PHYSICS PUBLICATIONS The following list of material, published under direction of the Committee on the Improvement of Physics Teaching, is now ready and new material will be announced in the National Education Association Bulletin as fast as published. Complete files are too bulky to inclose in the carton with the Proceedings. Such monographs and charts as members may desire will be sent free upon request. CHARTS: Two charts IJ^ x20 in. showing: A. Exploded view of D'Arsonal type ammeter, showing parts and interior of assembled instrument. B. Wiring diagram, showing complete connections of voltmeter, ammeter, generator, etc., to a lamp as used in the well-known experiment showing that the electrical energy required to operate an incandescent lamp is chiefly converted to heat. Monograph 2 — Elementary Electrical Testing Weston Electrical Instrument Co., Newark, N. J. A copy of this monograph was sent with the 1913 Proceedings. It contains laboratory exercises which are recommended by the technical staff of this company as being thoroughly practical. Monograph 3 — Edison Storage Batteries The Edison Storage Battery Co., Orange, N. J. This pamphlet tells both how this battery is manufactured by modern factory methods and how it has found special uses in schools. Monograph 4 — Experimental Electrical Testing Weston Electrical Instrument Co., Newark, N, J. This booklet contains selected laboratory exercises as actually performed oy students in various schools. These with the letters of transmission and other comments constitute a record of work done of great value to teachers for the purpose of comparison. Monograph 5 — Mechanics of the Sewing Machine Singer Sewing Machine Co., Inc., New York, N. Y. A pamphlet of 80 pages containing reports from teachers respecting use of sewing machine as a means of teaching physics to girls, also an illustrated history respecting the development of the Singer machine. Wall Charts — Mechanics of the Sewing Machine C. Comprise 5 charts, each 36 x 42 inches, illustrating and describing the process of stitch formation by various types of sewing machines. D. One chart, 40 x 36 inches, illustrating mechanism of lock-stitch machines and giving technical names of each part. Dear Sir: Kindly send me without charge the publications checked: Monograph 2 — Elementary Electrical Testing. Weston Electrical Instrument Co., Newark, N. J. Monograph 3 — Edison Storage Batteries. The Edison Storage Battery Co., Orange, N. J. Monograph 4 — Experimental Electrical Testing. Weston Electrical Instrument Co., Newark, N. J. Chart A — Exploded View of Ammeter. Weston Electrical Instrument Co., Newark, N. J. Chart B — Wiring Diagram of Lamp. Weston Electrical Instrument Co., Newark, N. J. Monograph 5 — Mechanics of the Sewing Machine. Chart C — Illustrating Stitch Formation. Chart D — Illustrating Sewing Machine Mechanism. Singer Sewing Machine Co., Inc., New York, N. Y. Name . Street City^ . _State School f OHt (tnrh ONE-CENl STAMP BEi rOBBIGN, TWO-CENl BTAMP J. A. RANDALL, Chairman PRATT INSTITUTE BROOKLYN. N. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS AND ADDRESSES OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES ^ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION "' OF THE UNITED STATES Journal OF Proceedings and Addresses OF THE FIFTY-THIRD ANNUAL MEETING AND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON EDUCATION HELD AT OAKLAND, CALIFORNIA AUGUST 16-27 191^ 1915 publiabed bi^ tbe Hddociation secretary's office, ANN ARBOR, MICH. l'1f,„ L /3 Composed and Printed By The University of Chicago Press Chicago, IlllnoU. U.S.A. CONTENTS FAOK Act of Incorporation i By-Laws S Calendar of Meetings 13 Officers for 1914-15 15 Secretary's Minutes of General Sessions 21 GENERAL SESSIONS Addresses of Welcome: I. Hyatt. 33 II. Davie 34 III. Barker 35 IV. Barr 36 Response to Addresses of Welcome — Swain 37 President's Address — Jordan 38 Educational Progress of the Past Fifteen Years — Brown 48 Woman and War — Snowden 54 Educational Progress in New Zealand since 1900 — Cohen 56 My System of Education — Montessori 64 Moral Education in French Schools — Buisson 73 Financing Public Education — Joyner 76 Modem Implications of Secondary Education — Nelson 82 Organization of Public Education — Smith 88 Cubberley 91 Our Rural Schools — Holden 97 Efficiency and Preparation of Rural Teachers — Foght 100 Child Welfare and Rural Schools — Wood 104 Self-Government in Secondary Schools — Welling 109 The Cost and Labor of English Teaching — Hopkins 114 The Junior College — Lange . 119 Industrial Training — Young 125 The Growth and Organization of the National Union of Teachers — Crook . . 127 The Educational Situation in South Africa — Loram 13S Germany's Recent Progress in Secondary Education — Appdmann .... 137 Changes in English Education since 1900 — Sadler 144 Sex Hygiene and Sex Morality as the Aim of Sex Education — Bailiet . . . 148 Education in Guatemala — Tejada 152 Japanese Education in America — Inui 157 PubUc Instruction — America's Work in the Philippines — Crone .... 166 The Progress of Education in North Africa — ^Particularly in Timis — Buisson . 171 The Recent Educational Development in China — Nyi x^S The Teachers of America and the Problems of Asia — Gulick 186 Education in Bulgaria — Panaretof 190 Agricultural Education — Waters 193 Educational Progress of Continental Europe since 1900 — Farrington . . . 199 Ideal Education the Forerunner of Universal Peace — Khan 205 V vi NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Some Defects in Our Legal Education — McMurray 207 The Education of the Physician — Wilbur 212 Should There Be Military Training in Public Schools ? — Lochner .... 217 The Education of the Engineer — Marx 223 Agricultural Education in Normal Schools — Johnson 227 A Greeting from Guatemala — Morales 229 The Deeper Problem of Education in China — Too 229 Higher Ideals in Education — Thwing 232 Athletics as Education and Athletics as Business — Foster . . . . . . 233 Way of Approach to the Supreme Ideal in School Education — Holman . . . 239 Development of the International Spirit thru Education — SewaU .... 244 The Education of the World for a Permanent Peace — Andrews 246 Education for World-Living — King 251 DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE (Cincinnati Meeting, 19 15) Secretary's Minutes 253 Addresses of Welcome: I. Spiegel 261 II. Withrow 264 Response to Addresses of Welcome — Dyer 266 The Trap— 5rya« 268 The Protection of Professional Interests — Judd 269 Textbooks — Educationally, Commercially, and Politically — Winship . . 274 Topic: The Training of Teachers A. The Spiritual and Professional Assets of the Normal School — Payne . 279 B. The Training of Teachers in Service — Kendall 287 Topic: Vocational Education A. A State Program for Industrial and Social Efficiency — Dean . . 292 B. The Evolution of the Training of the Worker in Industry — Prosser . . 296 C. Continuation School Work in Wisconsin — Cooley 308 D. The All-Day Trades School— Warriner 313 E. The Field for the Corporation School and Its Relation to the Public Schools — Chandler 319 F. National Aid for Vocational Education — Lapp 322 G. Problems of Vocational Guidance — Spaulding 331 Should ^Our Educational System Include Activities Whose Special Purpose Is Preparation for War? — Garrison , . . . . 335 Schaefer 337 Pinley 344 Topic: School CtJMticuiA and Organization A. Principles Underlying the Determination of a Course of Study — Green . 350 B. Should Essentials of the Course of Study Vary to Satisfy Social Demands in Different School Districts? Within the Same District ?—2?t/>fey . 354 C. The Demands of Rural School Districts — Miller 358 D. The Pros and Cons of the Gary System — Snedden 363 Is a National Standard of Education Practical ? — Taft 373 The Investigation of the Efficiency of Schools and School Systems — Van Sickle 379 Ayres 384 Kendall 389 Maxwell 355 CONTENTS vii Report of Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary Education — Minimum Essentials of a Course of Study — Wilson 402 kotjm) tables Round Table op State and County Suteeintendents Topic: State School Codes A. Financial Support of the Public Schools — S hawkey 415 B. The Appointment, Salary, and Tenure of Teachers — Yawberg . . 419 C. The Selection of County Superintendents — Chancellor .... 423 D. The Determination of the School District — Blair 427 Round Table of Superintendents of Cities with a Population of over 250,000 The Essence of Success in Evening Vocational Work — Evans .... 430 Illiteracy and Industrial EflEiciency in Large Cities — Shids 433 The Education of Adult Immigrants — Blewett 439 Dougan 440 Round Table op Superintendents of Cities with a Population of from 25,000 TO 250,000 Topic: Current Methods of Dealing with the Exceptional Pupil A. The Backward PupU — Baylor 445 B. The Mentally Defective Pupil — Cooper 447 C. The Delinquent Pupil — Aldrich 449 D. The Anemic Pupil — Bryan 452 E. The Bright Pupil— Co//ico« 457 Round Table op Superintendents of Cities with a Population under 25,000 Current Practices in the Appointment of Teachers — Griggs 466 How Shall the Efficiency of Teachers Be Tested and Recorded ? — Elliott . . 469 The Promotion of Teachers on the Basis of Merit and Efficiency — Green . . 473 A Satisfactory Basis for the Promotion of Pupils — Rosier 477 Round Table of Child Relations The Administration of Compulsory Attendance Laws — Hartwell . . 485 The Issuance of Work Permits and Its Bearing on Other School Problems — Woolley 489 The Taking of the School Census — Davis 496 Secretary's Minutes — Oakland Meeting 502 Community Center Work — Sterling 503 Supervision in the South — Brittain 506 School Supervision in New England — Smith 509 The State Department and Educational Statesmanship — Sisson . . . 511 Personality in Supervision — Crabtree 516 Progress of Elementary Agricultural Education in Nova Scotia — DeWolfe . . 520 The Administration of the American University — Jordan 522 NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes — Cincinnati Meeting 527 Standardization — Wise and Otherwise — Winship 528 In Memoriam — James M. Greenwood — Blewett . 533 viii NATIONAL EDUCATIONIaSSOCIATION PAGE Topic: The Study of Edxication in the Normal School and the University A. The Normal-School Point of View— 5ecr/ey 539 B. The Compelling of Efficiency thru Teacher Training— FocMm ... 544 Topic: Report of Committee on Tests and Standards of Efficiency in Schools and School Systems A. The Aims of Education— 5/ewett ' . ... $60 B. Reading Tests— /«5 574 E. The Use of Tests and Scales of Measurement in the Administration of Schools — Strayer 579 Topic: Health Problems in Education A. Report of Committee on Health Problems in Education — Wood . 583 B. Methods of Extending the Propaganda for the Improvement of Sanitary Conditions in Rural Schools — Dodson 584 Secretary's Minutes — Oakland Meeting 587 The Purpose of a National System of Education — Pearse 588 Topic: The History and Development of American Education A. Secondary Education — Chadsey 593 B. Higher Education — Brown . 599 Topic: Present Activities and Accomplishments A. Elementary Education — Wilson 602 B. Secondary Education — Smith 609 C. Higher Education — Strong 610 Topic: Future Outlook and Possibilities A. Elementary Education — Strachan . . . . . . . . . 616 B. Secondary Education — Brown 616 C. Higher Education — Benton 621 DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 629 Topic: Kindergarten Legislation A. What the California Congress of Mothers Has Done for Kindergarten Legislation — Rowell 631 B. Kindergarten Legislation in California — How We Secured It and Some of Its Results — Clark 632 Topic: The Kindergarten and the Elementary School A. The Kindergarten-Primary Course in the State Normal School — Hofman 637 B. Some Adjustments That Might Secure Closer Integration — Bradford . . 641 C. Progressive Development of the Kindergarten Course of Study in the Elementary School — Poor 642 Topic: The Kindergarten and Industrial Arts A. The Influences of Modem Education upon Handwork for Young Chil- dren— Barbour 647 B. Practical Connections between Aesthetic and Industrial Walues—Waikins 654 Topic: Child Study A. Modem Psychology in Its Relation to Discipline— fformow . . .658 B. Education in Relation to the Imagination of the Little CMd—Montessori 661 CONTENTS ix PAGE Child Education as a Basis for the New Internationalism — Sewall 667 Thomas 668 DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 671 Some Factors Making for Growth of Elementary Teachers in the Field — Boehringer 672 The Teacher's Field in Public Health Work— Allison 676 Standardization of the Rural Schools — Carleton 679 The Efficient Country School — Johnson 683 Community Center Work — Preston 687 Some New Problems for the Old School — S hawkey 691 The Wisdom of a Wider Use of the Probational in Discipline in the Public Schools — Crabtree 694 Working Plans for the Home Teacher — Chase 698 The New Citizenship — Andrews 702 Unconscious Discipline — The Blend of the Self-acting Group — Kirk . . . 706 What Becomes of the Grammar-School Graduates and the High-School Non- Graduates ? — Van Norman 708 The Large versus the Small Unit for Rural-School Administration and Super- vision— Clark 710 The Special Teacher — Dorsey . 713 The Organization of Intellectual Work in School — Monies sori 717 DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes ■ . . 723 The Place and Function of the High School in the American System of Education — Brown '. . 724 The Possibilities of the High-School Library — Hargreaves 730 The Secondary Schools of the Philippine Islands — Crone 734 Extra-curricular Activities: Their Relation to the Curricular Work of the School — Froula 737 High-School Efficiency and What It Means to a Community — Snyder . . . 742 The Organization of High Schools into Junior and Senior Sections — Claxton . . 747 The Future High School — Avery 748 DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 7SS University Surveys — Cubberley 7SS Reed College and Civic Service — Foster 757 Higher Education in the Philippine Islands — Crone . 760 DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS Secretary's Minutes — Cincinnati Meeting 763 The Place and Scope of Sociology in the Normal School — Keith .... 764 The Question of Federal Aid for Normal Schools — Bagley 766 Normal-School Extension Courses in Education — Judd 771 Topic: Normal-School Extension Courses in Five States A. History of the Extension Movement in Illinois — Morgan .... 777 B. Extension Service for Iowa Teachers — Seerley 781 C. Normal-School Extension in Ohio — Martzolff 782 Secretary's Minutes — Oakland Meeting 785 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PAGE Topic: Prepakation of Teacheks for the Elementary Schools A. The Relation of the High School to the Normal School— Ware ... 786 B. What to Stress and What to Slur in the Preparation of Elementary Teachers — Matthews 793 C. They Who Sit at Our Feet— 7CTcr*a 797 A Decade of Progress in the Training of Rural Teachers— J5«r»Aa»i . . . 801 Library Training in the Normal Schools — Pearse 807 The State Normal Schools and the Training of High-School Teachers— 5ceffey . 809 DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND PRACTICAL ARTS Secretary's Minutes 815 Art in Its Relation to National Growth — Parsons 816 Home Economics Applied to Life — Van Rensselaer 821 The School Shop and Breadwinning — Miller 824 Vocational Education and the Labor Problem — Pearse 828 Vocational Education, Its Wider Implications — Balliet 832 The Social Phases of Vocational Education — Boone 837 Some Social Phases of Vocational Education in the Philippines — Potter . . . 843 DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 847 Forces at Work for the Betterment of School Music — Clarke 848 Elementary Music Education as a Basis for Secondary and Higher Music Edu- cation— Erb 851 The Teaching of Harmony in High Schools — Bumhaugh 855 College Preparation for Teachers of Music in Secondary Schools — Glen . . . 858 Uniformity of Standards in Secondary Music Education — Parsons .... 863 Instrumental Music and Instrument Study in the Oakland Schools — Woods . . 865 The Eurhythmies of Jaques-Dalcroze — Smith 869 Topic: The Music of the Orient A. Music of Japan — Inui 872 B. Hawaiian Music — Cadwell 875 C. Music of the Philippine Islands — Jara 879 DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 883 Teaching the Fundamentals of Accountancy in Bookkeeping Classes, or Training Students to Think — Stone 884 Penmanship — Palmer 888 Factors of EflBdency in Secondary Commercial Teaching— rrefeccn ... 893 The Training and Field of the Amanuensis — GratU 897 Topic: Linking School Work with Business Enterprises A. The San Jose Junior Chamber of CommeTC&—McMasters .... 903 B. School Savings Banks — Evans 904 C. Student Finances — Barnhart 008 D. The Placement Bureau— DaJfee 010 E. The Student Stenographer— jB/awcAord 913 F. Trade Possibilities between the United States and Australia— g«««n . 916 G. The Night School as a Factor in Business Education— Desmond . 918 H. Advertising and Salesmanship— 5AJBe/y 021 CONTENTS xi PAGE Farm Statistics and Standardized Accounts — Bexell 925 Report of Committee on Research, Standardization, and Correlation — McKinney 930 The Latin-American Field and Opportunity — Barrett 934 DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE Secretary's Minutes 941 The Schoolroom Window — Watt 942 The Mental Hygiene of Exceptional Children — Terman 945 Some Problems to Be Considered in the Selection of Sites for School Buildings — Dresslar 951 Standard School Buildings and Grounds in the Philippine Islands — Martinez 955 The Problem of Handedness in Education — Jones 959 Health Supervision of Schools in a Small City — Olesen 963 Ten Million Dollars for Sanitary School Buildings in Indiana — King . . 967 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 971 Organization and Management of Playgrounds and Recreation Centers — Dickie . 972 A University Playground for Women — Thomson 975 Athletics in Playgrounds — Teach 979 The Distinctive Functions of Games and Gymnastics — Stewart . . . . 981 Physical Training in the Philippine Public Schools — Crone 984 The Educational Value of Playgrounds — Boone 989 Physical Education Essential — Winship 993 DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION Secretary's Minutes . . . . " 99S Correlation of Physics and Manual Training — Fullan 996 Twiss 1000 Correlation of Chemistry and Agriculture — Black IOCS Wooster 1005 Project Teaching — Randall 1009 What Can the Teacher of Geography Contribute to the Survey of Vocational Opportunities for Girls ? — Hoke 1012 Topic: Deviations for Standardized College-Entrance Courses for Girls A. Special Science for Girls in the Rural School — Twiss 1015 B. A Chemistry Course for Girls — Jones ■ 1019 C. AppUed Science as the Basis of the Girl's Education — Severy . . . 1020 D. General Science for the First Year of High School — Welch .... 1022 The Place of Pure Science in Our Public-School System — J^ewis .... 1024 DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION Secretary's Minutes 1029 Address of Welcome — Cook 1030 President's Address — Plummer 103 1 School Surveys — Cubberley 1032 School-Board Members — Chancellor ^o33 Is the Board of Education an Incubus on Modern Education ? — Blight . .1037 School Grounds and School Architecture — Donovan 1041 School Buildings and Grounds in the Philippines — Crone 1047 Tenure of Office— ZJeGra/ loSi xii NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION LIBRARY DEPARTMENT PAGE Secretary's Minutes ^*^SS Report of Committee on Normal-School Libraries 1056 Report of Committee on Standardizing the Course of Study in Library Instruction in Normal Schools io59 Report of Committee on High-School Libraries— FaW 1064 High-School Libraries of California— 3forga» . • 1071 Report of Committee on Elementary-School Libraries— Power 1073 The Basis of Selection of an Elementary-School Library— Caje .... 1075 American History in Elementary Schools — Holmes 1078 The Library as a Continuation School — Steiner 108 1 Books and Education — Sisson 1085 DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 1089 Report of Committee on Classification and Terminology of the Exceptional Clald— Allison 1090 School Surveys of Backward and Retarded Children — Williams . . . . 1095 The Combined System of Educating the Deaf — Caldwell 1097 An Important Function of the Home-School for Children with Permanent Mental Defects — Farrington iioo DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS Secretary's Minutes 1105 Reports of Organizations Affiliated with the Department of School Patrons A. General Federation of Women's Clubs — Barnum 1106 B. The Southern Association of College Women — Ellis 1109 C. The Council of Jewish Women — Long 1112 Report of Committee on School Health — Ward 11 13 The Development of the Philippine Public-School System in Co-operation with the Home and in Relation to Industrial Conditions — Miller. . . . 11 16 The Mother and the Child — Montessori 1121 DEPARTMENT OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION Secretary's Minutes 1131 High-School Extension in Agriculture — Lane 1132 Educational Values of Work — Mills 1136 How Boys and Girls Respond to Home Work in a Large City — Palmer 1139 Farley 1143 School Credit for Boys' and Girls' Club Work and Extension Activities in Agri- culture and Home Economics — Benson 1144 Agricultural Education in the State of Victoria, Australia — Harrison . . 1154 Gardening and Fanning in the Philippine Schools — Foreman 1156 DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS Secretary's Minutes 1161 Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions — Ferguson .1162 Rating of Teachers— Cfo6ective duties as such until the expiration of terms for which they were severally elected or appointed, and xmtil their successors are elected. That at such annual meeting the active members of the National Educational Association, then present, may organize and proceed to accept the charter granted by this act and adopt by-laws, to elect officers to succeed those whose terms have expired or are about to expire, and generally to organize the "National Educa- tion Association of the United States"; and that the Board of Tnistees of the corporation hereby incorporated shall thereupon, if the charter granted by this act be accepted, receive, take over, and enter into possession, custody, and management of all property, real and personal, of the corporation heretofore known as the National Educational Association, incorporated as aforesaid, under the Revised Statutes of the District of Columbia and all its rights, contracts, claims, and property of every kind and nature whatsoever, and the several officers, directors, and trustees of such last-named Association, or any other person having charge of any of the securities, fxmds, books, or property thereof, real or personal, shall on demand deliver the same to the proper officers, directors, or trustees of the corporation hereby created. Provided, That a verified certificate executed by the presiding officer and secretary of such annual meeting, showing the acceptance of the charter granted by this act by the National Educational Association shall be legal evidence of the fact, when filed with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia; and, pro- vided furiher. That in the event of the failure of the Association to accept the charter granted by this act at said annual meeting then the charter of the National Educational Associa- tion and its corporate existence shall be, and are hereby extended until the thirty-first day of July, nineteen hundred and eight, and at any time before said date its charter may be extended in the manner and form provided by the general corporation law of the District of Columbia. Sec. 10. That the rights of creditors of the said existing corporation, known as the National Educational Association, shall not in any manner be impaired by the p>assage of this act, or the transfer of the property heretofore mentioned, nor shall any liability or obligation, or the payment of any s\xa\ due or to become due, or any claim or demand. BY-LAWS 5 in any manner, or for any cause existing against the said existing corporation, be released or impaired; and the corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obli- gations and liabilities, and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts, liabilities, and contracts of the said corporation so existing, to the same effect as if such new corpora- tion had itself incurred the obligation or liability to pay such debt or damages, and no action or proceeding before any court or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discon- tinued by reason of this act. Sec. II. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired shall thereby be divested or impaired. Approved June 30, 1906. Accepted and adopted as the constitution of the National Education Association of the United States by the active members of the National Educational Association in annual session at Los Angeles, California, July 10, 1907. BY-LAWS (Amended at meeting of active members held in Oakland, California, August 19, 1915) ARTICLE I— MEMBERSHIP Section i. Teachers, others actively engaged in educational work, and educational institutions as defined in Section 2, may become active members of the National Education Association of the United States upon the payment of an enrolment fee of two dollars and the annual dues for the current year. Sec. 3. Educational institutions shall include schools, school boards, library boards, educational publishers, and such clubs and similar organizations as are distinctly educational or have educational departments properly organized with a definite member- ship. Sec. 3. Educational institutions as defined in Section 2 may be enrolled as active members and represented by any person regularly connected with or a member of the institution, and such representative may exercise all the rights and enjoy all the privileges of active membership, including the right to vote at business meetings; provided, That such representative presents a certificate showing that the person named therein has been regularly elected as such representative of the faculty or membership of such institution; but no person shall under any circumstances have the right to cast more than one vote. Sec. 4. The annual dues of active members are two dollars, which shall be paid at the time of the annual meeting of the Association, or shall be sent to the Secretary before November i of each year. An active member may discontinue his membership by giving written notice to the Secretary before November i. An active member forfeits his membership by being two years in arrears. Those who have forfeited or discontinued their membership may exercise the option of renewing the same by paying all arrears and getting the published Proceedings of the intervening years, or of becoming members on the same terms as new members. Active members shall be entitled to the published Proceedings without coupon or other conditions. Sec. 5. All life members and life directors shall be denominated active members, and shall have all the rights and privileges of such members without the payment of the annual dues. Sec. 6. The right to vote and to hold office in the Association or the departments is open to all active members whose dues are paid; the right to vote and hold office in the Coimdl is open to members of the Council whose dues are paid. Sec. 7. Any person may become an associate member for one year by pajdng a membership fee of two dollars. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Sec. 8. Eminent educators not residing in America may be elected, by the Board of Directors, corresponding members. The number of corresponding members shall at no time exceed fifty. They shall not pay any dues. Sec. 9. The names of active and corresponding members shall be printed in the published Proceedings, or the Yearbook of the Association, with their respective educa- tional titles, offices, and addresses. ARTICLE n— ELECTION OF OFFICERS Section i. The President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, and Directors of the National Education Association of the United States shall be chosen by the active members of the Association by ballot, at their annual business meeting, a majority of the votes cast being necessary for a choice. They shall continue in office imtil the close of the annual meeting subsequent to their election, and until their successors are chosen, except as herein provided. The Secretary and the Treasurer shall enter upon their duties at a date which shall be determined by the Board of Trustees and which shall not be later than the first of October and shall continue in office during the terms for which they are separately chosen and until their successors are duly elected. ARTICLE m— DUTIES OF OFFICERS Section i. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association, and shall perform the duties usually devolving upon the chief executive of such an association. In his absence, the ranking Vice-President who is present shall preside; and in the absence of all Vice-Presidents a chairman pro tempore shall be elected. The President shall prepare the program for the general sessions of the annual meeting of the Association, and with the approval of the Executive Committee, shall determine the time and place of the general meeting of the Association and of the various departments not definitely fixed by these by-laws, and shall have the power to require such changes to be made in the programs of the Council and the departments as will promote the interest of the annual meeting. The President shall be a member ex officio of the Board of Trustees and chairman of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee. He shall sign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors, and all bills approved or authorized by the Executive Committee between the meetings of the Board of Directors. On the expiration of his term of office as President, he shall become first Vice-President for the ensuing year, and shall be chairman ex officio of the Committee on Publication. Sec. 2. The Secretary shall keep a full and acciuate record of the proceedings of the general meetings of the Association and all meetings of the Board of Directors and of the Executive Committee, shall conduct the business of the Association as provided in the articles of incorporation and the by-laws, and in all matters not definitely pre- scribed therein, shall be under the direction of the Executive Committee, and, in the absence of direction by the Execudve Committee, shall be imder the direction of the President, and shall receive or collect all moneys due the Association and pay the same each month to the Treasurer, shall covmtersign all bills approved for payment by the Board of Directors or by the Executive Committee in the interval between the meetings of the Board of Directors or on the approval of the President acting under authority of the Board of Directors, or Executive Committee. The Secretary shall have his records present at all meetings of the active members of the Association, of the Board of Directors, and of the Executive Committee. He shall keep a list of members as required by Section 9 of Article I of these by-laws and shall revise said list annually. He shall be secretary of the Board of Directors, and a member of the Conunittee on Publication. He shall be the custodian of all the property of the Association not in charge of the Treasurer and the Board of Trustees. He shall give such bond for the faithful performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. He shall submit his annual report BY-LAWS 7 to the Executive Committee not later than July i prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted to the Board of Directors at its annual meeting. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession belonging to the Association. The Secretary shall not print, publish, or distribute any official report or other document without the approval of the publication committee. Sec. 3. The Treasurer shall receive from the Secretary and under the direction of the Board of Trustees shall hold in safekeeping all moneys paid to the Association; shall pay the same only upon the order of the Board of Trustees; shall notify the President of the Association and the Chairman of the Board of Trustees whenever the surplus funds in his possession exceed five hundred dollars; shall keep an exact accoimt of his receipts and expenditures, with vouchers for the latter; and said accounts, ending on the thirtieth day of June of each year, he shall render to the Executive Committee not later than July I, and when approved by said committee, they shall be transmitted by the com- mittee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting and to the active members at their annual business meeting. The Treasurer shall give such bond for the faithf\il performance of his duties as may be required by the Board of Trustees. At the expiration of his term of office, he shall transfer to his successor all moneys, books, and other property in his possession belong- ing to the Association. Sec. 4. The Board of Directors shall elect corresponding members as prescribed by Section 8 of Article I of these by-laws, shall elect members of the National Council of Education as provided in Section 3 of Article IV of these by-laws, shall have power to fill all vacancies in its own body and in the Board of Trustees; shall recommend to the Executive Committee the place for holding the annual meeting of the Association, the Council of Education, and the departments. The Board of Directors shall approve all bills incurred xmder authority of the Board of Directors, the Executive Committee, or the President and Secretary acting under the authority of the Board of Directors or Executive Conunittee, shall appropriate from the current funds of the year the amounts of money ordered by the active members at their annual business meeting for the work of all special committees of investigation and research authorized and provided for by such active members at their annual business meeting, shall make a full report of the financial condition of the Association (including the reports of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees) to the active members at their annual business meeting, and shall do all in its power to make the Association a useful and honorable institution. Sec. s. The Executive Committee shall assist the presiding officer in arranging for the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, of the National Coimcil of Education, and of the various departments. The Executive Committee shall recommend to active members at their annual business meeting the appointment of special committees for investigation or research, the subjects for which may have been suggested by the National Council or by the active membership of the National Education Association or by any of its departments; it shall recommend the amount of money to be appropriated for such invesdgations. When such special committees are provided for and duly authorized by the active members at their annual business meeting, the Executive Committee shall have general supervision of them; shall receive and consider all reports made by them and shall print such reports, and present the same, together with the reports received from the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees and the recommendations of the Executive Committee thereon, to the active members at their annual business meeting. All such special committees shall be appointed by the President of the National Education Association. The Executive Committee shall fill all vacancies occurring in the body of officers of the Association except vacancies in the Board of Directors, Board of Trustees, and the office of Secretary. g NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Sec. 6. The Board of Trustees shall require of the Secretary and Treasurer bonds of such amount as may be determined by said board for the faithful performance of their duties, shall make a full report of the finances of the Association to the Executive Com- mittee not later than July i prior to the annual meeting of the Association, which report shall be transmitted by the Executive Committee to the Board of Directors at the first regular meeting of the board held during the week of the annual meeting of the Associa- tion. It shall choose annually its own chairman and secretary. ARTICLE IV— THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION Section i. The National Council of Education shall discuss educational questions of public and professional interest; propose to the Executive Committee, from time to time, suitable subjects for investigation and research; have a report made at its annual meeting on "Educational Progress during the Past Year"; and in other ways use its best efforts to further the objects of the Association and to promote the cause of education in general. Sec. 2. The National Council of Education shaU consist of one hundred and twenty regular members, selected from the active membership of the National Education Association. Any active member of the Association is eligible to membership in the Council, and each member shall be elected for six years and until his successor is elected. Sec. 3. The annual election of members of the Council shall be held at the time of the annual meeting of the Association. The Board of Directors of the Association shall annually elect ten members and the Council ten members, and each body shall fill all vacancies in its quota of members. No state, territory, or district in the United States shall have at one time more than seven regular members in the Council. Sec. 4. The annual meeting of the Council shall be held during the week of the annual meeting of the Association. Sec. 5. The absence of a regular member from two successive annual meetings of the Council shall be considered equivalent to his resignation of membership. Persons whose regular membership in the Council has expired shall be denominated honorary members of the Council during the time of their active membership in the Association, with the privilege of attending the regular sessions of the Council and participating in its discussions. A member who discontinues or forfeits his active membership in the Asso- ciation forfeits his membership in the Council. Sec. 6. The officers of the Council shall consist of a president, a vice-president, a secretary, and such standing committees as may be prescribed by its by-laws, all of whom shall be regular members of the Council. The secretary of the Council shall, in addition to performing the duties pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the Coimcil for publication. Sec. 7. The National Council of Education is hereby authorized to adopt by-laws for its govenmient not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or the by-laws of the Association; provided. That such by-laws be submitted to, and approved by, the Board of Directors of the Association before they shall become operative. Sec. 8. The powers and duties of the Council may be changed or the Council abolished upon a two-thirds vote of the Association taken at the annual business meeting of the Association; provided, That notice of the proposed action has been given at the preceding annual business meeting of the Association. ARTICLE V— DEPARTMENTS Section i. The following departments are now (1914) in existence, to wit: The departments, first, of Superintendence; second, of Normal Schools; third, of Elementary Education; foxulh, of Higher Education; fifth, of Vocational Education and Practical Arts; sixth, of Kindergarten Edu«ation; seventh, of Music Education; eighth, of BY-LAWS 9 Secondary Education; ninth, of Business Education; tenth, of Child Hygiene; eleventh, of Physical Education; twelfth, of Science Instruction; thirteenth, of School Administra- tion; fourteenth, the Library Department; fifteenth, of Special Education; sixteenth, of School Patrons; seventeenth, of Rural and Agricultural Education; eighteenth, of Classroom Teachers. Sec, 2. The active members of the Association, and no others, are members of each department of the Association. Sec. 3. Each department shall hold its annual meeting at the time and place of the annual meeting of the Association, except the Department of Superintendence, which may hold its annual meeting in February of each year, or at such other time as may be determined by said department, subject to the approval of the Board of Directors of the Association. Sec. 4. The object of the meetings of the departments shall be the discussion of questions pertaining to their respective fields of educational work. The programs of these meetings shall be prepared by the respective presidents in conference with, and under the general direction of, the President of the Association. Each department shall be limited to two sessions, with formal programs, unless otherwise ordered by the Presi- dent of the Association, except that a third session for business or informal roimd-table conference may be held at the discretion of the department officers. Sec. 5. The officers of each department shall consist of a president, a vice-president, and a secretary, who shall be elected at the last formal session of the department to serve one year and until their successors are duly elected, and who shall, at the time of their election, be active members of the Association. In case there is a vacancy in the office of president of any of the departments, it shall be filled by an appointment made by the President of the Association. Any other departmental vacancy shall be filled by appoint- ment made by the president of the department. Sec. 6. The secretary of each department shall, in addition to performing the duties usually pertaining to his office, furnish the Secretary of the Association a copy of the proceedings of the meetings of the department for publication. Sec. 7. All departments shall have equal rights and privileges, with the exception stated in Section 3 of this article. They shall be named in Section i of this article in the order of their establishment and shall be dropped from the list when discontinued. Each department may be governed by its own regulations in so far as they are not inconsistent with the act of incorporation or these by-laws. Sec. 8. A new department may be established by a two-thirds vote of the Board of Directors taken at a regular meeting of the board or by a two-thirds vote of the active members at any annual business meeting; provided, That a written application for said department, with title and purpose of the same, shall have been made at the regular meeting of the board next preceding the one at which action is taken, or at the preceding annual business meeting, by at least twenty-five members engaged or interested in the field of labor in the interest of which the department is purposed to be established. A department already established may be discontinued by the Board of Directors upon a two-thirds vote taken at a regular meeting, or by a two-thirds vote of the active members at any business meeting of the active members; provided, That announcement has been made of the proposed action at a regular meeting of the board the preceding year, or at the preceding annual business meeting. A department shall be discontinued when it faib to hold a regular meeting for two successive years. ARTICLE VI— COMMITTEES Section i. On the first day of each annual meeting of the Association, unless appointment has already been made, the President shall appoint a Committee on Resolutions, consisting of seven active members, and a Committee on Necrology, consisting of five active members, and on the third day of such meeting he shall 10 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION appoint a Committee on Nominations, consisting of one active member from each state, territory, and district represented at the meeting. Each state, territorial, and district representative shall be appointed on the nomination of the active members in attendance from said state, territory, or district; provided. That three or more active members participate in said nomination in accordance with these by-laws; and provided further. That in case of the failure of the active members of any state, territory, or district to nominate a member of the nominating committee in accordance with these by-laws, the President shall appoint an active member from said state, territory, or district, to serve on said committee. At the regular meeting of the Board of Directors on the first day of the annual meeting, the President shall appoint an Auditing Committee consisting of three active members of the Association, no one of whom shall be either a trustee or a director; to this committee shall be referred the report of the expert account- ant, together with the communication of the President transmitting the same, as provided in Section 6 of this article; and the conmiittee shall report its findings at the meeting of active members. The chairman of each of the foregoing committees shall be designated by the President of the Association at the time of its appointment. Sec. 2. The meetings of active members present from the several states, territories, etc., to nominate members of the nominating committee shall be held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association, at such time and places as shall be designated on the annual program by the President of the Association. Sec. 3. The Committee on Nominations shall meet on the fourth day of the annual meeting at 9:00 A.if., at a place designated by the President of the Association, and shall nominate persons for the following offices in the Association, to wit: one person for Presi- dent, eleven persons for Vice-Presidents, one person for Treasurer, and one person from each state, territory, and district in the United States as a member of the Board of Direct- ors. It shall report to the active members at their annual business meeting. Sec. 4. The Conmiittee on Resolutions shall report at the annual business meeting of active members, and, except by unanimous consent, all resolutions shall be referred to said committee, without discussion. This committee shall receive and consider all resolutions proposed by active members, or referred to it by the President; some time during the second day of the annual meeting of the Association the conmiittee shall hold a meeting, at a place and time to be annoimced in the printed program, for the purpose of receiving proposed resolutions and hearing those who may wish to advocate them. Sec. s. The Committee on Necrology shall prepare for the published Proceedings a list of the active and corresponding members that have died during the year, accom- panied by memorial sketches whenever practicable. Sec. 6. Within thirty Azys prior to the time of the annual meeting of the Associa- tion, the President shall appoint a competent person, firm, or corporation licensed to do business as expert accountants; the accountants so appointed shall examine the accounts, papers, and vouchers of the Secretary, the Treasurer, and the Board of Trustees, and compare the same, and shall also examine the securities of the Permanent Fund held by the Board of Trustees. The report of the said accoimtants shall be filed with the Presi- dent before the opening day of the annual meeting of the Association, and shall be by him submitted with such comments as he may think proper, to the Board of Directors, at their meeting held on the first day of the annual meeting of the Association. ARTICLE Vn— MEETINGS Section i. A stated meeting of the Association, of the Coimdl of Education, and of each department shall be held annually at such time and place as shall be determined by the Board of Directors or the Executive Committee acting for the board in accordance with these by-laws. An annual meeting of the Association and its subordinate bodies may be omitted for an extraordinary cause, upon the written consent of two-thirds of the directors of the Association, obtained by the Executive Committee. BY-LAWS II Sec. 2. The annual meeting of the Association shall be held in July, beginning on a day determined by the Executive Committee. Two sessions shall be held daily, unless otherwise ordered by the President of the Association. The annual business meeting of the active members shall be held on the fifth day of the annual meeting at n:oo a.m. A regular meeting of the Board of Directors shall be held on the first day of the annual meeting at 10:30 a.m. The first regular meeting of the new Board of Directors shall be held as soon as practicable and within twenty-four hours after the close of the last session of the annual meeting, the place and time of the meeting to be announced in the printed program. The Board of Trustees shall hold its annual meeting at some convenient time and immediately following the meeting of the new Board of Directors referred to above in this section. Special meetings of the trustees may be called by the chairman, and shall be called on request of the majority of the Board of Trustees. Due notice of all meetings of the Board of Trustees shall be given to every member of the board by the secretary thereof. ARTICLE Vm— PROCEEDINGS Section i. The proceedings of the meeting of the Association, the Council, and the departments shall be published under the direction of a committee consisting of the Preadent, the First Vice-President, and the Secretary, the First Vice-President acting as chairman of the committee; provided, That in the opinion of the Executive Committee the funds of the Association warrant the publication. Each member of the Association shall be entitled to a copy of the Proceedings. Associate members must make written application to the Secretary on or before November i for a copy in order to obtain it. Corresponding members, and active members whose dues are paid, will receive the published Proceedings without written application. Sec. 3. No paper, lecture, or address shall be read before the Association or any of the departments in the absence of its author, without the approval of the President of the Association or of the departments interested, nor shall any such paper, lecture, or address be published in the Proceedings, without the approval of the Executive Committee. ARTICLE rX— ELECTIONS, QUORUM Section i. The certificate of membership, in connection with the official list of active members, shall be accepted as evidence that members are entitled to vote. Sec. 2. Representatives from twenty-five states and territories shall constitute a quonun in all meetings of active members and of the Board of Directors. ARTICLE X— APPROPRIATIONS Section i. Unless otherwise ordered by the active members at their annual busi- ness meeting, not less than 10 per cent of the gross income of the Association each year shall be set aside for such educational investigations and studies as may be ordered in accordance with Section 5 of Article III. ARTICLE XI— AMENDMENTS Section i. These by-laws may be altered or amended at the annual business meeting of the active members by unanimous consent, or by a two-thirds vote of the active members present if the alteration or amendment shall have been substantially proposed in writing at the annual business meeting next preceding the one at which action is taken; due announcement of the proposed action shall be made in the aimual published Proceedings. 12 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION NOW KNOWN AS THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES CERTIFICATE of Acceptance of Charter and Adoption of By-Laws under Act of Congress approved June 30, 1906. We, the undersigned, Nathan C, Schaeffer, the presiding officer, and Irwin Shepard, the Secretary of the meeting of the National Educational Association held at Los Angeles, California, on the loth day of July, 1907, said meeting being the annual meeting of the Asso- ciation held next after the passage of an act of Congress entitled "An Act to Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States, " Do hereby certify, that at said meeting held pursuant to due notice, a quorum being present, the said Association adopted resolutions of which true copies are hereto attached, and accepted the charter of the National Education Association of the United States, granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws as provided in said act and elected officers; and the undersigned pursuant to said resolutions Do hereby certify that the National Education Association of the United States has duly accepted said charter granted by said act of Congress, and adopted by-laws, and is the lawful successor to the National Educational Association. In witness whereof, we have hereunto signed our names this aoth day of August, 1907. Nathan C. Schaeffer, Presiding Officer iKwm Shepakd, Secretary verification resolutions adopted by the active members, july lo, i907 1. Resolved, That the National Educational Association hereby accepts the charter granted by an act of Congress entitled "An Act to Incorporate the National Education Association of the United States," passed June 30, 1906, and that the President and Secretary of this meeting be authorized and directed to execute and file with the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia a verified certificate showing the acceptance by the Association of the charter granted by said act. 2. Resolved, That the proposed by-laws of which notice was given at the annual meet- ing of the Association held on July 6, 1905, which are printed in full in the journal of said meeting, be and the same are hereby adopted to take effect immediately. 3. Resolved, That the Association adopt as its corporate seal a circle containing the title "National Education Association of the United States," and the dates "1857-1907." 4. Resolved, That the Association do now proceed to elect officers, and to organize under the charter granted by the act of Congress. Filed in the office of the Recorder of Deeds of the District of Columbia, September 4, 1907. CALENDAR OF MEETINGS NATIONAL TEACHERS ASSOCIATION 1857— PHILADELPHIA, PA. (Organized) James L. Enos, Chairmaa. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. 1858— CINCINNATI, OHIO 2L RiCHAKDS, President. J. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary. A. J. RiCKOFV, Treasurer. i8s9— WASHINGTON, D.C. A. J. RiCKOFF, President. J. W. BuLKLEY, Secretary. C. S. Pennell, Treasurer. i860— BUFFALO, N.Y. J. W. BuLKLEY, President. Z. RiCBAKDS, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. r86x, i86a — No session. 1863— CHICAGO, ILL. John D. Philbkick, President. Jaues CxniKSHANK, Secretary. O. C. Wight, Treasurer. 1864— OGDENSBURG. N.Y. W. H. Wells, President. David N. Cauf, Secretary. Z. Richards, Treasurer. i86s— HARRISBURG. PA. S. S. Greene, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. Z. Richakds, Treasurer. 1866— INDIANAPOUS, IND. J. P. WiCKEXSHAif, President S. H. White, Secretary. S. P. Bates, Treasurer. 1867 — No sessioo. i868— NASHVILLE, TENN. J. M. Gkegoky, President. L. Van Bokkelen, Secretary. James Ckuieshank, Treastirer. 1869— TRENTON, N.J. L. Van Bokkelen, President. W. E. Ckosby, Secretary. A. L. Bakbek, Treasurer. 1870— CLEVELAND, OHIO Daniel B. Haoar, President. A. P. Ma&ble, Secretary. W. E. CxosBY. Treasurer. NAUE CHANGED TO NATIONAL EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION 1871— ST. LOUIS, MO. J. L. PiCKAXD, President. W. E. Ckosby, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1872— BOSTON, MASS. E. E. White, President. S. H. White, Secretary, John Hancock, Treasurer. 1873— ELMIRA, N.Y. B. G. Noxthkof, President. S. H. White, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 1874— DETROIT, MICH. S. H. WnrrE, President. A. P. Makble, Secretary. John Hancock, Treasurer. 187s— MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. W. T. Hamis, President. M. R. Abbott, Secretary. A. P. Maxble, Treasurer. 1876— BALTIMORE, MD. W. F. Phelps, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. A. P. Masblb, Treasurer. 1877— LOUISVILLE, KY. M. A. Newell, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Okmond Wilson, Treasurer. 1878 — No session. 1879— PHILADELPHIA, PA. John Hancock, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. J. Ormond Wilson, Treasurer. i88o— CHAUTAUQUA, N.Y. J. Okmond Wilson, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. 1881— ATLANTA, GA. James H. Smakt, President. W. D. Henkle, Secretary. E. T. Tappan, Treasurer. i88a— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y. G. J. Ore, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. H. S. Tarbkll, Treasurer. 1883— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y. E. T. Tappan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 1884— MADISON, WIS. Thomas W. Bicknell, President. H. S. Tarbell, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 188s— SARATOGA SPRINGS, N.Y. F. Louis Soldan, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. N. A. Calkins, Treasurer. 13 14 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1886— TOPEKA. KANS. N. A. Calkins, President. W. E. Sheldon, Secretary. E. C. Hewitt, Treasurer. 1887— CHICAGO, ILL. W. E. Sheldon, President J. H. Canvield, Secretary. K C. Hewitt, Treasurer. 1888— SAN FRANOSCO, CAL. Aason Gove, President J. H. Camfield, Secretary. E. C. Hewitt, Treasurer. 1889— NASHVILLE, TENN. Albeit P. Maible, President. J. H. Cantield, Secretary. E. C. HiwiTt, Treasurer. 1800— ST. PAUL, MINN. J. H. Cantield, President. W. R. Gauett, Secretary. E. C. Hewbtt, Treasurer. 1891— TORONTO, ONT. W. R. Gauett, President E. H. Cook, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1893— SARATOGA SPRINGS. N.Y. E. H. Cook, President. R. W. Stevenson, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1893— CHICAGO, ILL. (International Congress of Education) Albeit G. Lane, President. Iiwor Shepaid, Secretary. J. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 1894— ASBURY PARK, N.J. Albert G. Lane, President Irwin Shepaid, Secretary. 7. M. Greenwood, Treasurer. 189s— DENVER, COLO. Nicholas Muuay Butlei, President. IiwiN Shepaid, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasure. 1896— BUFFALO, N.Y. Newton C. Dodchuty, President. Irwin Shipard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1897— MILWAUKEE, WIS. Charles R. Skinner, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1898— WASHINGTON, D.C J. M. Greenwood, President Iiwm Shepard, Secretary. L C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1899— LOS ANGELES, CAL. E. Orah Lyte, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary. I. C. McNeill, Treasurer. 