\nRobison), 734\n\nTraining\n\nof\n\n(C.\n\nH.\n\nthe Board656of Education and the Public\nLibrary,\nSmith, Fannie A.— Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Kindergarten Education,\nSmith, Meredith — Relation of the Kindergarten and the Primary in the School of\nChildhood, University of Pittsburgh, 290\nSnedden, David — ^The Minimum Essentials versus the Differentiated Course of\nStudy in the Seventh and Eighth Grades,\n965; The Peculiar Psychological Conditions and Social Needs of the Seventh\nand Eighth Grades, 398\nSnyder,\nC. B. J.— After the Architect,\n345\nSnyder, Henry — The Determination of\nEducational Policies, 1042\nSocial\nAspects of School\nB. Armstrong),\n756 Hygiene (Donald\nSocialization\nof the\nRyne arson),\n519 High School (Edward\n\nScience-Teaching, Local Industries as a\nSource of Illustrative Material\nfor\n(Clarence M. Hall), 719\nScience-Teaching,\nMethod\nin\n(John\n\nSocial Service\nin the Public\nSchools (Elizabeth McManus),\n797\n\nScouting as an Educational Asset (James\n\nSpahr, Robert H. — Applied Science in the\nCollege Course, 716\n\nDewey), 729\n\n■ E. West),\n\n1012\n\nSeerley, Homer H. — National Aid to\nVocational Education, 114\nSeventh and Eighth Grades, The Peculiar\nPsychological Conditions and Social\nNeeds of the (Daniel Snedden), 398\nShallow, Edward B. — Does a Strict Enforcement ofthe Compulsory-Education\nLaw Assist Teachers and Supervisors in\nTheir Work? 1094\n845\nShimer, Edgar Dubs — The Delinquent,\nShoop, John D. — The Organization of the\nUpper Elementary Grades Contrasted\nwith the Organization of the Lower\nElementary Grades and the High School,\n403; Vocational Education, III\nShorthand and Typewriting, The Content\nand Presentation of (Ada R. Collins),\n393\nShort-Unit Industrial Courses (Millard\nB. King), 1063\nSignificant Developments in Educational\nSurveying (Leonard P. Ayres), 994\nSix-Three-Three Organization, A First\nStep in Establishing the (Herbert S.\nWeet), 1036\n\nSlaughter, John W. — Discusson, 422\nSmall, Willard S.— Cooperation in\nHealth Administration, 776; Military\nTraining in the High School: Why\nand How? 570\nSmith, Bessie Sargeant — Joint Administration of the High-School Library by\n\nSocial Worker (Henry W. Thurston), 855\n\nSpeech-Correction as a School Problem\n(John F. Reigart), 873\nSpeech-Correction, The Economic Value of\n(Ira S. Wile), 875\nSpeech-Improvement (Dennis J. McDonald), 862\nSpeech-Improvement in the Chicago Public\nSchools (Miss Lyon), 869\nSpeech Work in the Detroit Public Schools\n(Mrs. Frank A. Reed), 870\nSpeech Work in the High Schools, The\nNeed of (Alma M, Bullowa), 870\nSpeech Specialist, The Mission of the\n(James\n889 S. Greene), 864\nSpecial Class, The Work of the Teacher of\nthe (Samuel B. Allison), 887\nSpecial Classes and Institutions, How to\nFill the Gap between (Ada M. Fitts),\nSpecial Classes, The Necessity for. After\nCare of Children Discharged from\n(Howard J. Banker), 888\nSpecial Classes, Training of Teachers for\n(James G. Riggs), 884\nStandard Tests, Will, Economize Time*\nLead to a Broadening of the SubjectMatter, and Make for Efficiency of\nBoth Teacher\nand Pupil (Lida Lee\nTall),\n426\nStandardization of Teachers' Examinations (Stuart A. Courtis), 1078\nStern,\nB. — The Rural School\nLibrary,Renee\n678\n\n"}