1900— CHARLESTON, S.C. Oscar T. Corson, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Carroll G. Pearse, Treasurer. 190X— DETROIT, MICH. James M. Green, President. Irwin Shepard, Secretary. L. C. Greenlee, Treasurer, igoa— MINNEAPOUS, MINN. WiLLiAH M. Beardshiar, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Charles H. Keyes, Treasurer. 1903— BOSTON, MASS. Charles W. Eliot, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary. W. M. Davidson, Treasurer. 1904— ST. LOUIS, MO. John W. Cook, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary. McHenry Rhoaos, Treaamer. 190S— ASBURY PARK and OCEAN GROVE,N. J, WiLLiAif H. Maxwell, President Irwin Shepard, Secretary. Jamis W. Crabtiie, Treasurer. 906 — No session. 1907— LOS ANGELES, CAL. Nathan C. Schaeffei, President. IiwiN Shepaid, Secretary. J. N. Wilkinson, Treasxirer. NAUE CHANGED TO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES 1908— CLEVELAND, OHIO Edwin G. Cooley, President. IiwiN Shepaid, Secretary. AiTHDi H. Chambkilain, Treasurer. 1909— DENVER, COLO. LoiENzo D. Haiviy, President IiwiN Shepaid, Secretary. Arthur H. Chakbulain, Treasurer. i»xo— BOSTON. MASS. James Y. Joyner, President Ibwin Shipaio, Secretary. AiTHCi H. Cbambxiuun, TreMom. IWI— SAN FRANaSCO. CAL. Ella Flago Yookg, President IiWM Shepaid. Seoetary. Ddiand W. Spuhou, Treasoier. 191a— CHICAGO, ILL. Cauoll G. Pxaisk, President. IiwiN Shepaid, Secretary. Eatheune D. Blake, Treasurer. 1913— SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Edwaid T. Faucbild, President DuiAND W. Spungei. Secretary. GiACE M. Shepherd, Treasurer. 1914— ST. PAUL, MINN. Joseph Swain, President DuiAND W. Spiingei, Secretary. <^ACE M. Shepherd, Treasurer. 191S— OAKLAND, CAL. (International Congress on Education) David Stair Joidan, President. DuiAND W. Springer, Secretary. GiACE M. Shefheio, Treasurer. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES OFFICERS FOR 1914-15 GENERAL ASSOCIATION David Starr Jordan President Stanford University, Cal. DuRAMD W. Springer Secretary Ann Arbor, Mich. Grace M. Shepherd Treasurer Boise, Idaho VICE-PRESIDENTS Joseph Swain, President, Swarthmore College Swarthmore. Pa. Grace C. Strachan, District Superintendent of Schools Brooklyn, N.Y. Walter R. Siders, Superintendent of Schools Pocatello, Idaho Mrs. W. S. Hefferan, Chairman, Education Section of the Chicago Women's Committee on Public Affairs Chicago, 111. John W. Brister, President, West Tennessee Normal School Memphis, Tenn. Isabel Williams, Teacher, Jackson School St. Paul, Minn. R. C. Stearns, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Richmond, Va. Josephine C. Preston, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Olympia, Wash. Jacob G. Colucott, Supermtendent of Schools Indianapolis, Ind. Cora G. Lewis, Member, State Board of Administration Kinsley, Kans. Fayette L. Cook, President, South Dakota State Normal School Spearfish, S.D. HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS Ernesto Nelson, Director of Secondary Education Argentina F. Drion, Commissioner General to P. P. I. E Belgium Don Ignacio Calder6n, Bolivian Minister at Washington Bolivia Stephen Panaretoff, Bulgarian Minister at Washington Bulgaria George Langley, Minister of Municipal Affairs, Saskatchewan Canada J. C. Miller, Director of Technical Education, Alberta Canada Loran a. De Wolfe, Director of Rural Education, Nova Scotia Canada C. R. McKeown, Member of Provincial Parliament, Ontario Canada Ernesto Montenegro, Asociacion de Educacion Nacional Chili L. K. Tao, Professor, University of Peking China Josfe Miguel Rosales Colombia Don Luis Felipe Gonzales, Minister of Public Instruction Costa Rica Don Eduardo Gonzales Costa Rica Juan Chavez, Commissioner-General to P. P. I. E Ecuador C. W. Crook, Vice-President, English National Union of Teachers England Ferdinand Buisson, Commander of the Legion of Honor; Member of the Chamber of Deputies for the Department of the Seine; Representative of the Minister of Public Instruction France E. Chancrin, Inspector of Agriculture, representing the Minister of Agriculture . . . France Benjamin Buisson, Honorary Director of Public Instruction, Timis France Federico Saenz de Tejada, Assistant Chief of the Protocol Bureau of the Depart- ment of Foreign Affairs Guatemala Natalie G. V. de Morales Guatemala Ernest Lyon, Consul at Baltimore Liberia Frederick Starr, Professor, University of Chicago Liberia Mark Cohen, Editor, "Evening Star," Dunedin New Zealand Edmund Clifton, Chief of Agricultural Department New Zealand Don Alejandro Canton, Consul-General at San Francisco Nicaragua David P. Barrows, Professor, University of California Peru Manual Roldan, Commissioner-General to P. P. I. E Portugal IS i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Charles Templeman Loram, Inspector of Schoob, Durban, Natal South Africa Don Adouo Bonilla San Martin Spain Don Rafael Altamta y Brebea Spain E. J. Beckman, Member of the Riksdag Sweden T. B. Eastland, Consul at San Francisco Venezuela BOARD OF TRUSTEES Carroll G. Pearse, Chairman MQwaukee, Wis. Term expires m 1918 Jakes Y. Jotoer, Secretary Raleigh, N.C Tenn expires in 1916 Robert J. Aley Orono, Me Term expires in 191s *James M. Greenwood Kansas City, Mo Term expires in 1917 David Starr Jordan Stanford University, CaL Ex officio EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE David Stare Jordan President Stanford University, Cal. Joseph Swain ^«w' Vice-President Swarthmore, Pa. Grace M. Shepherd Treasurer Boise, Idaho Carroll G. Pearse Chairman, Board of Trusttes Milwaukee, Wis. George B. Cook Member by Election Little Rock, Ark. Durand W. Springer. Secretary Ann Arbor, Mich. BOARD OF DIRECTORS Directors ex officio David Stars Jordan, Stanford University, Cal. Grace M. Shepherd, Boise, Idaho Joseph Swain, Swarthmore, Pa. Carroll G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis. DiTRAMD W. Springer, Ann Arbor, Mich. Life Directors BiCKHZLL, Thouas W., Providence, R.I. Board of Education, Nashville, Tenn. Brown, Elker Ellsworth, New York, N.Y. Botler, Nicholas Murray, New York, N.Y. Claxton, p. p., Washington, D.C. Cook, John W., De Kalb, 111. CooLEY, Edwin G., Chicago, lU. Corson, Oscar T., Columbus, Ohio Eliot. Charles W., Cambridge, Mass. Fairchild, E. T., Durham, N.H. Gove, Aaron, Denver, Colo. Graham, H. A., Mt. Pleasant, Mich. Green, Jakes M., Trenton, N.J. Harvey, Lorenzo D.. Menomonie, Wis. Jewett, a. v., Abilene, Kans. JOYMER. Jakes Y., Raleigh, N.C. Marshall, T. Marcellus, Stouts Mills, W.Va. Maxwell, William H., New York, N.Y. Parker, Charles I., Chicago, 111. Pearse, Carroll G., Milwaukee, Wis. ScHAEFFER, Nathan C, HartisbuTg, Pa. Skinner, Charles R., Watertown, N.Y. State Teachers Association of Illinois. Swain, Joseph, Swarthmore, Pa. Taylor, A. R., Decatur, 111. Teachers Institute, Philadelphia, Pa. White, Charles G., Lake Linden, Mich. Young, Ella Flagg, Chicago, 111. Directors by Election Alabama John H. Phillips, Superintendent of Schoob Birmingham Arizona C. O. Case, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Phoenix Arkansas George B. Cook, State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion Little Rock California Arthur H. Chamberlain, Secretary, California Cotmcil of Education San Francisco Colorado Anna L. Force, Principal, Columbian School Denver Connecticut Frank L. Glynn, Director, Trade Education Department, Boardman Apprentice Shops New Haven { Delaware A. Henry Berlin, Principal of High School Wilmington Dbtrict of Columbia.. . E. L. Thurston, Superintendent of Schoob Washington Florida W. N. Sheats, State Superintendent of Public Instruction. . . Tallahassee Georgia M. L. Brittain, State Superintendent of Education Atlanta Id^ Walter R. Siders, Superintendent of Schoob Pocatello DlJnob William H. Campbell, Examination Department, Board of Education Chicago * Deceased DEPARTMENT OFFICERS 17 Indiana Milo H. Stuart, Principal, Manual Training High School . . Indianapolis Iowa L. H. MiNKEL, Superintendent of Schools Fort Dodge Kansas John MacDonau), Editor, Western School Journal Topeka Kentucky J. G. Crabbe, President, State Normal School Richmond Louisiana Thomas H. Harris, State Superintendent of Education Baton Rouge Maine Robert J. Aley, President, University of Maine Orono Maryland Charles J. Koch, First Assistant Superintendent of Schools . Baltimore Massachusetts Robert J. Fuller, Superintendent of Schools North Attleboro Michigan Fred L. Keeler, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Lansing Minnesota Agnes E. Doherty, Teacher, Central High School St. Paul Mississippi E. E. Bass, Superintendent of Schools Greenville Missouri W. P. Evans, State Superintendent of Public Schools Jefierson City Montana Henry A. Davee, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Helena Nebraska Frederick M. Hunter, Superintendent of Schools Lincoln Nevada George E. McCracken, Principal, Public Schoob Dayton New Hampshire Henry C. Morrison, State Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion Concord New Jersey M. P. E. Groszmann, Educational Director, National Asso- ciation for the Study and Education of Exceptional Children Plainfield New Mexico Alvan N. White, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Santa Fe New York Thomas E. Finegan, Assistant Commissioner for Elementary Education Albany North Carolina Filancis M. Harper, Superintendent of Schools Raleigh North Dakota Charles C. Root, Superintendent of Schools Bismarck Ohio Jacob A. Shawan, Superintendent of Schools Columbus Oklahoma Edwin S. Monroe, Superintendent of Schools Muskogee Oregon Hallie C. Thomas, Teacher, City Schools Portland Pennsylvania Reed B. T?itrick, Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion Harrisburg Rhode Island Isaac O. Winslow, Superintendent of Schools Providence South Carolina D. B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College Rock Hill South Dakota M. M. Ramer, Editor, The Associate Teacher Pierre Tennessee S. H. Thompson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Nashville Texas C. E. Evans, Principal, State Normal School San Marcos Utah Orson Ryan, Superintendent, Jordan School District Midvale Vermont Gity Potter Benton, President, University of Vermont and State Agricultural College Burlington Virginia E. H. Russell, President, State Normal and Industrial School for Women Fredericksburg Washington Elmer L. Cave, Superintendent of Schools Bellingham West Virginia M. P. Shawkey, State Superintendent of Schools Charleston Wisconsin Milton C. Potter, Superintendent of Schools Milwaukee Wyoming C. A. Duniway, President, University of Wyoming Laramie Hawaii Vaughan MacCaughey, Editor, Hawaii Educational Review Honolulu Philippine Islands Frank L. Crone, Director of Education Manila Porto Rico Edward M. Bainter, Commissioner of Education ; . San Juan DEPARTMENT OFFICERS 14'atioiial Council President Robert J. Aley, President, University of Maine Orono, Me. Vice-President James Y. Joyner, State Superintendent of Public Instruction Raleigh, N.C. Secretary William B. Owen, Principal, Chicago Normal School Chicago, 111. Executive Committee Ellen C. Sabin, President, Milwaukee-Downer College Milwaukee, Wis. Executive Committee David B. Johnson, President, Winthrop Normal and Indus- trial College Rock Hill, B.C. Executive Committee A. J. Matthews, President, Normal School of Arizona Tempe, Ariz. Kindergarten President Anna M. Stovaix, Supervisor and Normal Instructor, Golden Gate Kindergarten Association San Francisco, Cal. Vice-President Myra M. Winchester, Special Collaborator, Kindergarten Division, Bureau of Education Washington, D.C. Secretary Anna I. Jenkins, Director of Roosevelt Kindergartens Pasadena, Cal. l8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Elementary President Margaret E. Schaixenbeeger , Commissioner of Elementary Sdiools, Department of Public Instruction Sacramento, CaL Vice-President Adelaide Steele Baylor, Assistant State Superintendent of Public Instruction Indianapolis, Ind. Secretary Mary E. Foster, Superintendent of Cass County Schools . . Plattsmouth, Nebr. Secondary President George E. M^pgn^T-r., Principal of High School Davenport, Iowa Vice-President EiotA J. Breck, Head of English Department, EBgh School Oakland, CaL Secretary Claude P. Briggs, Principal of High School Rockford, DL Higher President Livingston Farrand, President, University of Colorado Boulder, Colo. Vice-President Melvin A. Brannon, President, University of Idaho Moscow, Idaho Secretary John E. Rouse, Head of School of Education, James Millikiu University Decatur, HL Iformal President Dwight B. Waldo, President, Western State Normal School Kalamazoo, Mich. Vice-President Tboicas W. Butcher, President, Kansas State Normal School Emporia, Kans. Secretary Watce A. Shoemaker, President, State Normal School St. Cloud, Minn. Superintendence President Henry Snyder, Superintendent of Schools Jersey City, N.J. First Vice-President Paul W. Horn, Superintendent of Schools Houston, Tex. Second Vice-President . . E. C. Warriner, Superintendent of Schools Saginaw, Mich. Secretary Mrs. Eixor C. Ripley, Assistant Superintendent of Schools Boston, Mass. Vocational Education and Practical Arts President Arthur H. Chamberlain, Secretary, California Council of Education San Frandsco, CaL Vice-President Martha Van Rensselaer, President, American Home Eco- nomics Association, and Professor of Home Economics, Cornell University Ithaca, N.Y. Vice-President Carl N. Werntz, President, Chicago Academy of Fine Arts Chicago, IlL Corresponding Secretary Florence Marshall, Principal, Manhattan Trade School for Girb New York, N.Y. Recording Secretary Wilson H. Henderson, Extension Department, University of Wisconsin Milwaukee, Wis. Music President Lucy K. Cole, Supervisor of School Music, Instructor in Music, University of Washington Seattle, Wash. Vice-President Will Earhart, Director of Music, Public Schools Pittsburgh, Pa. Secretary Herman E. Owen, Director of Music, Public Schools San Jose, CaL Business President Reginald R. Stuart, Head of Commercial Department, Technical High School Oakland, Cal. Vice-President J. A. Bexell, Dean, School of Commerce, Oregon Agricul- tural College Corvallis, Ore. Secretary Alvah B. Way, Head of Commercial Department, High School Petaluma, Cal. Child Hygiene President Linnaeus N. Hines, Superintendent of Schools Crawfordsville, Ind. Vice-President Lewis M. Terman, Associate Professor of Education, Leland Stanford Junior University Stanford Univ., CaL Secretary. Ernest B. Hoag, M.D Long Beach, CaL Physical President Baroness Rose Posse, President, Posse Normal School of Gymnastics Boston, Mass. Vice-President Clara Gregory Baer, Professor of Physical Education, Newcomb Collie, Tulane University New Orleans, La. Secretary May G. Long, Supervisor of Phjrsical Training, Public Schools Everett, Wash. DEPARTMENT OFFICERS 19 Science President John A. Randall, Department of Physics, Pratt Institute. . Brooklyn, N.Y. Vice-President Ellwood P. Cubberley, Professor of Education, Leland Stanford Junior University Stanford Univ., Cal. Secretary Emua Conley, State Inspector, Domestic Science Madison, Wis. School Administration President 0. M. Plummer, Director, Board of Education North Portland, Ore. Vice-President Edward C. Elliott, Professor of Education, University of Wisconsin Madison, Wis. Secretary Frank M. Bruce, Business Manager, American School Board Journal Milwaukee, Wis. Library President .» Harriet A. Wood, School Librarian, Library Association. . . Portland, Ore. Vice-President W. Dawson Johnston, Librarian, Public Library St. Paul, Minn. Secretary Marion L. Horton, Librarian, John C. Fremont High School Oakland, Cal. Special President M. P. E. Groszmann, Educational Director, National Asso- ciation for the Study and Education of Exceptional Children Plainfield, N.J. Vice-President L. R. Alderman, Superintendent of Schools Portland, Ore. Secretary Samuel B. Allison, District Superintendent of Schools Chicago, 111. School Patrons President Mrs. Louis Hertz, Council of Jewish Women San Francisco, Cal. Vice-President Mrs. Philip N. Moore, Trustee, College for Women, Uni- versity of the South St. Louis, Mo. Secretary Mrs. E. L. Baldwin, State Chairman of the Department of School Patrons San Francisco, Cal. Bural and Agricultural President E. C. Bishop, Schools Section, Iowa State College Ames, Iowa Vice-President M. J. Abbey, Professor of Agricultiural Education, University of West Virginia Morgantown, W.Va. Secretary F. L. Grtftin, Extension Service, Oregon Agricultural College Corvallis, Ore. Classroom Teachers President Nellie Minehan, Vice-Principal, Jefferson Street School Milwaukee, Wis. Vice-President Jane McCarthy, Teacher, Public Elementary School, No. 164 Brooklyn, N.Y. Secretary Mary V. Donoghue, Teacher, Stewart School Chicago, 111. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTY-TfflRD ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED STATES OAKLAND, CAL., AUGUST 16-27, 1915 PRELIMINARY STATEMENT At the Salt Lake City meeting of the National Education Association in 1913, the Board of Directors voted that the 1915 meeting be in the nature of an International Congress on Education and that it be held in Oakland, Cal., in connection with the Panama-Pacific International Exposition. The Board authorized a Commission on Inter- national Congress on Education with a membership of thirty-five. Philander P. Claxton, United States Commissioner of Education, was chairman of this Commission, and Durand W. Springer, Secretary, National Education Association, was secretary. The work of the Commission was carried on by correspondence except that meetings were held at Richmond and Cincinnati in connection with the meetings of the Department of Superintendence and at St. Paul at the time of the 1914 meeting of the National Education Association. This Commission appointed an Executive Committee of nine members with the same chairman and secretary, which committee took charge of the general preliminary arrange- ments with reference to the International Congress. This committee selected Frederic E. Farrington, of Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y., as its executive secretary having charge of the correspondence relating to the foreign representatives. The following resolution was passed by the Sixty-third Congress of the United States: Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That the President of the United States is hereby authorized and requested to invite foreign governments to appoint honorary vice-presidents and other- wise participate in the International Congress on Education, to be held at Oakland, California, August sixteenth to twenty-seventh, nineteen hundred and fifteen, in con- nection with the Panama-Pacific International Exposition. Acting upon that resolution, invitations were sent to all foreign goverrunents having representatives accredited to the United States. Invitations were also extended by the National Education Association to educational associations in other countries asking that delegates be appointed to represent them at the International Congress. Thirty nations were represented by officially accredited delegates, representatives from educational associations, or speakers upon the program. The countries sending officially accredited delegates were: Argentina, Belgiiun, Bolivia, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Equador, England, France, Guatemala, Liberia, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Peru, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, and Venezuela. Honduras formally accepted the invitation, but its delegate was not present. 22 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Speakers were present representing the following countries in addition to those from which delegates were present: Australia, Cuba, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, The Netherlands, and Persia. A large number of educational organizations held their meetings during the two weeks of the International Congress on Education in order that their members might receive the benefit of attendance upon both meetings. The organizations represented in our oflBcial program were: Association of American Agricioltural Colleges and Experiment Stations; League of Teachers' Associations; State and National Club Leaders; National Vocational Gmdance Association; National Council of Teachers of English; School Garden Association of America; International Congress of School Women; International Kindergarten Union; Association of State Superintendents; National Association of Executive and Administrative Women in Education; American School Peace League; National Association of Teachers' Agencies; Conference of Textbook Authors; National Coimcil of Geography Teachers; National Congress of Mothers and Parent-Teacher Associations; Association for the Promotion of the Civic Education of Adiilts thru the Wider Use of Schoolhouses; American Home Economics Association; the Religious Education Association; Montessori Congress; National Association of State Universities. Saturday, August 21, was observed as National Education Association Day at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, and Sunday, August 22, was observed as Edu- cational Sunday by the churches of Oakland. FIRST DAY'S PROCEEDINGS OPENING SESSION — Monday Forenoon, August 16, 9:00 o'clock The Fifty-third Annual Convention of the National Education Association was opened in the City Auditorium, Oakland, Cal., at 9:00 a.m., on August 16. Vice-President Joseph Swain, president, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa., presided at the opening of the session. After a musical program by the Elementary School Band, Nancy Cattell, of the College of Speech Arts, Denver, Colo., read the Twenty-fourth Psahn, after which the audience joined in the repetition of the Lord's Prayer. Addresses of welcome were given by the following speakers: Edward Hyatt, state superintendent of public instruction, Sacramento, Cal.; John L. Davie, mayor of Oakland, Oakland, Cal.; A. C. Barker, superintendent of schools, Oakland, Cal.; and James A. Barr, director of congresses, Panama-Pacific International Exposition, San Francisco, Cal. A response to the addresses of welcome was made by Vice-President Swain. At this point, Chairman Swain introduced to the audience David Starr Jordan, chancellor, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal., president of the National Education Association, and transferred to him the conduct of the convention. President Jordan delivered the presidential address of the year, which was entitled "The Teacher and War." This was followed by an address on "Educational Progress of the Past Fifteen Years" by Ehner E. Brown, chancellor. New York University, New York, N.Y. Mrs. Philip Snowden, Liverpool, England, spoke on "Woman and War." SECOND SESSION — ^Monday Afternoon, August 16, 2:30 o'clock Music — Elementary School Orchestra The meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses given: "Educational Progress in New Zealand since 1900"— Mark Cohen, editor. Evening Star, Dunedin, New Zealand. "My System of Education "—Maria Montessori, M.D., Rome, Italy. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 23 "Moral Education in French Schools" — Ferdinand Buisson, commander in the Legion of Honor; member of the Chamber of Deputies for the Department of the Seine, Paris, France. After the program, the officially accredited delegates from foreign countries were introduced. The active members of the Association assembled by states at 5:30 p.m., either in the Ballroom of the Oakland Hotel or at their respective state headquarters, for the selection of members of the nominating committee. THIRD SESSION— Monday Evening, August 16, 8:00 o'clock Music — ^High School Band The meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses given: "Financing Public Education" — ^James Y. Joyner, state superintendent of public instruction, Raleigh, N.C. "Modem Implications of Secondary Education" — Ernesto Nelson, director of secondary education for Argentina, S.A. "Organization of Public Education" — Payson Smith, state superintendent of public schools, Augusta, Me.; Ellwood P. Cubberley, professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. The following committees were aimounced by President Jordan: Committee on Resolutions EUwood P. Cubberley of California, Chair- P. P. Claxton, of District of Colimibia man William T. Foster, of Oregon Robert J. Aley, of Maine J. H. Francis, of California Fannie Fern Andrews, of Massachusetts James Y. Joyner, of North Carolina Mary C. C. Bradford, of Colorado Alexis F. Lange, of California J. Stanley Brown, of Illinois Carroll G. Pearse, of Wisconsin Charles E. Chadsey, of Michigan Committee on Necrology John R. Kirk, of Missouri, Chairman Josephine Corliss Preston, of Washington J. Stanley Brown, of Illinois James W. Crabtree, of Wisconsin SECOND DAY'S PROCEEDINGS FOURTH SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, August 19, 9:00 o'clock The meeting was called to order by President Jordan, who announced that the fol- lowing Committee on Nominations had been appointed: Committee on Nominations Henry J. Waters, of Kansas, Chairman C. C. Certain Alabama Etta Q. Gee Illinois L. D. Henderson Alaska Ida S. Baker Indiana A. J. Matthews Arizona E. C. Bishop Iowa George B. Cook Arkansas John Eby Kansas Elizabeth Sherman . . . California J. G. Crabbe Kentucky Z. X. Snyder Colorado Miss Hanson Louisiana Mary G. Moody Connecticut Robert J. Aley Maine Clifford J. Scott Delaware C. T. C. Whitcomb Massachusetts W. Carson Ryan Dist. of Columbia H. M. Slauson Michigan George M. Lynch Florida Isabel Williams Minnesota Emma G. Smith Georgia E. E. Bass Mississippi Isaac M. Cox Hawaii John R. Kirk Missouri W, R. SiDERS Idaho S. D. Sargent Montana 24 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION E. J. BoDWELL Nebraska Helen C. Putnam Rhode Island B. G. Bleasdale Nevada J. E. Walmsley South Carolina Frances E. Clark New Jersey W. Franklin Jones . . . South Dakota John Milne New Mexico F. B. Dresslar Tennessee Thomas E. Finegan . . . New York C. E. Evans Texas Robert H. Wright North Carolina E. G. Gowans Utah E. J. Taylor North Dakota Guy Potter Benton. . .Vermont George C. Maurer . . . Ohio Charles K. Graham. . .Virginia John H. Bowers Oklahoma Ruth Hoffman Washington L. R. Alderman Oregon John C. Shaw West Virginia H. H. Baish Pennsylvania James W. Crabtree. . .Wisconsin Frank L. Crone Philippine Islands Joseph E. Burch Wyoming The following addresses were then given: "Our Rural Schools" — Perry G. Holden, director, Agricultural Extension Depart- ment, International Harvester Company, Chicago, 111. "Adaptation of Rural Education to Needs of Rural Life" — Philander P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C. "Efl5ciency and Preparation of Rural Teachers" — Harold W. Foght, specialist in rural-school practice. United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C. "Child Welfare and Rural Schools" — ^Thomas D. Wood, M.D., professor of physical education, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. FIFTH SESSION — ^TnimsDAY Afternoon, August 19, 2:30 o'clock Music — Elementary School Chorus The meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses given: "Self -Government in Secondary Schools" — Richard Welling, chairman, Self- Govemment Conunittee, 21 Wall Street, New York, N.Y. " The Cost and Labor of English Teaching " — Edwin M. Hopkins, professor of rhetoric and English language, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. "The Junior College" — Alexis F. Lange, head of Department of Education, Uni- versity of California, Berkeley, Cal. "Oriental Education as Influenced by Western Civilization" — Frank D. Gamewell, general secretary, Educational Association of China, Shanghai, China. SIXTH SESSION — ^Thursday Evening, August 19, 8:00 o'clock Music — ^High School Chorus and Orchestra The meeting was called to order by President Jordan, and the following program presented: "Industrial Training" — Ella Flagg Young, superintendent of schools, Chicago, HI. "Vocational Aspects of Home Economics" — Ednah A. Rich, president. State Normal School, Santa Barbara, Cal. "Teachers' Organizations" — William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal School, Chicago, HI. "The Growth and Organization of the National Union of Teachers"— C. W. Crook, vice-president, English National Union of Teachers. "The Educational Situation in South Africa" — Charles T. Loram, inspector of schools, Durban, Natal, South Africa. THIRD DAY'S PROCEEDINGS SEVENTH SESSION — ^Wednesday Forenoon, August 25, 9:cx> o'clock The meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses given: "Germany's Recent Progress in Secondary Education" — ^Anton H. Appelmann, Munster, Germany, representing Prussion Kultusministerium; professor at the University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt. "Changes in EngUsh Education since 1900" — Michael E. Sadler, vice-chancellor, Umversity of Leeds, Leeds, England. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 25 "Sex Hygiene and Sex Morality as the Aim of Sex Education" — ^Thomas M. Balliet, dean, School of Pedagogy, New York University, New York, N.Y. "Education in Guatemala" — Federico S. de Tejada, assistant chief of the Protocol Bureau of the Department of Foreign Affairs, Guatemala, S.A. EIGHTH SESSION — ^Wedjiesday Afternoon, August 25, 2:30 o'clock The meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses given: "Japanese Education in America" — Kiyo Sue Inui, secretary, Japan Society of America, San Francisco, Cal. "Public Instruction — ^America's Work in the Philippines" — Frank L. Crone, director, Bureau of Education, Department of Public Instruction, Manila, P.I, "The Progress of Education in North Africa — Particularly in Tunis" — Benjamin Buisson, late director of education, Tunis, N.A. "The Recent Educational Development in China" — Z. T. N)a, president. Eastern Section, Chinese Students' Alliance of the United States. "The Teachers of America and the Problems of Asia" — Sidney L. Gulick, Kyoto, Japan, associate secretary of the Commission on Peace and Arbitration, and representa- tive of the Commission on Relations with Japan of the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America. "Education in Bulgaria" — Stephen Panaretoff, envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary for Bulgaria, Washington, D.C. NINTH SESSION— Wednesday Evening, August 25, 8:00 o'clock Music — ^High School Band The meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses given: "Agricultural Education" — Henry J. Waters, president, Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kans. "Education and Race Improvement" — S. J. Holmes, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. "Educational Progress in Continental Europe since 1900" — Frederic E. Farrington, associate professor of education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. "Ideal Education the Forerunner of Universal Peace" — ^Mirza Ali Kuli Khan, com- missioner general for Persia, Panama-Pacific International Exposition, San Francisco, Cal. FOURTH DAY'S PROCEEDINGS TENTH SESSION — FRroAY Forenoon, August 27, 9:00 o'clock The meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses given: "Some Defects in Our Legal Education" — Orrin Kip McMurray, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. _ "The Education of the Physician" — Ray L. Wilbur, M.D., Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. "Should There Be Military Training in Public Schools?" — ^Louis P. Lochner, secretary, Chicago Peace Society, Chicago, HI. "The Education of the Engineer" — Charles D. Marx, Leland Stanford Junior Uni- versity, Stanford University, Cal. "Agricultural Education in Normal Schools" — ^David B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S.C. "A Greeting from Guatemala" — Natalie G. V. de Morales, accredited delegate from the government of Guatemala. "The Deeper Problem of Education in China" — L. K. Tao, professor of sociology and political science. Government University, Peking, China. At this time, the Committee on Resolutions submitted the following report: DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES The Committee on Resolutions begs leave to present the following report for con- sideration and action as the message of this organization assembled in annual convention as an International Congress on Education, not only to the teachers and citizens of the 26 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION United States, but also to teachers and citizens in all those countries which have, by their participation, contributed to the success of the Congress which is now about to close. We appreciate the coming of the delegates and speakers from so many nations and thank them heartily for their participation and words of wisdom and cheer. The messages relating to educational conditions and problems in different countries have recorded much recent progress in the expansion and perfecting of educational systems, and have revealed clearly the growth of an educational internationalism and a conception of world civilization among those engaged in educational work. The progress recorded has been important and significant and promises much for the future. On the other hand, the virtual breakdown of civilization in Europe, which has taken place since the last meeting of this Association, has revealed to us how ineffective after all have been the systems of education upon which we have in the past placed so much dependence, in so far as the imparting of that type of education which would tend to preserve and advance the higher interests of civilization is concerned. _ In an age marked by so great an expansion of educational activities, such great industrial and conunerdal progress, such wonderful discoveries and advances in the application of science, and such progress in advancing the social welfare, we see nations heretofore devoted to the arts of peace and the advancement of civilization almost at once lapse into a barbarism which we a year ago would not have believed possible. Not only have the systems of education of Europe proved disappointing at the time of supreme test, but we cannot console ourselves that the results would have been markedly different with us had this nation engaged in such a titanic struggle. Perhaps no greater work lies ahead of the school, in all lands and nations, than that of setting to work in an earnest endeavor to build up a more enduring type of civilization. We have made great progress in industry, commerce, and scientific work, but littie as yet in establishing justice, good-will, and the reign of law among nations. Our instruction, aside from those fundamental tool subjects which xmderlie all educational work, has been based upon too narrow an outlook. Nationalism has been pushed to the front and empha- sized rather than international justice and good-will. The heroes of each nation's history have been those who have done the greatest rnjiuy to other nations and who have killed the greatest number of foreigners rather than those who have conferred the greatest benefits on mankind. Our geography has related too much to the position, growth, and commercial progress of our own nation and too littie to our relations with other peoples. Our patriotism has been too much concerned with our rights, and too littie with our obligations; too much with securing advant^es for ourselves, and too littie with the extension of international justice and good-will. There has been too much talk in all nations of "national honor" and "rallying to the defense of the flag," and too littie of national obligations and responsibilities. The discipline of our schools has been too much the discipline of the intellect and the body, imtempered by larger conceptions as to justice and good-will among men. The people of each and every nation need to sink their nationalism in a larger inter- nationalism and to learn and teach the true place of their coimtry among the nations of the earth. The task would not be so diffiodt if once it were resolutely undertaken. The people of different nationalities do not by nature hate one another and many illustrations of international friendliness manifest themselves at any opportunity. The masses of the people do not want war, but peace. International hatreds are kept up by the governing classes and those who profit by such hatreds, and the basis for national jingoism and future international strife is continually implanted in the minds of the rising generation in the schools of the different nations. In most nations today the schools are deliberately used by those in authority to instil into the minds of the young an exaggerated nationalism, which can be touched off into international hatred at such moment as the governing authorities may desire. Perhaps the greatest task which lies ahead of the school in all lands and countries is that of bending its energies toward the creation of a new order of international friendship, justice, and good-will. Upon the public educational systems of each state and nation lies the responsibility of enlarging the national conceptions and promoting good-will among the nations of the earth. Entirely new values and standards for judging need to be created among the different peoples. In particular the school histories need to be rewritten and the teaching in history and geography in the schools needs to be entirely redirected. The emphasis now placed on the deeds of the soldier should be shifted to those who have created the best of our civilization and rendered the most lasting benefits to mankind. The emphasis now placed on wars should be shifted to the gains to civilization made in the intervals between wars, and war should be shown in its true light as a destroyer of what civilization creates. The biologic, economic, and human waste of war should be empha- sized, and the fact that war is the breakdown of law and order and civilized society should be made dear to the young. Upon those who teach, but especially upon those who JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 27 organize and administer education, rests the responsibility of creating a new national life in all countries — a national life which shall prize the fruits of civilization, which shall honor most those who advance the larger interests of mankind, which believes in inter- national justice and good-will, and which looks to friendly arbitration rather than to brute force to settle the difl&culties which may arise between nations. The shaping of a new international policy among nations, looking ultimately toward international peace and good-will and the preservation of the slow gains of civilization, calls for educational statesmanship of a high order, and will require time for its accomplishment, but such represents the greater constructive task now before those who direct the work of instruction in every nation. If the work of this International Congress on Education will in any material way contribute to the inauguration of a movement looking toward a reorganization and redirec- tion of the instruction given in history and geography, and a broadening of the work in civics and morals; to the teaching of a new conception of friendship between nations; to the subordination of that love of dominion, still so prominent among nations; to a new conception of national rights and international justice; to the substitution of inter- national tribunals and the reign of law and order for the present appeal to brute force and so-called national honor; to the development of an international patriotism based on the preservation rather than the destruction of the fruits of civilization; to an elimination of the lust for fighting and the love of military display among all people; to the erection of new standards for estimating the value of himian service; and will help to spread the conception of world interests, world civilization, world statesmanship, and world friendship and good-will in place of the present narrow nationalism in all of these respects — it will have done much to hasten the day when the great himaan and economic waste of war, with its accompanying international hatreds, shall have been replaced by international law and order and good-will, and when the gains and larger possibilities of civilization will not periodically be destroyed by the lapses into barbarism of a portion of mankind. Of all the institutions working for the unification of mankind and the improvement of the social welfare the school stands first, and, in consequence, the importance of the stand to be taken by those who direct public education and those who teach in the schools can hardly be overestimated. What our civilization will be a quarter of a century hence will depend very largely upon the attitude assumed toward these new questions of inter- national relationships by those who are responsible for the direction of public educa- tion in aU lands and nations. The National Education Association therefore desires to put itself on record as follows: 1. The Association looks upon the war now ravaging the continent of Europe as a tragedy having no parallel in history. This war is working havoc among the best racial elements in all nations concerned, exhausting the near future, bringing impoverishment to the race, and throwing an intolerable burden of sorrow and misery on women and children. The Association expresses the fervent hope that the measures adopted at the peace settlement conference will be founded on justice, and will thereby break down militarism and free the world from the fear of another calamity like the present. The Association heartily indorses the policy of the President of the United States concerning both the European and the Mexican situations. It rejoices in his eminent services to the cause of Peace, which is the cause of Law. To the President of the United States is primarily due the fact that this Republic has remained law-abiding, despite currents of fear, hate, and excitement, and stands firm on the only basis on which civilization can be restored or peace maintained — the foundation of Law. 2. The Association reafl&rms its approval of the American School Peace League, the organization of Peace Leagues among pupils, the observance of Peace Day, May 18, and the dissemination of literature bearing on international relations. The Association views with satisfaction the efforts made by the American School Peace League to secure the co-operation of teachers in other countries, and hopes that, in the future, similar school peace leagues may become active forces in the educational systems of the different countries of the world. 3. The Association deplores any attempt to militarize this country. It again declares against the establishment of compulsory roilitary training in the schools, on the ground that this is reactionary and inconsistent with American ideals and standards. The Association expresses its approval of the poUcy of the Boy Scouts of America in keeping their useful work free from connection with military affairs. 4. The Association believes that the promotion of international relationships in educa- tion, science, art, industry, and social service is of fundamental importance, and that these can best be worked out by a co-ordination of the organized forces of the civilized world. To this end, international associations should have affiliated national organizations, in 28 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION each case with a central body having delegates from each affiliated nation. In the interest of permanent peace and of world research a reorganization of international organization should follow the establishment of peace in Europe. The United States, with other neutral nations, has a great duty to perform in this work of reorganization. 5. The Association feels that we have reached a time when interdependence and mutual imderstanding should create their proper organs of expression thru permanent officials whose duty would be to report to their home governments on the work and progress of constructive social agencies in the country of residence. The presence of mihtary and naval attaches in all embassies and legations emphasizes the least desirable factors of international relations. The Association believes that the constructive side of relations among nations should be emphasized, and recommends that each of the national governments which have participated in this International Congress on Education should be urged to appoint Educational Attaches as well to their legations and embassies in foreign countries. 6. The National Education Association congratulates the Panama-Pacific Inter- national Exposition on having made the official series of congresses the central feature of the Exposition. The 852 congresses and conferences meeting during the Exposition period will leave a definite impression of national and world progress. It is a matter for congratulation that education, with 129 distinctive congresses and conferences, has been .made the most prominent feature of this great series of meetings. In the interest of world harmony, we believe the splendid work of the Department of Congresses of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition should in some form be continued as a useful means of securing a concert of action among the nations and inter- national associations. In addition to the foregoing, relating to the promotion of international peace and good-wiU and the ultimate substitution of law and order for brute force — a new task before teachers and those who direct public education, and one which to this Association seems to be by far the most important matter brought before this International Congress — this Association further desires to direct attention to a few of the larger and more significant movements now under way in this country, which look^toward the improvement of public education with us. 1. Child welfare. — Most prominent of these, perhaps, is that recent and important movement for the promotion of child welfare, which embraces all movements tending to improve conditions surrounding the morals, health, and proper development of children. Like the question of world peace and international justice and good-will, the conservation of child life is certain to appeal to all humanitarian people. Within the past two decades almost all civilized coimtries have become interested in this movement, which embraces infant care, child labor, the protection of the child from injurious and contaminating influences, health supervision and instruction in schools, preventative hygiene, playground activities, and the treatment of the child in accordance with the laws of his mental and physiological development. Any system of public instruction which neglects the physical and moral welfare of children and confines itself to their mental training is certain to prove inadequate to meet the needs of either the individual or society. This Association therefore expresses the hope that both the teachers and the parents of the nation may interest themselves in and study the different movements looking toward the conservation and improvement of child life. 2. Rural education. — Perhaps next in importance, and in a way closely akin to the problem of child welfare, is the great problem of rural education and rural welfare which surrounds and affects the lives of almost half of the people of this nation. The solution of this problem demands such a redirection and reorganization of rural education as will enable both rural and village schools to contribute much more than they now do toward the improvement of the life of the people tributary to them. A great opportunity for a new type of service awaits the normal schools of this country, if they will but seriously turn their attention to the many important problems surrounding rural life and train teachers definitely for helpful constructive service among rural people. Large oppor- tunities for service also await those institutions which engage in agricidtural extension and the promotion of the various forms of agricultural and home economics work among rural boys and girls. 3. School supervision. — ^The movement for the training of supervisory officers, as distinct from teachers, which has recently been begun by our imiversities, colleges, and larger normal schools, is a movement of fundamental importance for the future of public education with us. The problems of organization, administration, and the supervision of instruction are now of such importance as to demand some special study, and this Association commends to educational institutions the establishment of such courses of instruction and to the states the creation of special supervisors' certificates, based on JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 29 training and experience, which, after a certain date, shall be required of all who propose to engage in supervisory service. This Association also believes it to be a sound educational principle that wherever a teacher is at work or a child is in school, be it in city, town, or country district, both teacher and child should have the benefit of close, personal, and professional supervision. The city teacher and child are now reasonably weU cared for, but our present system of coimty supervision is, in most states, entirely inadequate to meet the new needs of rural and village education. We therefore express our beUef that the present movement looking toward an improvement in our system of rural-school supervision, and the substitution of some larger administrative unit than the school district, is a movement which should meet with the approval of all. We also beUeve that, whatever the details of the system which may be eventually adopted, some adequate provision should be made for opening up rural- school supervision as a career for men and women — a career for which either might be warranted in making thoro preparation, and which either might hope to enter wholly on a basis of merit. 4. Teachers. — Recognizing that in the last analysis the excellence of our public schools depends upon the teachers who do the actual work of instruction, this Association believes it is of the highest importance that this work be done under the best possible conditions as to the promotion of good health, comfort, and peace of mind. To this end the Associa- tion expresses itself unequivocally in favor of adequate salaries, security of tenure, a suitable retirement annuity, and working conditions in which there shall be sufficient and helpful supervision, and at the same time freedom from arbitrary or needless restrictions or requirements, and from those "ratings" and records which unnecessarily disturb the teacher's peace and make the rendering of the best service impossible. 5. Differentiations in instruction. — The different attempts which are now being made to differentiate instruction and adjust school work to meet individual needs and to reorganize our educational work along new lines with a view to enabling our schools better to meet those special-group and individual needs which we have but recentiy come to recognize as important in pubhc education are movements which appeal to this Association as of large importance for the future of our educational work. It seems to this Associa- tion to be a thoroly sound and just principle that every child of school age in a community should be provided with that kind of education which will be best adapted to meet his peculiar educational needs. The adoption of such an educational principle, however, calls for differentiations and adjustments in schools and in courses of instruction and for a wide diversification in our school work. What our schools have heretofore achieved for the mass, they now need to set themselves to try to accomplish for groups within the mass. Different types of schools, different emphasis in instruction for different groups, a wide range of educational opportvmities, and an estimation of equivalences based more upon needs and growth than upon similar accomplishments will all be necessary. A material extension of the school day, a larger introduction of play and constructional activities, a wider use of school buildings, particularly with reference to adult education, Saturday instruction, and instruction in some form thruout the entire year, wiU also be necessary to the accomplishment of such an enlarged educational purpose. 6. Enlarged scope and funds. — ^With us education represents one of our greatest national interests, and in no other coimtry in the world have the results of a system of public instruction shown forth to better advantage in the general intelligence, poise, good judgment, and productive capacity of the people. This Association, however, desires to call to the attention of our people tiie fact that what has met their needs in the past will not suffice for the future, and that each of the important educational movements so far men- tioned can mean nothing less than a further enlargement of the work and function of the school as the constructive instnunent of democracy. Each enlargement of function in turn demands increased funds, and, if our schools are to render the service expected of them, our people must be prepared to give to those responsible for the conduct of public education a larger and a larger proportion of public funds. The time is coming, perhaps in the very near future, when the enlarged scope of public instruction will probably demand one-half of the taxes paid by our people. 7. Co-operation of other agencies. — We recognize with pleasure the increasing interest which citizens are displaying in the work of the public schools. We commend lie action of a resident of California who made it possible for this Association to offer a prize to the person presenting the best essay on " The Essential Place of Religion in Education, with an Outiine of a Plan for Introducing Religious Teaching into the Public Schools" and thus to bring the attention of teachers and patrons to a vital question. We trust that the influence of the contest may be far-reaching in its after effects, and that, as a result, some method may be worked out by which the underlying principles of religion may be taught to our young people, realizing as we do that the home and the church are not covering the whole field. We aJso commend the action of the President of the Society for Thrift which 30 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION enables this Association to ofifer prizes, dxiring the coming year, for the best essays on the subject of Thrift, with an outline of a plan by which it may be taught in the public schools. These are movements of large educational significance, and deserve further study and encouragement. ... • • j • ^ 8. United States Bureau of Education. — In conclusion, this Association desires to express its appreciation of the co-operation extended to it in its work by the United States Bureau of Education. This Bureau, considering the very meager appropriations made for its work, has recently begvm to render a service in the cause of peace and education as important as its scope is limited. This Association desires, once more, respectfully to urge upon Congress that it very materially enlarge the appropriations for the maintenance of this Bureau, and that it no longer delay placing the Bureau in a position where it can render a service to those engaged in the care and education of children, in all of the states, which shall be analogous to 5iat which has for so long been rendered by the national govern- ment to those engaged in the care and propagation of fishes, hogs, cattle, and crops. An annual appropriation of not less than five himdred thousand dollars shoiild be made at once to this Bureau, and this amoimt should be increased as fast as additional fimds can be used to advantage. Ellwood p. Ctjbberuey, Chairman, professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. RoBEST J. Aley, president. University of Maine, Orono, Me. Fannie Fern Andrews, secretary, American School Peace League, Boston, Mass. Mary C. C. Bradford, state superintendent of public instruction, Denver, Colo. J. Stanley Brown, superintendent, Township High School, Joliet, 111. J. H. Francis, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal. Carroll G. Pearse, president, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. RESOLUTION OF THANKS TO THE PRESIDING OFFICER The Committee on Resolutions feels that it would not express the wishes of those who have participated in the meeting of this Association which is now drawing to so successful a close did it not propose a special resolution of thanks to our retiring president, not only for his courteous services as the presiding officer of the Congress, but also for the splendid message to the teachers which he delivered at the opening meeting, and for the excellent program of addresses which he has prepared. The Committee therefore proposes that the members of this Association extend to David Starr Jordan a vote of tharJ^ for his great services to the Association during the past year; that, in addition, we extend to him the best wishes of the members for many years of health and strength and continued service to the higher welfare of mankind; and that our thanks be extended by a rising vote of the members of the Association. RESOLUTION OF THANKS The Committee on Resolutions offers the following expression of appreciation for the naany courtesies extended to the officers and members of the National Education Associa- tion on the occasion of its fifty-third annual meeting: Be it Resolved, That this Association hereby expresses its deep appreciation for the many courtesies extended: 1. To the teachers and school officers of the city of Oakland in particular, and those from other parts of California as well, who have done so much to make the stay of the members pleasant and enjoyable, and who by their many courteous attentions have con- tributed so much to the success of this meeting of the Association; 2. To the Oakland Chamber of Commerce and Commercial Club, the dty authorities, the hotels, and those organizations of the city of Oakland who have contributed to the success of the meeting by providing meeting-places, by furnishing music, by providing for the needs of the officers of the Association, and by extending many courtesies to the strangers within their gates; 3. To the press of both Oakland and San Francisco, which has devoted much space and skill, to^eporting and interpreting to the people of the state the meaning and signifi- cance of this international gathering of teachers; and 4. To the postmaster of Oakland for his thoughtfulness in providing a branch post- office in the registration headquarters. 5- To those distinguished educators from abroad, and to all from within our own land, who have made the meeting of the Association a success by their addresses and their participation in its proceedings. JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS 3 1 ELEVENTH SESSION— FRroAY Afternoon, August 27, 2:30 o'clock Music — Community Singing The meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses given: "Higher Ideals in Education" — Charles F. Thwing, president, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio; Henry Suzzallo, president, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash. "Athletics as Education and Athletics as Business" — William T. Foster, president, Reed College, Portland, Ore. "Way of Approach to the Supreme Ideal in School Education" — ^Henry Holman, formerly professor of education, University of Wales, and one of His Majesty's inspectors of schools. The announcement was made that the judges had awarded the prize for the best essay on "The Essential Place of Religion in Education, with an Outline of a Plan for Introducing Religious Teaching into the Public Schools" to Charles E. Rugh, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. Special mention was given to the essays by the following: Laura H. Wild, Lake Erie College, Painesville, Ohio; Frances V. Frisbie, Wilkes-Barre, Pa.; Clarence Reed, Palo Alto, Cal.; Anna B. West, Newburyport, Mass. TWELFTH SESSION— Friday Evening, August 27, 8:00 o'clock Music — High School Orchestra The meeting was called to order by President Jordan and the following addresses given: "Development of the International Spirit thru Education" — May Wright Sewall, organizer of the International Conference of Women Workers to Promote Permanent Peace, Indianapolis, Ind. "The Education of the World for a Permanent Peace" — Fannie Fern Andrews, secretary, American School Peace League, Boston, Mass. "Education for World-Living" — Henry C. King, president, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio. "Internationalism" — ^John Mez, Munich, Germany. David B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S.C., President-elect of the National Education Association, was introduced and spoke as follows: I deeply appreciate the great honor you have done me in electing me President of the greatest educational association in the world, an association with a splendid record of long years of educational achievement. In all of the great educational progress of the past half-century in this country this National Education Association has had a most notable and honorable part. It has contributed no little to the improvement in public education required to enable education to meet the needs of a growing and changing civilization. It has led the way in many of the most vital educational reforms of modem times. It has helped to give a new meaning to education — that it is a preparation of the individual for the duties of life in his environment. There was a time when it was considered anything but scholarly or high-minded for a student to choose a course of study that might by any manner of means have any direct bread-and-butter value. That time is rapidly passing thanks in great measure to the leadership of this Association, and it is now very generally seen that a bread-and-butter subject may have educational value as well as Greek or some other similar subject — and even greater educational value. This Association has dignified and elevated the teacher's caUing, has secured a clearer understanding of the fact that the good teacher makes the good school, and has helped and is helping to secure for woman the place and recognition due her in all educational endeavor. This Association has always stood for the higher standards and ideals in education, has given its powerful aid to the acceptance of that conception of education which makes it include character-building as well as intellect-training, while not ignoring the training of the hands to work and the training of the whole child for service — the head, the hand, and the heart. I hope we shall never allow our interest in the very important subjects of industrial education, manual training, agriculture, rural schools, vocational training, 32 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION and all others of equal importance to cause us to lose or lack interest in the most vital work of the schools — moral training or character-building. Not among the least of the services rendered by the National Education Association to the betterment of the national life should be coimted its contribution to the harmonizing of the sections. It has offered a common ground where the educational leaders of all sections, the North, the South, the East, and the West, could meet together and has helped materially to bring that fraternal relationship between the sections which now exists. Your placing at the head of your Association one from the original secession state of Dixie will be accepted as conclusive evidence that the dead past is forgotten in the National Education Association and those taking the lead in the new education in the South will be greatly encouraged. I am not unmindful of the great responsibility placed upon me, together with the honor bestowed. We have had a great meeting, in numbers, character of the proceedings, and spirit of the membership, out here in the mighty West, where the wide expanse of the coimtry seems to give breadth of view. It shall be my earnest endeavor to have the Association go forward in all of its great work this coming year, and I know that with your interest and S5mipathetic help we shall take no steps backward. We shall all be better in our outlook upon life's duties and for their performance for having been here in contact with the bigness, strength, progressiveness, and inherent honesty of western life and character. We shall take with us to our homes all over this broad land of ours lasting impressions of the hearty good-will of Califomians and shall ever cherish in our hearts glowing memories of the perfect hospitality of this good people of this golden state of the West. President Jordan announced the adjournment of the Fifty-third Convention of the National Education Association. DuRAND W. Springer, Secretary GENERAL SESSIONS OF THE ASSOCIATION ADDRESSES OF WELCOME I. EDWARD HYATT, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SACRAMENTO, CAL. Good friends, we greet you and welcome you from the east, the north, the south, the center. We welcome you down to this, the western edge, down to the cool breezes and the sparkling waters of our blue Pacific. We welcome you, not as the orator so many years ago with bloody hands to hospitable graves, but with kindly hearts to hospitable homes. Truly we trust that the journey brings joy and inspiration to you no less than uplift and pleasure to us. It ought to bring you, and us as well, what? Why, renewed courage, wider understanding, a higher appreciation of the dignity and worth of our profession: Our profession, that yields us no money beyond the barest necessities of life; scant honor, as men count honor in the world; gray hairs and an early laying-on-the-shelf. Yet we have compensations; the satisfaction of carrying the lamp. We project into the future all the race has that is worth projecting, we carry it along and pass it from one generation to the next — not only the tales and the songs of the troubadours and minnesingers, but everything the race has secured from all the past — civilization. We have the satisfaction of our responsibility, of knowing that if we fail even once to pass our message across some interval, the great procession would stop short! And, at last, comes that greatest of satisfactions to the old schoolmaster — the gratitude and love of those whom he has taught. These are the substantial rewards. Life holds nothing more worth while. I pray you, get all you can of the inspiration and spiritual elevation of this classic meeting of the fellows of yoiu: craft, all the exhilaration and momentum that comes from great multitudes thinking and expressing the same ideas at the same place and at the same time. And get more! Man cannot live by bread alone. Take some of the pie as it is passed around. Yellowstone, Tahoe, Yosemite, the Grand Canyon, the sea, the missions, the wonderful exposition across the water, marking in such impressive way the last and highest level in the corridors of tune — it is our privilege and our duty to get some of these, too. Not only those who come from abroad, but those who dwell within our own tents owe it to themselves and to their profession to do more than engage in the formal work within these walls. It is the function of the siunmer vacation, of the educational meeting, to broaden the soul, to quicken the spirit, to sweep out the microbes of worry 33 34 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General and doubt and fear, to relax the strained bowstring, and give the teacher buoyancy, enthusiasm, resiliency — ^yes, that is it — resiliency — against the ever-repeated shocks of the next year's work. 'Tis the schoolmaster's chief stock in trade, his most valuable asset in dealing with the young — cheerful enthusiasm and unconquerable resilience. I pray you, then, do the things, and seek the places, and think the thoughts, and expose yourself to the influences during this, your sum- mer vacation, that will best renew and add to your stock of hope and youthfulness, that will best make all the myriad troubles that infest the school-teacher's day to fold their tents like the Arab and silently steal away. We thank you for coming. We enjoy your presence. We hope you'll come again. May Allah make his face to shine upon thee! n. JOHN L. DAVIE, MAYOR OF OAKLAND, CAL. As mayor of this city, it is with a profound pride and pleasure that I extend to this convention a most hearty welcome to our city. May you fully realize our appreciation in being the host for an organi- zation whose efforts and achievements so vitally affect the welfare not only of this country but of the whole world. Men may think and talk reform, new systems of government may be evolved, but we have yet to discover a means of uplift that will take the place of education. Today while a great part of the world is totally given over to the use of the munitions of war, we of Oakland, on the shores of the peaceful Pacific, are welcoming to our midst an organization devoted to the most noble cause of education. Of all the institutions conducive to our country's welfare, none has equaled in accomplishment the great American triumph — the public school. Based upon the principles of freedom and liberty, the public school has extended its influence and benefits to the remotest territory. The men and women whose determinations vitally affect this noble institution must feel keenly their responsibility. You are the guardians of our future. It is by your work that our educational system is to be improved. With this responsibility in guiding our welfare, may you be moved to do your best for the education of our American boys and girls. May the beauty and grandeur of your meeting-place make this convention long remembered for its successful achievements. Believing that true hospitality merely begins with the word of welcome, and realizing the high regard paid by all conventions to brevity, let me conclude by again expressing my appreciation of the honor which my position affords me and reassuring you that the city is yours. Sessions] ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 35 ni. A. C. BARKER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OAKLAND, CAL. On behalf of the Board of Education and the teachers and citizens of Oakland, I extend you a cordial welcome to our city. I also desire at this time to express to you our appreciation of the fact that you decided to come to Oakland for this meeting and that you honored California in electing one of our most distinguished scholars as President of the first International Congress on Education to convene on the Pacific Coast. It is an encouraging fact for those interested in the development of a professional spirit among teachers that there have gathered here today, not only representatives from every state in the Union, but also many eminent delegates from other nations. The day is not far distant when teaching will receive in our country recognition, which has long been accorded it in Europe, with the older learned professions, and no body of citizens can contribute to this result more effectively than the teachers themselves. Education in America is a state and not a national function, each commonwealth being free to devise and conduct its own system. In the absence of a centralized educational authority such as exists in Argentina, France, and Prussia, it devolves upon the teaching profession to organize the intellectual ideals of the time and to direct public opinion in educational matters. It should be one of the most important functions of the National Edu- cation Association to evaluate the educational theories of the moment and to adapt our system to the rapidly changing social, industrial, and economic needs of the times. I do not mean that this body should be a clearing-house for the fads of professional educators of "merely national fame," but that it shall give approval to the soundest educational opinion of the country. It has become evident to many thoughtful persons that the curriculum of the past generation must be modified to meet the needs of the present and future. The passing of the frontier, the growth of cities, and the increase of specialization in every department of human endeavor have rendered changes inevitable. The traditional idea of education placed the main emphasis upon culture and scholarly attainment. The modern prac- tice adds to this the vocational motive and a vital interest in human welfare. The people of Oakland have long looked forward to this meeting, pri- marily because they are interested in education and believe in providing the best possible training for the city's future citizen. Tangible evidence of this is shown in the liberal expenditures made in the past ten years for school buildings and playgrounds and for the development of the curriculum. We anticipate receiving from this meeting an increased inspiration and enthusiasm which will enable us to give better service to the community. We trust that you may derive both pleasure and profit from your stay among us and that you may carry to your homes pleasant recollections of your visit to Oakland. 36 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Gtneral IV. JAMES A. BARR, DIRECTOR OF CONGRESSES, PANAMA-PACIPIC INTER- NATIONAL EXPOSITION, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. On behalf of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, I bid you welcome to California. It has been my privilege to help welcome the National Education Association to California just five times. In this life- renewing climate of ours, I anticipate the pleasure of helping to welcome you to California at least twice five additional times. The central thought on which the Exposition is based is the progress of the world thru education. That thought is being given expression, not only by means of exhibits, but thru congresses that are bringing to Cali- fornia the great thinkers of the world in education, science, art, and industry. Both the Exposition and the event it celebrates, the completion of the Panama Canal, look to the future rather than to the past. For that reason both the exhibits and the congresses are contemporaneous rather than his- torical, and deal with the things of today rather than with those of yester- day. For instance, no exhibit is considered for award unless it was produced within the past ten years. The National Education Association arranged for an International Con- gress of Education at the Chicago Exposition in 1893, at the St. Louis Expo- sition in 1904, and finally for the present International Congress in Oakland in connection with the Panama-Pacific International Exposi- tion. Of 852 congresses, conferences, and conventions to be held imder the general auspices of the Exposition, more than 400 are distinctly educational, while 129 are devoted to the various phases of education. It is a matter for congratulation, both to the Exposition and to the cause of education, that the National Education Association has taken the leadership in arrang- ing for the great series of congresses beginning this morning. I am very certain that the official Educational Period, beginning today and lasting two weeks, will mark the greatest congress program on education ever held in America. Your program has been so arranged that you will have ample time to study the Exposition. To show you in a word the delightful task ahead of you when you visit the Exposition, let me say that when you enter the gates you will be confronted by eleven exhibit palaces with 68 . 3 acres of exhibits. If you travel up one aisle and down another, without repeating your step at any point, you will travel in these eleven palaces almost exactly 47 miles. If you visit the state and foreign sections, the Zone, and aU the other parts of the Exposition grounds, you will travel nearly 100 miles. In the eleven palaces you will find something like 60,000 individual exhibits. If you seek to accomplish the impossible, and visit one exhibit per minute, for ten hours per day, it will take about 100 days to see the exhibits alone, without time for the Zone, the state and foreign pavilions, or the conventions. If you could have been in San Francisco since Feb- ruary 20 and remained until December 4, it would have been your privilege Sessionsl RESPONSE TO ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 37 to visit an average of nine convention sessions per day for the 288 days of the Exposition period. I am giving you this bit of mathematics so that you may fully appreciate the size of the Exposition and the need of a wise selection in a study of its many features. I think we might agree that the Exposition is a world-university for 1915. The director-in-chief, the chiefs of departments, and the officers of con- gresses are members of the faculty. The exhibits, in fact all California, constitute a working laboratory. The world is the student body. You are cordially invited to enrol as members of this student body. The Exposition belongs to the nation, to the world, and to you. RESPONSE TO ADDRESSES OF WELCOME JOSEPH SWAIN, PRESIDENT, SWARTHMORE COLLEGE, SWARTHMORE, PA. The National Education Association of the United States has, in the past sixteen years, accepted for the fifth time the invitation of California to meet in this great state. We have in this period met twice in the City of the Angels. We were to have met here at the time of the great fire. We met here four years ago and are now here again. The unbounded hospi- tality of California, like her mountains, her valleys, her seas, and her climate, must be seen to be appreciated. We are grateful for the graceful words of welcome which we have heard today. To some of us it is a home-coming. No one can live in this state for two years as I have done and not feel the thrill of your greeting. This great National Education Association represents about seven hundred thousand teachers and about twenty-two million children. More than any other organization in the United States, it has for its purpose the unification of education and the promotion of the whole field. Other organizations have for their aim the promotion of some narrow field of education The National Education Association stands for them all, from the kindergarten thru and including the university. The kindergarten teacher, the one-room country-school teacher, and the professor in the uni- versity are all equally at home and each is an essential factor in the edu- cation of the children of the Republic. As we walk about this great Exposition across the Bay, which the energy and brains of California have brought here from every part of the earth, we gaze in admiration and awe at it all, but alas, in a few months it will all vanish away. But the mind of man that has achieved it all will go on achieving still greater and greater things. Herein lies the supreme importance of the work of the members of this National Education Asso- ciation. Our work is not in brick and mortar, nor stone nor bronze that will crumble away, but in training character and human souls that will live forever. Our work is in things eternal that shall never vanish. It is for this reason that the managers of this great Exposition have made education 38 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General the foundation on which their great structure is builded. A belief in educa- tion has become universal. Never before in the history of this country has there been such a series of programs of such wide general interest as are foimd in the great series of educational congresses held in connection with this Exposition. Never before has there been such a gathering of the educational men and women of the United States. But for the terrible war now raging across the waters, this would have been true also of foreign lands. We welcome the more all those who in spite of- this awful cataclysm have come to us and who will contribute so much to these gatherings. We not only extend hearty greetings and good will to them, but thru them to all the countries of the world we extend our earnest hope and prayers that peace will soon come to them and that they will enjoy forever a reign of justice and law. In the light of the world-conflict engaging the energy and resources of the world today, we may well pause and reflect that while educational insti- tutions of the world have outlived states and constitutions and have been of untold benefit to mankind, they shall not wholly have fulfilled their mission until thru the discovery and promulgation of truth they shall give to all nations the international mind, which shall place justice above patriotism and humanity above nationality. May these international con- gresses be a link in the chain which shall bind nations into a universal brotherhood. My friends, we are proud to come here representing many nations and all the states of this Union, fired with the love of education, and in the belief that we represent a grand army of the Republic which is mightier to save than all the millions of loyal soldiers which, led by the spirit of militarism, are marching to destruction and death. May every teacher in attendance at this Congress return to his other work with a lighter heart and a clearer vision of duty. In no better way can we thank California today. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS THE TEACHER AND WAR DAVm STARR JORDAN, CHANCELLOR, LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY, STANFORD UNIVERSITY. CAL. It is said that in the schools of today t^e history of the future is written. It is our fimction as teachers to preside over these writing-lessons. Too much of the world's history has been written in blood. Such history is barbarism. It shows that we teachers or those who came before us have neglected our work, or else that we have perverted it. Sessions] PRESIDENTS ADDRESS 39 It is easy to see that the present war is a war of rival militarisms. It is a soldier's war — too many men trained to fight, too few men trained in respect of law. It is said that next to the militarists and their lackeys, the diplomatists and the historians are at fault. A trail of blood is over human history, and the historians have been fascinated by it, obsessed by it, while they have neglected the real substance of history, the growth of man. William James says: History is a bath of blood. The Iliad is one long record of how Diomedes and Ajax, Sarpedon and Hector killed. No details of the wounds they made are spared us, and the Greek mind fed on the story. Greek history is a panorama of jingoism and imperialism, war for war's sake, all the citizens being warriors. It is horrible reading, because of the irrationality of it all, save for the purpose of making history, and the history is that of the utter ruin of a civilization in intellectual respects perhaps the highest the earth has ever seen. The really great deeds of humanity in Greece, as well as elsewhere, were not performed on the battlefield. They have been possible only in security, in patience, in those places and times which have stood as oases in the desert of war and waste. To teach history is a part of our business. Only by knowing the past can we create the future. But to know the past we must attach ourselves to realities. The reality in life is growth and achievement, not destruction. War is always the destroyer. It is likened to a great lava flow laying desolate the fertile fields, branching in every direction, scorching all vegetation, weeds with the flowers, thistles with the fruits, and leaving a trail of evil not removed for years or centuries. If we teach history we must teach the truth. It is not right that we in America should follow the method Bjornson describes in Norway — that we teach the children to believe that in every battle the enemy was two to one, or, if defeat was unquestionable, it was due to overwhelming numbers or to treachery. There is no lesson of history in such teaching, but that sort of thing used to have a large place in our textbooks. It is not all gone yet, and on such teaching is based the great fabric of spurious history and spurious patriotism so potent in bringing on the ruin of Europe. Along this line it has been taught that war is a positive thing, peace the interval between wars, a "pale negation," the "period of fattening" for the great struggles which decide the fate of nations. It has been taught, and by great teachers, that war is the nation's salutary exercise, the growing- pains of a nation's discipline. It is our duty as teachers to question this claim. If we find it unfounded, it is our business to help our children to see its fallacy. War and not peace is the negation. Peace is the duration of law. Law ideally represents the best form of hiunan relation, the best way of doing things. Law, as we know it, is our human attempt to realize in statutes what is ideally best in human nature. To frame statutes which are just and fair, which rest on the 40 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General best impulses of mankind, the people must work together. Laws cannot be imposed on us from above. We know no political "above" in our social adjustments save the mind and conscience of imiversal humanity. In our democratic understanding, there is no king and no state that can do all this for us while we are asleep or inert. We, the people, constitute the state. It exists for our mutual advantage, for, "after all, this is the people's coun- try." It was this thought that led Cromwell to write across the statute book of Parliament: "There is no authority under heaven save the will of the people." This is the people's coimtry; and, however the fact may be disguised, every nation is its people's country, and it is thru incompetence or ignorance or tradition if the people do not control. They cannot control without organization. Unless they can think, they cannot organize. It is our duty as teachers to help them to think. It is said by those who have made a canvass of certain American cities that about one man in ten is a born "jingo," in favor of war for war's sake. Part of these are no doubt incorrigible. For the rest, we may hold the schools responsible. The martial spirit has in the main three manifestations — the love of pomp and glory, the joy of killing, and the spirit of domination. The least important of these is the first. The frippery of war is most apparent in times of peace, but with the advent of khaki, vmderground camps, and the awful artillery of today, the glamor has largely vanished from the life of the soldier. The ornamentation of war is an inheritance from mediaeval times. Yet it may endure when war's awful reality is forgotten. It is said in Europe that this is an old man's war, the war of those bred in the school of Bismarck and Lord Beaconsfield. The yoimg men have outgrown the spirit which in its purpose and method is alien to their times. Jane Addams tells us that in her toiur thru the fighting capitals she heaxd everywhere that this war was an old man's war, that the young men who did the fighting and the dying were not the men who wanted war or who believed in war, that somewhere in church and state, in the high places of society, middle-aged men had established themselves and had convinced themselves that this was a righteous war to be fought to the end and the young men must do the fighting. Miss Addams quotes a letter of a soldier from Cambridge: The greatest trial that this war has brought on is that it has released the old men from all restraining influences and has let them loose upon the world. The city editors, the retired majors, the Amazons, and the venerable archdeacons have never been so free from contradiction. Jtist when the younger generation was beginning to take its share in the affairs of the world, hoping to counteract the Victorian influences of the older generation, this war has come to silence us. Meanwhile, the old men are having field- days of their own. In our name and for our sakes they are doing their very utmost to perpetuate by appeals to hate, intolerance, and revenge those very follies which have produced the present conflagration. This we should remember as teachers — whatever the real truth, the people on one side in the great war are just as strongly convinced of the Sessions] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 41 righteousness of their cause as those on the other. All war is based on hate, and all hate on lies, and the way out lies in a broader outlook which will rise superior to both. Such an outlook the younger generation of Europe was beginning to achieve. The narrow nativism was giving way to what my Swedish friend Schwan calls the "planetary patriotism" — the sympathy and knowledge of international affairs which in its due time will make inter- national war inconceivable. It is our duty as teachers of history to help to do away with ancient prejudices. This is the land where hatred dies. Once out from the baleful shadow of ancient traditions men take new life and new hope. And the most baleful of all traditions are those of fear and lies and hate and war. For the glory of war is founded on lies and its atmosphere is hate. Says Albert Leon Guerard: While all the thousand streams of modem civilization are converging into one mighty river, historical culture reverses the process. It looks backward toward the headwaters of each rivulet. It preserves and emphasizes differences which would disappear in the broad current of modem thought. If we coxild but conjure away the incubus of historic traditions, peace would be at hand. In each human being there are instincts social and altruistic, as well as instincts which tend toward combat and destruction. It is the work of education to blend these tendencies into a harmonious whole, that the egoistic instincts may be turned into elements of initiative and persistence, and the altruistic instincts into the bonds of society. When a man finds pleasure in killing, or in domineering, this is an evidence, in most cases, of wrong education. The natural impulses of strength have been turned into wrong channels. That the war system of the world exists is mainly due to the perversion of education. Under the guise of patriotism men have been educated to regard the most brutal of crimes as a service to God and as a duty to the state. The plea of "military necessity" has been set above all matters of morals or of law. The war spirit tends to throw aside law in every case of exasperation, whether the cause be real or imaginary. This spirit grows weaker as edu- cation advances and as the realities of life replace the mystical notions on which the martial spirit largely depends. No man who is accomplishing anything worth while wants to interrupt his real activities by bodily con- flict or by the lawlessness of war. For we must always think of war as the negative element, the absence of restraint, the failure of law. War is the abandonment of effort for noble ends; it is the brutal, blind defiance of all law. It is a condition in which nothing can be right, and in which no effort for right acts can find any support in its environment. Law once set aside gives place to sheer delight in destruction. The hunting of men, as Kipling has shown, may become the most exciting of games. War has sometimes appeared as a magnificent sport — the sport of kings. As a noble game, men have tried to hedge it 42 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General about with rules as in the game of football. They would save its strenuous features and suppress its brutality. But the experiment always fails, for "in war all laws are silent." There is no umpire and the belligerents do not heed when non-combatants venture to take such a position. The three rules of the British schoolboy are unheeded in the rush for victory. These rules lie at the bottom of all that is worthy of the name of sportsmanship: I will not be a coward; the coward strikes first. I will not be a coward; the coward strikes below the belt. I will not be a coward; the coward strikes those who cannot strike back. Judged by these rules, "military necessity" is always a coward and never more so than in the war of today. Victory is supposed to go to the nation that strikes first, that strikes below the belt, and that strikes hardest at the real victims of all war — the women and children who cannot strike back. Warlike tendencies again may show themselves in the love of domina- tion. The primal motive of some nations is to break the will of other races. To break the will of subject people gives the key to all rule which is abhorred. Never in all history has this policy been successful. Its logical end is abso- lute extermination. There is no middle ground which is permanent. The subjugated race held by force is a wound in the side of the victor until it is murdered or liberated. A common defense of war is that it is ingrained in human nature, which does not change. " So long as nature produces red-blooded men, the sport of war will endure." This thesis is maintained in spite of the fact that (to continue the figure of speech) most recent wars are made by "blue-blooded" men, supported by professional war-traders — ^men of "no blood" at all. In other words, members of the privileged military caste bring on war backed up by those whose only interest is money. An instinct for struggle is doubtless innate, but it can be turned to noble purposes as well as to destructive ends. There are a thousand lines of effort which demand finer courage and intenser devotion than those which center in war. The qualities inherent in human nature are for the most part very simple, elementary impulses. The form they will take depends very largely on custom, tradition, and education. With changing condi- tions of society the same impulses will manifest themselves variously. The weakest mind is the one most governed by impulse or tradition. To think for one's self, to suppress impulses, to overcome tradition and convention, is the highest ideal of education. Human instincts change very slowly and by the long process of selection and adaptation. Human customs, the vestment of instinct, are formed rapidly and mainly by the influence of as- sociation. And a great crisis in the life of a man or a race may make a pro- found alteration in the mental state on which manners and customs depend. In the mind of every man there exist impulses toward strife and destruction which may be exaggerated or perverted into murder, robbery, or war thru persistently wrong education. On the other hand, every man has social Sessions) PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 43 instincts, which by proper training contribute to friendliness and mutual respect between men and tribes and nations. A British officer writes thus: If you want to kill forever the itching for war, you must try to make peace a little less respectable, a little more spirited. For all your fine metaphor, a self-acting machine is not such fun to handle as a rifle, nor a Guardian's meeting so exciting as a bayonet charge. To so many thousands, active service, with all its discomforts and horrors, comes in the guise of a welcome relief from the uncongenial slavery of the counting-house and the factory. You must inquire whether desire for adventure as compared with the desire for domination does not play a much larger part then you had realized in that very com- plex attitude of mind which you describe rather perfunctorily as militarism, and whether you cannot devise for us all some kind of a return to nature sufficiently alluring to satiate the savage in our breasts. But it is not for anyone outside of ourselves to make life and the world more interesting for us. If the clerk or the hodcarrier finds his job stupid, it is for him to change it if he can. The teacher can help broaden his sym- pathies and appreciations. The reformer can strive to give him a higher social justice. But it is for him to make his own life interesting. And this can be done in constructive work not in the huUaballoo of war. There is no enjoyment in this. At its best, it is only forgetfulness of self. The aim of life is not to forget, but to remember effectively and to make the most of what we can do. The peace-worker cannot be asked to make peace as attractive as war. He is only one of many who work in different ways to make life richer and effort more effective. He is not even a " fireman to be called in to put out the fire of war." He is an agent of law, "a kind of fire- proof building material" designed to make war infrequent or impossible. But until war ceases its brutalities and its taxes worry us no more, it is idle to expect any great abatement in the monotony of life of submerged humanity. Science finds that in every race and every group of men there are supe- rior strains, those above the others in physical strength, in agility, in initia- tive, in mental capacity, and in moral stability. These are perpetuated by heredity. In times of peace, they come more and more to the front, repla- cing, under nature's competition, the dull, the inert, the dissipated, the dis- torted, and the feeble. The "fool-killer," natural selection personified, is always at work, cutting away those who cannot, or will not, master the great art of living in the world of men. This is the struggle for existence, and to meet its exigencies, men band themselves together. The race is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong but to those who can hold together. The bonds of society take the sharp edge from the struggle, but when society is organized in rival bands, the struggle is savagely intensified. He who falls in the press is soon "trampled broad." Hence, other things being equal, in the long run the strongest nation is the most friendly one. And as war is always the destroyer of the strong and bold the warlike nation becomes inevitably the decadent one. That is the long cost of war, a matter 44 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General I have many times explained, the final cause of the downfall of all empire, of all domination by one race of men over another. Every army insists, in its enlistment, on securing men above the average in physical efficiency. Its ideal is the red-blooded men with dash and daring, a bit of an adventurer to begin with, to be reduced to a cog in a great machine by the pressure of military discipline. In general, those who fight best are most likely to be killed. "War," says Bishop Fitzgerald, "is not the survival of the fittest but of those who never fit." The demands of battle and camp cut off men from parenthood in the prime of life. This leaves the men war cannot use to be the fathers of coming generations. By the law of heredity, like the seed is the harvest, and the future of the race rests with those who are its actual ancestors. "Lions breed lions," says the Spanish proverb. "A brave man has brave sons." Of like import is the Moorish proverb: "Father a weed; mother a weed; do you expect the daughter to be saffron root?" A nation does not miss that which it has not had. If it did, it would realize that the longest cost of war is that of impoverishment of the breed, the thinning out of the strong strains that give a nation its personality, that create its history. William T. Stead used to speak to the university men of Great Britain as the "picked half -million, those who in the future are to conmiand and the world will obey." If there be a half -million of these today in Great Britain, fully two-thirds of them are in the camp or the trenches. Three- fourths of the students of Oxford are there and three-fourths of those of Cambridge, half of these perhaps never to return. The same percentage holds in the universities of Germany and of France. They are all engaged in the self-murder which will leave the Europe of the next generation with less than its half-million to pick from. War is " race suicide done by whole- sale." The millions that have been slaughtered seem far more than the death of a certain number of men. When a man, in this fashion, mostly uselessly, "gives his life for his country," he gives more than his life; he gives the lives of the great widening wedge of those who in the ages should have been his descendants. I have seen the university men of England and Scotland going off to the war. I have seen the others, two hundred thou- sand more or less, left at home in London to be fathers of the next generation. These are correctly described by General Ian Hamilton, who states that an inspector could not endure the tens of thousands of " weak eyes, incipient deafness, rotten teeth, relaxed throats, hammer toes, flat feet, and knock- knees" which the army leaves behind. These infected by vice and saturated by drink are set aside for parenthood, while the "picked half -million," just as life begins, are shoveled into the trenches along the Yser and the Marne. All this may be necessary, for the Great War is on. But nothing more ruinous to our race or more abhorrent to our consciences can be conceived. Every war brings the death of the brave — a needless sacrifice in almost every case. Sessions] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 45 That war spoils the breed is now an unquestioned fact in biology as in history. This is becoming widely accepted as the crucial argument against the war system of the world, standing second only in importance to the final argument of the himaan conscience that murder remains murder even when done on a large scale under the sanction of the state and with the blessing of the state church. In teaching the history of the United States, let us be loyal to the truth. The wisdom of our fathers shines out today with an ever-increasing luster. In providing for a government by the people, of the people, for the people, they provided for the strongest and most durable form of government, as also the most enlightened and the most just. The test of national solidarity may be found in its freedom from the need of force in the conduct of its affairs. Let us imagine, if we can, a catastrophe which should remove from the United States every representa- tive of coercive power, every official of whatever rank from the President to the last notary public, every representative of army or of navy or of church or of school, every policeman, every authority of every kind. Such a loss might create widespread bewilderment or profound sorrow. It would have no relation to anarchy. Except among certain unassimilated foreign populations in large cities, it would lead to no violence, to no riots. The functions of national life would go on as before, all of them, and unchanged. One by one communities would come together and provide for the election of officers. Let us apply the same test to other nations. In the France of Napo- leon III we are assured that without force society would not endure ''for a quarter of an hour." What would be the result of such a change in Ger- many today? No one can tell. The German is endlessly patient, even under needless burdens. What would he do, if burdens were all suddenly thrown off, if Strengstens Verboten, the motto of Prussian order, were sud- denly found to have no force behind it ? The lesson of democracy is therefore the lesson of the United States. It teaches the true source of power. It is no new lesson. The people of the United States are merely European people who have had some addi- tional experience, have learned some things in their travels, perhaps for- getting some others equally important. In like manner the choicest thoughts and worthiest ideals of America are thoughts and ideals long before treasured by the advanced minds of Europe, Another lesson from America is that of effective federation. The United States is composed of forty-eight self-governing states, each an entity within itself, managing its own affairs, with its own officials, and its own laws, controlled by the nation in those interests only which it shares with its sister-states. Some of these states are as populous and wealthy as the kingdoms of Europe, but each is a jurisdiction, not a power. None makes war alone, either by force of arms, or by force of tariffs, or by force 46 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General of discrimination among nations. While there is all machinery for settling disputes between states, such disputes almost never arise, because no state has the right to use its force to promote private business. The states in a federal union exist solely as jurisdictions. The small ones have no fear of the large ones, and those not touching the sea suffer in no way from their restricted position. A "power" hampered as is the state of Illinois would chafe against its limitations, and its militarists would talk of fighting their way to the ocean. But viewed as a jurisdiction, surrounded by similar jurisdictions, the people of Illinois have no consciousness of limitation. And this should be our ultimate conception of a nation. Its boundary line should represent merely the limit of jurisdiction. That jurisdiction ceases does not imply need of violence between the people on the two sides nor require fortification for the purpose of repelling violence. The Cana- dian boundary is an example of this meeting of nations, not as powers, but as jurisdictions. This four-thousand-mile line, ranging thru all kinds of territory and all sorts of conditions, has for a hundred years not known a fortress, a soldier, a warship, or a gun. It is a peace boundary, the limit of the jurisdiction of one self-governing nation, the beginning of that of another. In our teaching of history we must discard the boast that " the United States has fought four foreign wars, victorious in every one." It is only half true and the half which is true is recorded to our discredit. We can now admit that there were two sides in every controversy and the courage and patriotism shown in the war of the Revolution were not all on one side. Among the despised and hated Royalists were some of the bravest spirits of America, well deserving the name they chose for them- selves, "loyalists," in its highest meaning. We can recognize that our Republic began her independent life under the two greatest of handicaps — war and slavery. The traditions of war tended to make the peaceful aboli- tion of slavery impossible. And each war leaves a legacy of hate and sows widely the seeds of other wars. He reaps wild harvests who sows dragon's teeth, and our country — the "land where hatred dies" — can claim no exemp- tion. We say to our students that the Pacific, greatest of oceans, should be the scene of the greatest of deeds in the coming century. To this we all agree, but to most of us it brings up some vision of wholesale destruction, some heroic stemming, somewhere, of the great flood which in hysterical imagination we call the yellow peril. But the great deeds of civilization will not be deeds of strife. We no longer look for heroes on the battlefield. Some of them are there, throwing away for an uncertain cause, handed down from the Dark Ages, the strength they might have spent for humanity. The great deeds of the Pacific are already begim, the buildmg of the great Canal, the sanitation of Panama and Manila, the Red Cross struggle Sessions] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS 47 to control the marauding rivers of China, the salvation of the tropical world from the curse of the hookworm, yellow fever, typhus, and cholera. Even the feeding of Belgium, the greatest international charity ever attempted, may be claimed for the Pacific, for the master-mind who con- ceived and controlled the work is an honored citizen of California, a graduate of Leland Stanford Junior University. We should never let our students believe that war in itself breeds heroism. Heroism, with all other noble traits, is bred in the bone. It is strengthened by practice. To be just, self-restrained, and self-sacrificing in small things is to prepare one's self for the greater. And heroism in war is the lightning flash of our common humanity as shown against the darkest and most hideous background our imagination may conceive. In the journals of Europe, the wars in the Balkans were in turn called the heroic war, the squalid war, the mad war, and the sad war. All wars are all of these in turn, or even at the same time heroic, squalid, mad; and of all, the final end is sad. What is patriotism ? Someone asked this question a few years ago of a group of high-school boys. This was the answer: "Killing Spaniards!" This is not a truthful answer. Patriotism never was and is not now " Kill- ing Spaniards." This may have been once the spirit of adventure, or it may have been something very much worse, but it is not patriotism. Patriotism has nothing to do with killing anybody. It has nothing to do with the war spirit. Patriots have been called on by their nations to kill or to be killed. But this is only when the nation is in trouble thru someone's blunders and crimes. Patriotism has no more to do with war than it has with earthquake or pestilence. To follow the drum is not patriotism. The patriot is the man who loves his country, who knows what his nation stands for and believes in it, who would make his nation friendly and helpful to all other nations, and who would give his life, if necessary, that his nation may stand for righteousness. The martial spirit belongs to the mediaeval world, the evil period when fighting was the chief business of men, and loot the chief incen- tive for fighting. The growth of science, the development of invention, the spread of religion have given us a new world in which war is a stupid, wicked, and wanton interruption. To all the fabric of civilization, the martial spirit brings havoc and ruin. And the greatest losses in war are those virtues we call manly and virile. Virility depends on the inheritance of strength and on the persistence in the struggle of life — the struggle against evil thoughts and evil conditions, against prejudice, hatred, and violence. It is in no way fostered by drums or flags, and it has nothing to do with the killing of men, either individually or collectively. It is one of the noblest of Germans, Carl Schurz, who said, "My fatherland I would support in righteousness so long as it is in the right. If it is in the wrong, then above everything let us bring it to the right." 48 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General War was once universal. Every feudal baron had his private war. Every city kept its own defensive army. We have driven war to the boundaries of nations. We have outgrown it everywhere else, but, concen- trated on these fateful boundaries, it is bringing civilization to ruin. We have made it so costly that business vanishes wherever war advances. The whole world was paying the bills of Napoleon, Bismarck, and the Czar; every nation of Europe was in debt waist-deep when the great war began. The tenth generation will see its debts unpaid. But each great world-sin has vanished at the height of its most con- spicuous achievement — slavery, the Inquisition, witchcraft, crusades; doubtless cannibalism also perished when it seemed most surely triumphant. It may be so with war also; it must be so unless we await a still greater calamity. Great evils find their end when people can see them for what they are. Above all nations is public opinion — the verdict of "the heart and mind of imiversal humanity." Patriotism is but another name for a wise, patient, sane, and enlightened public opinion. Wars have their start where patriotism fails, where public opinion does not exist, and where men are trained to obey without thinking. Take away the zest for glory and its harvest of mouth-filling lies; take away the private profit which rises like a pestilence from every war — actual or threatened; let men think for themselves a little more than they do now, and the patriotism of civilized man will stop every war before it begins. For every war must stop finally where it ought to begin, with an agreement. The patriotism that means harm to other people is not the real thing; it is a poisonous exhalation from the battlefields of the past. The interests of civilized men and nations are one and inseparable. The welfare of one is bound up in the welfare of all. Whatever harms one disturbs the well-being of every commonwealth. "Above all nations is humanity," and true patriotism is hmnanity's service. This is "Planetary Patriotism," the wholesome result of the widening of our intellectual borders, the enlargement of our souls. Our Republic has been called the one great international country. Let us do our part to keep it so — not in blood alone, but in spirit as well. EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF TEE PAST FIFTEEN YEARS ELMER E. BROWN, CHANCELLOR, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. If we are to speak of progress, we must have some consciousness of a goal. For the purposes of this discussion, we may assume that it is the goal of education to prepare all men to live as co-operative human beings. There are many kinds and degrees of co-operation. It is local, national, and universal. It is industrial, political, religious, and it is plain family life and neighborliness. In every case, every man must play his personal Sessions) EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF PAST FIFTEEN YEARS 49 part. So the end of education is individual as well as social. It involves an increase of personal appreciation as regards those things which make for use, for beauty, and for righteousness; it involves also the kindling of personal devotion to the impersonal law of truth. The end of our goal, as well as its beginning, lies in these personal values; for human co-operation, even up to its widest development, is a striving that use and beauty, truth and righteousness may prevail among men, that they may be followed intensely and freely by men acting in endless diversity and acting also in perfect unison. Some will prefer to state this aim of education in terms of democracy. Most of us would readily accept such a statement if it be made sufficiently comprehensive. It should include the democracy of nations as well as that of individuals. But let me say in all seriousness, that the goal of our educational progress is not democracy and it is not aristocracy, unless you employ either one of these terms in so wide a sense that it shall include the other. Our goal is a society which shall seek after the best by seeking out the best in every man; it is a society in which there shall be equality, in that every man shall have a chance to bring out the best that is in him and to use it for the common good. American education had become fully conscious of its world-relation- ships before the close of the nineteenth century. It had also developed a good measure of conscious independence. But the period between our Spanish war and the great war now waging in Europe is the period in which this nation has really taken its place in the family of nations. In education, as in many other fields of activity, these fifteen years constitute a period in which consciousness of world-relationships has taken on a reasonable and workable form. It is the period in which we have been outgrowing subserviency on the one hand and arrogant provincialism on the other. It is the period in which we have made the greatest progress toward an atti- tude of self-respecting international co-operation. This is really the end of an era of which we are speaking; not the first fifteen years of the twentieth century, but the last fifteen years of the age preceding the great war. Whether we shall be drawn into that war or not, there can be little doubt that it marks a turning-point in the history of the civilized world. How far, then, had the last efforts of American education brought us on our way before this conflict of the nations thrust upon us the problems of the coming age ? And now, these years leading up to the great war — what have they done for us, as preliminary to the real world- education that is yet to be? I have been unable to summarize even the salient features of this progress under less than fifteen heads — as many as one for each of the years to which this summary relates. I. There has appeared a new conception of universal education. In the nineteenth century, universal education was generally understood to 50 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION {General mean the education of all the children of all the people in the rudiments of scholastic learning. Now it is fast coming to mean the education of all of the people, of all ages and conditions, not merely in those rudiments, but in preparation for all of their needs to which education may be made to minister. A corollary of this conception is the belief that every interest in life is to be furthered by education. We are coming to find an educational aspect and need in every human undertaking. 