{"page": 1123, "printed_page": null, "text": "iiii\n\nINDEX\nStewart, Charlotte — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Physical Education,\n682; Secretary's Minutes, Department\nof School Patrons, 783\nStewart, Cora Wilson — ^The Elimination of Illiteracy, 54\nStewart, H, E. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Physical Education,\n681\n\nStewart, Isabel M. — The Teaching of\nHome Nursing and the Care of Children\nto Elementary- and High-School Pupils,\n767\nStitt, Edward W. — The Importance of\nVisual Instruction, 737\nSTRAUBENMtJLLER,\n\nGUSTAVE — ^AddreSS\n\nof\n\nWelcome, 35; Physical Training in the\nSchools, 682\n\nStraus, S. W.— The Greater Thrift, 274;\nThrift — An Educational Necessity, 196\nStuart, M. H.— Thrift in Its Relation to\nConservation, 215\nStudy of Deviate Children — The Problem\nof Delinquency and Subnormality (C.\nEdward Jones), 1058\nSuggestions for Improving the RuralSchool Curricula, Some (G. C. Creelman), 947\nSullivan, Mary — ^Library Administration, 546\nSummary (a Brief) of the Forthcoming\nReport of the National Joint Committee\non the Reorganization of High-School\nEnglish, 559\nSuperintendent as the Layman Sees Him\n(Thomas W. Churchill), 940\nSwain, Joseph — Salaries and Pensions of\nTeachers, 136\nSwift, Walter B. — ^What is a \"Speech\nClinic\"? 867\nSwiGGETT, Glen L. — Educational Preparation for Foreign Service, 127\nTaft, William H. — A League to Enforce\nPeace, 41\nTall, Lida Lee — Will Standard Tests\nEconomize Time, Lead to a Broadening\nof the Subject-Matter, and Make for\nEfficiency of Both Teacher and Pupil?\n426\n\nTaylor, Harris — Teaching of Language,\n832\n\nTaylor, Henry Ling — Cooperation between Educators and Physicians in\nClasses for Cripples, 827\nTeacher, A, Inscribed to the Beautiful\nMemory of One Who Gave Her Life to\nHer Work (Robert Underwood Johnson), 157\nTeachers' Cottages (Josephine Corliss\nPreston), 142\n\nTeacher's Responsibility as a Civic Factor\nin\nthe 784\nCommunity (Frances E.\nHardin),\nTeachers, Salaries and Pensions of (Joseph Swain), 136\nTeaching of Home Nursing and the Care of\nChildren to Elementary- and HighSchool Pupils (Isabel M. Stewart), 767\nTeaching of Language (Harris Taylor),\n832\nTeaching\nTenure (John F. Keating), 1055\nTerman, Lewis M. — ^The Binet Scale and\nthe Diagnosis of Feeble-Mindedness, 879\nThirtieth Man Qohn H. Finley), iooi\nThomason, Pattie — Rhythm, 830\nThrift, and Its Relation to Banking Q. A.\nBexell), 210\n\nThrift— An Educational Necessity (S. W.\nStrauss), 196\nThrift in Its Relation to Conservation\n(M. H. Stuart), 215\nThrift in Its Relation to Country Life\n(Robert H. Wilson), 201\nThrift in Relation to Industries (Clarence H. Dempsey), 205\nThrift in Relation to the Home (Kate\nDevereux\n\nBlake), 220\n\nThrift-Teaching, Normal School Preparation for (William B. Owen), 281\nThrift, The Greater (S. W. Straus), 274\nWorker, 855 Henry\nThurston,\n\nW.— The\n\nSocial\n\nTone and Hearing (George B. McAuliffe), 868\nTraining, Physical, versus Military Training (Randall Warden) , 686\nTrue,\nRuth—\nTeacher,\n856 The Work of the Visiting\nTuppER, Harriet A. — ^The Need of\nFresh-Air Classes in Public Schools, 860\nTuTTLE, Edward M. — Rural-School Extension Work by the New York State\nCollege of Agriculture, 632\nTwo Phases of Educational Research and\nEfficiency in the Public Schools, the\n(George Melcher), 1073\nTypewriting\nBeygrau), in367the Public Schools (F. R.\nUniversity, The Place of the, in a Democracy (Charles R. Van Hise), 68\nVan Hise, Charles R. — The Place of the\nUniversity in a Democracy, 68\nVacation-Club\nWork (J. H. Beveridge),\n1060\nVisiting Teacher, The Work of the (Ruth\nTrue), 856\nVisual Aids to Instruction, Collection,\nOrganization, and Circulation of, by\nState Bureaus (A. W. Abrams), 745\n\n"}