2. There has taken place an enormous lateral expansion of educational activities and activities closely related to education. We can hardly begin to enumerate these marginal concerns, which have directly afifected our educational development: libraries and lecture courses, playgrounds, com- munity centers, and the so-called "wider uses," the movement for the prevention of child labor, the campaign for health in a score of forms, scouts, and campfires, and moving pictures, athletics, pageantry, dancing, and dramatics; any one of these and many others might fairly call for more extended treatment than this review of mine can give to the whole range of education. 3. Within the narrower field of the school, there have come variation and division. Increased attention has been paid to exceptional children, a little attention to those exceptionally bright, and a great deal of attention to those exceptionally dull. Our coimtry schools have fairly begun to claim a kind of teaching fitted to the needs of country life. Our girls have begun to receive some measure of teaching directed to the improvement of girl life and the life of the home. 4. As regards vocations, the change that has taken place is nothing less than revolutionary. Even in the last decade of the nineteenth century, it was difficult to secure serious attention to the problems of vocational education. The purely "liberal" character of public and collegiate education was guarded most jealously. In some of the states, it was said that the only place where a boy could learn a trade in a regularly organized or public school was in an institution for juvenile delinquents. Now all questions relating to education for the trades and other vocations are followed with the deepest interest; vocational guid- ance is receiving some serious consideration; state systems of vocational schools have appeared, at least in embryo; industrial and commercial corporations are conducting schools of a most interesting character; continuation schools are receiving marked attention; and the dovetailing of school and shop, as under the "Cincinnati plan," is leading to most interesting results. 5. "Social Service": the words are written at large across these fifteen years. While they represent a great deal of vague sentiment, they represent also some definite educational developments. 6. There has developed on American soil a new statement of educational theory. It has arisen under the many-sided leadership of William James, Sessions] EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF PAST FIFTEEN YEARS 51 John Dewey, and G. Stanley Hall. The nineteenth century saw its begin- ning, but it has come to its mature expression in the twentieth. 7. A new and significant attempt has been made to apply to education the methods of exact measurement and of statistical analysis and compari- son. Professor Thorndike has given the main impetus to this new move- ment, and he has been strongly seconded by numerous co-workers. At the same time, answering to the initiative of Professor Meumann and other European leaders, there has appeared a more searching and constructive type of pedagogical experiment. 8. A more complete organization of state systems of education has been undertaken in a number of our American states. Some of these have had to do with the higher education, as those in Iowa and Florida; some with elementary, secondary, and vocational education, as those in Massachusetts, New Jersey, and California; or with the whole range of education, as that in the state of New York. These movements have been accompanied by a sub- stantial advance in the service rendered by the Federal Bureau of Education; and by the development, on a large scale, of the so-called educational survey, as exemplified by the university and normal-school survey in Wisconsin, the study by a state commission of the educational system of Illinois, and the inquiry conducted by the Carnegie Foundation in the state of Vermont. Nu- merous surveys of city-school systems have also been made, of which that con- ducted by Professor Hanus in the city of New York is the most conspicuous. 9. Private activities and private endowments have been poured with lavish hand into our public education. There has been a continual flow of gifts for libraries, colleges, and universities, accentuated by the opening of the Rice Institute in Texas, and by Mr. Carnegie's many gifts of library buildings; but, in addition to these, we have seen a series of extraordinary gifts for the establishment of educational institutions of a new and inde- pendent character: the General Education Board, the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, and the Russell Sage Founda- tion. It is an unmistakable fact that our educational advancement of the past fifteen years has been profoundly influenced by these establishments. It has been, in the main, an influence for good. The still more general and largely endowed corporations for public purposes which two of these founders have more recently established give assurance that this will be a continuing influence in our national life. 10. This has been the "standardizing" period in our educational his- tory. The brunt of the battle for standards has been borne by the state universities in their relations with public and private high schools; by certain state departments of education, notably that of the state of New York; by the Carnegie Foxmdation for the Advancement of Teaching; and by various educational societies, as the Association of American Universities, and the Council for Medical Education. 52 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Our rapid expansion has necessarily produced a great amount of sap- wood, which time alone can solidify into sound educational timber. This is a danger, but in some measure it has been offset by the critical attitude of ovu- standardizing agencies. Such standardizing does little or nothing to help oiu: best work or our best institutions. But even the establishment of levels of common respectability is of itself a useful service. How effect- ively has the method of publicity, making use of such standards within the past few years, relieved our medical education from some of its worst abuses! 11. There has been an extraordinary increase in high-school attendance. While the total registration in elementary and secondary schools has increased 32 per cent, the registration in our public and private high schools has increased 87 per cent, and is now not far from a total of 1,400,000. It is a significant fact that, in the meantime, great numbers of the high schools have been advancing as regards their length of course and their require- ments for graduation. They are now generally four-year schools. Some of the most interesting of recent discussions have related to schools of this grade, their length of course, their relations to schools below and above, and the place of vocational studies in any general scheme for their development. 12. Our advance in education for the fine arts and for art appreciation, for morals and religion has been painfully slow and uncertain. Neverthe- less, the period under consideration has seen undertakings of considerable importance in all of these fields, some of which have had passing mention under other heads. 13. The main lines of our provision for the training of teachers had been sketched out in the nineteenth century. But our training schools have been greatly improved, and the demand for training teachers and super- visors has become more general. Our pedagogical literature has been largely re-written in a more scientific and scholarly spirit than that which had been dominant up to the later years of the nineteenth century. Professor Monroe's Encyclopedia of Education is typical of this change. 14. It is in this period that the people of the United States have seriously undertaken the education of distant and dependent peoples. 15. A distinct advance has been made in certain types of educational internationalism. Among the most interesting of these are exchanges of university professors and the growth of such societies as the cosmopolitan clubs in our colleges and the School Peace League in the elementary schools. Those who are aware of the world-statesmanship that finds expression thru our various missionary societies will feel the appropriateness of adding the growth of co-operation among the institutions of higher education conducted by missionary bodies in non-Christian lands. The great Con- gress of Arts and Science held in conjunction with the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis and the series of Pan-American Scientific Congresses, are added evidence of the advance of education into an international or even an ecumenical stage of its development. Sessions] EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF PAST FIFTEEN YEARS $3 So runs an imperfect list of things accomplished and things undertaken. How much of this is progress ? How much is pioneering along misleading trails ? How much is gain that has been bought with loss ? The time has not come to answer these questions with any certainty. I am confident that ultimate balance will be found on the side of the good; but I do not question that there have been losses as well as gains. In any case, we shall not be so much interested in these matters as sheer history as we shall be interested in their bearing on the new age that is before us. The period we are considering has, in some ways, been altogether wonderful. So far as invention and discovery are concerned, it has shown no slackening of the great pace which the nuieteenth century has set. The age of world-exploration has culminated within this half-generation with the discovery of both of the poles of the earth. The realm of the air has been twice conquered, by the aeroplane and by the wireless telegraph. The motor car and the submarine, while not unknown to the nineteenth century, have revolutionized warfare at sea and transportation upon the land. The terror of yellow fever, of meningitis, and of half a dozen other diseases has been broken, if not destroyed. The discovery of radium has opened a new lead into the central mysteries of the physical universe. New combinations of sanitation, mechanical device, and industrial organiza- tion have made possible the Panama Canal and other engineering works that may compare with it in magnitude. The age is not an ignoble one which has such achievements as these to its credit, even tho a great part of its mechanical and industrial gains have just now been turned into the work of deliberate and wholesale destruction. But again, we feel that we are in the early dawn of civilization, and we look forward to the next succeeding work of education and the part it is to have in bringing on the new day and the work of that new day. As it would appear to us now, there are three capital and overshadowing issues that must be met on the threshold of that coming age. These are, first, the issue of justice and good- will among nations; secondly, the issue of justice and good-will among the different races of men; and thirdly, the issue of justice and good- will as between the different classes of our industrial society. It is no part of my purpose now to discuss these three paramount issues. We are to consider rather what relation our education is to have to the determination of those issues. And let us say in all frankness that the educational systems of Europe have proved disappointing because of their apparent lack of influence in the present crisis of world-affairs. Schoolmasters, school systems, universities, and all, have simply been swept along by the stream of national belliger- ency. We have no reason to suppose that the case would have been greatly different if our own land had been involved in the conflict. An ancient cartoon, discovered, I believe, at Pompeii, represents a dragon harnessed to a chariot, while a tiny butterfly, sitting on the chariot 54 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General rail, is holding the reins. It may have been intended to represent Seneca as the teacher and guide of Nero. For the present age, it represents educa- tion, the higher life, the spiritual life, attempting to direct and tame a world of violence. Looked at with the ironical insight of this Roman cartoon, the problem of educational progress becomes as imperative and strenuous as war itself. Methods and materials are not unimportant nor are the forms of adminis- tration. But the great thing is the question whether we can frame institu- tions of education sufficiently powerful to mold our national life and guide it in ways of righteousness. With all of its bigness, our education will be too petty an affair, imless its results shall come out beneficently and de- cisively in times of national stress and strain. It is the function of a na- tional educational association to plan, from the ground up, a national system which shall be equal to the demands of any national emergency as well as equal to the daily needs of the nation. WOMAN AND WAR MRS. PHILIP SNOWDEN, LIVERPOOL, ENGLAND This is the first time it has been my high privilege to touch upon the organized educational movement in this country. What I think and feel about it I will express in one short sentence: To see you is a means of grace and to know you, thru your leaders, is a liberal education. It is entirely fitting that questions of peace and war should be dis- cussed at a gathering of this character. As it is certain that ignorance in the large sense of that word is the great inclusive cause of war, so is it true that education, in the true meaning and only just impUcation of that term, is the real and abiding remedy. It would be inevitable that these matters should be spoken of even were they not suitable. The war has become an obsession for all feeling, thinking persons. AU their thought and theory are related to it. None can escape an interest in it and few, a sense of, at least, a partial responsi- bility for it. Bad poUtics, selfish diplomacy, and cruel commercialism have played their part, but it is to the negative goodness of good men and women quite as much as to the positive badness of bad women and men that we must look for the responsibiUty for war and for the things which make for war. Had Jane Addams been present to give this address, as it was hoped she would be, she would most eloquently have voiced the special relation of women to this greatest of all hiunan calamities. For myself, altho ten years of public life have been spent in urging the just claims of women to industrial Uberty and pohtical freedom, I am all the time conscious that, in the bundle of human life, men and women are boimd together for weal or Sessions] WOMAN AND WAR 55 woe. Men and women together suffer from war, are both responsible for it, and side by side aspire to make the dreadful thing forever impossible. But the sufferings of women are in many ways special and peculiar. Men, at least, escape the horror of feeling their own bodies loathsome to them because of what has happened to them at the hands of the conqueror. Someone has finely said that "truth is the first casualty in war"; and never was a greater untruth spoken than that war is waged for the protec- tion of women and homes. In Europe today millions of women are mourning their dead or weeping over ruined homes. Facing a lonely future, they are compelled to under- take the double burden of child-rearing and bread-winning under an industrial competitive system which knows no mercy for the weak. Out of their scanty means they have to pay for the ravages of war. See the conscript woman's hard, lined face, old at forty, doing the work that shall set free her men to learn their dreadful trade of killing. See also the field of selection limited and competition increased in the woman's distinctive sphere of race-building, so that the weak and feeble become the fathers of the generation that is to be. All this is woman's case against war. What is her responsibility for it and what her share in the making of permanent peace ? No part in the political guilt which has led to this war can be directly charged to women as a whole, since in Europe they are almost entirely without political power. It is in the nursery their responsibility lies. They have given to their chil- dren martial toys and books; they have sometimes dressed them in soldier clothes, imitating these fashions in their own garments; they have spoken of soldiers and their deeds in language which could not fail to give the impres- sion that the life of the soldier is "the lordliest life on earth"; they have failed to teach the lessons of peace in the schoolroom; they have responded, too eagerly for wisdom, to the commanding strains of a miUtary band. A great English divine once said that wars would cease when women hated the cruelties of war more than they loved the courage of the soldier and the trappings of militarism. It is for women, as for men, to teach the young by example and precept, that the gay and glorious exterior of war is but a mask to hide the grinning skeleton within. And as the young brains develop, and the young minds begin to think, it is the business, perhaps more particularly of the woman, the mother, or the teacher, to show that war in these days is not due to the urge of noble ambition, tho the fighters believe it to be so. Most of the youths and men who are giving their lives in this most wicked war believe that they die in the cause of freedom, and, since they believe it, all is well for them. But the appalling fact remains, which men and women must recognize if wars are ever to cease — that modern wars are due to the dread- ful ambition of kings and kaisers, or to the still meaner ambition of pluto- crats and poUtical adventurers. 56 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iGeneral Let it be the business of thinking men and women to impress upon the mind of youth that war never settles anything — "For how can war but endless wars still breed ?"; that nothing has ever been achieved or can be achieved by war that could not have been achieved and cannot be accom- plished by other means if men would will it so; that there is enough in the strife against bad social conditions, against crime and vice in all its forms, to develop all the perfection of which men and women are capable; that it takes far more courage to be wilUng to be thought a coward for the sake of principle, than to fight; that mihtarism cannot be destroyed by militarism; that only good can destroy evil, and that the divine purpose of hmnan brotherhood is an ideal worthy of man's highest endeavor. I am by temperament and by intellect an optimist, and yet there are times when, in contemplating the actuality, the fact of this great calamity, my spirit has been clouded and I have felt it useless to go on preaching the gospel of decency of thinking and living; but the mood vanishes on second thought. "God's in his Heaven"; the vast purposes of the infim'te mind remain imbroken, so all must be well with the world. And, in Browning's phrases: It's wiser being good than bad; It's safer being meek than fierce; It's fitter being sane than mad; My own hope is, a sun will pierce The thickest cloud earth ever stretched; That at the last returns the first Tho a wide compass round be fetched; That what began best, can't end worst, Nor what God blest once prove accurst. EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS IN NEW ZEALAND SINCE igoo MARK COHEN, EDITOR, "EVENING STAR," DUNEDIN, NEW ZEALAND You must bear in mind that when New Zealand was given constitutional government she had a central body styled the general government and a niunber of smaller political entities known as provincial governments. These latter — a modified form of state — ^were ruled by a superintendent, a provincial executive, and a provincial council, possessing restricted powers of legislation; but these provincial legislatures had complete control over such matters of importance as the administration of crown lands, immigra- tion, and education. Settled as New Zealand was by independent agencies — mostly of British origin — having either a racial or a reUgious foundation, it naturally followed that the administration of education assumed a dis- tinctly provincial "color," which was more or less sectional rather than national or "colonial." In the course of years, there was a sharp conflict for mastery between the central and provincial governments. Tho pro- vincial governments passed out of existence in 1876, provincial boimdaries Sessions] NEW ZEALAND EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS SINCE IQOO 57 were practically maintained intact for many years later and the adminis- tration of education retained its provincial characteristics, producing a very healthy rivalry between the several districts. In 1877, legislation was passed and a central Department of Education was created with a respon- sible minister of the crown at its head. Their handiwork was, however, subjected to fierce criticism from the secularists, or rather the anti- denominationalists, and from the provincialists who sat in parliament. In the end, the former succeeded in making a revolutionary change and stamped on the incipient scheme of national education the leading features, which it retains to this hour, and which make our education free, secular, and compulsory. It is only fair to say right here that the administration of education by the new authorities was marked by wisdom, enthusiasm, and public spirit of a high order and a generous rivalry between the various provinces was evolved. I must here startle you with a few figures (Table I) to convince you that the parliament of New Zealand and the people follow- ing the lead of parliament have never been niggardly in financing the national scheme. I shall take five yearly periods, the figures quoted being in every case to the nearest £1,000. TABLE I zgoo 190S-6 1911-13 1913-14 Primary (including native schools and training colleges) £467,000 3,000 5,000 12,000 19,000 4,000 £611,000 37,000 4S,ooo 34,000 31,000 S,ooo £ 892,000 91,000 52,000 30,000 40,000 14,000 £1,095,000 162,000 Secondarj' Continuation and technical Higher 63,000 73,000 49,000 33,000 Industrial Superannuation Total £510,000 £763,000 £1,119,000 £i,47S,ooo Thus with a population of 1,070,000 (includiag about 50,000 Maoris), we are near spending over one and a half millions sterling on education. In a word, we are spending over £27 per head of our population for the support of national education, compared with s d England 13 2 Scotland 10 7 United States 18 7 New Zealand (on primary) 19 3 These figures exclude new schools and additions not contributed out of the public funds. Tho New Zealand has been fortunate in having as the political head of the education department men of commanding personality, I must, in truth, award the pride of place to the late Richard John Seddon, who has left the impress of his great mind on the educational history as well as on the imperialistic side of New Zealand's affairs. That he, a practically unlettered man, should have taken such a whole-souled interest in public 58 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General education and should have been the moving force that compelled attention to educational reform at a time when his mind was preoccupied with matters of grave imperial concern is to me one of the most amazing features of our public life. But so it was. In 1901, he appointed a Royal Commission on Salaries and School Staffs, which was immediately followed by legislation that has paved the way for the institution of a colonial scale of salaries and has removed many anomalies. In some educational districts, however, the boards had bmlt up "ring fences," which it was impossible either to scale or to slip thru, against the employment of teachers trained or employed in adjoining districts; in others, salaries barely sufficient to keep body and soul together were paid, while at the same time teachers were expected to possess high-grade certificates; and in some quarters the service was seething with ill-concealed disaffection, resulting in wholesale retirements. Things had come to a pretty pass when the 1901-2 Commission presented its report, which showed that the teachers' grievances were many and real. Mr. Seddon was a man of action and the succeeding session produced imme- diate and appreciable relief. He also instituted a Teachers' Appeal Court. In 1906, a measure of superannuation was given to teachers, which, tho not so liberal as that accorded to the police, the railway service, and the branches of the public service, was a tardy recognition of the right of the public school-teacher to be grouped with and to be dealt with as equitably as any other department of state. In this relation the Royal Commission on Education of 191 2 reported as follows: Members of the education service who did not elect to become contributors to the Superannuation Fimd before the coming into effect of the Amendment Act of 1908 were permanently shut out from the benefits of the fimd. Under the original act, they had the right to become contributors without loss of back service whenever they found themselves financially able to comply with the conditions imposed by the Superannuation Board. This right was withdrawn, without notice, and much hardship therefore has been inflicted on many old and faithfid servants of the state. The Education Committee of the House has twice recommended that a further opportimity should be given to teachers and others permanently employed on January i, 1906 to become original members of the fund. Your Commission indorses this recommendation, and suggests that legislation be enacted giving the persons referred to above the right to become original members of the fund on payment of back contribution together with interest on such contributions calculated at the rate of 5 per cent per annum; the privilege to be limited to one year. It is also recommended that retiring allowances be paid on the three best years of salary, or on the last three years, at the option of the contributors. It was further recommended that the government actuary be asked to ascertain the amoimt of increased contribution required from men in service to secure for widows an allowance of £26 a year, instead of £18, as at present; and that when this is obtained a referendum of male contributors to the fund be taken as to their willingness to contribute the additional amoimt required. It affords me very great pleasure to be in a position to tell you that, despite many predictions that have been proved to be false, the Teachers' Superannuation Fimd continues to grow at a satisfactory rate. At the present time, the balance at credit stands at over £300,000 while the annual Sessions] NEW ZEALAND EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS SINCE igoo 59 contributions by the subscribers exceed £400,000. The subsidy by the state, which was originally £7,000, has now been increased to £17,000 per annum. The fund has been so wisely administered by its board of manage- ment, to which the teachers elect their special representatives, that today it yields from investments alone the splendid smn of £13,000 per annum. It provides a net annual income of about £70,000 and the charges on the fund are about $22,000 a year. So far the attempt to deal equitably with those teachers who, tho not in the service on January i, 1906, or on Octo- ber 10, 1908, were permanently employed in 191 2 has not been successful, but the hope is confidently expressed that our parliament will yet see its way to deal out even-handed justice, and will allow these teachers, who are ready and willing to pay back contributions, plus interest at 5 per cent as for January i, 1905, to count service as from the latter date. And we hope to induce parliament to increase the allowance to teachers' widows from £18 to £26 per annum, subject to male contributors agreeing to increase their contributions to enable that to be done. Notwithstanding these con- cessions to public opinion, there has of recent years been such a steady advance in the cost of living in New Zealand, especially since the financial crisis in this country in 1907, that the teaching profession has felt the strain equally with other sections of the community, and has joined with them in demanding substantial relief. At the same time, there was voiced both outside and inside of parliament fairly substantial complaints that the quality of the education imparted in our schools suffered by comparison with less ornate and less burdensome syllabi; that there was a want of co-ordination between the various divisions of state education; that there was overlapping; and that the taxpayer was not getting value for his money. To set these doubts at rest, and to pave the way for further reforms, the Mackenzie government in the winter of 191 2 set up a Royal Commission to investigate these charges. Instead of two and one-half months, the Commission ought to have had at least four months in which to do its work, and its inquiries ought not to have been restricted as they were to visiting only the centers of population. The Royal Commission was directed to inquire into alleged grievances on the part of the teachers, to simplify the syllabus, so as to secure "continuity of instruction" thruout the national scheme on lines that would retain a maximum of local interest, and to insure complete responsibility in every grade of educational activity. But above all, in recommending reforms, the Commission had to be most careful that the execution of these reforms did not intrench too largely on the public purse. These weaknesses among others were found to be inherent in the system: complexity of the central administration; a difficulty in securing satisfactory management in small education districts; a want of uni- formity, aim, and method among the inspectors; unsatisfactory methods of appointing and promoting teachers; an indefinite and complicated syllabus; unsuitable school buildings and equipment, likewise inadequate 6o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General playgrounds; lack of co-ordination between primary and higher branches of education; want of facilities for rural training. On the other hand, the Commission found, with the utmost satisfaction, that the ofl&cials of every grade were devoted to duty; that our local authorities rendered splendid service without fee or reward; that the inspectors and teachers were zealous and of high attainments; that a considerable measure of success had been attained in the appUcation of modern methods of education to the problems of everyday life, and that there was "a readiness on the part of the people to take advantage of the national system, as shown by the high percentage of attendance maintained particularly in those portions of our Dominion where climatic £ind other conditions are unfavorable." Thus last year the total attendance was 172,108 in December, 1913, and the aver- age attendance for the whole year 151,242, being records for the Dominion. The Royal Commission made a series of drastic recommendations, which I shall not recount in detail, but I shall make passing references to the principal ones. The first recommendation was the institution of a National Council of Education to be presided over by the minister as ex-officio chairman and to be assisted by the following four official representatives within the nomi- nation of the minister: a director of education; a supervisor or director of technical education; two representatives of our chief producing industries; and ten other elective members as follows: one representative of the board's inspectional stafis; one of each of the five new education boards; two of the certificated primary school-teachers; one of the certificated secondary school-teachers; one of the senate of the university. This Coimcil was to meet half-yearly, and at such other times as the minister might deem necessary, and its duties were thus defined: (i) to report to the minister and advise him upon methods or of developments in state education in other coimtries which, in the opinion of the Council, can be advantageously introduced into the Dominion; (2) to report to the minister on any question relating to national education; (3) to report to the minister on all questions relating to the administration of national education within the Dominion, as well as to the co-ordination of all branches of such education; (4) to prepare a uniform code of regulations dealing with guiding principles but omitting details referring to school curricula, school attendance, the staffing of schools, etc., and making pro- vision for the payment of inspectors' and teachers' salaries; for the erection and equipment of schools; for the cost of transferring teachers; for the conveyance and board of pupils; for grants of scholarships and free places; for the control of training colleges; for the maintenance of higher education; and for the control of other institutions administered by the department. A report was to be made annually in July to parUament. The government of the day — there has been a change of administration while the Commission was considering its report — referred this report to Sessions] NEW ZEALAND EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS SINCE IQOO 6l the Parliamentary Committee on Education, which took further evidence and made other recommendations that were embodied in legislation last year. The election of the first Coimcil was held in May last, and it was especially gratifying to find that that body includes several of my colleagues of the Commission of 191 2, besides a number of coworkers whose lifelong labors in the cause of education entitle them to seats on this advisory body, which if rightly handled will be capable of giving material assistance to the minister and will be of immense help in shaping the future educational policy of our country. Another recommendation of this Commission was to reduce the number of existing education boards from thirteen to five, making their districts coterminous with those of the university colleges as far as practicable. It was also recommended that these new boards should have greatly extended powers and enlarged responsibilities — be given, in fact, the complete con- trol over education within their several spheres of activity. And similarly it was recommended that the school committees should have conferred on them additional powers and be given an assured finance thru the medium of the consolidated revenue. It was further recommended that the inspectors should continue to be the employees of the education boards and be entirely responsible to the latter; and that their emolument should be increased to a minimimi of £400 and a maximum of £650 by yearly increments of £10, together with a liberal scale of traveling allowances. But parliament, while adopting this salary scale, decided to transfer the inspectorate to the control of the education department so that from January i last these ofl&cials have been entirely controlled by the central authority and are under the immediate supervision of the new director of education. Thus another link between local and central administration has been snapped. Little by little, local administration, which in past years has done so much for the cause of national education in New Zealand, has been sapped and under- mined, and there are many who share my opinion that it is only a question of time when the process of conversion will be complete, and when the entire administration of education in our land will rest in the department. The question of the retention of the boards proved such a bone of conten- tion that the parliamentary committee was not able to solve it to its satisfaction and it was remitted to another Royal Commission whose report had not been made public when I left New Zealand, but I shall not be sur- prised if it recommends that the number should be nine, which will obviously mean a rectification of educational boundaries. Tho the Commission of 191 2 reported against those who asserted that the primary-school children were not so well grounded in the three R's as the children who passed thru our schools twenty-five years ago, the dis- affected were neither insignificant nor non-observant. But the weight of evidence went to show that the boys and girls of today are "just as well grounded, and are, moreover, more resourceful and more self-reliant than 62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Gentnl scholars of a decade since." There was a chorus of unanimous approval of the syllabus introduced into our primary schools by the late inspector- general of schools, who has just retired from the service on a well-earned pension, and who as an educational reformer has done yeoman's service, which will yet be acknowledged, tho all may not accept his methods as salutary. But the aim and scope of the present scientifically designed syllabus are generally indorsed. StUl, in my judgment, it is not sufficiently elastic and this view is borne out by the Commission, which was strongly of opinion that " the time has come when it is advisable to make alterations and modifications, in order to impress on all concerned the paramount importance of paying the utmost attention to those essentials which in a primary-school course should ever be the first consideration." For example, had the syllabus been less complex, I would have strongly pressed for the inclusion of a systematic course of civics. What has happened in Europe and in Great Britain, and in a lesser degree in the British overseas Dominions, has only stressed the need for a sane patriotism, which must have its origin in the pubUc schools. I am as strong as anyone in this vast audience in emphasizing the profound virtues of peace, but I will not accept a peace-at-any-price. No peace that is not built on justice and honor can ever be lasting, and a peace patched up by motives of expediency or brought about by cowardice or fear is worse than any war, because the national honor, which is and should always be the highest consideration, has been dragged in the dust in order to insure a transient settlement. If the duties and responsibilities of true citizenship can be taught in our public schools, as I am aware they are taught in France with excellent results, even an already overloaded syllabus will have to submit to further pruning, if need be, to make room for their appearance on the daily time-table. In this relation I am reminded of some wise words spoken in England recently by the lady principal of a great hospital, who said: What is needed is a complete change of attitude on the part of teachers and taught alike — a shifting of the center of gravity, so to speak, from the individual, or the little community of school, to the large community — the state itself. We have been warned by an acute and philosophic observer that the result of the war will be an extension of the direct control and authority of the state. If that is the development in store for us, unless the autocracy of the state is to result in a soulless and irksome tyranny, the intelli- gent and volimtary co-operation of all citizens is essential, and training in citizenship is of more importance than ever to us all. What, then, are the chief aims in impressing on our children the duty of citizens toward the state ? What meaning are they to put into that august word "patriotism," which, incredible as it may seem to our allies, has already acquired a tinge of discredit in certain quarters. Three causes have hindered England's national welfare. These are: Contempt for work, and that knowledge which can only be gained by steadfast work; an inordinate appreciation of wealth; and a lack of dis- cipline— especially of self-discipline — which has made us slow to subordinate personal aims, personal advantage, and personal ambition to the common good. Is this true indictment ? Can it be honestly said that any or all of these evils are absent from our schools ? Sessions] NEW ZEALAND EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS SINCE IQOO 63 You doubtless know that New Zealand has put herself in line with those older nations that are persuaded by the stern logic of facts that to be prepared for war is the best way to avert war. Thus compulsory military service is the law of our land, and I am very proud indeed of the part I took in bringing about the demilitarization of our school cadets, and the placing of the lad over fourteen years in the ranks of the senior cadets where he remains until he is eighteen and then, if medically fit, passes automatically into the defense force. Then he must fight for the defense of the country against external foes, but will be a soldier of the Empire only if he volun- tarily offers so to do. From twenty-five to thirty he remains in the reserve. In recognition of the splendid past service of the officers and lads constitut- ing the junior cadets we recommended and this has since been done: That the teachers who have so willingly given up their time and devoted so much personal attention to forwarding the movement should receive commissions either in the territorials or in the senior cadets. We see no reason why the junior cadets, besides being permitted to wear a uniform dress in keeping with their altered conditions, should not continue to engage in squad and company drill and other manoeuvres consistent there- with, should not practice shooting with miniature rifles, and should not where possible adopt the best of boy-scout methods. These methods are designed in the main to upbuild character; and whatever makes for the strengthening of the moral as well as the physical side of boy nature must ultimately produce good, honest, upright, and God-fearing citizens. How keenly we watch educational methods in the United States and how eager we are to adapt them to our own circumstances is seen in two recommendations mentioned in the report. We recommended, in the first place, the abolition of the existing system of scholarships; that, instead of compulsory examinations for free places at secondary institutions and tech- nical schools, the head teachers of all schools approved by the inspectors in the district should "accredit" their pupils for promotion; that free-place holders should be required to attend at a secondary school for at least two years; that no grant for a new school should be given unless it was provided with at least four acres for a playground; that Wisconsin's system of consolidated schools should be followed and be applied to high as well as to primary schools. One recommendation may appear to some of you to be of a somewhat startling nature, but I regard it as forecasting a useful if novel experiment: Boards of education should be encouraged to nominate periodically one inspector, or one primary school-teacher, or one secondary school-teacher, or one technical school- teacher, who, in recognition of zeal shown in his or her work, shall, if the Council see fit, be given one year's leave on full pay, for the purpose of studying schemes of national education in force in other parts of the world. By the adoption of this valuable suggestion and by the extension of the scheme of the exchange of teachers in various parts of the British Empire, it is hoped that the various branches of our educational service will be encouraged to give their best service to the state and be rewarded accord- ingly. I have neither the time nor the intention to encroach on your 64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Genera patience by traversing a number of other equally important recommenda- tions made by this Commission. Suffice it that I tell you in a hurried way that we are paying great attention to the development of agricultural education on sound lines, that we are incorporating vocational teaching into the curricula of our secondary and technical schools, and that we are seriously considering the expediency of raising the school age for leaving the primary school to fourteen years. This may well be done if we extend the kindergarten age to six years instead of five. Economic conditions are pressing for the adoption of these reforms, but I must not tarry to discuss them. Now what is the broad, general outlook? A continuous shifting of responsibility from the parent to the state; a feverish desire on the part of our yoimg people to "make good" in the industrial field so that they can earn the increased wage that wage boards and arbitration courts have brought within the reach of those who aspire to be tradesmen, but are rather jacks of aU trades; a shirking of work; the practice of "ca-canny" methods; a contempt for dignified labor in some quarters; a growing love for unclean sport, for sensation, and for life out-of-doors. I am not a pessimist, but I must frankly confess that travel and observation have not inspired me with hope for the futvu-e unless — ^There's the rub! What panaceas will this congress profound for arresting the growth of evils that admittedly are sapping the foundations of family life and are inimical to the practice of that righteousness which alone can exalt and preserve any nation ? And what part, I ask, is the public school to play in the social, domestic, and civic regeneration that is the crjdng need of the present hour ? MY SYSTEM OF EDUCATION MARIA MONTESSORI, MJ)., ROME, ITALY My system is to be considered a system leading up, in a general way, to education. It can be followed not only in the education of little children from three to six years of age, but can be extended to children up to ten years of age. It is not a simple theory, but has been experimented with and put into practice. Its results constitute a scientific proof of its value. Altho the first part of my experiment deals only with children between the ages of three and six years, nevertheless it must be considered as a "directive system" for the education of all children having attained the school age. In fact, my last experiments, not yet known to the pubUc, have been made on children up to ten years of age, and the same directive system has proven satisfactory. The results were of still higher impor- tance than in the first case with smaller children because richer in practical evidence both in the formation of character and in the attainment of knowledge. Sessions] MY SYSTEM OF EDUCATION 65 The fact on which it was possible to estabUsh my system is the psy- chologic fact of the "attention" of the child, intensively chained to any exterior object or fact, which proves in the child a spontaneous, altho com- plex activity of its entire little personality. It will be of some interest to relate here the episode that made me decide to plan out a special method for the education of children. I was making the first experiments in San Lorenzo (Roma), trying to apply my principles and part of the material that I had previously used in the education of backward children. A little girl, about three years of age, was deeply absorbed in the work of placing wooden blocks and cylinders in a frame for that purpose. The expression of her face was that of such intense attention, that it was almost a revelation to me. Never before had I seen a child look with such "fixed- ness" upon an object, and my conviction about the instability of attention which goes incessantly from one thing to another, a fact which is so char- acteristic in little children, made the phenomenon the more remarkable to me. I watched the child without interrupting her, and counted how many times she would do her work over and over. It seemed that she was never going to stop. As I saw that it would take a very long time, I took the little armchair on which she was sitting and placed child and chair on the big table. Hastily she put the frame across the chair, gathered blocks and cylinders in her lap, and continued her work undisturbed. I invited the other children to sing, but the little girl went on with her work and continued even after the singing had ceased. I counted forty-four different exercises which she made, and when she finally stopped, and did so absolutely inde- pendently from an exterior cause that could disturb her, she looked around with an expression of great satisfaction, as if she were awakening from a deep and restful sleep. The impression I received from the observation was that of a discovery. The same phenomenon became very common among those children, and it was noticed in every school in every country where my system was intro- duced; therefore it can be considered as a constant reaction which takes place in connection with certain exterior conditions that can be well estab- Ushed. Each time a similar "polarization" of the attention occurred, the child began to transmute itself completely; it became calmer, more expres- sive, more inteUigent, and evidenced extraordinary interior qualities, which recalled the phenomena of the highest mentality. When the phenomenon of polarization of the attention had occurred, all that was confused and drifting in the conscience of the child seemed to assume a form, the mar- velous characters of which were reproduced in each individual. This reminded one of the Ufe of man that may be scattered indiscrimi- nately in a chaotic condition, until a special object attracts it and gives it a fixed form, and then only is man revealed unto himself and begins to live. This spiritual phenomenon, which may coinvolve the whole conscience of 66 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General the adult, is therefore but one of the ever-present aspects of the "formation of the inner life." It is met with as a normal beginning of the inner life of children, and it foUows the development so as to come within the reach of research as an experimental fact. It was thus that the soul of the child gave its revelations, and, guided by these revelations, there arose a method where spiritual liberty became demonstrated. The news of this fact rapidly spread thruout the world, and it was received at first as a miracle. Then little by little, as the experiments were repeated among the most diverse races, the simpUcity and evidence of the principles of this spiritual treatment were recognized. When you have solved the problem of controlling the attention of the child, you have solved the entire problem of its education. The importance of a scheme to concentrate the attention is self-evident. Professor William James, the renowned authority on psychology in America, points out to us how there exists in children that exterior variability of attention that makes it so difficult to give them the first lessons. The reflective and passive character of the attention, by which the child seems to belong less to itseK than to any object that may attract its attention, is the first thing that the teacher must conquer. The ability incessantly to recall a wander- ing and scattered attention, always ready to vanish, is the real root of judgment, character, and will; that system of education that succeeds in bringing this faculty to the highest degree should be the ideal and standard system. To be able to choose objects that will interest and hold the attention of the child is to know the means of aiding it in its mental development. All things which naturally arise and hold the attention with considerable steadiness are those which represent a "necessity" for the child. Toward these things its attention is directed in a natural, almost instinctive way. All other things that attract its attention do so only lightly, transitorily, and for a very short period of time. Thus the newborn child has a series of unco-ordinate movements, but the complex movement of sucking, which is in direct proportion to its need of food, is performed with regularity, co-ordination, and steadiness. We must recognize that something like this is needed for its psychic development. Consider the little girl only three years of age who performs the same exercise fifty times. A crowd is roaming about her, a piano is playing, a chorus is svmg, and nothing can distract her from her deep concentration. In a similar way, the baby holds on to the breast of the mother without being interrupted by any exterior agent and lets go only after its need is satisfied. How shall we choose the means of development by experiments? Since a constant and i>eculiar psychic reaction is an estabUshed fact, it is possible to determine some stimulating (reactive) agents or objects that Sessions] MY SYSTEM OK EDUCATION 67 can aid the spontaneous development. Tl\e character of this reaction itself must be the guide to the choice of these objtcts which are to constitute the implements or tools for this scientific work. Each one of these instruments must be built with every detail to answer the purpose. As the lenses of the optician are made in accordance with the laws of refraction, the pedagogical instrument must be chosen to corre- spond exactly to the psychic manifestations of the child. Such an instrument could be compared to a systematized mental test. It is not, however, established as an external criterion of measurement with the purpose of estimating the instantaneous psychic reaction which it produces, but on the contrary it is a stimulus which must be determined by the psychic reactions which it is capable of producing and maintaining in a permanent manner. It is the psychic reaction which determines and establishes the systematic mental test and the psychic reaction which serves as the sole means of comparison in determining the tests. It is a polariza- tion of the attention and the repetition of the acts to which it corresponds. When a stimulus corresponds in this way to the reflex personality, it serves, not to measure, but to maintain an active reaction. Therefore it is a stim- ulus of inner formation. In fact, it is upon such activity, aroused and maintained, that the associative organism begins its inner elaborations in relation to the stimuli. It is not as a scale for weighing personality that this science comes into the old sphere of pedagogy as it was in the case of the experimental psy- chology introduced in the school up to the present time. It is a science intended for the purpose of "transforming" personality, thus taking the place of a true and real pedagogy. While old pedagogy in all its different interpretations had for its point of view and starting-base the conception of a "receptive personality," which was supposed to receive tuition and allow itself to be passively transformed, this scientific direction presupposes an active personality, reflective and associative, whose activity manifests itself thru a series of reactions derived from systematic stimuli chosen by experiments. This new "pedagogy" belongs therefore to the series of modem sciences not of old speculations. But the method that embodies it, that is to say the attempt, observation, retrying, taking notice of new phenomena, the reproduction of said phenomena and utilizing them, places this new pedagogy among the experimental sciences. Nothing is more interesting than these experiments. By them we can establish, with the greatest precision, all necessary exterior stimuli definite in their qualities and quantity. Small frames, for instance, of different forms, arouse only a temporary and transient attention in a child three years of age; but, gradually enlarging the size of the frames, you will reach that limit at which the attention is steadily held, the activity stimulated by them will be permanent, and the exercise set up in it becomes a factor of development. The experiment is repeated on several children and we 68 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General come to the point where we can establish the right size of a series of objects; in the same way you can proceed to determine the color and all other quali- ties of your material. In order that a quality be "felt" so intensely as to hold the attention, a sufficient size and intensity are required in the stimulus. These can be determined by the degree of psychic reaction in the child in the same way that you establish which is the smallest size of colored surface which can attract the attention of the child upon the colored tablets, and so forth. The quality, then, is determined by the psychic experiment and the activity that it provokes in the child, who remains absorbed for a con- siderable length of time working on the same subject. It is while in this state that the phenomenon of interior development and auto-formation takes place. Of the qualities of the objects one must be picked out which stimulates principally the highest activities of the intelligence; this is the quality that enables the child to verify mistakes. In order to create a process of auto- education, it is not sufficient that the stimulus arouses an activity, it must at the same time direct it; the child must not only be occupied for a long time on an exercise, but it must continue on it without making mistakes. All the physical or intrinsic qualities of the objects must be determined aside from the immediate reaction of attention provoked in the child, also this fundamental characteristic of permitting the control of error, that is, to summon the active collaboration of high activities, such as comparison and judgment. For example, one of the first objects which attracts the attention of the three-year-old child, the solid insets (a series of little cylinders of various dimensions which are taken out and replaced), contains the most mechanical control, because in making one mistake in the replacing of the cylinders, one of them is left without a place. Hence a mistake is an obstacle which can be surmounted only by correction, otherwise the exer- cise can proceed no farther. Furthermore, the correction is so easy that the child accomplishes it by himself. The little problem which has unex- pectedly sprung up before the child like a jack-in-the-box has interested him. It may be noted, however, that the problem which has arisen is not of itself a stimulus to the interest — does not urge the child on to the repetition of the act, or to progress. That which interests the child is not only the sense of handling the objects, but the conscious acquisition of a new power of discrimination, that of recognizing the difference of dimensions among the cylinders, the difference which at first he did not perceive. The prob- lem arises only in relation to the mistake — ^it does not accompany the normal process of development. An interest simply stimulated by curiosity in the problem would not be that formative interest which draws its sources from the needs of life itself and which, therefore, directs the construction of the inner personality. If it were only the problem which led the soul along, it might lose its own spontaneous order as every other external cause which strives to lead life astray on false paths. Sessions] MY SYSTEM OF EDUCATION 69 On the other hand, the experunental criterion for determining the num- ber of objects is quite different. When the instruments have been con- structed with great precision, they provoke an auto-exercise so orderly and responding to the facts of inner development in such a way that at a certain point a new psychic picture is revealed, a sort of upper plane in the com- plete development. Then the child spontaneously abandons the objects, but not with signs of fatigue, altho he is carried along by new energy and his mind is capable of abstraction. At this stage of development the child turns his attention to the external world and observes it in an orderly manner, according to the order which has been formed in his mind along with the preceding develop- ment, and he unconsciously begins to make a series of measured and logical comparisons which represents a real spontaneous acquisition of knowledge. This is the stage henceforth known as the Period of Discovery, discovering which evokes in the child enthusiasm and joy. This higher stage of development is most fruitful because of its later growth. It is necessary that the child's attention should not be detained on these objects when the delicate phenomenon of abstraction begins. For example: The teacher who should at such a moment call the child to renew his activity with the object would in so doing retard his spontaneous devel- opment, would put an obstacle in his path. When that enthusiasm which leads the child to uplift himself and to experience so many intellectual emotions is spent, then one road to progress is closed. The same mistake may be made thru an overabundance of material since it may distract the attention, may cause the use of the material to become mechanical, and may cause the child to pass by his psychological moment without seizing it or even being aware of it. These extra objects (materials) are useless and amid them the soul may lose itself. What must be accurately deter- mined is how much material is necessary and sufl&cient to respond to the needs of the inner life in its development. The observation of the child's expression and of the manifestations of his activities as a whole are the guiding factors in determining the quantity. Perhaps I insist too much on this point in order to reply to the many important objections and suggestions which have been made to me, because there are those who think that the form alone of the problem is able to arouse the interest. In the second series of objects used to educate the eye to dimensions, the control of the error is not mechanical but psychological. The child himself, since his eye is already taught to recognize differences of dimension, will see the error if only the objects are of fixed dimensions and highly colored. For this reason the succeeding objects contain a control of error in their very size and vivid colorings. A control of error of quite a different kind and of a much higher order is found in the material used for the multi- plication table where the control consists in comparing the work itseK with 70 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General the answer, a comparison which necessitates a marked effort of the child's intellect and will and which henceforth places him amid true conditions of a conscious auto-education. The seeming distraction is revealed in its real essence by the happy expression of the children's serious faces animated by the keenest joy. The child, to all appearances, does nothing, but only for a minute; shortly he will speak and will tell us what is taking place within him and then an outburst of activity will carry him on a roxmd of continuous explorations and discoveries. He is saved. On the other hand, here are other children who experienced the same primitive phenomena, but they were surrounded with too many objects. At the moment of maturity they felt themselves seized, forced, actually "boimd with cords" to earth. A diminution of the intensity of the atten- tion given to new objects, instability, and hence weariness are made mani- fest by the cessation of inner activity. The child gives way to lower tendencies, foolish laughter, and disorderly acts. He asks for more objects and still more objects, because he has remained imprisoned in the "vicious whirl of vanities" and he no longer feels the need of gaining reUef from his ennui. Such is also the fate of an adult who, in Ufe's chaos has committed a like error — he becomes imdisciplined, weak, and "is in danger of losing himseK." If someone does not help him and, tearing away all imnecessary objects, point out to him "his heaven," it will be difficult for him to have the energy to attain it by himself. These two extreme types give an idea of the criteria by which one determines in an experiment the "quantity" of the objects used for develop- ment. The "too much" weakens and retards progress. This has been proven again and again by all my collaborators. If, on the other hand, the material is insufficient and the natural auto-exercises are tmable to lead up to that state of maturity which raises one, there is no outburst of that spontaneous phenomenon of abstraction which is the second step in that auto-education which goes forward in infinite progression. This same fimdamental phenomenon of intense and prolonged attention leading to a repetition of acts guides one in finding the stimuli which are suitable to the child's age. A stimulus which causes a child of three to repeat an act forty times in succession may cause another child of six to repeat the same act only ten times; the object which quickens the interest of the three-year-old cannot quicken the interest of the six-year-old child. However, the child of six is capable of far greater attention than the three- year-old, when the stimulus is in direct relation to his activity. If the child of three has a maximum power of repetition, say of forty times in succession, the six-year-old is able to repeat an act in which he is interested two hundred times. If in the case of a three-year-old child the maximum period of con- tinuous work on the same object is half an hour, for the six-year-old it may be more than two hours. Sessions] MY SYSTEM OF EDUCATION 71 Thus tests give positive psychic characteristics which can ahnost be measured according to age. Analogously, since there are for the various ages materials for progressive development upon which the various person- aUties can react differently, it is possible to determine with scientific pre- cision the level of the average psychical development according to age, a precision which I consider the famous Binet and Simon tests are far from attaining. A relationship is established between the inner needs and the stimuli. This is a suggestion, however incomplete and insufficient, of the "possi- biUty" of experimentally determining the means for psychic development. They can really be estabUshed and with such precision as to bring into existence a real relationship between the inner needs and the stimuli, just as there exists a relationship of form between the insect and the flower. That is to say, there remains in the organization of the external means for inner development "a material imprint," and this is that of which the soul has need in its path, in its course, in its flights. The material part does not contain the imprint of the whole soul, as the imprint of the foot does not give the imprint of the whole body, as the aviation field is not the place for the extensive course of an aeroplane, but is only a piece of terra firma necessary for the flight, and is also the resting-place, the refuge, the shed to which the aeroplane must always return. Thus, in the psychic forma- tion, there is a material part necessary in order that the spirit may lift itself, and there the spirit must seek support, rest, and refuge. Without this, it cannot grow and rise "freely." In order that this material may be a real support, it must reproduce and contain within itself those forms which correspond to the needs of material help. Thus, for example, in the first part of the psychic life, the material corresponds to the primitive exercising of the senses and is deter- mined in quality and quantity by the sensorial needs supplied by nature, corresponding to the exercise of the activity sufficient in order to mature a superior psychic state of observation and abstraction. Vice versa, nothing in the material corresponds to the successive course thru the world which the infantile spirit completes with such rapture, making great acquisitions of knowledge. Then we see the spirit crying out for exercises of a higher order and behold the same primitive phenomenon of the attention, which henceforth is exercised on the alphabet and on the material for arithmetic, repeating in a more complex form the methodical exercises of the intellect, by correlating the auditory impressions with the visual and motor impres- sions in the written and spoken word, and in the positive study of quantity, proportions, and number. Then the same accompanying phenomena are manifested which are the concomitants of patience, of constancy, and, at the same time, of vivacity and joy, and characteristic of the spirit when the inner energy has found its outlet. The field in which it can exercise itself comfortably and quietly enlarges and the spirit which becomes organized 7« NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General in such a way under the guidance of an order which responds to its natural order, becomes strong, grows flourishingly, and manifests itself in equilib- rium, serenity, and cahn, which then gives that wonderful discipline char- acteristic of the conduct of our children. The practical consequences of such a system of education are: the easy and spontaneous solution of pedagogical problems considered impossible to solve; the reaUzation of ideals thought to be Utopian. From such a system there comes forth a school where the children work for themselves — that is, they are free. In this freedom they work much more than heretofore has been customary in school, not alone without fatigue, but with renewed nervous forces, and they attain culture more rapidly and more efficaciously — that is, they surpass the ordinary level. In fact, children can learn to read and write at four and one-half years of age generally, and in the elementary schools they save from one to two years. This educational problem, which today science propoimds, is solved, tho it was considered among the insoluble questions such as the fourth dimension, perpetual motion, and the squaring of a circle. The problem is to lessen effort and at the same time increase output. In fact, the overworking of pupils has forced hygiene to insist on less work, whereas social progress requires that the schools produce men even more cultured. Furthermore, children brought up imder our method acquire a salient personality, a peculiar formation of character, and they are capable of per- fect discipline, a thing which solves the problem of liberty. For liberty, as it has been tried up to now, brought about either disorder and lack of discipline or a lessening of scholarship. In truth the solution of the question of freedom depends entirely on finding the means which will serve as an aid to spontaneous psychic development, to character and to intellectual culture. In this manner auto-education is also attained, a thing which is impossible unless we determine with precision the means necessary for the child to educate himself — that is, to develop his own activities. Finally, in such a way is a true positive science of education initiated, which up to the present has not been given by pedagogical anthropology nor by German experimental psychology with its applications to the school in the branch called "scientific pedagogy." Such sciences have studied the personality of the pupil but have not changed it, they have pointed out and analyzed the errors of the school, but they have not reconstructed. Besides, if from these sciences there had really arisen a scientific pedagogy capable of transforming man, as the other positive sciences have transformed the environment, it would not have left educators and the public so indifferent; it would have aroused a popular interest since children and the schools are of common interest to all mankind. The scientific pedagogy, as imderstood thus far, does not indeed present anything but the ideal for establishing pedagogy on the lines of positive and experimental science in accordance with the progress of the time and not Sessions] MORAL EDUCATION IN FRENCH SCHOOLS 73 the realization of such an ideal. In fact, the scientific laboratory of experi- mental pedagogy cannot be other than the school itself, where the children live and are transformed. I believe that my system of education is found- ing this laboratory where the first germs of a science of man are visible because of the precision of systematic means, and also because of the effect upon human development. MORAL EDUCATION IN FRENCH SCHOOLS FERDINAND BUISSON, COMMANDER IN THE LEGION OF HONOR; MEMBER OF THE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF THE SEINE, PARIS, FRANCE Here I am, having come from far away, as you know, and having left France in such a perilous and tragic moment that several of you, I am sure, will be surprised to see me here. Not less surprised am I myself to be present at this Congress. Of course, however magnificent and attractive beyond all anticipation your great San Francisco Exposition may be, it would not have been enough at the present hour to induce me to cross the Atlantic and traverse the whole width of the United States. For, as you may well understand, a Frenchman just now has neither eyes nor ears for all the marvels displayed by this wonderful city, so short a time after her miracu- lous resurrection. But our souls, our thoughts remain yonder with those who are fighting, with those who are dying for us. If, therefore, I have come hither, it has been in order to obey the express wish of my government, the wish of my country. Indeed France, in spite of the noise of the guns, has not been deaf to a voice which might have been lost in the tumult of war; I mean the voice of the American government and of this great National Education Association of yours inviting the teachers and educators of our Old World to join you here, happy educators of the New World, in order once more, on this solemn occasion of the Panama- Pacific Exposition, to pay homage to education and to emphasize the great hopes which the world democracy attaches to it. Yes, ladies and gentlemen, even in these gloomy days she is traversing, France has been willing to answer your call and not only has the French government decided to send to you an official representative, but also the Federation of the French Teachers' Associations has manifested the desire to accept your teachers' brotherly invitation. Thus I stand before you as representative both of the Education Department and of the Teachers' Federation of France, the latter body niunbering more than one hundred thousand members. Allow me, therefore, assembled teachers and educators of this, the greatest and most advanced republic of the world, to salute you in the name of our minister of public instruction, M. Sarraut, and in the name of your brother and sister teachers of France, whose director I had the 74 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General honor to be for many years, and whose friend I feel still more honored to remain forever. In their name and in the name of all those in France who are acquainted with the wonderful achievements and progress of your admirable system of national education, I congratulate you and thank you for having so highly and so triumphantly proved to the world that to make free men is the best means to make free nations. I have been asked to speak to you on some aspect of French education, with the liberty of selecting my own subject. In the limited time allowed me, I unhesitatingly select what seems to me the most characteristic and original feature in the whole school system of our republic, for we have placed at the basis of education what we call the lay teaching of moral instruction, la morale laique. Now you will ask me the real meaning in these words, la morale latque. Some people believe, or affect to believe, that this is an anti-religious conception. They have been influenced by the accusation of the polemists who have called the elementary school a godless school. It is not so. The main idea of our republic, roughly indicated as early as the time of our First Republic and fully realized by the Third Republic, is that the nation having become the sovereign of her destinies, must take care of her future, and, as we say, "rest secure of the morrow." She must be certain that none of her children will remain a social good-for-nothing. She must manage so that each one of them may receive the minimimi of culture without which a man would not be fitted to fulfil his functions as a citizen. What is this minimum ? Is it enough to provide a child with what you ironically have called the three R's? You have answered "No!" We answer the same, with renewed emphasis. But besides the various new subjects which have been added to the elementary-school program, there is one and the most important of all, we think — the teaching of universal morality. There is, in our opinion, an A B C of the conscience just as there is an A B C of science. And the early teaching of those primordial elements of morality have been considered by us as not less indispensable than those of language and calcu- lation for all children. The state in France does not believe that it may abandon this function of teaching morality, this duty of moralizing child- hood, so to speak, to the parents, to the families, to the churches, or to other private institutions. Our state considers that it is a national duty to trans- mit pure, intact, and complete these first notions which are at the basis of all the moral and social order. Let us consider what such a view implies. Is it therefore true that it is possible to constitute an elementary teaching or moral code suitable for all young children without distinction and without danger of running counter to any religious conviction ? Sessions] MORAL EDUCATION IN FRENCH SCHOOLS 75 Is it true that there are rules of conduct so common and general, so imperative and at the same time so banal, that the humblest school is justified in prescribing them as practical axioms to the teaching of which no parents can have the least objection ? "Yes, it is true," says France, and now for more than thirty years the elementary-school program, which no longer includes religious teaching, has found a place for moral instruction. Several times at successive general elections a large majority of voters has highly approved of this teaching of morality — in the words of Jules Ferry, when he was minister of public instruction, "the teaching of the principles of the good old-fashioned morals which we have received from our fathers and which we honor our- selves in observing in our life without discussing the philosophical basis therefor." He went on to say. Teachers, in this function, you replace the father of the family. Speak then to his child as you would like your own child to be spoken to. Speak with force and energy every time you touch an accepted precept of common morality, but speak with care and with the greatest reserve when you see that you might rim the risk of hurting some religious conviction of which you are not the judge. Ask yourselves before giving utterance to any moral law whether what you are about to say might offend or displease any honest man, and if any head of a family might have objection to the views you express. If you think he would, then abstain; do not speak. If, on the contrary, you are sure no honest man would object to what you are about to say, speak out, speak bravely, for that wisdom you are teaching the child is not your own wisdom, but the wisdom of the human race, one of those ideas of imiversal order which centuries of civilization have introduced into the patrimony of mankind. In doing so the teacher is awakening in the child's mind the idea of what is good, of what is right and wrong, whose aim is to induce the child to love right for right itself. Le bien pour le Men. If the French teacher does not speak of God in teaching morality, it is because he fears that if he spoke of God the Roman Catholic priests or the Protestant pastor, or the Hebrew rabbi might accuse him of having spoken incorrectly. But if he does not speak of God, he makes the heart of the child feel Him, and he reveals to his eyes that universal religion which may be called the religion of the good. In this way our school, far from being godless, teaches all children to love the beautiful, the true, the good, the right, "which are," said Bossuet, "some- thing of God or rather God himself." Ladies and gentlemen, what is the value of this education ? You may judge it at the present hour. A great crisis more tragic than could ever have been foreseen has arisen to put this education to the test, to estimate the price and value of this moral teaching. In the first place, note, if you will, the behavior of our teachers. They are, just as you American teachers are, resolute partisans of that grand ideal of a peaceful civilization which President Jordan set forth so elo- quently this morning. In fact, our French teachers have been denounced 76 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General and upbraided for that love of peace of which they have made public con- fession. It was insinuated that they were even sacrificing their love of country for their love of mankind. Their answer to this charge, as you yourselves know, has been expressed in no uncertain terms. We have seen these avowed pacificists in the very front ranks of those who have laid down their lives in the defense of France. No other group of our people has sacrificed its members more lavishly; no other class of men occupies a larger place in the roll of honor of the heroes of the war. Had the survivors of this noble band, who are still fighting heroically, heard the eloquent address of President Jordan this morning, they too would surely have applauded his generous appeals for the triumph of peace, but they would none the less surely have added that their grand hopes for the future could not make them forget their even greater responsibilities in the present. Peace indeed is what they are wishing and working for, but a righteous peace withal, for an unrighteous peace would be merely crushing justice under the heel of brute force. But this frightful war gave another and more striking confirmation of the true value and eflScacy of the moral teaching in our ^cole laique. What do we see in France during the past thirteen months ? Men who had previously been far apart, in education, in opinions, in creed, have found themselves standing together on common groimd, side by side, facing peril, facing even death itself, and there they have judged one another. At the moment when one was unhesitatingly ready to sacrifice his life, he saw the other, his neighbor, perhaps his adversary in former times, quite ready to do the same. So that those two men, who thought there was apparently nothing in common between them, found on the contrary that they both had the same patriotic faith, the same capacity for devotion to the country. Jew and Christian, lay teacher and Catholic priest, socialist and conservative, have not only poured out their life blood for their country, but have, so to speak, communis dans Vheroisme. They have found the same and only word which sums up for all what they have felt and done — duty. And this very word is also the word taught by our school, by our lay ethics. Everyone is free to add to it what his heart, his reason, his faith suggests to him. The lay school does not kill faith; it kills only hatred. FINANCING PUBLIC EDUCATION JAMES Y. JOYNER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, RALEIGH, N.C. The right of every child to have an equal chance to develop, thru education, every power in him for his own sake, for the state's sake, for the nation's sake, for humanity's sake, is recognized today as inherent and inalienable in our democracy. Sessions! FINANCING PUBLIC EDUCATION 77 The education of all the children of all the people for efficiency, culture, citizenship, and service is happily recognized as a chief function of every American state and community. The financing of an adequate system of public education has, therefore, become one of the most important problems of state and municipal government. In the consideration of this problem three questions arise: the scope of the system of education to be financed; the raising of the funds therefor; the distribution of those funds. THE SCOPE OF THE SYSTEM In recognition of the inherent right of every child in a democracy — the child of one talent as well as the child of ten talents — to have an equal chance to develop every power in him for citizenship and service, the ideal system of education should be continuous and complete from kindergarten to university, absolutely free to all, providing all sorts of education for all sorts of people, adapted to the varied talents, tastes, and capacity of each. Such a system of education is, of necessity, expensive, and the attain- ment of it must of necessity be a gradual and somewhat slow evolution according to the ability of each state and community, co-operating, to meet the expense thereof. In the logical and equitable evolution of any system of public education, adequate financial provision should first be made for that thoro instruction in elementary education, which constitutes the foundation of all education, reaches the greatest number of children, and is within the capacity of all normal children. Secondary education, includ- ing high-school instruction, cultural and vocational, should next be pro- vided to reach the next largest nimiber of children and to raise the general average of intelligence and efficiency among the masses. Lastly should be provided university and other forms of education, special, technical, pro- fessional, etc. If the wealth of the state and the conmiunity, however, is insufficient to provide adequately for all at the same time, secondary educa- tion should not be provided at the expense of elementary education and other forms of education should not be provided at the expense of elementary and secondary. It is desirable, however, to develop all these parts of a complete educational system siniultaneously and symmetrically as parts of an organic whole. The system must not be all feet, all body, all head, for neither can say to the other, "I have no need of thee," and neither should be compelled to wait for the other to get its full growth before it begins to grow — all should grow together harmoniously, symmetrically, organically. The development of these different parts of a complete educational system beyond the elementary must necessarily vary in rapidity and extent as well as in methods of financing, according to the varying wealth of states and communities. 78 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General RAISING THE FUNDS The methods of raising the funds for public education should be based upon the democratic principle of the equalization of a common burden in discharge of a common obligation for the conmion good. This common burden and common obligation is threefold — state, county, and commimity, or district. The only efficient and equitable method in a democracy of bearing such a common burden and discharging such a common obliga- tion is of course public taxation. Out of the threefold burden, obligation, and benefit logically and equitably grows a threefold method of taxa- tion for financing public education — state, county, and community or district. The unequal distribution of wealth among the different counties of the same state necessitates a state tax on all the wealth of the state for the benefit of all the children of the state and for the equalization of educational advantages to them. By such a tax all the strong of all the state help all the weak of all the state, the burden can be borne according to the ability of each to bear it, and the benefits can be distributed according to the needs and the right of each. The unequal distribution of wealth among the different communities or districts of the same county necessitates a coimty tax on all the wealth of all the coimty for the benefit of all the children of the county and the further equalization of educational advantages to them. All the strong of all the coimty help all the weak of all the county, and all the weak help themselves — the burden is distributed in discharge of the common obligation of all the citizens of the county to all the children of the county in proportion to the ability of each to bear it, and the benefits can be distributed according to the need and the right of each child. The state and the county rate of taxation for public education should be fixed, uniform, and mandatory, the proceeds of the former going into the state treasury for distribution thru the county treasury and the proceeds of the latter remaining in each county. The proceeds of the state and county school tax should be distributed first so as to provide as nearly as possible the same minimum of educational opportunity in term, teacher, and equipment in elementary education at least in every school district in every county. After any county shall have levied the required uniform rate for its public schools, it should receive from the state public-school fund the balance needed to bring each of its public schools to the same minimum of educational requirement and opportunity. In other words, equity and the equalization of educational opportunity require that the state and county school funds shall be used first as an equalizing fund. Each legal school district in each county, after paying the same mandatory rate of state and county tax for education, is equitably entitled out of the state and county school fund to the same minimum of educational opportunity, so far as its environment renders this possible. The community or district tax should be voluntary and should be used Sessions] FINANCING PUBLIC EDUCATION 79 exclusively for the further improvement of the district school, supplementing what may be provided from state and county fund. Provision should also be made for voluntarily voting an additional county tax for the further improvement of the county schools. After bearing their just part of providing by mandatory state and county taxation a reasonable minimum of educational opportunity in every school district, both the county and the community or district should be free to vote voluntarily such additional tax as they please for any additional improve- ment of their own schools and should be encouraged to do this by state subsidies and other means for the stimulation of self-help. I believe this threefold method of taxation — state, county, and conmiunity — for financing public education is much to be preferred to the single method of state taxation, because it recognizes the threefold obligation, the threefold burden, and the threefold benefit; it stimulates self-help and local responsi- bility; it appeals to local pride and interest; and it encourages economy of administration. Except in the few states in which the wealth of the state is sufficient to provide adequately without burdensome taxation for financing properly out of the common state school fund all parts of a complete public-school system, it is, in my opinion, wiser to provide separately, and usually by a definite separate tax proportionate to its needs, for each part of the system. This will avoid friction and the accusation that one part of the educational system is being robbed for another part. Harmful criticism and friction are sure to arise, often not without justice, if any considerable part of the school fund is used for secondary, higher, vocational, and other kinds of education before adequate provision has been made for the elementary schools. The usual and perhaps the most equitable method of financing secondary and vocational education is by special state appropriations offered as subsidies to county and community schools complying with certain pre- scribed conditions, based upon duplication of such subsidies by counties and communities by voluntary taxation or donation. DISTRIBUTION OF FUNDS Equalization of educational advantages and equality of educational opportunity is of course the fundamental principle that should control the distribution of all public-school funds raised by public taxation. The unequal distribution of wealth, as we have seen, necessitates, for the equalization of the burden and the advantages of education, state and county taxation whereby all the strong of the state and the county help all the weak of state and county and all the weak of state and county help themselves, each in proportion to his ability. The unequal distribution of population necessitates the distribution of both funds upon some other basis than that of total or school population. Equalization of advantages must take into consideration term, house, 8o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Geoeral equipment, attendance, number and qualifications of teachers. State and county funds for public education must be distributed so as to secure, as nearly as possible at least, an equal minimum of educational opportunity in all of these — first in elementary education, then in secondary education, then in other forms of education. A little consideration makes it almost self-evident without the necessity of detailed explanation or argument that any equitable distribution of school funds must be based upon the number and qualification of the teachers employed and the average attendance. In conclusion, let me illustrate most of the fimdamental principles for financing public education by the concrete example of the methods of raising and distributing public-school funds in North Carolina, the state with whose school system I am most familiar and with the shaping and administration of which I have been closely and continuously connected as state superintendent of public instruction for fourteen years. There are three units of taxation for public education — state, county, and school district or community. The school district includes towns and cities and its territory may be as large or as small as the county board of education, consisting of three appointed members, shall determine, subject however to a minimum of school population in densely populated territory and to a minimum of area in sparsely populated territory, with discretionary power to make this minimum of territory and school population smaller on account of natural barriers — streams, mountains, swamps, etc. The state and county tax for the elementary public schools is a fixed, uniform, manda- tory mill tax. About one-third of the funds from the state tax is appor- tioned to the counties per capita on school-census population, to decrease the burden of providing the required minimum of four months, the school ages being from six to twenty-one years. This is sent to the treasurer of each county to be apportioned by the county board of education as a part of the county school fund, and is added to the county school fimd raised in each county by the mandatory coimty school tax. The county board of education is required to determine annually by itemized estimate the additional amount needed to provide a minimum school term of four months in each school district of the country, rural and urban, after fixing the number and salary of teachers in each, and to levy if necessary an additional county tax sufficient to provide this minimum term of four months in each, provided the required additional special county tax for this purpose shall not exceed fifteen mills. Two-thirds of the fimds from the mandatory state school tax is set aside as an equalizing fund. Each county board of education submits to, the state board of education an itemized statement of the number of teachers, salary, and term provided out of the general state and county school fund in each school district, accompanied with a sworn statement that a minimum term of four months in each district has been provided by law and that the special additional county tax, not to exceed fifteen mills, where necessary Sessionsl FINANCING PUBLIC EDUCATION 8l has been levied and collected for this purpose. Then each county receives from the state equalizing fund a sufficient amount to lengthen the school term in each district to the same minimum of six months or as near thereto as the fund will provide. This method of distributing the state and county school iund derived from a uniform mandatory state and county tax secures a uniform school term in every school district in the elementary schools, based upon the number and the salaries of the teachers actually employed. This minimum term last year in North Carolina was 104 days and the average term for the state was 122 days. The state equalizing fund will, of course, increase with the increasing wealth and property assessment of the state and may confidently be expected to provide a minimum of six months in a few years. Counties, cities, towns, townships, and school districts can provide for lengthening the terms, for increasing the number and salaries of their teachers, for adding high-school and vocational instruction, and for such improvements as they desire by voting additional special county, township, and district tax — one or all — for these purposes. In this way, the sense of local responsibility is strengthened and local pride, initiative, and interest are stimulated. More than one-third of the school districts, all the larger towns and cities, and some entire counties and townships are supplementing their school funds by such special taxes for the improvement of their own schools. The state fund for secondary and vocational education is provided by state appropriation derived from the general tax for state purposes and included in the required levy annually. The distribution of this fund is under the control of the state board of education and is limited to rural high schools and farm-life schools, which are of course vocational. They cannot be established in a town of more than one thousand inhabitants, the number that may be established by state aid is limited to four in a county, and the appropriation to each regular high school and each vocational school or department of a high school is limited to a fixed maximum amount according to number of teachers, attendance, and grade of work, and is conditional upon the duplication by county and district of the amount received from the state, and upon their supplying certain required equipment in buildings, land, laboratory, etc. Everyone of these schools is free to every child in the county. The state university, two colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts, one normal college, and seven normal schools are supported by direct annual appropriation, provided, of course, out of the state tax for general state expenses and included in the annual levy. This North Carolina plan for financing public education is far from perfect and falls far short of a perfect application of the fundamental principles discussed in the first part of this paper for raising and distributing public school funds so as to secure equalization of burden and benefit in education. I have thought it worth while, however, to outline the plan 82 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (General somewhat in detail in the hope that it might serve to illustrate concretely the equity and wisdom of conformance to these principles in so far as it conforms to them and the unwisdom and inequity of the violation of them in so far as it falls to conform to them. MODERN IMPLICATIONS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION ERNESTO NELSON, DIRECTOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION FOR ARGENTINA, S.A. In considering the situation of the secondary school, one cannot fail to note that this branch of pubUc education is undergoing a gradual but nevertheless marked crisis in most countries, particularly where the sec- ondary school still retains much of its former character and function as a preparatory institution in colleges and universities. In what follows, I refer to conditions prevaiUng in the world at large as far as I have studied them by observation and thru educational Hterature. In this connection, I must say I think no country in the world has put the secondary school on a better basis to respond to the demands of democracy than the United States. I confidently expect, therefore, that in dealing, as I do, with the secondary school of tomorrow the American educator will be able to look at this subject from the point of view that traditional conditions are actually giving way to newer ideals of education. The traditional alliance between the secondary school and the university has tended to make the former subservient to the latter by thrusting upon the school the task of imparting the specific information upon which the university is to build the professional culture. In the secondary school of today, therefore, knowledge-getting is still the prominent activity, throwing into shade all other activities more vitally concerned with the character-forming end of education. Informations are what you may call the building blocks of our present systems of secondary education. Information is the factor that conditions the pupil's progress thru school and is so far the only test universally accepted as a measure of the amount of education given or received. The curriculum, the text- book, the recitation method, the marking system, and the examination paper are the most important pieces of our educational machinery. And this costly and formidable machinery is not concerned, as one would think it ought to be, with the self-development of the student and the testing of the real progress of his personaUty, but solely with standardizing, circu- lating, and testing the amount of information a person has to receive in order to be worthy of the privilege of being educated by the state. In former times, the kind of learning the schools would bestow upon those seeking culture was that based on the power of memory to retain the information given by books. Later on the educational reformers pro- Sessions] MODERN IMPLICATIONS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 83 claimed the need of appealing to the thinking powers of the student, and accordingly proper methods were instituted to convey information. Knowl- edge was then still an end to be sought. We now live in an era when educa- tion is considered an activity the full import of which is derived from the facts discovered in our psychological discoveries. The average teacher and even the average person knows that the acquisition of knowledge can no longer be an end in itself; that altho knowledge may be the result of a proper method of education, it does not in itself satisfy all the conditions of the process of education, and that, far from that, if its acquisition is the only goal aimed at, it may bring results that are positively harmful to the cause of education. Is the secondary school of today a tangible exponent of such an evolu- tion of educational thought ? I am afraid it is not. If such were the case, the present machinery of the school would be concerned with the real end of education, the training of the mind, the power to use facts and infor- mation, and to combine them in new ways for new knowledge and for self -creation. I am far from belittling the fact that all education presupposes the getting of information and that science has necessarily to be the subject- matter of any kind of educational activity. But if there can be no educa- tion without knowledge-getting, unfortunately there is a considerable amount of knowledge-getting that does not promote a corresponding educational activity. In the words of John Dewey: Any examination of the prevailing modes of instruction will show that the mere bulk of matter communicated in books and lectures tends to swamp the native and active interests operative in intelligent behavior and in the acquaintanceship it brings. There this matter remains imassimilated, imorganized, not really imderstood. It stands on a dead level, hostile to the selective arrangement characteristic of thinking, matter for memorizing rather than as genuine realities intelligently appreciated. Such an external second-hand body of information is not only useless but positively harmful. I have come to the conclusion that the trouble with the secondary school is that it has not shifted its conception of the essentials of education in the same manner as the average man and woman of the twentieth century have shifted theirs. We all believe that the educated person is he who, in Fichte's words, "is an independent ego, a self-active, self-determined, creative personality, the master of himseK and his environment," while the secondary school, thru its practices, still clings to the old superstition that places above these things the mere retention of facts and the ability to prove this memorization in stereotyped examinations. Inasmuch as practices designed chiefly for the purpose of getting knowl- edge may be detrimental to education, and inasmuch as sound educational activities are invariably followed by the acquisition of genuine knowledge, the thing to do is so to organize the school activities that knowledge of the genuine kind may come as a result of the performance of such activities. 84 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General In other words, if education is an inner process and not an outward result, the obvious need is to organize that process. Up to now the school authorities have been busy organizing knowledge, not education. The school program of today is made up of carefully distributed information among the successive stages of school work. We have yet to devise a system of activities of really educational significance. The laboratory method has been a step in that direction, but an immense amount of such organization to make it consistent thruout remains to be done in all departments of learning. As things are today, the only educators worthy of the name are the manual-training teachers, the drawing teachers, and the teachers of physi- cal training. They are not concerned with the transmitting of information for its own sake. They preside over an activity — the performing, on the part of the pupil, of a set of actions which science and experience have shown to be of educational value to the child. They let nature do the rest. It would be utterly absurd to compel the children to submit themselves after every school year to an examination in either manual or physical training, for this would at once deprive such activities of their educational value. The temptation would be too great to attain the standards sought for at examination time by short cuts, that is, without the performing of a previous educational activity. Results, not processes, would be the real goal, and the whole work would be robbed of its educational significance. Dogma- tism and authority would be the controUing elements and an array of textbooks teUing how to perform the tricks by time-saving and education- saving devices woidd be welcome by teachers and pupils. The gymnasium would be turned into a circus and the manual-training shop into a factory. I think that the most pressing want in the field of secondary education is to devise a system of educational activities covering the same groimd of learning that corresponds to our present curriculimi. When we have accompUshed this, we will have a system of education which will be the intellectual counterpart of the many systems devised for the building up of the hmnan body; for, strange enough, altho many nations claim to possess their own systems of physical education, none has so far organized a system of intellectual education. When we have organized a system of occupations that will bring out the latent individual powers of the pupil, the syllabus, the textbook, and the teacher will be endowed with higher and nobler fimctions. The syllabus will consist of a list of activities that the student will have to perform in order to acquire that very same amount of information that we now try to eUcit from him at recitation time and which he is obliged to get directiy from the books. The syllabus will organize all the elements of constructive work and research which the student should accompUsh in order to develop his personaUty, to train his powers of observation, and to exercise his judgment, as well as to acquire a working knowledge of the facts of science. Sessions] MODERN IMPLICATIONS OP SECONDARY EDUCATION S^ Along with the syllabus, the textbook will no longer be the medium for a clandestinely transferred knowledge. It ought to become a guide, a tool, with which the student may become an active agent inteUigently reacting before the reaUties, which the school will make a business to bring to his presence. To be sure, there is much important knowledge that pupils cannot possibly acquire by themselves. But, as Dewey remarks, " this transmitted material is Ukely to be fruitful in just the degree in which it is conveyed in connection with those activities in which the pupils acquire something thru their observations and reflections." Therefore the business of the reformed textbook will be to interweave the transmitted information with the facts actually discovered by the pupil. Such books will therefore be something more than laboratory manuals, for they will bring together sets of facts wisely correlated with the activities engaging the pupil's observation, while in the humanistic arts they will open before the student lines of personal research and opportunities of self-expression. Furthermore such books would enhance the humanistic value of science as an intellectual discipUne. They would develop the mathematical mind, the historic sense, the literary faculty, and the philosophical spirit rather than supply the memory with ready-made principles, facts, and criticism, and a pedantic vocabulary. In short, teaching would stand for the pro- motion of scientific method, which is far more important than the possession of the unrelated abstractions that are furnished by the average textbook of today. As for the teacher, he will welcome an evolution that will exalt the social service he renders. Now he is too much of a warden, keeping track of the hard labor assigned to his charges. New educational systems will raise his position to a higher plane. He will be, for it will then be possible for him to be, a comrade, whose task will be to encourage, to quicken, to stimulate, and to promote free action. Thus he will preside over the most vital stage of the intellectual process, that of turning the acquired knowledge into a permanent possession, a part of a correlated whole. As it is now, that phase of the process takes place outside of the school and it is left to the abiUty of the pupil to get the information from books. When this change in the conception of education takes place, the mean- ing of the school as a preparation for life will fully present itself to our minds. The present failure of the secondary school to fit the young men and women for the battles of life is making reformers lay the blame for it on the curri- culum, on the ground that the kind of knowledge imparted by the average school of today is of Uttle use in everyday life. Therefore, our attention is being called to vocational activities as more apt to develop in the pupils the qualities that are at premium in the social market. I have already referred to the growing demand made upon the secondary school as to making it a natural continuation of the primary school. It is 86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General a cherished ideal that the secondary school be the finishing college for the majority of the people at the same time that it is a truly preparatory insti- tution for higher studies. But if the secondary school is ever to accom- pUsh these ideals it will be thru changing its educational practices. The method of education which emphasizes knowledge-getting as the chief condition of continuance in school is, by its very nature, incompatible with the idea of a secondary school devoted to the education of all the people, simply because the process by which the secondary school eUminates the so-called imfit is an artificial one founded on the abiHty of the candidate to bring the memory into play and to submit to an unnatural way of getting information. Such is the basic reason why the percentage of failures is so great. An educational process, to be considered natural and applicable there- fore to any normal being, has to be founded exclusively upon the fulfilment of such activities as are exercised with zest and are accompanied by a consciousness of their worth. The truth — a disconcerting one in this era in which the blessings of education are sung everywhere — is that secondary-school methods are based, not on organized incentive, but on organized restriction. No tax is imposed on ignorance anywhere. It is only when one wants to get educated that one sees himself confronted with rules and regulations barring his path to the goal. All freedom is denied him. He is told what to study and when. He may choose to be ignorant of everything above the primary school and he will not be molested. But if he does not care to follow the stereotyped scheme of the official curriculum, he will hardly be able to find instructors for the things he particularly cares to learn. The remarkable position of the secondary school as an agent of organized restric- tion is simply a consequence of its failure to confer the kind of education to which the general consensus attributes the greater value. An unexpected consequence follows from the above bearing on the part taken by the state in the discharge of its educational duties. As it is now, and as secondary education is largely a privileged road, the state's position is that of a bestower of a privilege which is conceded to certain individuals as long as they prove to be worthy of it, a fact which is to be ascertained at the end of each school term. But if the secondary school is to be considered an educational institution for all the people; if its practices are to be directed to raising the common intellectual plane; if, in short, secondary education is to acquire such importance as regards the increasing of the individual efficiency that its acquisition will become a democratic right, then it will be the business of the state to edticaie, as it is its duty to make provision for everything that directly bears upon the life and health of the people. The state should be held accountable for any failure of the individuals to be educated as the state is now to be blamed for any undue increase in the mortality list. Sessions] MODERN IMPLICATIONS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION 87 The change outlined above will necessarily affect the method of test- ing the efficiency of educational activities. As it is today, education is measured by the amount of information a person has accumulated. It is up to the individuals to show that they are entitled to the privilege bestowed by the state. But if education becomes a right, a right to be better qualified for any human activity, a right to have one's power developed in the propor- tion allowed by one's limitations, then it is on the educator and not on the educated that the blame is to be laid for any inefficiency in the results obtained. On the other hand, to exclude from the benefits of education the very ones that are more in need of it would be as illogical as if the infected people in an unhealthy district were excluded from the action of improving agencies. The preceding analysis tends to define the type of secondary school that would respond to our present views in education. Its work should be founded on an organization of educational activities calculated to train and develop the individual powers while imparting the information that is essential to entering upon professional studies. Promotions thru such schools should be guided by the principle that no one should be denied the right to study any subject provided he has accomplished all the activities that make further work advantageous. This requirement is the only one that has real educational significance. All other academic barriers that exist today are the results of the school's servitude with regard to the uni- versity, such as the one which prevents the student from continuing his work in any subject if he has not accomplished certain work in other subjects. Such arbitrary measures ought to be removed. Connections between the secondary school and the college should be such that neither would be the servant of the other. However, the colleges should decide how much of the educational work provided by the secondary school may be accepted as an entrance requirement. Education in a democracy should be the entering gate to all walks of life. As it is, secondary education has an accepted meaning as a pre- university activity. This conception has given an unfortunate meaning to the expression "educated class," conveying the idea that such a class is made up of those who can afford the privilege of being educated. And this privilege is bought not only by money and time but by submission to obsolete methods of instruction. If we investigate still more closely into the social significance of education, we shall discover that education is sometimes still a sign, an identification badge, and that the years spent with books are comparable to the work of preparing one's self in the ritual of a masonic organization. Both provide us with a grip and a password that open many a door. Here we find the reason for the still prevalent contempt for activities other than those that are the outcome of the present spectacular education. Here also lies the reason of the eagerness with which the university diploma is sought. 