{"page": 1124, "printed_page": null, "text": "III2\n\nNATIONAL\n\nEDUCATION\n\nVisual Instruction, The Importance of\n(Edward W. Stitt), 737\nVocational Education and Government\nAid (Alvin E. Dodd), 479\nVocational Guidance thruout the School\nCourse (Emma L. Johnston), 645\nWalters, Francis M.— A Practical Course\nof Study in Hygiene, 759\nWar and Education (G. Stanley Hall), 86\nWarden, Randall — Physical Training\nversus Military Training, 686\n\nASSOCIATION\nMatter, and Make for Efiiciency of\nBoth Teacher and Pupil? (Lida Lee\nTall), 426\n\nWiLLCox, William G.— Address of Welcome, 33; Address of Welcome, 338\nWillis, Frank B. — ^Address, 981\nWilson, H. B. — Discussion, 424\nWilson, Otis G.— Reliable Measurements\nof a School System, 1067\n\nWarner, Annette J.— ^Art a Vitalizing\nForce in Education, 483\n\nWilson, Robert H.— Thrift in Its Relation to Country Life, 201\nWiNSER, Beatrice — Functions and\nMethods of Boards of Education, 343\n\nWarren, Lloyd — ^The Influence of Architectural and Decorative Art, 467\n\nWiNSHiP, A. E.— To Whom Is the Board\nof Education Responsible ? 946\n\nWarriner, E. C. — Secretary's Minutes,\nDepartment of Superintendence, 895\nWashburn, Margaret Floy — The Psychology ofEsthetic Experience in Music,\n\nWolff, Frank A.— The Relation of the\nBureau of Standards to Physical Research and to the Teaching of Physics,\n713\n\n600\n\nWeet, Herbert S. — ^A First Step in\nEstablishing the Six-Three-Three Organization, 1036\nWest, James E.— Scoutmg as an Educational Asset, 1012; The Boy Scouts of\nAmerica, 805\nWhat Elementary Science Needs (Charles\nS. Palmer), 708\nWhat\nIs a 867\n\"Speech Clinic\"? (Walter B.\nSwift),\nWhat Is Going On in the World (Nicholas Murray Butler), 907\nWhat Should Be the Musical Equipment\nof the Secondary-School Graduate?\n(John F. Ahern), 582\nWhitman, Charles S.— Address of Welcome, 29\nWhitman, W. G.— Method in the Teaching of Chemistry— An Abstract, 704\nWidener Memorial Industrial Training\nSchool for Crippled Children, The Work\nof the (Mrs. D. B. Creamer), 826\nWile, Ira S.— The Economic Value of\nSpeech-Correction, 875\nWill Standard Tests Economize Time,\nLead to a Broadening of the Subject-\n\nWood, Harriet A. — Report of the Combraries,on655University and College Limittee\nWood,\nJames M.— The Junior\n151\n\nCollege,\n\nTraining,Leonard\n159\nWood,\n— Universal\n\nMilitary\n\nWood, Thomas D.— National Welfare and\nRural Schools, 232\nWoodward, Ellsworth— The Essentials\nin 8Making\nArt Practical, 508\n53\nWorkingman, The American School and\nthe (Samuel Gompers), 175\nWork of the Bureau of Attendance, New\nYork City Schools (John W. Davis),\n— ^The Utiliza\nDutto 834\nWriofghResidual\nt, JohnHearing,\nn\ntion\n\nYerkes, Robert M. — Educational and\nPsychological\nAspects of Racial WeilBeing, 248\nYocuM,\nA. Duncan — Definiteness\nand\nCompulsion in Education,\n1004; The\nCourse of Study as a Test of Efficiency\nof Supervision, 254\nYoung,\n— ^The\nSchools,Ella\n63; Flagg\nA Reply,\n356 Secular Free\n\n"}
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{"page": 1127, "printed_page": null, "text": "L\n13\nN3A13\n1916\n\nNational Education Association\nof the United States\nAddresses and proceedings...\n\nPLEASE DO NOT\nCARDS\n\nOR SLIPS FROM\n\nREMOVE\nTHIS POCKET\n\nUNIVERSITY OF TORONTO\n\nLIBRARY\n\n"}
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