88 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General We have to level up the dignity of all labor by bringing education to the common foundation of all human undertaking. We have to give education its full chance, we have to make it the coefficient that enhances all human values. We have to divest it of its traditional function as a factor of social antagonism and individual pride and to make it really a fountain for all souls, the promoter of sympathy and co-operation. ORGANIZATION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION I. PAYSON SMITH, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, AUGUSTA, ME. School organization is a means and not an end. It would be well to remember this fact when we create our plans and schemes of education. The object of school machinery is not merely to be: it is to serve. There has lately been a surprising, and on the whole probably favorable, growth in systematic school organization. But it would be the part of wisdom not to place too great confidence in this for results. School laws, concentration of authority, imiformity of procedure — these may not be trusted actually to do a work over which at best they can have but an indirect influence. While we are constructing our courses of study, while we are refining and prescribing our methods of instruction, while we are invent- ing and patenting our standards of measurement, may we not well bear in mind that these things will never serve in the cause of education except as sooner or later in one way or another they finally find expression in some individual school and in some individual life ? Public education in these American states is a big thing — quite the biggest in our national life. Probably there is nothing else that is so imi- versally expressive of our ideals of democracy as our scheme of public education. True we have no national system of education in the conti- nental sense, but we do have educational ideals that are so generally held among the people, educational plans and policies that are so common to all the states, that the term "American education" lacks nothing whatever in its concrete significance. If we were to state in a few words the aim of this American education we might perhaps agree on something like this: The American people propose thru their public schools to insure a high type of citizenship and thru that citizenship to perpetuate the essential integrity of their democracy. Wherever, therefore, your steps may lead you in America, whether into the little communities that in the bulk com- prise so much of our nation or into the centers of population, you will find the people co-operating with some greater or less measure of zeal for the success of this the greatest of our public enterprises. To those who admin- ister the schools is intrusted the task of directing this large general purpose of the people to the achievement of the civic and social aim I have sug- Sessions] ORGANIZATION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION 89 gested. It is my purpose to mention only one phase of this problem of organization. I have said that the aim of our system of education is a social one, that we hope thru it to insure a better citizenship — a higher social state. But while the aim is social, let me emphasize that the means must be indi- vidual. There is no way of improving the mass save by improving the unit; there is no way in which we can get a better citizenship save as we get better citizens. That, it seems to me, is the one principle we must accept and respect if we are to make a success of our schools. It is the business of the American educator so to organize education that there shall come into the life and experience of each individual, so far as may be, pre- cisely those forces, influences, and opportunities that will help him to be the most effective unit he can possibly become. Mass education must and will fail to do for American life, American civilization, and American democracy the task set it to perform, and my plea is for the exaltation of the indi- vidual and for the speedy elimination from our educational doctrine of the tenet that education can be reduced to a machine process, that it can be conducted on the factory plan. Do I make an unfair statement of much of our recent educational his- tory when I say that it shows chiefly a record of attempts to generalize in method and policy ? Have we not vainly hoped that uniformity of courses, uniformity of method, imiformity of standards would give us an effective education ? Are there not everywhere schools organized on the assumption that children are alike, whereas the one outstanding fact about children is their diff erentness ? Out of this false assumption that children can be grouped to an educational end on some basis of similarity of age or of supposed intellectual attainment has come the mischief of the graded school. Upon this arbitrary method of the first classification of children has been constructed all the fabric of dull uniformity. Because of it we have con- siderably crowded out the opportunity for individual initiative, spontane- ity, and progress. Not seldom does one find courses and standards that are so definitely fixed that for a child to exceed the specified amount of knowl- edge at a given time is to be branded as a freak and not to attain it is to be set down as a probable failure. To keep the step — that is the prime virtue. To be sure, some of these predestined failures sometimes surprise us and refuse to fail. But that is because the world later gives them the chance that the school failed to accord. I read in the school statistics of my own and other states that many thousand children annually fail of promotion and repeat the work of a grade. I read also in those statistics that so many thousand children have taken the first or second degree in the formation of the deadly habit of failing. School systems, not a few, regard themselves as ejficient if the percentage of these faUing of promotion is reduced to 5, or 4, or even 3 per cent. But do such figures show efl&ciency or^do they show weakness where QO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General weakness is most costly ? I see in percentages such as these the dismal fact of insufficient individual opportimity and the dismal prophecy of a handi- capped and submerged element of citizenship of a later generation. I would ask first, therefore, for school courses organized on the basis of individual needs. I know that experiments have been tried to reduce the waste which grows out of the attempt to make courses alike, but may we not some day grasp the essential principle? It is not enough that we make our efforts along the line of devising means to pull up the delinquents within measuring distance of the group. Why not subordinate the group or the mass? Is there, for example, any good reason why all pupils should be expected to know exactly the same things in history, or that they should have covered precisely the same groimd in arithmetic, or have read exactly the same stories within the same weeks or months? Is there not vision enough in our American education to give, for example, to the child who has the his- torical sense or taste a freer rein than to him who lacks it, and without dis- credit to either ? Is there any good reason why, as in not a few schools, all other educational opportunity shall be denied to one to whom algebraic equations are and must remain a dark and solemn mystery ? Rather must school organization ultimately turn its attention to giving to each child his own opportunity and not that of another. And if there is any virtue in this first proposition of mine, I would ask you to consider also whether we may not more sanely and more justly measure the progress of children. I know this is a time when we are paying much attention to the establishment of standards and to the measurement of school progress, but even tho a heretic, I must register my objection to these if they are to be employed otherwise than to the service of individual education. Edu- cation should not primarily set up competition between one child and another. Its first function is to place the child under the conditions of training which will lead him to the conquest of his own life; to help him to be the supreme individual he has a right to be. The measurement of the child's progress should, like the plan of his education, be based upon a study of what he himself is and not on what an alleged but non-existent average might indicate he ought to be. It should recognize his powers, his tastes, his talents, his limitations — but perhaps we may go slowly in defining these last. And finally, in the working out of this educational problem of ours, in creating and conducting a system of education whose function shaU be to produce civic and social growth thru individual opportunity, may I urge that school organization while recognizing the right of the individual child shall also recognize the necessity of giving the largest j>ossible freedom to the individual teacher ? I am aware of the need of supervision; I recognize the place of plans and records and reports of progress. I have no doubt done my guilty part toward devising these, but they are incidentals and extremely minor incidentals to the work of teaching. We have our Sessions] ORGANIZATION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION 91 notions, all of us, as to the importance of this, that, or the other subject in the school curriculum, but may I submit that the need of the American school today is not for better teachers of reading, or of English, or of Latin, but that it is for better teachers of children, for men and women who under- stand that the final test of their teaching skill will not be on the presenta- tion of a military campaign or the lucid demonstration of a theorem: it will be as to whether or not thru these or other means they are able to get within the mind, and heart, and soul of a child and help him to the fullest real- ization of his own powers, to the end that he may make the contribution of his life and his service in his own way to the enrichment of our American citizenship and to the betterment of his own world. n. ELLWOOD p. CUBBERLEY, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL. For a quarter of a century after the formation of our Union, nothing which could be regarded as more than the merest beginnings of state school systems existed. Even in New England, where a good beginning had been made in the seventeenth century, the educational enthusiasm of the people had largely died out, and the schools had fallen into decay. For some decades after the establishment of our Republic this condition and attitude continued, and chiefly for the reason that there was little at the time in the political, economic, or social life of our people which made education at public expense seem important. Gradually, but very slowly, this atti- tude on the part of our people began to change and to give place to an interest in schools. Such interest, tho, was largely local, for almost every- where, with us, the school arose as a distinctively local institution, and to meet local needs. Each little district unit was created a "body politic and corporate," and endowed with certain legal powers. For the management of the school the people elected three school trustees, and they, guided by the people in annual and special district meetings, managed these little schools as best they knew how. In the days before modern school systems had been developed, when there were no printed courses of study, no trained teachers, no supervisory ofl&cers, no standards for work, no sanitary regulations, and almost no organized body of school law or pedagogic knowledge, the citizens of these little district units handled the schools in a manner which gave reasonable satisfaction to the people they represented. In time the different states began to manifest a deeper interest in educa- tion. The national land grants for education awakened interest in the states to the westward, the many humanitarian movements which arose after about 1830 had their effect, and the development of many new political and social problems after about 1840 awakened our people to the danger of an uneducated electorate. All of these helped on the movement for 92 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General some state action in the matter of general education. Tax-supported schools now began to be demanded both as a right and as a political neces- sity, and much argimient was advanced on both sides of the question. Gradually the people of the different states were won over to the idea of tax-supported schools, and by 1850 education had been adopted as a pubUc function in every northern state. Having accepted education as a state fimction, it was necessary to provide some form of state oversight and control. To see that schools were organized as required by law, to apportion the proceeds from taxation and the income from funds, to see that the money was not illegally spent, to collect and tabulate statistics, to stimulate school officers and teachers, to exhort the people to establish and maintain their schools, both state and county school officers were created by the different states. For some time the duties of these officers were almost entirely clerical, statistical, and exhortatory, and, except on the exhortatory side, not essentially different from those of a county auditor or clerk. The creation of the offices of state and county school superintendents accordingly came early in our educational history. Their creation came at a time when full manhood suffrage had but recently been attained, and when the belief in the wisdom of the people as expressed in elections was at a maximum. The selection of these officials by nomination and election by popular vote then seemed the natural method to follow, and as such it was followed m almost all our states. District, township, county, and state school officers, as created, were placed in the elective column, along with sheriffs, auditors, coroners, and clerks. Since these earlier days we have just been describing, the whole aspect of public education has changed. New social, political, and economic needs have created entirely new conditions in our national life, to meet which we have only public education as a remedy. New world-relationships have been developed and the early isolation swept away. New methods of transacting both public and private business have been introduced, and the need for larger units of administration and administrators of larger grasp have become evident to most of our people. Public education has been transformed into a great state interest. In consequence, permission has been changed to obligation, functions formerly intrusted to small administrative units have been transferred to larger ones, the state has been forced to make new and more extended demands on local communities, and entirely new problems in organization, administration, instruction, sanitation, and child welfare have recentiy been forced to the front. The different state school codes have become bulky, and school legislation has come to demand a knowledge and an expertness of judgment which it formerly did not require. The exhorter and the institute worker have come to be needed less and less, and the student and trained administrator more and more. Sessions] ORGANIZATION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION 93 Within the past decade and a half, very important and very significant progress has been made looking toward a better organization and adminis- tration of our systems of public education, and a great expansion of the school as an instrimient of democracy has taken place. From a mere teaching institution, the school has been raised to a foremost place as a constructive agent in our democratic life. New aims in instruction have been set up; new subjects of instruction have been introduced; new types of schools have been organized with new ends in view; and an important beginning on those necessary adjustments and differentiations to meet individual needs, which we formerly did not think possible, has been made. So rapid has been this change in direction and purpose that there are still many communities and many school people who have not as yet caught the significance of these fundamental changes in the direction of the school. The school, in its development, has too often outrun the thinking of those who direct it. The recent development of a rather critical rural-life problem has made new demands for rural leadership, as yet almost entirely unsatisfied, from those responsible for the progress of rural education. The recent develop- ment of a public-health movement has called attention to the long-neglected health needs of the children in our schools. The many recent studies of individual capacity and the normal rate of progress for different children have revealed a large field for scientific study as to how we may better adapt our instruction to the varying capacities and needs of children. Finally, the recent attempts to survey and measure school systems and to determine the efficiency of instruction along scientific lines have alike served to develop a scientific method for attacking administrative problems which promises to compel us soon to rewrite the whole of our theory of school administration in terms of these new units and scales for measuring educational progress and determining educational efficiency. All of these developments point unmistakably in the direction of the evolution of a profession of school administration as distinct from the work of teaching on the one hand and politics on the other. In but few places, however, has our administrative organization kept pace with our educational development along other lines. On all sides — state, county, city, and district — we still find an administrative organiza- tion suited to earlier conditions and needs, one under which administrative progress is almost painfully slow. Turning first to state educational organization, what conditions do we find ? Probably no position within the gift of the state has greater possi- bilities for constructive statesmanship than the position of superintendent of public instruction in one of our American states. As a position it is, potentially, a more important one than that of president of the state uni- versity. That it is not so is a matter of common knowledge, and it is not so largely because the office has for so long been cursed with the blight of 94 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General partisan politics, and because political expediency rather than any educa- tional standard has been the measuring-stick used in selecting candidates for the position. In some of our states, it has settled down into merely a retiring job for the old and reasonably successful practitioner in the ranks. As a result, few of our states today reveal, in their educational and legisla- tive history, any evidence of having followed, for any length of time, any well-thought-out educational policy. The state oversight provided has been clerical and statistical, rather than professional, in its nature and purpose; legislation has been remedial and of a patchwork t5^e, rather than constructively reorganizing; and often the state oversight has been of such a laissez-faire nature that the school systems resulting have been merely a loosely integrated collection of local and largely independent schools, instead of a state system of educa- tion in any real sense of the term. The conception of the state as an active, energetic agent working constantly and intelligently for the improvement of educational conditions thruout the state, instead of acting as a statistical agent and a compulsory tax collector and distributor, is one which until very recently has been present in but few of our American states. Turning next to county educational organization, the conditions are even worse. The position of superintendent of schools in a county is, potentially at least, a more important position than that of principal of the high school or city superintendent of schools in the county seat school system, and the position should call to its services those who rank as among the best trained men in the state, yet almost everywhere the office has been regarded largely as a temporary political job, open only to those residents of a coimty who are willing to consider political candidacy. In but few of our states has the office as yet been given any educational standing. In twenty-nine out of forty-one states having such an officer, he is nominated and elected from among the body of the electorate, as a sheriff or a coroner would be, in eighteen of the twenty-nine states he is elected for but two- year terms, and in two states he is actually prohibited by the constitution from holding the office longer than four years. In other words, the coimty superintendent of schools, a man who ought to enter the work as a life career and with the idea of working up in the service, is by the people regarded merely as another county political officer and treated accordingly. It is not surprising that county superintendents of schools have often lived up to what is expected of them, and that the rural-life problem which has devel- oped about them has become of such large dimensions that it can be solved now only by a new type of educational organization and service. The low salaries paid by the people to the superintendents, the expense and trouble necessary to secure the office, the public notoriety and the humiliation of defeat, the short tenure and the inability to accomplish much in states where the district system has to be dealt with, and the high pro- tective tariff levied against brains and competency from the outside by the Sessions! ORGANIZATION OF PUBLIC EDUCATION 95 local residence requirement for the office, have all united to keep the best men in the teaching work out of the office. Men of competence can sell their services in a better market. In twenty-eight of our forty-eight states, the superintendent has to deal with the district system of school administration within the county, a system which has been condemned by educators generally for half a century, and one which for conservatism, waste, and general inefficiency leaves all other plans far in the rear. Almost every effort for the improvement of rural education in the district-system states is blocked by the short-sighted- ness of the district school authorities and the people they represent. As one writer has well put it, "the district system is democracy gone to seed." The absurdly large number of school trustees required — from thirty to forty-five thousand in some of our states — makes any attempt at their education seem almost hopeless, and they change faster than a superintend- ent can train them in their duties imder the law. There is no educational or business need for such an army of school officials, and any efficient system of county school administration is impossible so long as the district system is retained. To put education in our counties on any satisfactory basis, to provide the type of education needed by rural children, and to make possible the elimination of the rural-school problem, certain fundamental changes in organization need to be made. These involve the abolition of the county as the unit in school administration, and the complete elimination of party politics from the management of the schools. Never before in the history of our school systems has there been such need for men of insight and capacity, adequate professional education, and large executive skill for the management of our rural and small village schools. Not until such men can be obtained, and then given as free a hand as a city superintendent of schools in a well-managed city now has, can we expect much headway to be made in the solution of those important and pressing problems surrounding life and education for those who live on the farm and in our small villages. County school supervision ought to enlist the services of the most able and the best trained of those engaged in educational work. To expect to secure the services of such under the present method of local nomination and popular election, except by chance, is to nourish a delusion. The same is even more true when applied to the office of superintendent of public instruction. Nearly all of the important progress which has been made in education in America in the past quarter of a century has been made in our cities, and it has been made there because the cities long ago aboUshed their districts and began to administer their schools as a unit, cfeased to elect their superin- tendents from among their own number and went into the markets of the whole country to secure the best trained man or woman their money would seciure, and then gave the superintendent they employed a relatively free 96 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General hand in the management of their schools. Until our county school systems and our state school systems can be reorganized along the Unes of the best of our city administrative experience, we can do little toward reorganizing and redirecting rural education or evolving a constructive and progressive educational poUcy for our states. Tho the chief educational progress of a quarter of a century has been made by our cities, much still remains to be done by many in perfecting their educational organization. In many cities the vicious ward system is still retained, and unwieldy large boards of education are still elected, and these try to manage the schools by means of a large number of standing committees. In such systems the superintendent of schools is likely to be reduced to subjection, while the board of education attempts to handle details which no board is competent to handle. In altogether too many states our laws still repose all power in the hands of the board of education. A board of education of twelve to fifteen, composed of citizens from all walks of life — ^merchants, clerks, lawyers, blacksmiths, and men of no particular occupation — ^would constitute an average city board of education. These divide up into committees on courses of study, teachers, textbooks and apparatus, janitors and sanitation, promotions and graduation, kinder- garten, elementary schools, etc. To the pubUc, they seem to be very busy and to do their work reasonably well, for the reason that the whole matter of standards of work in public education is as yet so new that the public does not know whether or not the board of education is doing what it should. What it does may be very bad for the schools, but the public has as yet little means of judging the value of what the board does. Educational malpractice is as yet difficult for the layman to recognize. The case may be made clearer if we imagine the same board to have been elected, not to manage the schools, but to manage a municipal hospital, and then have them divide up into committees and attempt to manage the hospital in the same way that they now manage the schools. The com- mittee on courses of study would be replaced by one on medical treatments, the committee on teachers by one on doctors and nurses, the committee on textbooks and apparatus by one on drugs and surgical instruments, the committee on janitors and sanitation by one on nurses and sanitary work, the committee on promotions and graduation by one on operative cases, the committee on kindergartens by one on maternity wards, and the com- mittee on elementary schools by one on children's diseases. Now assmne that these committees and the board as a whole attempt to exercise the same degree of control over the details of management of the hospital that bgards of education now too often exercise over the schools, giving directions to the superintendent, nurses, and doctors as they now do to the superin- tendent of schools, the principals, and the teachers, and we can easily imagine the resulting chaos, yet the mismanagement which would take place in the case of a hospital would not be greater than that which often Sessions] OUR RURAL SCHOOLS 97 takes place today in the management of some of our city school systems. In the case of the hospital, the results are visible and easily brought within the comprehension of the people; in the case of a school system the results are more concealed, and not so easy to bring within the understanding of the electorate. Yet a good city superintendent of schools makes about as thoro preparation for his work as does a physician or surgeon, and is about as competent in his line as the doctor is in his. To remedy such conditions, certain further reorganizations in the administration of our city school systems need to be made. Large boards, and boards elected along ward lines, should be replaced by boards which have been elected from the city at large, and which are small enough to meet around a single table. Standing committees of the board of education should be prohibited by law. There is little or nothing which a standing committee can do which cannot be done better by the executive ofl&cers the board employs. These executive officers should in turn be guaranteed much larger powers of initiative and advice, and many functions now exercised by boards of education should be turned over to them entirely. Then, under the direction of officers who have trained themselves care- fully for their work and made it a profession, we shall be able to do much more for our children than we can now under the plan of everybody or anybody trying to direct what has become a piece of expert service. In state, county, and city alike, the demand is for intelligent professional leadership, that our people may receive greater return for the money they put into their schools, and that the children in them may receive a better education than they are now receiving. The important steps in the process of securing such lie along the lines of the reorganizations which have been pointed out in this paper — viz., the erection of larger administra- tive units, the complete elimination of politics in the selection of experts, and the concentration of larger authority in the hands of those who will really represent the interests of the children. OUR RURAL SCHOOLS PERRY G. HOLDEN, DIRECTOR, AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION DEPARTMENT, INTERNATIONAL HARVESTER COMPANY, CHICAGO, ILL. One of the chief est concerns of the country today is the improvement of its rural schools. Two-thirds of our citizens receive their life training here, yet the cities of the United States spend annually upon their schools $31 .00 per child while the rural districts spend less than $13 .00 per child for school purposes. No one will question for a moment that the farm child is entitled to just as good educational opportunities as the city child, but our obligations do not end with our duties to the individual child. Education is more 98 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION {Gtneal than an individual or even a community matter; it concerns the city, the state, and the nation as well. We cannot Ughtly push aside the riiral education question with the thought that it is "up to the farmer — he can have what he wants." The truth is that it is up to all of us to help in dead earnest. I beheve that both the state and the nation must do much more than they have done in the past to help the rural people improve their schools. To bring about nation-wide improvement in our rural schools, there must be agitation and education. The people must be stimulated to want better rural schools and to be wiUing to pay for them. No one will doubt that our rural schools have made advancement, but the progress on the whole has been so slow that when compared with the world about us they appear to be going backward. I have seen many wonderful and inspiring illustrations of what a rural school, under good leadership, can do to reorganize and vitaUze the Ufe of a whole community. But these are mere instances. The facts are that the rural-school situation in the United States as a whole is far from what it ought to be and often is bad beyond description; not generally actively bad but nega- tively bad — the result of no interest and of neglect. I do not beheve that most people have any conception of the real school situation. Three years ago I did not, but since that time we have held nearly eleven thousand meetings in various parts of the United States — ^more than two thousand of which were in the rural schoolhouses — and now I know that the rural schools need your help and my help and the organized help of every force. Let me catalog a few of the things upon which we are aU agreed. I beheve there is a pretty general feeUng, by those who have given the matter serious attention, on the following questions: The country school is our greatest educational problem today. The rural schools, the country over, are not keeping pace with the dty schools. They do not now meet the needs of the rural communities. Certainly we are all agreed that the country schoolhouses, out-buildings, sur- roxmdings, the school equipment, decoration, light, water, headng, and sanitation are not only far from perfect, but, on the whole, are wretchedly bad. The teacher ought to be a part of the life of the commimity. As things now are she is often city raised and city taught, with little or no interest in the affairs of the com- mimity. Frequently she goes out to her school Monday mornings and back to town Friday nights or out each morning and back at night. The children should be taught in terms of home problems and homemaking. At present the rural school exerts little influence on the social or business Ufe of the com- munity, schools being regarded as something apart from real living. I am certain that we will agree also that if the rural schools are left to themselves, there wiU be httle real progress. The gap between them and the city school will widen. It is evident that it will require organized effort, and lots of it, if the obstacles of precedent, prejudice, jealousy, and added expense are to be Seaions] OUR RURAL SCHOOLS 99 overcome to the extent that the movement will become nation wide, but, fellow-educators, it can be done. There must be a general all-roimd uplift movement. It is not that these people do not want improvement in their rural schools. They know that something is needed but they do not know just what to do or how to go about it. They feel that children as now taught are educated away from instead of toward rural Ufe. The rural people will respond to leadership. This is shown by the work done in Page Coimty, Iowa, by Jessie Field; in Wright Coimty, Iowa, by O. H. Benson; in Cook County, 111., by E. J. Tobin; and by hundreds of other instances. W. B. Smith, of Mississippi, popularly known as "Com Club Smith," started an educational movement which is revolutionizing the South, when, as county superintendent of schools, he organized the Com Clubs, of Holmes County, Miss. Yes, there are obstacles and plenty of them, but the time is ripe. The people will respond. What we need now is action, people who will do something, contribute something of time and labor and love to the work. There should be a national rural-schools campaign started and on such a scale that it will be the one thing talked about, read about, preached about thruout the land — not only in the country but in the cities. Why not? We cannot get legislation without public sentiment, and without public sentiment we cannot change long-estabhshed customs, no matter how greatly out of joint they may be with the needs of today. Make the move- ment popular and everyone will be helping, " climbing into the band wagon." There will be no end of people who will really think they originated the idea, started the plan, and that is exactly what is needed. How should such a campaign be organized? It can be done; that much I know. Within five months this rural-school question could be made the most talked about and read about problem in the United States. And why shoiddn't it be? It is not the farmers' problem only; it is the problem of all of us — of the farm and city, of the state and nation. Much has been done by this Association and much has been written by master minds which will serve to direct and guide us in the work of reconstruction of the rural schools and rural life. None can anticipate the difficulties to be encoimtered nor just how we shall reach the promised land. We need a real Moses to lead us out of the wilderness and I believe he is here somewhere among us, but if not, we can find him. One thing is certain, each of us must do his part. As a starting-point, I suggest the appointment of a rural-school com- mission. Such a commission, appointed by the United States commissioner of education, the President of the United States, or someone else high in influence and authority, could focus public attention on the rural-school problem, get everybody thinking about it, talking about it, and writing about it, and thus create the public sentiment necessary to arouse action. lOO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General But action must be intelligently directed. Here also the commission could help. It could investigate the activities of the various organizations now working for rural-school improvement and get the various forces work- ing together so that there is no waste of money, time, or energy. There is much to do. Let us get at the task soon. It is not fair to the country child to keep him waiting long. Let us hasten the time when our country boys and girls shall have just as much money spent for their education, just as good buildings and equipment, just as efl5cient teachers to lead them, and just as good an opportunity in every way as our dty boys and girls. EFFICIENCY AND PREPARATION OF RURAL TEACHERS HAROLD W. FOGHT, SPECIALIST IN RURAL-SCHOOL PRACTICE, UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D.C. When our forefathers first began their westward and southward march, leaving the transplanted European civilization behind them, they hved the life of typical pioneers. Theirs was an emotional existence as they lived along the frontier struggling against the wilderness. In reUgion theirs was the day of the camp meeting and the emotional revival. In education it was the day of the primitive, three R's school, and the schoolmaster who boarded aroimd. The school laid no claim to being the central educational force in the commimity. It was a primitive institution ofiFering a frugal store of learning, but sufficient for the simple needs of the times. For then, the home produced and manufactured all that was necessary for sustenance from day to day. Then the home taught the children to spin and to weave and to work in wood and in iron — it was the day when the home gave the head, heart, and hand education that in our time has fallen to the lot of the rural school. Teachers of the pioneer schools depended for success more on brawn than on brain. Occasionally the teachers were well prepared, altho often they were men who had failed in other callings. By the year 1800, pioneering came to an end in the old Atlantic East, and, by 1830, beyond the Appalachians and southward to the Gidf, the household-economy farmer took his place, seizing upon the land as his per- manent heritage. Now, before our great westward expansion had begim, the family group reached its highest development. At this time, too, the district school, as it is known to us in prose and poetry, reached its highest point of development, but even at this time it continued as a three R's school, giving the mere rudiments of an education. It was usually taught by a man teacher and if nothing more could be said in its behalf it answered at least the needs of the times. It was the center of the simple, social interests of the time. At the school the lyceum, the singing school, the spelling bee, and the like were held, and yet, aside from these things, it was Sessions] EFFICIENCY AND PREPARATION OF RURAL TEACHERS loi not what we should call a good school. It is true that our forebears are incHned to harken back to the early day when they were young as the time of the ideal school. Distance and time seem to have lent their enchant- ment, for certainly one would have Httle difficulty in proving that even the average one-teacher school, as we have it today in charge of an immature girl teacher with her sUght comprehension of the needs of rural hfe, is in most respects superior to the school of long ago. But changes for the worse soon came to this early district school, explainable in the great industrial revolution that seized upon the nation in the late forties and continued with an ever-increasing momentum during and after the Civil War. With the invention of labor-saving machinery, the agricultural system of the nation took a tremendous forward stride, upsetting the intrenched agricultiu-al ways of the old East. People there sundered old home ties, drawn away by the call of the great West and its virgin lands. Then in the seventies, our provincial towns as by magic became great industrial cities. Men moved west and into the industrial centers. Rural Ufe had entered upon its transitional stage — a period of exploitation and specula- tion which put an end to the old household-economy period in our national agriculture. The immediate family no longer was the center of agricultural Ufe. As a nation we had come to the end of our "shut-in" period of agri- cultural existence. Agriculture on a commercial or world basis had begun. The district school had seen its best days and the man teacher who had been a permanent leader in the community was obhged to leave the profession to take his place in the new industrial activities open to him. And so began the period of school retardation. A smaller school in charge of an immature teacher with little or no professional preparation and less comprehension of the needs and problems of rural Ufe came into the commimity. No wonder that the Roosevelt Commission on Country Life in 1908 found the rural schools retarded and justly blameable for much of our poor agriculture and the moving away from the farms to the cities. By 19 1 5 the nation is, consciously or unconsciously, striving to put an end to the soil exploitation which has long been undermining our most sacred heritage — the land — and is beginning to organize a system of scientific agriculture. Forces are at work everywhere. A great propaganda is carried on at the present time by national and state government, by rural sociologists and educators of aU kinds. One thing now is clear — Uttle can be accomplished for scientific farming and for a remimerative, whole- some, and contented rural Ufe until a more enUghtened leadership shall gain possession of rural communities. This must come from within the ranks of the farmers themselves. This new agricultural age, then, demands a new kind of farm community school and a new kind of teacher. The reorganization of the prevaiUng system of rural schools aims to provide, within reach of aU country children, carefuUy graded elementary I02 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General schook and a sufficient number of rural high schools adapted to the par- ticular needs of the rural commiinity, in order that people in the country may procure a broad farm culture and the fimdamentals of a scientific agriculture without going away from home. Thru this means the schools should be enabled to produce the trained leadership required to put the rural population fully abreast of the many new problems in country life. Many factors enter into the problem of remaking the rural schools, such as well-prepared teachers, a satisfactory unit of organization, close and intelli- gent supervision, and redirected course of study. Of these, none is more important than the first. It is certain that the trained leadership needed in rural districts cannot be fuUy reaUzed until a staff of teachers, professionally trained, imbued with correct vision and real power, estabUsh themselves in the rural districts as permanent teachers and commimity builders. The old order of things is passing when educators would argue in meet- ings Uke the present that no special preparation should be required of teachers who go into rural communities. There may yet perhaps be a few teachers in our midst who insist that a reasonable measure of academic and professional preparation is sufficient for any rural teacher. This may be true enough so far as the universal elements of an education are con- cerned, but it is quite another thing when it comes to rooting the school to the soil and making it answer the needs of the community where it is main- tained. We prepare teachers for kindergarten work, for Enghsh and Latin, and for other subjects. Why not also for rural schools, where the problems are many and increasingly complex ? That the rural teachers now at work in the schools are deficient in prep- aration is proved in a study made recently by the United States Bureau of Education.^ This investigation covered every state in the Union and was carefully planned and carried out. The results were, in many respects, startling, and yet not unexpected. The tabulations resulting from the ' investigation show, among other things, that 4 per cent of all the teachers now at work in the riu*al schools have had less than eight years of elementary- school preparation; that 32.7 per cent have had no professional prepara- tion whatever; and that only one- tenth of i per cent of these teachers report attendance at schools making a speciality of preparing teachers for rural schools. It takes an army of 365,000 such teachers to supply the needs of rural commimities. One-third of them, or 122,000, have httle or no professional preparation. The reason of this unfortimate situation is too evident to need an explanation. Briefly, salaries have been too meager. Rural- school teachers instruct about 53 . 7 per cent of all the school children of the nation, but they have been getting only 45 . 5 per cent of the money spent for salaries. The average salary for all teachers is a pittance, being less than *BMlUti» No. 4S>, X914. Efficiency and Preparation of Rural-School Teachers. Sessions] EFFICENCY AND PREPARATION OF RURAL TEACHERS 103 $500. The salary of rural teachers is considerably below this figure. In a general way, the amount of salary received by any teacher is a measure, first, of his efficiency, and, second, of the value in which his services are held by the community. It is undeniable that the nation has placed too low a value on the rural teacher's services, with the result that it has had to be satisfied with mediocre teaching. In addition to this, living conditions in the country have been full of hardship to the average teacher who under the old system has been city reared and city taught. Then, again, there has been no future for the average aspiring person in teaching a one-room school. Everything, as a matter of fact, has mihtated against rural teach- ing as a Ufe profession, since our national transition period first got imder way. The change from amateur to professional teaching may be hastened in several ways: (i) Salaries should be increased enough so that a teacher with family may live on his income without worrying how to make ends meet. Provision should also be made by legal enactment for a hberal sliding scale of salaries, fixing the teacher's income in direct ratio to length of service in the same commimity. This is only fair, since teachers of the right sort will unquestionably grow in value to the community year by year. (2) The entire school plant should be reconstructed to answer present needs and be attractive and sanitary. This would be another inducement for the teacher to spend his best years in the open coimtry. (3) The community should be obUged by legal enactment to erect a teacher's cottage close by the modern school building and, preferably, upon the same grounds. (4) Teachers' colleges, normal schools, and other schools with teacher-training courses should be encouraged to organize distinct depart- ments in rural Ufe and rural teaching from which to draw teachers prepared and willing to undertake work in the new farm schools. The average rural teacher remains in the profession less than four years of 140 school days each. This means that the entire personnel must be renewed every four years, or that about 92,000 new teachers must be pro- vided annually. The question arises, at this point, Where shall these teachers get their preparation ? The study by the government into teacher preparation mentioned above discloses that the largest immediate supply of rural teachers comes from the training departments of the high schools and the county training schools in many states. Next in point of numbers stand the normal schools, then the schools of education in colleges and uni- versities, and, finally, the state agricultural colleges. During the year 1913-14, the 284 pubHc and private normal schools of the country enrolled 94,455 students and graduated 19,438. It is quite certain that most of the latter found positions in the towns and cities. Similar conditions prevail in schools of education in the universities and colleges. The agricultural schools have done good work in preparing teachers of agriculture in secondary schools and teachers for some of the I04 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General strongest consolidated schools; but it remains that the great majority of these 92,000 new teachers must either go into the field imprepared or the institutions now in the field offering rural-teacher preparation must make provision for vastly increased training faciUties. The hopeful thing is that educational leaders in these schools are beginning to reaUze their opportu- nities and responsibihties and are doing their utmost to meet the emergency. In 1908, only one or two state normal schools had separate departments offering specific courses for rural teachers. At the present time, at least 42 such departments have been organized and 37 other normal schools offer excellent general courses for rural teachers. At least 50 normal schools have good departments offering instruction to teachers of agriculture, many of them being prepared to do this work thru a very complete farm equipment. Thus the normal school, which is the natural professional school of our country, is organizing to do what it can for rural teachers. Meanwhile, twenty states are offering rural-teacher training in coimty normal schools or in separate departments affihated with first-class high schools or as a part of the regular courses in these high schools. The total number of these departments or classes is now 1,089, ^th more than 11,000 graduates the present year. There are many teachers in oiu: midst, to be sure, who view the professional invasion of the secondary school as unwise, but at this time it is a question of expediency rather than of wisdom that confronts us. Probably the use of the high schools for this piu^pose marks only a step in the evolution of teacher training in our coimtry. In time, no doubt, the normal schools will be able to readjust themselves and increase in niunber sufficiently to look after rural-teacher preparation to the exclu-. sion of other institutions. This paper, unfortunately, is too limited in point of time to allow of anything like a complete discussion of this important subject of teacher training. This much may be said in conclusion, therefore, that there will be no solution of the rural-life problem thru school education imtil we are able to place in rural commimities a staff of professional teachers fully abreast of the needs of our new agricultural life, as in this way only can the open coimtry get the much-required leaders who are ultimately to bring about the reorganization. CHILD WELFARE AND RURAL SCHOOLS THOMAS D. WOOD, M.D., PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. Education is the discovery and development of personality — of all the elements and qualities of personality which are needed for the business of life. The present conception of education delegates to the school the task of standardizing and organizing all of the measures involved in the com- plete process of child nurture and cultivation. Nothing can be left entirely Sessions] CHILD WELFARE AND RURAL SCHOOLS 105 to instinct, to nature, or to the home in the comprehensive and complex process of preparing the young for life. Standards and methods even of nutrition, of clothing, of housing, of recreation are reasonable concerns of the school. The school for vital reasons should not do the work of the home, but the essential education of the child requires the closest co-operation between school and home and the mutual sharing by home and school and other available helpful agencies of all features requisite for the effective cultiva- tion and preparation of all the children. The school is the logical, the universal, the strategic agency, thru which the best intelligence and stand- ards of human culture may and must be applied for the rearing of the young of the race. Every vital value in life and education is integrally bound up with and dependent upon health, biologic fitness, and general human welfare. In accordance with these principles the educational program is accepting many features not thought of a few years ago, and appreciated and accepted often with reluctance by many at the present time. In not a few particulars and especially in phases of education relating to the general welfare of children, the city schools have made much more rapid progress than have those of the country. Unprejudiced study of conditions and statistics results in exposing facts and conclusions both startling and significant. About half of the 20,000,000 school children in the United States are attending the rural schools. Country children attending the rural schools are less healthy and are handicapped by more physical defects than the cliildren of the cities, including all the children of the slimis. And this is true, in general, of all parts of the United States. The most important reasons for the physical inferiority of the rural-school children are the following: Artificial selection, during the last half-century especially, has drawn much of the best human stock from the country to the cities. Before that time, the tide in the movement of population apparently carried more good human material to the rural regions than away from them. This claim receives striking coincidental corroboration from vital statistics. Up to 1 910, the death-rate in New York City was greater than in rural districts of New York state, as was naturally expected in conformity with the traditional and still prevalent belief that the country furnishes condi- tions more favorable to health than does the city. Since 1910, however, the death-rate in rural New York has been greater than in New York City, and conditions in New York state may be taken, on the whole, as typical of the country in general. It is apparent that within the last decade the actual and vaunted physical superiority of country people and children over those living in the city has been reversed and now it is confidently affirmed that for the entire population city dwellers are more healthy than those lo6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General who dwell in rural districts; city life is more healthful than that of the country. It is just as true, however, and startlingly significant in view of the preceding statements, that most of our best human material for the cities and for the nation must still come from the country. If rural America is still to be a satisfactory nursery for himian life, it must be made healthful and attractive. It must furnish a generous fraction of the best of the population and it must provide conditions favorable for the cultivation of the best, at least so far as the biologic and all the fundamental quahties of life are concerned. The problem, then, of brioging about suflGlcient improvement in the healthfulness of rural life to provide a worthy birthplace and nursery for the best human stock is not simply a problem of the rural school, of the farm, or of rural life in general, but it is a great, pressing problem of the nation, affecting national safety, national prosperity, and national per- petuity. It is the problem dealing with conservation of the most essential and most endangered of all our national resources. It is a problem which must enlist the services of the national and state as well as local and volun- teer agencies. There is apparently no more vital problem of fundamental character and national scope calling for solution at the present time. The second reason for the physical inferiority of country-school children and of country people in general is that the science and art of himian living, of conserving and improving human health and general human welfare have advanced much more rapidly in the cities than in the coimtry districts. The problems of safety and comfort as affected by congestion of population and many other conditions of urban life have thrust themselves upon hiunan attention and have received much consideration. The art of himaan care has progressed much more slowly in the country. The father in the city spends, on the average, a larger percentage of his income for the welfare of his children than does the father on the farm. The farmer relatively raises everything else more carefully, and, as a rule, more successfully than his children. Coimtry children deserve as much health and happiness as city children. Country children are entitled to as careful cultivation as the crops and live stock receive. The third condition which helps to explain this astonishing inferiority of the country child is the environment. The country home and the country school are, on the average, less sanitary and healthful than the city home and the city school. It has been assumed that because the country child has all the facilities of the country, he is, of course, surroimded by fortunate and wholesome conditions. But the possession of all out- doors is far from enough. The farmer's home is, as a rule, insanitary in many respects. It is often terribly un ventilated and the dwellers in the house are fed many hours a day with bad air. Country water and food are less wholesome than water and food in the city. The standards of living Sessions] CHILD WELFARE AND RURAL SCHOOLS 107 on the American farm, when tested by the accepted principles of sanitation and hygiene, are alarmingly defective. The rural school, from the standpoint of health and general fitness for its important use, is the worst type of building in the whole country, including not only all types of buildings used for human beings but also those used for live stock and all domestic animals. Rural schools are, on the average, less adequate for their use than prisons, asylums, almshouses, stables, dairy-barns, pigpens, chicken-houses, dog-kennels are for their uses. The healthfulness and attractiveness of the rural school and, even more, the health and general welfare of the country children are absolutely essential to the entire well-being of the children themselves and to the very life and welfare of the nation as a whole. Essential provisions for the welfare of rural-school children should include sanitary and attractive schoolhouses and groimds. Our Com- mittee on Health Problems in Education has issued an eight-page report entitled "Minimum Health Requirements for Rural Schools." Forty thousand copies of this report have been distributed thru the courtesy and co-operation of the United States Bureau of Education. Within four months after these reports were distributed we had requests for twenty- one thousand additional copies. Our national commissioner of education has asked for seven hundred and fifty thousand copies of this pamphlet to supply the needs of the rural-school districts in this country. Thru a gen- erous gift from the Elizabeth McCormick Fund in Chicago, enough money has been provided to print this larger edition. These pamphlets will be distributed during the coming year. It is fully evident, however, from the requests for information and guid- ance already received by our conmiittee, that the spreading of these reports will start more work for us than it finishes. Our committee has prepared a 20-chart winged-frame exhibit whicii is installed in the space provided for the United States Bureau of Education in the Palace of Education in the Exposition grounds in San Francisco. These charts, by the use of statistics, statements, photographs, and other graphic means, attempt to present in cogent form vital and timely suggestions for the provision and improve- ment of measures intended for the promotion of the health and welfare of school children in the United States. Copies of this exhibit will be supplied for state fairs and other favorable centers of publicity. The second essential for insuring improved conditions for country-school children is that their teachers should be better trained and better paid. Rural-school teachers have a wider range of professional duties than have teachers in city schools. They must, from the nature of circimistances, have a broader knowledge and assume larger responsibility than the more specialized and supervised city teachers to insure to the country-school children all the factors needed for their general well-being. Rural teachers, in general, have received much less in professional preparation than those Io8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IGencral who teach in the cities and their financial rewards are also much less. This problem states itself very succinctly. The means for its solution will come slowly but they should come as soon as possible. In the third place, health examinations, including dental inspections should be provided each year for all children in rural schools. These children are certainly of as much potential value to society as the children of the city slums; their health examination and care are just as essential and as feasible with suitable adaptation of available and possible agencies. In the next place, the school regime must provide sufficient health care, including practical health instruction based on actual inculcation of all health habits for their own care, and for their helpful service in assisting and often leading in the health care of the school, of their own homes, and of the community in which they live. Country-school children also need well-adapted warm school lunches quite as much as do children in city schools. It is fully evident that country children in the aggregate suffer as much as, if not more than, city-school children from malnutrition and from improper food, which amounts to partial starvation. Again, provision must be made by the school, by the community, and by the state for correction and removal of all remediable, injurious physical defects. Measures and methods employed successfully in the cities for these purposes often cannot be applied in the same way in the rural schools, but rural children must not be so woefully neglected as is the case at present, and ways and means, adequate and acceptable, must speedily be found and put into operation to free the children in the country schools from removable handicaps. Our committee is impressed with the present opportunity and obligation to foster certain experiments actually to demonstrate ways by which country schools may be improved in healthf ulness and attractiveness and ways by which the health and welfare of country-school children may be improved in the most expeditious and efficient manner practicable under all the circumstances. We are also anxious to obtain authoritative reports of all instructive and helpful efforts in this field in order that we may assist in interpreting, and in making these available for the guidance of the entire country. The problem of advancing the art of human culture in the coimtry is markedly different from that of the city. In the latter the best ideas are more readily brought into contact with all of the people. For many in our cities, deprived thru poverty of the material necessities of life, intellectual and social as well as physical, a bounteous philanthropy frequently supplies the lack. In the country, on the other hand, the farmers must be per- suaded to use their own resources to provide adequately for the welfare of their famiUes and, most of all, for their children. To carry this proposal for child betterment directly to the coimtry house- hold would be inadvisable and ineffective and would often arouse resent- ment. In this phase of hmnan education, the direct approach to the home Sessions] SELF-GOVERNMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 109 is much less feasible in the country than in the city. The school is, how- ever, the agency endowed by every circumstance for the accomplishment of this great special task of a higher civilization. SELF-GOVERNMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS RICHARD WELLING, CHAIRMAN, SELF-GOVERNMENT COMMITTEE, NEW YORK, N.Y. The Self-Government Conunittee again thanks you for the invitation to present its case to this gathering of specialists in education. Twelve years ago, I addressed the Association on "Training for Citizenship in the Schools." Again, in 191 1, I was permitted to restate the case, and two years later our Committee sent Henry Neumann, whose address on "Moral Values in Pupil Self-Government" appeared to arouse great interest. Indeed as la3anen we are always much complimented by the interest shown in what we have to say at these meetings, but we still find many school officials in practice apathetic or actually opposed to the self-government idea. Our point of view is merely that of citizens of more or less experience in political movements, who are deeply interested in the public schools. If there is any plan for training the young for citizenship in a democracy that does not utilize some form of pupil co-operation in the government of the school, we have not heard of it, and yet only four times during thirteen years has our subject found a place on your program and then only at our urgent request. It seems, therefore, fair to assume that the principle has but a feeble hold upon the imagination of your program-makers. Perhaps they tend too much to take for granted that it has won its place in the general scheme of American education. Such is far from the fact. Permit me then a brief reminder of the main principles for which we contend. We believe that the pupils of a school, by helping in the running of their own young com- munity, best learn the meaning of membership in a civic society. The law of the school becomes less of an alien imposition when as members of a school community they help frame the regulations that intimately concern them. Instead of being a hero, the rowdy becomes a real offender and meets with the scorn of his peers. Active, willing participation in the responsibility of one's group is one of the most serious demands of democracy. Under the old autocratic system it may be easy to secure the outward semblance of order, but this is not education for life in a democracy, and accordingly there must be not only the community sense but also some machinery, however simple, to develop the executive energies of the demo- cratic soul. For example: In Indianapolis whenever machinery becomes necessary to give effect to a school decision, committees appropriate to the purpose are chosen by the pupils themselves. At Gary, there is a student council. no NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [G«nei»l The spirit of forbearance and co-operation makes not only for good citizenship but for world-peace and for membership in that larger world- civilization which most nations share and from which no nation cultiva- ting these principles need fear being outlawed. Pupil co-operation in the management of various vocational activities as practiced in the Gary schools must also tend to breed that conmiunity spirit from which some day we may hope to see a wise and sane collectivism in the state. In order to carry out these principles, Dr. Housh, of the Los Angeles high school, says: A principal must thoroly believe in self-government, even when it seems to prove a failure, and must convert his teachers and board of education. Moreover, he must trust the pupils, but know all the time what they are doing; must support the officers, but, more important than anything else, must make the members of the school feel the impor- tance .of being permitted to govern themselves. Mere dramatization of civics need not be feared. If a jimior republic has too many oflScials, cut down the number, provided only that the com- mimity spirit is not lost. Also it should not be forgotten that a system, however cumbersome, which effectively regulates a child's activities, is no longer drama but reality in that child's experience. In the golden words of Arthur William Dunn, of the United States Bureau of Education, the important thing is to secure "a point of view, an attitude, an interest, and a motive." These principles, according to our best information, are practiced in but a small fraction of the secondary schools. They fare best in the elementary schools, and, while one would naturally expect them to reach their full development in the secondary school or at least in the college, such we do not find to be the fact. The demand for our literature is almost never from high schools. Standing between the elementary school and the college, the secondary school is apparently influenced in its social and moral tone far more by the college than by the elementary school. The aristocratic and often snobbish or narrowing tendencies of the college may be recognized in the fraternities and petty cliques of the high school. Add to this that only a small per- centage of graduates from the elementary schools are able to push on thru the high school and this may further explain why the simple democratic atmosphere of the elementary school is so seldom found in the high school. A recent statement of the United States Bureau of Education advises us that "the failiire of many high-school principals to respond to the repeated requests for information sent from this bureau keeps the reported secondary enrolment for the whole country some thousands below the actual number." This shows the difficulty of getting accurate statistics. If the United States Bureau of Education receives only partial replies, the Self-Govemment Committee which I represent has even greater difficulty. Sessionsl SELF-GOVERNMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS iii We wish indeed we could substantiate the statement of the Bureau of Education in the report for 19 14 that every New York City high school had some form of self-government. A recent questionnaire reveals that only six or seven out of twenty- seven are thus equipped, and it is our belief that in the country at large outside of New York progress in some form of self-government is at best very slow. The high-school principal seems to be oppressively occupied with new problems and complexities of administration, and if, as Dr. Housh has said, his entire staff have not an active faith in the principle of self- government, our committee can hardly do more than present the matter at intervals to his attention. We have also maintained lecture courses on various types of self- government by the school principals themselves who spoke from their own experience, and the New York City Board of Examiners at our request now asks searching questions on the subject of self-government in the examina- tion which they hold for those aspiring to become principals. But why do the colleges set so poor an example to the secondary schools ? What is the college attitude on self-government ? Both pertinent inquiries for the purpose of this paper. From the United States Bureau of Education report on the "Present Status of the Honor System in Colleges and Universities," (1915) at a glance we see that most of the colleges have not so much as grasped the problem of self-government. The ancient war between student and teacher is assumed to be still in progress. The "honor system" (applied only to cribbing at examinations) does not even aim to reach that vast list of out- rages, euphemistically described as "pranks" by those who think the stu- dent incapable of a loyalty beyond his immediate group. These may continue to be perpetrated in the ancient war game between student and teacher. If caught in any of these "pranks," the student perhaps 21 years old and still in the nursery attitude toward discipline, may be placed on probation, denied his degree, or sent home to be spanked. Apparently, however, the close surveillance of the proctor, standing near by to see that there is no cribbing at examinations, has so irritated the student, and the many mysterious victories of the dunce or loafer in successfully passing examinations have so irritated the professor that both student and professor have been willing to declare an armistice on this one subject of cribbing. The "honor system" is merely an armistice to refrain from a particular kind of fighting. The student may still be an outlaw on all other matters of conduct. He does not materially enlarge his group loyalty by this one promise; "You stop watching me and I'll stop cheating." Accordingly President Van Meter, of Goucher College, Baltimore, replied to the Bureau's inquiry; There is a students' organization which takes cognizance of student conduct in all its reaches I do not like the honor system. It has a suggestion in it that under a 112 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (General specific system there are principles controlling conduct which need not control it apart from that system. Professor Griffiths, of the University of California, replied: Our students' self-government is far larger and more comprehensive in its scope. It means that the responsibility in all matters of student discipline rests with the students themselves. And yet out of ii6 colleges replying to the questionnaire about this partial armistice, in all but twenty-two cases the action to be taken on the offender rests with the faculty and not with the student body! Turning next to many of the college smaller group activities, for example, the hazing and the secret societies, what can be said of them ? At best the example is an imfortimate one for the high school to follow. Self- government is the one sure antidote to those snobbish and impossible barriers and class distinctions which the children tend to raise during the secondary-school period of their lives, but which are earlier and officially fixed for them in Germany. One exception in this imdesirable college social viewpoint happily may be noted: College athletics. Here the high standard of clean sport and and the efficient management on self-government principles make for char- acter, discipline, and community pride in the school. The English schools, Eton, Winchester, Rugby, Harrow, both in their athletic concerns and in the large measure of self-government they have for so many years enjoyed, also furnish in many particulars an example for our secondary schools. Some of England's political instinct amounting as Bagehot says, almost to genius, seems to show in her school as well as in her colonial government. Would that today she had cared for her ele- mentary schools as well as for her so-called public schools. In order to learn what to avoid in moral and civic training, we have only to turn to Prussia. The ego-centric gymnastics often taught there are especially to be avoided. They tend to megalomania and at best are not socializing. Military drill is harmless only when the student has been first taught to realize his citizenship in a democracy. Character training of the "make-or-break" military type practiced in Germany is useful only to furnish good subjects for a monarch. Twelve hundred and twenty-one (i,22i) child suicides between 1883 and 1905 (more than one each week) in Prussia alone tell us of the price paid (Professor Eulenberg's figures). We may weU shrink from the barbarous lengths that corporal punish- ment is liable to reach, but we must either develop a commimity sentiment 100 per cent strong, or fall back on corporal punishment as practiced in Germany, Americans have relaxed the harshness and, substituting nothing for it, are tolerating in many places a mild form of anarchy. As already remarked, the poor German children are dehberately sorted into classes, and, as F. H. Swift describes it in a recent article of the Sessions] SELF-GOVERNMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 113 Educational Review, "their as yet undiscovered and undeveloped natures are early assigned to caste-determining schools where they are turned into machines." Compare this with the measures continued into the high-school period taken by William Wirt in the Gary schools to discover aptitudes. V. A. Huber, in his exhaustive work on English universities, says: English scholars live too much in and for the world, so that it is hardly possible for them to develop that species of almost monomaniacal love for the subject of their investi- gations. Their stand is an entirely different one; it is not derived from the subject itself but from the opinion of the society to which they belong. Under the German system neither scholars nor laymen acquire a sense of values and the result is a community of ill-balanced citizens, each a machine in his own specialty, and the whole liable at any time to become an outlaw nation. The Indian poet and philosopher Tagore, who has had a secondary school in India since 1902, with a self-government system based on that of our George Junior Republic at Freeville, N.Y., says: Whether educational institutions of both the East and the West should turn out men or machines, or just operators of machines, is one of the gravest problems of the world that needs immediate solution I decided to found a school where the students could feel that there was a higher and nobler thing in life than practical efl&ciency. Lest these quotations suggest the ideal of contemplation without action, it should be explained that the Western ideal of social service is one of Tagore's special aims, both taught and practiced, and his students also excel notably in athletics, tennis, cricket, and football. It is over twenty years since William R. George founded his Junior Republic, never more thriving nor more true to its principles than today under Mr. George's inspired management. It has served as a model for other republics in other states, and its self-government principles are prac- ticed in a large number of elementary schools but in comparatively few secondary schools. Especially are they in force in some of the state uni- versities which have not stopped to palter with the anaemic honor system already referred to. Also they are being applied by Warden Osborne at Sing Sing. Why, then, does Dean Russell, of the Teachers College of Columbia Uni- versity, decline our invitation to give the lecture course in self-government, the course already referred to, where school principals lecture from their own experience? And why is the self-government principle not more generally accepted by teachers ? 114 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General THE COST AND LABOR OF ENGLISH TEACHING EDWIN M. HOPKINS, PROFESSOR OF RHETORIC AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, LAWRENCE, KANS. Something more than a year ago, a committee representing the Modern Language Association, the National Council of Teachers of English, and aided by the National Education Association, and the United States Bureau of Education, published a report on the cost and labor of English teaching in secondary schools, establishing the facts that the labor is greater than that of any other school subject, and that its cost is less, and showing that these facts are more than adequate to account for the unsatis- factory results of English training of which so much complaint has in recent years been made. This report has been published privately and by the educational authorities of several states to the nimiber of thirty thousand copies, and is still being distributed.^ As a result of the publication of the report, the National Council of Teachers of English, in November of 1913, adopted the following resolutions: The National Council of Teachers of English approves the steps taken by the North Central Association to limit the number of pupils assigned to English teachers in high schools, and requests the Association and all similar accrediting bodies to recommend for immediate action that schools in which the maximimi number of pupils assigned to a single English teacher exceeds 100 be not accredited in English; and it also requests the Association and all similar accrediting bodies to take further action at as early a date as seems expedient to reduce this maximum to 80, with due provision, as at present recommended, for necessary time for conference and theme reading counted as teaching time. It is the sense of the National Council of Teachers of English that in order to secure satisfactory results in college English it is essential that the maximmn number of students in Freshman English composition assigned to a single instructor should in no case exceed 60; and that when such an instructor has classes in other subjects, a corresponding reduc- tion should be made in the number of pupils assigned to him in English composition. These resolutions should have the indorsement of the National Educa- tion Association and of all other educational bodies and authorities, and should receive the widest possible publicity, in order that the fimdamental causes of the so-called failure in the teaching of English in the schools named may be made universally known and that as a further result they may in time universally disappear. It has never been possible to disprove or even to question the state- ments and immediate conclusions of that report, because they are all conservative. Three years ago, the chairman of the committee at our National Education Association meeting in Chicago, in presenting some of the results of the work done to that time, said that the data in hand indi- cated not only that 80 pupils to a teacher was the maximum nvunber con- sonant with successful English teaching in any high school, but that the actual maximum was above 200, and the actual average about 130. These 'For copies address E. M. Hopkins, Lawrence, Kans., inclosing five cents in stamps. Sessions] THE COST AND LABOR OF ENGLISH TEACHING 11$ Statements were at once flatly contradicted by one of the audience, who asserted that in his state it would be impossible to find a single high school in which as many as 130 pupils were assigned to a single English teacher. As a matter of fact, the state named had furnished more data than any other; but it was not necessary to call attention to that point, for before the speaker had taken his seat, a perfectly furious lady from the same state obtained the floor, and testified that she had charge of 160 pupils in English. That state was not California, but apparently in California the condi- tions of English teaching are sometimes far worse than those named as average conditions in the report. For instance, in one of the best reputed California high schools, in this immediate vicinity, the teacher of English has charge of 180 pupils instead of 80, teaches 6 hours a day instead of the recommended maximum of 4 hours, spends all his time outside of class in reading papers or in conference, and pays from $5 to $15 a month out of his own pocket for additional help in his work, because his own time and strength are insufficient. In the same high school, a teacher of history, doing what should be regarded as full duty for any teacher, carries without difficulty all the work assigned him, earns $25 a month out of school hours by reading papers for the University of California, and is prominent in the educational and civic activities of his locality; while the English teacher is blamed for not being thus active. Such conditions as these indicate why the conomittee I have named, after having spent six years in its particular task, is stiD at work, purposing to spend as many years as may be necessary to make its survey exhaustive in all schools, and hoping ultimately to remove an educational injustice that is little short of monstrous, and to make English teaching count, as it should, for more than any other teaching in the curriculum. Such facts as these I have stated were responsible for the beginning of the survey six years ago, but not solely: further causes were the general eco- nomic interest in the improvement of efficiency, and the general complaint of the results of English teaching. The genesis of the present situation in English may be found in the change from memory training to laboratory training that was made perhaps thirty-five or forty years ago. When that change occurred, no attempt seems to have been made to ascertain the physical conditions necessary in the application of new methods, as is always done in business or in scientific training. If in business or in science a certain quantity and quality of finished product is wanted, it is a matter of course first to ascertain the number of cubic feet of space, the nimiber of hours of time, the number of workmen, and the amount and kind of raw material that will be required. Or, if the material and the product are the known terms in the problem, the space, the time, and the number of workers are ascertained before the work is undertaken. Of course, other factors are involved, but these are fundamental for the simple reason that nobody can Il6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General work for more than twenty-four hours a day, and that no two persons can occupy the same space at the same tune. The unfortunate results of ignoring fundamental physical conditions in the laboratory teaching of English were so obvious that finally a number of English teachers went to work to study the problem upon its physical side. They began with the study of the amount of labor necessary to obtain specific results in high school and college; but tho they addressed themselves to the study of that one thing only, they found it necessary to study almost everything else at the same time in order to obtain the neces- sary light upon that one. In order to make a beginning, they assumed the ordinary degree of training for the teacher, the most conmion equipment in books and apparatus, a reasonable degree of co-operation on the part of the other teachers, the most ordinary home and social environment, the ordinary number of pupils, the most familiar approved methods, and the results most commonly desired, and then ascertained how many hours' time would be needed under these conditions. Having found that number of hours, they divided it by the actual number of teachers engaged in the work and discovered that in order to reach desired results every one of those teachers would be compelled to spend from twelve to twenty-four hours a day in instructional duty, the actual average not far from eighteen hours a day; or almost two and one-half times the amount of labor required of any other teacher or public servant. The committee then endeavored to devise a means of defining the con- ditions in this work so that the amount of labor for one teacher should not be excessive. If the number of labor hours daily be fijxed in accordance with the general standards of business or professional life, and if all other terms in the problem remain unchanged, it can easily be shown that the only way of keeping the labor within proper limits is to limit the number of pupUs assigned to a single teacher. The number of recitation hours does not materially affect the problem, because in laboratory teaching each pupil must have individual attention, and it does not especially matter whether he receive that attention in class or out of class: the important thing is that every pupil must have a proportion of the teacher's time. As already stated, the mathematical conclusion reached by the committee was that no high-school English teacher should ever be assigned more than 80 pupils, and that no college teacher of composition should ever be assigned more than 60. Very naturally, the next question which suggested itself was, What will it cost to increase the number of teachers so that this limit in the number of pupils assigned to each need not be exceeded ? The cost of the present teaching of high-school English was ascertained in an independent survey, and found to be not only less than that of any other laboratory subject, but less than that of any other secondary-school subject whatever; whether or not it is worth less than any other school subject is a point that need not Sessions] THE COST AND LABOR OF ENGLISH TEACHING 1 17 enter into this discussion. Then the effort was made to find out what it would cost to handle it on a scientific business basis, establishing improved conditions at all points, while reducing the nimiber of pupils. After the problem was worked out theoretically, the results were verified by actual experiment, and it was found that the necessary increase would probably range from 25 to 50 per cent; but that even after this increase the cost of English teaching would still be far less than that of any other laboratory subject, and not more than the present cost of subjects that are far less important than English. Having answered the cost question for secondary schools, the com- parative cost of the college teaching of English and other subjects was then studied. This work is not yet completed, but all the necessary material is now in hand, and it already appears that the conditions in colleges are in this respect precisely analogous to those of high schools. But when the cost-and-labor question was answered for secondary schools and colleges, it still remained unanswered with respect to a far larger part of the educational system — the elementary schools. The task of making an elementary-school English survey was so very great that the committee hesitated to undertake it until it was assured of the active sup- port of the United States Bureau of Education. Then it went to work and has now been engaged in this part of the field for about two years; it will require at least two years more to bring the task to completion. I cannot here explain the enormous labor and the intricate mechanism of the present investigation; but ten or fifteen thousand co-workers are now actively engaged in it and tentative results are beginning to appear. Appar- ently, altho these statements are based merely upon general indications, the conditions of the elementary-school teaching of English are far worse than those of either high school or college. In high school or college, the maxi- mum number of pupils recorded as assigned to a single teacher does not exceed 250; whereas, in elementary-school teaching, the maximum nimiber assigned to a unit teacher seems to lie somewhere between seven and eight hundred, tho data yet to be computed may change this very considerably. The comparative cost of teaching grade subjects cannot yet be stated, because the computation has not extended to that point. Nevertheless, the fundamental difficulty in the grades appears without question to be the same that it is in other schools: too many subjects and too many pupils for a single teacher. Teachers in the lower grades are almost unanimous in stating that these are the reasons why their work is ineffective; while the teachers of the higher grades are equally unanimous in asserting that their work is ineffective for the same reasons, and because their pupils reach them without having received adequate training below. All these results are stated subject to correction, but it is probable that essentially these statements will stand. In the general report of the committee, the proofs as well as the facts will, of course, be set forth. llS JVATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General If time permitted, I might qualify, explain in detail, and state and answer objections. I might enlarge on the almost unparalleled difficulties attending the work, difficulties based partly on the carelessness or the oppo- sition of educators who have themselves no immediate personal interest in the problem, but more especially on the simple fact that it is impossible to find out anything without asking questions, and that the labor and affliction of asking thousands of questions of thousands of persons, and of answering those questions, would be almost beyond belief, were it not that most of us have had some experience of the kind. Moreover, when after painful effort one thing has been done, one single question answered with relative accuracy, a thousand other questions at once demand attention. The work is unending and the difficulty of it seems to increase in geometrical ratio as it proceeds. The only apology that can be offered by one who undertakes work of this kind is that nobody has as yet invented any way of conducting it other than by question and experiment; and that if we are to substitute definite knowledge of educational facts and conditions for theories based upon mere guess work, it can be done in no other way. So far as English is concerned, the National Council of Teachers of English has now undertaken a systematic study of the field of English educa- tion on both its physical and its psychological sides, and its work is being aided by state and national organizations and authorities. As already explained, it is a work that can never be finished, but a work that already shows results of the highest importance, more than enough to pay for all that it has cost. Of course, help and more help is always urgently needed; and any English teacher who is not hopelessly overburdened with his work, as very many such teachers are, can by aiding in the survey do some- thing for the benefit not so much of himself personally as of the general cause of English education. The general ultimate end in view is merely to secure universal publicity for the facts as they are, in order that in time this publicity may result in changing conditions for the better. But publicity is slow, and one way of aiding in the work is to organize for the dissemination of special information in particular localities where it is especially needed, as has already been done by English organizations in many states, and as might profitably be done in all the remaining states. After the facts become generally known thru a campaign of publicity, it may be hoped that in a generation or so, if not sooner, better things may b^in to appear. Meanwhile, those who work for the benefit of the next generation, or the generation after that, have as their reward the conscious- ness that they work for a cause, giving time, labor, and substance, hoping only for the future of their pupils and their schools. This statement is not a pessimistic one; it is merely a frank admission of the fact that changes for the better usually come slowly and as the result of long-continued and imselfish effort. Certainly there is no danger that we shall go too fast. Sessions] THE JUNIOR COLLEGE II9 The teaching of English, like all other teaching, is crusted over with tra- dition, and our utmost efforts cannot possibly remove the crust with too great speed, whatever be our enthusiasm and our energy in the advance- ment of teaching reform. THE JUNIOR COLLEGE ALEXIS F. LANGE, HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL. In 1907 the California legislature passed an act enabling the high- school board of any high-school district to add two years to the traditional four-year high-school course. In 19 10 the Fresno High School was so extended — the first one. By the end of 19 14, there were ten such extensions, commonly known as junior colleges, with an enrolment of about eight hundred students. Now there are twelve. Meanwhile, this so-called "California idea" has been institutionalized several tunes over elsewhere. How many junior colleges there will be five or ten years hence, in California and other states, will depend less, it seems, on good intentions than on economic ability to carry them out. At any rate, this automatic brake on the junior- college movement may be trusted to prevent violations of the speed limit. Now the coupons on thru railway tickets usually declare that they are "not good if detached." It is so with the evaluation of the upward exten- sion of the high school. The rise and progress of the junior college needs to be looked upon as an integral phase of a country-wide movement toward a more adequate state system of education; a twentieth-century system, made in America; a system that shall function progressively so as to secure for the nation the greatest efficiency of the greatest number. The evo- lution of the junior college is causally connected with the other constituent phases of the whole process of reorganization and adaptive changes. It is inseparable from three of these: (i) the adjustment of the university, in the Germanized sense, to secondary education; (2) the reorganization of secondary education, to make it more effective, for all alike, during the whole period of adolescence; (3) the movement to equalize educational opportunities by the creation of lower and middle systems of vocational training. In the light of this situation, the junior college appears neither as a unique Pacific Coast "sport," nor as somebody's mechanical device, which must be fitted, somehow, into an immutable inherited mechanism. The junior college is a normal development within a state school system in the making, and this, in turn, is itself being shaped largely by factors and forces that are national and even world-wide in scope. The relative novelty of this development finds its explanation in the fact that in more ways than one the multiform process of educational readjustment has pro- gressed faster and farther in California than elsewhere and is thus pre- sumably fully justified by the privileges and responsibilities of leadership. I20 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General To speak first of the university aspect of the junior-college movement, the University of California has been trying, since 1892, to reshape itself around two organizing ideas, two ideas "one and inseparable." One was and is that, for theoretical and practical considerations alike, the university proper should begin in the middle of the inherited four-year college scheme; the second was and is that the work of the first two years is, as a matter of history and fact, all of a piece with secondary education and should, there- fore, be relegated as soon and as far as practicable to secondary schools. This trend of thought and preaching and practice resulted gradatim in the junior certificate to mark the distinction between university and secondary education, in the policy of placing all professional schools on a basis of not less than two years of non-professional college training, in making the studies of the last two years of the high school and the first two of the college largely interchangeable, and, last, but not least, in publicly exhibiting the requirements for the junior certificate in terms of unified six-year curricula. By 1908 the high-school teachers of the state had become generally aware of the fact that what was to be known soon as the junior college idea had been essentially put into practice at Berkeley and several of them were trying to utilize locally the precept and example of the state university. But this propaganda would probably not have gathered momentum very fast without President Jordan's dynamic articles and addresses urging the amputation of Freshman and Sophomore classes to prevent university atrophy, and urging the relegation of these classes to the high school. His advocacy of its upward extension made the public "sit up and take notice" and thought and prodded schoolmen into taking the initiative. What had been a Berkeley idea at the beginning had become a California idea, and the spectacle of Berkeley and Stanford climbing the Golden Stairs together, hand in hand, made its appeal with great persuasiveness. More- over, while Berkeleyans had been in the habit of speaking of six-year high schools, Dr. Jordan gave general currency to the name "junior college," and this proved much more potent in suggestible communities. This twin-sister university movement, however-^which, by the way, has become fairly national by this time — does not fully account for the junior college. Two other movements coalesced with it. One had its source in the now dominant conviction on the part of leaders in educational thought that for the great majority of boys and girls undergoing secondary- school training the American four-year high-school course begins too late and ends too early. The result is a truncated and ineffectual, non- functioning education, for most high-school graduates. A remedial read- justment, it has been seen for some time, must consist in the lengthening, for iall concerned, of the course for adolescents. In states without complete state school systems, i.e., without state universities, efforts to this end are still generally confined to the re-forming of the last two or three years of the elementary school. In California the upward extension of the high school Sessions] THE JUNIOR COLLEGE I2I was from the first urged along with the other, in the educational interest of the great mass of high-school graduates who cannot, will not, should not become university students. Such extensions, it was argued, might and should make it possible for the small minority to enter a university, in the narrower sense, at the end of two years; but the controlling educational purpose should be to provide for a reasonably complete education, whether general or vocational. The other movement had its source in the increas- ingly imperative need of vocational training, first of all for those whose education for general social efficiency is not prolonged beyond the ele- mentary school, and secondly, for those whose general education ends with the four-year high-school period and who are not headed for one of the pro- fessions, in the restricted sense. With reference to this need, too, as far as the latter class is concerned, an additional two years came to appear desirable and necessary for "finishing courses" in applied science of one sort or another, according to local means or demand. Mr. Olney, for example, in trying to persuade the school board and people of Fresno to sanction his junior-college plans, laid great stress on a department of agri- culture, on a department of domestic art and science, and on a department of applied political science. Moreover, it seemed clear, from the university point of view, that such departments might render a great service to the universities and to thousands of young people by diverting these from the university and thus preventiag their becoming "misfits" for life. To the best of my knowledge and belief, such was the genesis of junior colleges in CaHfomia. As contributory factors should be mentioned the long distances from most points in CaHfomia to the state university and Stanford, the absence of small colleges, which dot the landscape of other states, and the state requirement — unique thus far in this country — of a year of graduate study for high-school teachers. Of coiurse, the rapid multipli- cation of junior coUeges, since the first one was estabhshed at Fresno, is partly owing to intercommimal bell-wether-and-sheep relations combined with the spirit of emulation. It is of course an inevitable phase of development that as yet not one of the junior colleges produced by the confluence of the three movements I have spoken of has fully foimd itself. Growing-pains cannot be escaped; self-direction is naturally not achieved at once. But even now the uncer- tainty that exists relates rather to matters of organization and method than to fundamental conception and aim. It is coming to be generally understood that the junior college cannot serve its complex purpose if it makes preparation for the university its primary object. For the great majority of junior-college students, coiu*ses of instruction and training are to be of a piece with what has preceded; they are to be culminal rather than basal; they are not to result in a "deferred education." The junior college will function adequately only if its first concern is with those who will go no farther, if it meets local needs efficiently, if it turns many away 12 2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION {General from the university into vocations for which training has not hitherto been afiforded by our school system. Hence it will of necessity be as nearly autonomous as its place in the public-school system of the state permits; and its structure will normally exhibit two types of departments: (i) depart- ments designed to promote general social efficiency; (2) departments designed to furnish complete training for specific — or vocational — efficiency. It is not so certain, however, that this conception and aim will be stead- fastly adhered to in practice. The term "junior college" implies a senior college, i.e., preparation for the university; the line of least resistance is to duplicate uncritically Freshman and Sophomore courses. To think that the imiversities are doing high-school work is not nearly as satisfying as to think that the jimior college is to do university work. The practical value of university approval is so great that there is great willingness on the part of jimior-coUege teachers to perform the cUnging-vine act. Thus far, fortimately, the state university has not sought to bend the jimior college to its uses. As far as it has acted at all, it has acted chiefly as guide, phi- losopher, and friend. As such it has been groping after a sympathetic imderstanding of the whole situation, has tried to assist junior colleges by emphasizing the need of vocational departments and by warning against sacrificing the educational interests of the local majority, and has refrained, wisely, I think, from even pretending that it was in a position to issue a new set of commandments or a book of revelations. A imiversity bulletin, now in preparation, will, I trust, embody and illustrate this attitude in a helpful way. One of the problems of organization is that of the relation of the junior college to the four-year high school. Three tendencies are noticeable: One is to separate the junior college as far as possible from the high school, to create a special faculty, to develop new forms of student activities and social Ufe, to emphasize new points of view, and so on. Another tendency is to differentiate as little as possible, that is, to treat the jimior college strictly as the upper division of a six-year or even eight-year high school. According to a third view, the advantages of both types of organization can be secured and the disadvantages of each avoided by applying the prin- ciple of unity in variety. A special faculty, yes, but not one without a share in the work of the grades below the collegiate division; a imified program, yes, but also new attitudes and methods; a distinct college life, but not a separate one, nor a mere imitation of the large university-college — Berkeley, for example. The need of differences between the collegiate and the four-year part of a six-year high school is not created by any other institution. It exists because the students of the college division have normally passed the middle point of adolescence; it exists, further, not because some wiU go to a imiversity afterward, but because most of the graduates will presumably not do so. As far as I can see, the actual sit- uation is generally being faced in accordance with this third view, which, Sessions] THE JUNIOR COLLEGE 123 I need hardly say, seems to me to do justice to all of the factors entering into the problem. Another problem is, of course, that of the quality of the teaching stafif. It is generally recognized that the work of junior-college grades is beyond the quaUfications of the rank and file of high-school teachers. The junior- college teacher must not be inferior, with respect to advanced scholarship, to the university instructor. And there is a general disposition to act on this working principle. But, of course, such a standard cannot be insisted on at once and everywhere. Meanwhile it seems certain that the univer- sities may safely admit junior-college graduates to full Junior standing without fear of a lowered standard. According to statistics recently gathered by Recorder Sutton, of the state university, the scholarship aver- age of those coming from jimior colleges is several fractions higher than the general university average. There are good reasons why this should be so. Hitherto junior-college classes have been small; they have been homogeneous, and so have been able to start in on a higher level than is possible for the heterogeneous mass of university Freshmen; they have been in charge not of the least experienced but of the most experienced teachers of their respective institutions; they have been less exposed to university side shows; they have come to their university Ufe and work with great expectations, with freshness and enthusiasm. It seems signifi- cant in this connection that several good students who completed the first year's work at Berkeley are taking their second year at Los Angeles, on the avowed ground that they have better educational opportunities there. As far, then, as universities are concerned, there need be no misgivings about standards of scholarship. There is every prospect that within a few years the non-professional work of the junior colleges will be in the hands of teachers, who, in addition to matured experience in secondary education, have had from one to three years of graduate university study. This brings us to the problems of afl^iation. At Berkeley we retain the term "accrediting" for the relation between the four-year high school and the university, but use the term "affiliation" to express not only our sense of the right of the junior colleges to their own Ufe, liberty, and happi- ness, but especially the fact that they are co-ordinate with our own lower division, which, of course, we cannot aboUsh and probably would not if we could, lest the standard of preparation for university work be lowered. Our modus operandi has been and is to treat graduates of junior colleges as we treat students who have completed two years in other institutions of collegiate grade. Other things being equal, they are given full credit toward graduation. This act is regarded not as a department but as a general university function. Then the student makes his peace with the depart- ment or departments in which he desires to take major or university courses. Here no difficulty is experienced as long as the work done in a junior college appears acceptable as a fair equivalent as to quantity, quality, and purpose 124 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General for department prerequisites. But if a junior-college department has aimed primarily at general social efficiency while the corresponding uni- versity department looks upon its prerequisites as speciaUzed preparation for specific efficiency, more or less professional, then the question arises: Which shall do the adjusting, the imiversity or the jimior-college depart- ment? One thing is clear: No university department must be allowed to direct or prescribe for the corresponding junior-college department. My own strong conviction is that the junior college can and should be some- thing better than a conglomerate of departments pursuing a hodgepodge of aims. To forestall such a development, the university will have to do more adjusting in its lower division than the junior college should be expected to do. I should add that this process is going on at Berkeley and that in most of our departments no revolutionary changes are involved. Of course this does not apply to junior-college graduates from vocational departments. If these desire to enter the College of Agriculture or the College of Engineering, they cannot expect to escape paying a price for having changed their minds. They must comply with the requirements of professional curricula. Preparation for a vocation is only to a limited extent preparation for more preparation. This view is now pretty well understood and accepted by junior-college principals. Indirectly it will doubtless tend to emphasize the scientific bases of vocational courses in junior colleges and to prevent their degenerating into mere drill and skill courses. On the other hand, the junior colleges, as an integral part of an autonomous state high-school system, will doubtless become an increasingly potent factor in completing the adjustment of the university to the college by basing all professional departments on at least two years of non-technical study and training. In conclusion, there is nothing in the present situation to shake one's faith in the junior-college movement. 'Tis a long way to Tipperary, but when the junior colleges get there they will be found to promote efficiently the public welfare in a number of ways. They will enable the universities to concentrate their efforts more and more on imiversity work proper. They will relieve the state imiversity of a large part of imiversity extension service. They will offer thousands of young people from sixteen to twenty years of age the advantage of being taught and trained in small groups not far from home. They will make it possible for thousands who are unable to attend a university or college to round out their general education. They will reduce very materially the cost of college and university edu- cation. They will provide "finishing" vocational courses in agriculture, in the industries, in commerce, in applied civics, in domestic science, etc. They will constitute educational centers of a high order, whose influence for good will extend in many directions over large areas of the state. Sessions] INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 12$ INDUSTRIAL TRAINING ELLA FLAGG YOUNG, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL. The subject of industrial training has been so fully presented in the meetings of this Association in the past that it would be idle to attempt at this time a discussion of its large phases. Time is too brief to consider the effect of a division of pubUc educational funds on economic or vocational groimds and to pursue the question, asking if that division would lead eventually to a division on theological grounds. The subject of two kinds of education in public schools is of too recent origin to receive impartial treatment, both being systematic elaborations of methods of mind with different backgroimds or foregrounds — the cultural system having tra- ditional subjects in the backgroimd, and the vocational system having industrialism and efl&ciency in the foreground. There are, however, minor conditions that have not become common- places. The two to which attention is invited are usually assumed by the school to lie outside its domain. They will in time determine its method in industrial training. The first was suggested to me by a report made to and adopted by the lUinois State Federation of Labor last October. That report was prepared by a committee of which I had the honor to be an advisory member. Not being a member of a labor union, I inferred that the invita- tion was due to my relation to the pubhc schools. That report dwelt upon the desirability of a system of vocational training which would not prepare boys and girls for work carried on in Umited areas of space and restricted to a few automatic movements. The labor people called this division of labor extreme speciaHzation. I think the term "speciaHzation" not rightly used. In those small reaches one does not speciaUze; the work is not specialized; it is simply divided into exceedingly small parts. It is not necessary for me before an audience of teachers to enlarge upon the effect, mental and physical, of Hmiting boys and girls between fourteen and eighteen years of age to movements which day after day have no aim excepting dupHcation of a few particular movements, without variation, in order to feed or take from a machine. Decrepitude and decay come early in Ufe to those who are limited (either physically or mentally) to activity in small areas and without complexity of movement. In the latter part of that report, the labor people stated that there must be a solution of the question of labor which would save their children from ruination in these Hmited divisions, and then the report turned to the pubhc and said : " We appeal to the pubUc to help us. " As I have thought it over, it has seemed to me that no part of the American pubhc could respond to that appeal more sympathetically and more effectually than this great body of teachers, those who are engaged in educating boys and girls before they enter upon trade training. 126 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General While granting that we have our definite work, we all beUeve that it must comprehend a larger and greater aim than that which is covered by performance of duties assigned us. "Teacher" is too inclusive a term for activity in prescribed lines. The aim of teaching is striving to form char- acter. Then teachers must influence conditions so positively that those children whom they teach and whose characters they aim to help form shall not be trained for labor that bUghts the powers, labor utterly lacking the broadening influence of activity that develops and strengthens character. We as teachers should be constrained to come out from our narrow academic fields and see to it that the early education of those children and their vocational training shall not be a preparation for life which reduces the human being to the level of an automatic mechanism. As we do that, it may be well to turn for a moment to our own field and to ask whether it is possible that in canying out the ideal of education in this country and in the development of large elementary schools, large high schools, colleges, and imiversities, we also are being Umited in education by those same narrow reaches to which the labor people say their children are limited in the industries of the world. Is it true that some teachers spend years teaching the same Uttle reach of learning, teaching reading, the beginnings, getting no farther than the sjonbols, never knowing to what their efforts lead ? Is it true that often in high schools men and women teach subjects — pieces of a subject — algebra, for example, year after year and year after year, never taking pupils beyond the elementary operations, never knowing to what their instruction leads, and whether it leads to anything ? Our responsibihty to society requires that we look out into the world and know whether conditions warrant our beUeving that we are lajdng foimda- tions for the upbuilding of hvmianity; whether we are being limited by mental movements with children or youth only, during six months or eight months or nine months of the lives of group after group of the same age. My second point pertains to the education of girls. Speakers on woman and her work are fond of saying: "Woman's work has been taken from her and she has followed it out into the world." It seems to them as if they have uttered a very important and truthful statement. There are not six people in this house who have been familiar with the household in which woman's work began with the raw material and extended on thru imtil it reached the garment. There are not three people who are acquainted with women who followed their industrial work out into the world when it was taken from them. Woman has not followed her work. The work has been taken from her, but she is not doing it in the world outside the home. In the training of girls it is generally forgotten that the great mass of women must do some industrial work. In the school, industrial training of girls is limited almost entirely to cooking and sewing, and with much com- Sessions] THE NATIONAL UNION OF TEACHERS 127 placency we sit back and say: "See, we are preparing them to be home- makers," while we know well enough that a third of them at least will never have the opportunity to be homemakers. We teach them sewing, we teach them cooking. Do they go out into the world and manage the great restaurants, the kitchens of the great hotels ? Certainly not. Men cook in the large establishments. Girls are taught to serve in the dining-room. Do they serve in the hotels and restaurants ? Were you served this evening in the large hotels of this city by women ? No. Men served. And so with sewing. Girls are taught to sew. But if you or I want a tailor-made dress, we look around and find a man to make it. Even in the exercise of the two occupations which industrial education assigns to woman as hers by imquestionable right, she is not permitted to follow her work out into the world. There are some lines of designing and miUinery to which she is admitted, but after all, in the great industrial world woman seems to have nothing to do, excepting to wrap bundles and address them, to make boxes, and to do small things like that. I grant that it is difficult to know what women can be taught, what the girls can be taught that will enable them in this world of machinery, of electricity, to follow their work into the world; until we find out what they can do, let us cease talking in a wiseacre way, saying her work has been taken from her and she has followed it. Let us help her to follow it. Motherhood is great. The care of the home is great. But after the children are reared what are our girls who have become middle-aged women to do ? After they have become mothers, what work can they do in the world if they have not money enough to spend their leisure hours at the woman's club ? What are they going to do ? We must make a study of two things: first, how to help shape conditions that will surround our boys and girls when they leave us and go into the trades; and second, how to conduct our courses so that they may make true the statement that woman's work has been taken from her and she has followed it out into the world. THE GROWTH AND ORGANIZATION OF THE NATIONAL UNION OF TEACHERS C. W. CROOK, VICE-PRESIDENT, ENGLISH NATIONAL UNION OF TEACHERS Elementary education in England began at the commencement of the nineteenth century under the care of the British and Foreign Society and the National Society (Church of England), when the rival systems of Lancaster and Bell were introduced, principally as a means of conducting large schools with the fewest possible number of adult teachers. The minutes of 1846 offered state pay, and civil-service pensions to cer- tificated teachers in state-inspected schools, and introduced the pupil- teacher system. State aid followed to training colleges for teachers and 128 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General many were established, all under voluntary control, but all receiving the greater portion of the cost of their upkeep from the state. Until 1870 all the elementary schools in England and Wales were under voluntary management, Church of England, Wesleyan, and Roman Catho- lic being sectarian, while those of the British Society were undenominational. The different types of school were rivals with one another and the same rivalry existed amongst their teachers. Few teachers' associations were formed and the few were limited in membership to one denomination. Among the chief consequences of this disunion were the complete with- drawal of teachers' pensions in 1862 and the introduction of drastic codes and individual examinations which the disunited teachers were powerless to oppose or modify. These facts, combined with the introduction of the Elementary Educa- tion Act of 1870 which established Board schools under public control, compelled the more thoughtful of English teachers to see the absolute necessity of becoming united, and in September of the same year the National Union of Elementary Teachers was begun. The graphs on p. 129 show its growth from that date to the present time. The following are among the most important matters which the Union has either carried out entirely by its own influence, or which it has had a great share in bringing to a successful issue: The reintxoduction of the pension-minutes of 1851 for pre-1862 teachers. The Superannuation Act of 1898. Its improvement in 191 2. The introduction of local complementary pensions in London, Liverpool, Birmingham, etc., bringing up the total teachers' pension to the civil-service basis. The right of a teacher to be heard either in person or by a representative before dis- missal, now allowed by many but not all local education authorities. The safeguarding of the interests of teachers when local boundaries are altered. The right of teachers to imdertake or refrain from undertaking extraneous duties outside school hours. The limiting of the authority of managers of non-provided schools (i.e., schools not under the direct control of the locality) to dismiss on religioxis grounds only. The right of teachers to take part in parliamentary elections and to be elected on public bodies (except the education committee in their own area). The co-optation of teachers to the education committee in their own areas. There are at present 360 of these teacher members. The abolition of the individual examination of scholars and the substitution of inspection. The freedom, within the limit of essentials, of the teacher to form his own school curriculmn and time-table and to classify his children. The abolition of annual entries by His Majesty's inspector on the teacher's certificate. The abolition of school fees in practically all elementary schools. The introduction of free meals to necessitous children. The introduction of medical inspection and after-care. The raising of the age and standard of exemption from school — the leaving age is now foiirteen, but children may imder certain conditions leave at twelve or thirteen on Sessions] THE NATIONAL UNION OP TEACHERS 129 "oH 2-3 « ^ J — r — 1 — I — I — I — [ — r— T — I — [ { I — I — r— I — *<■ ■■ I -Sfc — — ■ — -^- ■■ III !■■ — ^ ..^^ I " — — — " ■ ■■■— ■—" -■ ' I _^ ^.H ^^ I ■ »■■ ■^_Hi i^» —»■ .1^1 » ^ » iiMi ■ ■■ II ■ ■ ■"-'- ■^— r — I — I — I — I — I — 1 I 1 — I — I — I — I — I — I — I— i o v> in ■^ to O «n o ol. ewv tn ?5 Sfi t>. t>. NO v8 So. 00. 06. og. Ul Ml *' ■figs S JS5 * .9 ■g.'t! ,a "^ Qts 3 c« > a 0 ■• - « 3 -^ a ei u '•^ * !l5a^:| *"^ "I OK) 9 3 I30 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General passing a qualifying examination whose standard varies in different places. It is generally far too low in rural districts. The gradual raising of the half-time age. It is now twelve. The next step is the total abolition of half-time. The abolition of annual examinations of schools. The bill restricting street trading and out-of-school employment of children. The gradual opening of the inspectorate to primary teachers. The abolition of a teachers' register which separated primary from other teachers and the introduction of the present comprehensive register. The formation of the Benevolent and Orphan Fimds. The formation of the Teachers' Provident Society. The formation of the new War Aid Fimd for Teachers. The adoption and improvement of scales of salaries. The Union is organized in the following way: Each member of the Union joins a local association, which generally consists of all teachers working under the same educational authority, tho sometimes other teachers join from various motives. The local associations are grouped into twelve electoral areas. These are arranged geographi- cally, and are: North England, Lancashire, Yorkshire, North Midland, South Midland, East Anglia, South England, West England, Wales, Lon- don, Middlesex, Extra-Metropolitan, and Essex Extra-Metropolitan. The rural associations in these areas, which for administrative purposes are under the control of the county education authorities, are grouped also into county associations and select representatives to attend their meetings. Each of the twelve electoral areas chooses annually as many members as its number of individual members entitle it to elect, the total number of the executives so elected being thirty-six. Lancashire and London elect five each, Yorkshire four, North England, North Midland, South Midland, South England, and Wales each has three, while Essex, East Anglia, and West England have two, and Middlesex has only one. Besides this, a treasurer and vice-president are elected annually, by all the members. The present treasurer, George Hamilton, has held that office since 1874. The vice-president becomes president and ex-president in succeeding years. The president, vice-president, and ex-president in any year are ex-officio members, but remain as one of the number allowed to their respective areas. Except this year for the first time, the associations send representatives according to their numbers to an annual conference at Easter. The place of the conference is decided each year by the vote of the associations. The conference is the ruling body of the Union. The executive reports annually to it and has to carry out its resolutions. Every association has to send conference resolutions, and these are sent out at the beginning of the year for six of them to be voted upon for precedence of discussion. The place on the agenda is determined entirely by the number of votes each resolution receives, except that the executive has the right to select the first Sessionsl THE NATIONAL UNION OF TEACHERS 13 1 subject for each public session. The public sessions are devoted to propa- ganda work, whUe private sessions are reserved for internal domestic policy. The conference lasts from Easter Monday morning to Thursday afternoon. The evenings are given up to social functions and meetings of sectional bodies. One afternoon is taken up by a luncheon to, and meeting of the executive with, representatives of educational authorities. The same after- noon is utilized for sectional meetings for the reading of papers on educa- tional topics. The annual meetings of the Benevolent and Orphan Council and of the Teachers' Provident Society take place in the conference town during conference, and the presentation of purses by associations to the Benevolent and Orphan Fund is one of the most interesting functions. The public is admitted to the public sessions. There are generally about two thousand representatives present, and probably about five thousand teachers and friends altogether visit the conference towns. The last conference was at Lowestoft, in 19 14. The next should be at Blackpool in 19 16. The last three conferences have been somewhat enlivened by the woman's suffrage question. The work of the executive. — This is carried on by the following standing committees: Finance and General Purposes Parliamentary and Superannuation Law Tenure Education The Organization Committee Examinations Board These consist of members of the executive only. Besides these there are : Secondary Schools Committee Rural Schools Committee Evening Schools Committee London Committee Middlesex Extra-Metropolitan Committee Essex Extra-Metropolitan Committee The executive also sends representatives to the committees of many out- side bodies such as: The Workers' Educational Association The League of Empire The Victoria League The Joint Scholarships Board The English Association The Child Study Association The Half-Time Council All the seven principal committees meet twice monthly, except the Tenure Committee which meets once. Their reports and all general motions and correspondence are made monthly to a full executive. 132 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General The Finance Committee. — Of the 12s. annual subscription, 35. 6d. is allocated to the general fund, 45. 6d. to the Sustentation Fund, 25. for par- liamentary purposes, and 25. for legal purposes. The Finance Committee controls only the first of these. It deals also with questions of eligibility for membership, contracts for stationery, etc., the estimated cost of new policy, oflice, staff, etc. The Sustentation Fund, which now amounts to £65,712, is for the pur- pose of sustaining members who resign or are dismissed from office thru the advice of the Union. The principal cases it has dealt with are the West Ham and Hereford campaigns, where a large number of teachers were called out in the first case owing to what the Union considered a breach of contract, in the second because the Hereford County was one of the worst paying counties in England and refused to consider the necessity of formu- lating an adequate scale of salaries. The West Ham struggle ended in a compromise, but owing to subsequent action, the West Ham scale of salaries has been considerably improved. The Hereford campaign resulted in the adoption of a much improved scale of salaries. The Parliamentary Committee works thru parliamentary correspondents, two of whom, of different political color, are generally appointed in each locality, and interview members of parliament, or candidates for that posi- tion, whenever the Parliamentary Committee advises. At present it also supports two members of Parliament, a Liberal and a Labor member, and has adopted three Conservative candidates and one other Liberal candi- date for the next election. All questions of superannuation are dealt with by this conmiittee, but work on this subject is necessarily suspended owing to the war. The point last before the committee was the initiation of a pension scheme for teachers in secondary schools. The committee also has a legal representative at the House of Commons, who watches all bills brought in by local authorities in order to see that teachers receive the same pensions as other officials, and that no teacher is injured professionally or financially by any transfer of areas. All acts of Parliament dealing with education in any aspect also come first under its purview. The Law Committee deals with all legal cases affecting teachers in their professional work. Actions for breach of contract, wrongful dismissal, libel, personal damages thru neglect of committees, etc., are considered. Last year an average of 125 cases came before the committee at each meeting and advice was also given in 1,190 other cases. The Tenure Committee deals with all cases affecting the tenure of the teacher. Wherever possible, and this is generally so, a teacher before being dismissed is heard by the educational committee concerned, and a legal representative, one of our two standing counsels, generally attends to state his case and to advise hiyn generally. Whenever any trouble likely to affect the teacher's tenure of office arises, some representative of the Union, either Sessions] THE NATIONAL UNION OP TEACHERS 133 a member of the executive or one of the stafiF of the legal department, visits the district and makes inquiries. These frequently lead to a great lessening of local friction and to a settlement of the difficulty. The Law and Tenure departments have the advice of two permanent standing counsels (barristers) and also, if necessary, take the advice of the most prominent leading counsel, and carry important test cases to the highest court. The Ediccation Committee is the hardest worked of all the committees. It reviews all regulations and suggestions of the Board of Education and all the regulations of local education authorities so far as they refer to education. Such questions as sick-pay regulations; corporal punishment rules; interference of His Majesty's inspectors with time-tables; school reports; medical inspection; provision of meals; scholarship scheme; regulations for evening, secondary, technical, and junior technical schools, etc., constantly feed its agenda. Conferences with other bodies are arranged by this committee. The Organization Committee watches the increase or decrease in mem- bership of the various associations and, in the latter case, decides upon the action required. It also arranges all deputations to local or county asso- ciations, except that the three officers — president, vice-president, and ex-president — are free to attend any association to which they are invited. The committee also draws up all the membership-campaign circulars. An experiment toward decentralizing some of the work of these committees has been suspended during the war. The Examinations Board prepares syllabi for the examination of scholars in evening schools and issues certificates and diplomas on the results. It also conducts special examinations, such as those for the Sanitary Insti- tute and for the Plumbers' Association. Last year 11,606 papers were examined. The work of the other committees is sufficiently explained by their names, except that the London, Middlesex, and Essex committees are really county associations meeting at Hamilton House, our headquarters. Besides these committees and this representation on outside bodies, conferences are frequently held with other bodies on matters affecting both them and teachers. Recent examples of these are: A conference with the swimming association on the teaching of swimming in schools; with the teachers in schools for the deaf on the training of teachers for such schools; with the Medical Council on the duties to be performed by doctor, teacher, nurse, and office in connection with the medical inspection and treatment of children; and with the Farmers' Union on rural education. All four have had highly satisfactory results, and that with the Medical Council has resulted in the issue of a valuable joint memorandum which wiU do much to increase the efficiency of this work. Frequent interviews and corre- spondence with the Board of Education also take place. 134 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iGeneral All these committees and the committees of the Benevolent and Orphan Ccimcil and the Teachers' Provident Society meet at Hamilton House, a building just completed under the direction of the Teachers' Provident Society at a cost of £40,000. The building is supervised by a House Com- mittee consisting of representatives of the three bodies, and is named after our treasurer, George Hamilton. As the numbers and percentage of membership grow, so with equal steps grow the work and influence of the Union. At present the main points of policy now being either planned or put into force are: The lifting of the Board of Education's teaching certificate to the status of a degree, and the inclusion of all elementary teachers in the recently formed teachers' register. The abolition of the acting teacher's certificate which formerly fully qualified without a course of training in a training college, but which since 1910 does not qualify for a head teachership. The increase of scholarships and free places in secondary schools. The final policy here b the entire freeing from fees of all state-aided schools. The transference of a much larger share of the cost of national education from the localities to the state. At present the state pays only 45 per cent of the total cost of elementary education, and in London only 27 per cent. The staflSng of every school with fully qualified teachers. At present only two out of three teachers in English and Welsh schools possess the Board of Education teaching certificate, and there are 50,000 unqualified teachers employed. In Scotland only one in 40 is unqualified. Drastic reduction in the size of classes. At present a certificated teacher is allowed to have sixty children in his class in the elementary school, and this is quite a recent improvement, for a few years ago classes of seventy and eighty were quite common. The Union urges a reduction to a class of forty as urgent and a further reduction as essential. An open door to the higher offices in the educational world, such as teaching in second- ary schools, inspectorates, and directorships of education, to all capable teachers. A general improvement in the salaries of teachers. The following are the average salaries paid to certificated teachers in English elementary schools in the year 1913-14: £ 5 d Head Masters 179 10 - Head Mistresses 1 26 18 - Class Masters 130 4 Class Mistresses 96 The public control of all state-aided schools. The right of the teachers to appeal against dismissal to an impartial tribimal, out- side the local educational committee. The extension of compulsory school age to sixteen and the formation of day con- tinuation schools for adolescents. The extension of the complementary p>ension movement to all local authorities. This is practically what has been adopted for Scotland. The provisions of more floor space and of playing fields for children in elementary schools. This last is insisted upon for secondary schools, but is practically ignored for children in elementary schools. The abolition of the half-time system. The extension of the open-air school for ailing children. The extension of the system of school climes for the treatment of physical defects foimd in school children. The adoption of the Necessitous Children's Act by all local authorities. Sessions] EDUCATIONAL SITUATION IN SOUTH AFRICA 135 Organ of the Union. — The organ of the Union is the Schoolmaster, which was formerly under the ownership of a private company. The paper is now the property of the Union, which is gradually buying out the old share- holders. It will become the absolute property of the Union in five years from the present date. This is an attempt to give a brief outline of the work and aspirations of the National Union of Teachers. It is necessarily incomplete, but I hope that some idea of our organization may result from its reading. THE EDUCATIONAL SITUATION IN SOUTH AFRICA CHARLES T. LORAM, INSPECTOR OF SCHOOLS, DURBAN, NATAL, SOUTH AFRICA In the year 19 10, when the four states of South Africa voluntarily surrendered their separate governments, and, by forming the Union of South Africa, gave our coimtry its place among the self-governing domin- ions of the British Empire, a new spirit was bom in our land — the spirit of South African nationaUty under the British crown. A brief retrospect of the history of our country with its tale of racial strife and warfare will indicate how slow and painful the process of labor has necessarily been, yet recent happenings in South Africa have demonstrated in no uncertain way the loyalty and viriUty of the spirit of the youngest of Britain's daughters. To foster this spirit by educating our young people to the responsibiUties and opportunities of their citizenship is the task to which the South African people, British and Dutch ahke, are concentrating their energy, skill, and money. The difficulties of the task are very great. Imagine a country one-third the size of the United States, peopled by a million whites, half British, half Dutch, and over six miUion blacks, with few large towns but innumerable villages, with large farms of from two ta four thousand acres, with great tracts of prairie land as yet only partially opened up by railways, and you will have some idea of our land. In such a country educational problems must be many and difficult. How to maintain a national system without the dangers of bureaucracy, how to secure popular local control without pohtics, how to establish a national university without infringing upon the rights of existing institutions, how to secure the equality of the English and Dutch languages as required by our constitution, what kind of education to give the native peoples, how to provide an agricultural and technical education comparable with the vast resources of the country — these are but a few of the problems confronting us. Many of these problems are yours as well as ours, and we, Uke you, are impelled to tackle them boldly because of our beUef in education. One of the surest and one of the most comparable methods of gauging the attitude of a nation toward education is to consider the status and salary scales of 136 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (General its teachers. In South Africa the schools are government institutions, controlled in the case of elementary and high-school education by the four provincial coimcils, and in the case of higher education by the government itseK. The teachers are the servants of the states, and as such have security of tenure, pension, or superannuation rights, and receive annual increments of salary. While the cost of living in South Africa is nowhere greater than it is in New York City, and in most cases is considerably less, the salaries compare very favorably with those paid in Europe and America. A second indication of South Africa's belief in education is its satis- factory provision for rural education. Centrally controlled systems such as ours enable us to supply the coimtry with schools as good as those of the town. The rural schools are erected, equipped, and maintained by the country. If there is any difiFerentiation made, it is in favor of the coimtry where the staffing basis is one teacher for twenty-five pupils and not one for thirty-five as in the town. We have no such thing as a seven- or eight- month year. Even our schools for the aborigines, the Zulu, Kafir, and Basuto people, have a ten-month school year, buildings approved by the state authorities, and in most cases trained and certificated native teachers. Still further evidence of South Africa's faith in education is afforded by its anxiety to learn from others. The Union government has foimded a number of oversea scholarships to enable selected educators to proceed abroad to study foreign school systems. At this moment, there are South Africans in Great Britain, Holland, Canada, and the United States examining the different systems of education in the light of South Africa's needs. It is my personal beUef that it is the United States with its sound basis of democracy, its sturdy insistence on local rights, and its variety of school systems which has most to teach us, both in what to follow and in what to avoid. In certain respects, particularly in thoroness of methods of instruction, in high ideals of scholarship, and in what I might, for want of a better expres- sion, call academic reserve. South Africa stands high, but in others, especially in flexibiUty and aptabiUty of systems, we have much to learn from you. We need your critical and pragmatic attitude toward education, your unwillingness to accept subjects and methods of instruction merely because your forefathers did, and your constant trying out of subjects and systems in the Ught of twentieth-century conditions. Every visitor to this country must be struck with the flexibihty of your systems and the ease with which they have been adapted to new and changing conditions. Yom- technical colleges and imiversities have particularly interested us of South Africa. It is significant that for some years many of the mining engineers on the South African gold fields were Americans, trained for the most part in the universities and colleges of California. Altho we have made good our weakness in respect to mining, we have still a great deal to do in the way of provision for technical education before we shall be able to train the youth of our coimtry to do the work of the country. Sessions] GERMANY'S PROGRESS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 137 We need the American business man's belief in higher education as something of practical and commercial value, a beUef which leads your rich men to found institutions of higher learning as legacies for their fellow- citizens. We need more men with the wisdom and foresight of our own Cecil Rhodes. Finally, we need to realize that the subject of education is worthy of the ablest minds of the nation. When your William Jameses and your John Deweys, your Stanley Halls and your ex-President Eliots, rise to devote their abilities to the education of the school cliild, you set an example not only for us but for the whole world. When, however, you have taught us all this, we have still the greatest lesson to learn, and that is that any lasting system of education must be built upon the peculiar character, institutions, and needs of the people for whom it is intended. We South Africans may learn much from our study of foreign school systems and more from our visits to other countries, but it is away in far South Africa with its grand and romantic history, its extraordinarily complex social organization, and its inevitably great future that the South African educational system must be evolved. GERMANY'S RECENT PROGRESS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION anton h. appelmann, munster, germany, representing prussian kultusministerium; professor at the university of vermont, burlington, vt. In speaking of Germany's secondary schools, one is likely to think of the old Gymnasium with its nine years of 41-42 weeks each and a weekly schedule for the student of about 30 hours ; of the system admitting students at nine years of age beginning with Latin as the first foreign language and teaching it for nine years, French in the third class for seven, Greek in the fourth for six, and EngHsh or Hebrew in the seventh for three years. The other subjects are religion, German, mathematics, history, geography, natural sciences, singing, drawing, and gymnastics. I need not go into detail, but can refer to the work of James E. Russell on German Higher Schools and to the report of Frederic E. Farrington on " European Systems of Secondary Education" in Paul Monroe's Principles of Education. People thinking of only this type of German school and overlooking the progressive change which has taken place inside of this system have superficially judged the German system as reactionary and stagnant. This is hardly fair or true. In reality the German school government has been constantly intro- ducing in the Gymnasium many new ideas, reforms, and modern methods. To note the progress, one need only compare the present Gymnasium with the Fursten- or Landesschulen which have retained in some measure the 138 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General character and the best features of the old classical Gymnasium. Moreover this Gymnasium represents but a certain percentage of all the secondary schools. Besides it, there is the Realgymnasium which, taking Latin, French, and EngUsh as the only compulsory foreign languages, lays more stress on other subjects; and then the Oherrealschule, which takes only French and EngHsh, leaving out both Latin and Greek and emphasizing especially mathematics and natural sciences. These Real-Institutions, which Friedrich Paulsen and Theobald Ziegler ardently championed, now enjoy almost all the privileges of the Gymnasium with the one exception that the graduates of an Oherrealschule are required to pass a sort of make-up examination in Latin before entering upon certain advanced studies, such as philology or theology. More progressive than these Real-Institutions are the Reform-Institutions of which there are two kinds: those of the Altonaer and those of the Frank- furter System. Both are the same in that instead of with Latin, they begin in the lowest class with French, an easier study for children. They differ in that the Altonaer System adds EngUsh in the third year, and after this divides into the Oherrealschule which needs no other foreign language and the Realgymnasium, which then (in the fourth year) adds Latin. The Frankfurter System, taking only French in the three lower classes, divides in the fourth year into Gymnasium and Realgymnasium, both of which add in this (fourth) year Latin, and in the sixth year Greek for the Gym- nasium and EngUsh for the Realgymnasium. Altho there have been other innovations besides the fundamental change in the system of foreign-language study, yet the required courses remain essentiaUy unaltered. I hardly need say that these Reform-Insti- tutions enjoy aU the privileges of the schools heretofore mentioned, the most important of which is that their graduates, after having passed the Ahiturienten (Baccalaureate) examination may enter imconditionaUy any German or foreign university. Many of the secondary schools thus far mentioned have added to their system a so-caUed Vorschule (junior school), which enables the child to enter the Gymnasium immediately upon reaching the required school age of six years, thus doing away with the preUminary three years of elementary- school work and the transfer by examination to the secondary school. This Vorschule-System is being encouraged by government and mimidpal authorities, particularly in those city schools in which almost all the students come from the immediate surroimdings. Greater than this external progress in the system, is the progress from within, evident in the method of teaching and in the teacher himself, who is entirely different from the older type. Formerly the Ahiturient studied three to four years in a university, passed his state's, and sometimes also his doctor's examination, and was ready for teaching. Now he must study more than four or five years at different imiversities. The student of Sessions] GERMANY'S PROGRESS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 139 modem languages, moreover, should spend one or more semesters abroad; the student of ancient languages will, if possible, study for a while in Rome or Greece. In most cases the Doctor's examination is passed before the much harder Staats-Examen. Until recently the young pedagogical student went, after these examinations, thru one trial year. This has been increased to two, the Seminar and Probe (trial) Jahr. Such a seminary year means that about eight candidates are assigned to certain secondary schools where they visit classes every day and receive instruction in prac- tical pedagogy and methods from especially appointed experienced edu- cators. Only in the second half-year do the candidates teach a few hours imder the supervision of the teachers. In the next, the trial year, the candidate himself gives a few hours of independent teaching and besides that writes two theses on some pedagogical or methodical topic. After both of these years have been satisfactorily passed (secret certificates are given) the candidate is ready to enter the profession. These two trial years were reversed last year so that the Prohekandidat (trial year candi- date) may first discover by experience some of the many difficulties in teaching, and in the following year learn how to master them. As to applied subjects, it should be said that the famous singer, the great artist, and the powerful athlete are now more than ever unadapted to secondary-school needs. Whom the government needs, wants, and appoints is the scientifically and pedagogically trained teacher. This is particularly true of gymnastics. "Safety first" has become the watchword in public Ufe, "Health first" in school work. Sanitary and hygienic arrangements are given strict attention and teachers are required who know what health is and means. This has eUminated the coach from Germany's secondary schools and I hope it will eUminate him for all future time. The coach may have his place in clubs and teams but he is out of place in the educating school. A teacher is needed. Even the old physical instructor, who sometimes taught a few unimportant lessons in addition to his own subject and who often met with discipUnary difficulties, could not fulfil the new require- ments. He had to be and will be replaced by the regular teacher and even by the older professor. The government accomplished this by encouraging — yes, even requiring — the student of pedagogy to add to his other facul- tates docendi that of gymnastics, which is done in this way: the strong student, who has finished his fourth semester of university study and has submitted a certificate of health and conduct, must pass a severe exam- ination in athletics. Then he enters the course, for which the government pays the tuition fee and which consists of three parts, taken in three, or sometimes two, consecutive semesters. He usually begins in a summer semester and gets instruction in field sports and games and also in swimming. Part of the time is devoted to the practical side, the rest is given to the theory and the science. The candidate must learn all' about first aid, rescue from drowning, the methods of resuscitation, etc. I40 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General The hardest course is the third and last, the one in gymnastics proper, because it not only requires a genuine and well-grounded proficiency in athletics but also a detailed knowledge of anatomy, hygiene, pedagogy, and methodics. Trial lessons and written and oral examinations end the course. But the government has done still more for the improvement of its teaching staflf. It has provided means for the exchange of teachers which now is established with France and, thru the Carnegie Foundation, with the United States. This will, I hope, be stUl more encoiuraged and extended after the war, that it may help to promote the mutual imderstanding between nations and individuals, this most important factor for the establishment of everlasting peace. The government fiirthermore grants large smns for scholarships to the modern-language instructor to study abroad — in France, England, America; to the classical teacher to visit Rome, Greece, and Asia Minor; to the Germanist, mathematician, scientist, historian, and physical instructor to attend smnmer schools, important meetings, and scientific excursions. Wherever these studies cannot be pursued during vacation, leave of absence with full pay is gladly granted. Supplementing these improvements in the teaching staff, the govern- ment has shown a very progressive attitude in some remarkable decrees. The fall of 191 1 brought the famous, at that time with the teachers ill- famed, Extemporale-Erlass (class-test decree). To the great joy of many parents it practically abolished the class test so cordially hated by all students. In its stead the students now write at the beginning or at the end of each recitation a short exercise of a few minutes covering the lesson just learned, or the corresponding previous recitation. Immediately after, the teacher writes the correct sentences or problems on the blackboard; the students correct their papers carefully; and the instructor looks them over at home. These tests are not to be graded. For some time the phonograph has been used in various educational subjects, and in recent years the school government has been seriously considering how and to what extent the cinematograph might be used. It is evident that instruction in history, geography, or physiology would improve and gain by its adoption. Even the teaching of languages would profit much by the use of moving pictures. It was an educational inspira- tion when an American moving-picture theater in a few hours recalled to my mind Homer's Odyssey, the study of which had taken at least as many laborious years of my youth. May the moving pictures soon replace the lantern slides with which many teachers now try to shift as best they can. In reviewing briefly the changes which ministerial decrees have brought about in different subjects we may begin with German. Formerly the little Gymnasiast was told to write a "Description of the hero's house in our story." Now he writes about "Our house," "Our dog," "Our coimty fair." Formerly: "How did Hannibal cross the Alps?" Now: "My Sessions] GERMANY'S PROGRESS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 141 crossing the Alps," "My trip to the Bohmerwald, the Rhine, Hamburg." Formerly: "What is great and small, what good and bad in Wallenstein's character?" Now: "What I like in Wallenstein." History in secondary schools which used to mean the conning of wars, dynasties, and dates has had to give way to the historical study of socio- logical, commercial, and political development of nations, to the study of comparative history, profiting by the example of other countries. This same trend may be seen in all the subjects of the curriculum. As is well known, our secondary schools are not coeducational. I have confined myself to a discussion of boys' schools, but I should state that the modern girls' school, in its systematical structure, varies but little from the boys' school. As to the progressive methods, all of them have found their way into the girls' institutions in the same if not a stricter degree. My picture of Germany's secondary education would hardly be com- plete if I should not at least touch upon those more or less private schools or school communities which differ essentially in their various systems, as well as in their methods, from the regular governmental type, but which are recognized by the government in so far as that students are allowed to fulfil in them their compulsory school work, and in so far as that the govern- ment exercises at least a certain control over them. That, vice versa, the school authorities watch closely the work of these schools and have drawn and will draw many a good lesson from them can hardly be denied. There are first the Deutsche Landerziehungsheime (country educational homes corresponding very nearly to some of the high-class boarding schools in this country) and then such partially related schools as the Freie Schul- gemeinde (free-school community) and the Odenwddschule. The life and classes of these schools are conducted as far as possible in the open air. All of them have the character of the Oherrealschule in that Greek and Latin are elective and in that the sciences are emphasized and taught from the standpoint of their value to real hygienic living. These schools are co- educational in contrast to all the governmental schools. All of them have introduced student self-government in a pronounced degree. The Freie Schulgemeinde, for instance, with its Gemeinde (community) and Kamerad- schaft (comradeship), where the feeling of responsibility is highly developed and where the teachers and students have the same equal right in voting, is in its organization not unlike such American institutions as the George Junior Republic. The Deutsche Landerziehungsheime consist of three parts, each situated in a "beautiful part of Germany, in shadowy woods on the tops of historic mountains. The four lowest classes are located in Ilsenburg in the Harz Mountains, the three middle classes in Haubinda in Thiiringen. This particular course admits only boys, the girls having to attend a special school from which they may enter the three highest coeducational classes in Bieberstein in the Rohn. The pupils live in little cottages surrounding the institution. There are about ten pupils in a 142 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General so-called family under the supervision of a "father "-teacher. The girls have their "mother," a lady teacher who acts as chaperon. The entire expense for each pupil in these schools is between $300 and $500. Special interest is being aroused in Germany by the so-called Haus- lehrerschule (private-tutor school) started in 1910 by Berthold Otto in Gross Lichterfelde, near Berlin. As a great fundamental principle he demands larger freedom of movement for teachers as well as for students. The teacher shall not stand before his pupils as an arrogant sage but as a man who is seeking after knowledge himself and who needs the help of his willing students. Plans for conducting courses and hour plans in their old strong form are unknown in Otto's school. Every hour may develop itself out of itself. K it happens that for any reason the students do not like to sit in the class- room or to have the lesson provided for this hour, the instructor goes out of doors with them and something, perhaps a colored picture-card of Niagara Falls, which somebody happens to take out of his pocket, suggests a discussion of this natiural wonder and the geography and history con- nected with it. But the real outward sign and the deeper source from which this whole new kind of teaching arose, is the so-called Gesamtunterrichtssiunde (general information lesson). In a large empty hall, benches are placed around the wall upon which the boys and girls, about thirty, are seated promiscuously, and among them the teachers and visitors who are present. At the middle of one side of the room is Berthold Otto, the president of the society. He calls his daily session to order and asks for "business to come before the meeting." In a parliamentary way they discuss what each one has on his mind and wishes to have spoken about. Almost always the students themselves explain to each other the current questions and it never sounds as the word of a teacher when one of the instructors takes part in the discussion. In the hour when I was there they talked a great deal of the construc- tion of airships. One of the boys had once seen a hydroaeroplane; another at once requested a detailed description, whereupon the first confessed it had been some time since he saw it and then he had not had much interest as he was still going to a "common" school. Then it was a Uttle girl's turn, who, simply in her joy of knowing something too, stated that the mayor of Charlottenburg had died — it had been in the newspapers. Now the life work of that man was considered and many a vague idea of municipal government, taxes, etc., began to acquire sense and meaning in this little society. As ideal requirements Otto has in mind: (i) a child's imlimited right of asking questions at home as well as at school; (2) aboUtion of examina- tions; (3) later beginning of teaching in reading and writing and in its place Gesamtunterricht and plays for the first school years; (4) no foreign Ian- Sessionsl GERMANY'S PROGRESS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 143 guage before the fifth year; (5) natural development of the teaching lesson out of the natural development of the pupil. The students choose for themselves what they want to learn and doing this in their inborn imitative instinct they are guided by contemporaries or by the will of the parents or (what Otto probably does not permit) by an adroit leading of the teacher. Otto does not think his methods mere theoretical experiments, but wants to see them introduced into the regular governmental school, in so far as the authorities are progressive enough to have them properly carried out, and this will come more and more. The Saxon school government has allowed some teachers to conduct the lower classes according to Berthold Otto's reforms and they have had splendid results. This speaks for the progressiveness of the school government as well as for the real value of ideas and methods which, to an outsider, may appear at first glance as they did to that physician whose first impression was "astonishment mixed with horror" (Guggenheim). Whoever desires more detailed information will find it in Otto's various publications. Brief mention should be made of the Waldschtde, a forest school for sick and frail children. The schools are annexed to elementary as well as to secondary schools. The children come in the morning, get all their meals as the physician prescribes them in the open air, and besides that they can rest and play and swim as is best for their health. In the evening, they return to their parents' homes. The small classes make individual instruc- tion possible, and since instruction is restricted to the most important sub- jects the student loses little time by dropping out of his regular school for a year or more. The schoolroom is a frame structure offering abundance of light and air and is erected near the city in a forest, park, or open field. The city of Charlottenburg started this system which we now find in many cities. Those parents who can afford it pay a small amount toward the expenses for the board of their children. These are the most important features of the present status of Ger- many's secondary education. To be sure, not all the ideas and methods are new, original, or typically German. Out of many of them speaks the spirit of Rousseau or Pestalozzi, Basedow or Herbart. America gave many a good suggestion for school buildings and school equipment, and Sweden, for instance, showed new methods of physical education. But is not this just what we want ? Internationalism in education, improvements and betterments wherever we can find and adopt them, in order that the studying youth of today, who will be the ruling and teaching men and women of tomorrow, may be led on to the highest possible efficiency. Goethe had his lifelong dream of a "Pantheon of the world literature." It has not been realized and probably never will be. Poetry and literature bear and naturally must bear a national — yes, even a local — character; science, learning, education are international, cosmopolitan, and the more they become so the more efficient they will be. I believe and hope that 144 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General with the co-operation of the educators and the assistance of all the countries, a building for which this great nation can claim to have laid the cornerstone by assembling this International Congress of Education, may be erected: the Pantheon of Education with common or at least similar international ideas and ideals out of which must grow what we so bitterly are lacking now — the mutual understanding between nations and peoples. CHANGES IN ENGLISH EDUCATION SINCE 1900 MICHAEL E. SADLER, VICE-CHANCELLOR, UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS, LEEDS, ENGLAND Modem England owes a great debt to other nations for educational stimulus. At an international congress, appropriate opportunity is given for gratefully acknowledging this debt. And in these days of trouble, obligations should not be forgotten. On the contrary, we find solace and encouragement in remembering them: solace, because they remind us of happier days; encouragement, because they convince us that relationships of mutual service will hereafter be renewed. To England from every one of her sister-nations there has come an educational inspiration during the last twenty years. And what is true of this recent period in our history has also been true of each earlier period of critical transition in human outlook and ideals. Just as in the days of the Renaissance and of the Reformation, England felt the kindling power of foreign influence, so has she felt it in these latter days about which I have been invited to make a communication to this congress. France and Italy, Belgium and Holland, the three Scandinavian kingdoms, have all exerted some characteristic influence upon English educational opinion and practice since 1900. But, apart from what we English owe to our feUow-coimtrymen within the United Kingdom and in the overseas dominions of the British Empire, our chief debt in the sphere of educational thought and adminis- tration has been to the United States of America and to the German Empire. It is hard to say which of the two has influenced us the more. Of the two, the American educational ideal is the more akin to our own. But the German has had for us, during recent years, a salutary message. And I am glad to find that in all that I have written about German education during the last twenty years, there is nothing that at this hour I would wish unsaid. But, tho it is possible to trace in the recent development of English education these marked currents of foreign influence, English schools and English teachers are very far from having been dominated by them. On the contrary, our English education has its own tough tradition, its own ingrained characteristics, its own flavor, and its own distinct purpose and duty in the work of the civilization of the world. My mind glows when I think of its high service to the ethical standards of the race and of its Sessions] CHANGES IN ENGLISH EDUCATION SINCE igoo 145 power of renewing its youth in response to the changing needs and destiny of our people. It is conservative and yet open-minded; bound by ancient obligations and yet free in its acknowledgment of new duties; colored by the convictions of many different social groups, and yet sensitive to the claims of national unity. At its worst, it may be distracted by conflicting ideals and hampered by confused administration. But at its best (and its best is not rare), it is distinguished by a noble fairness of mind, by an inbred love of liberty, by obedience to conscientious conviction, and by a readiness to acknowledge the two sides of truth. With us in England the last fifteen years have been years of educational revolution. The stream of change began to run strongly thirty years ago. But the current has run more swiftly since the present century began. This is not equally true of the other countries which are joined with England in the United Kingdom. My hearers are aware that English education is very different in its organization, and not less different in its traditions, from Scottish education, or Irish, or even from the Welsh. Today my purpose is to speak of English education alone. And of English education it is true that the last fifteen years have been years of sweeping change and of an extraordinary ferment in opinion. Looking backward, we may con- jecture that, in obedience to some deep instinct, England was putting her house in order against the coming storm. Or perhaps the same forces of intellectual and moral unrest, which have issued in a world struggle, showed their presence in an upheaval in our educational thought and consequently in far-reaching changes in the fabric of our educational administration. In this paper it would be out of place for me to enter into details. To give a minute account of the changes in English education since 1900 would need a volume. But it will better serve the purpose of this congress if I attempt to give in brief outline the salient features of the reconstruction which has been achieved. Three great things have happened: (i) the machinery of English educa- tional government has been reconstructed; (2) a new conception of the service which education can render to the nation has been formed; and (3) the center of gravity in English educational purpose has changed. Allow me to take these three points in succession. I. Since 1900, the whole structure of educational administration in England has been remodeled. At the center, it has been unified. In the cities and counties it has been assimilated with the main fabric of local government and has been spread consistently over the whole country. Even in England itself, the significance of this change has hardly been realized. But its consequences already influence every family and touch every purse. The effort to carry out this stupendous reorganization has occupied the thoughts of our central and local administrators to such an extent that for a time, tho only for a time, our educational energies have been absorbed to an excessive degree by problems of machinery. But the effort 146 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General had to be made and has been carried thru successfully and with surprisingly little disturbance in the national life. Year by year the results of our new educational administration will become more striking. The change has necessarily been accompanied by a great increase in the number of paid officials. But English education has not been bureaucratized. On the whole, it has kept itself free from the taint of arrogant officialdom, and, where it has been most human, it has been most serviceable and most successful. Its freedom from the stiffness of bureaucratic control has been due to the devoted, unremunerated service of thousands of men and women of good will and high disinterestedness. These servants of the public have carried over into the new system the best traditions of the older, and much less highly organized, English schools. And, in response to the closer organization of the administrative side of our education, the various groups which constitute the army of teachers have organized themselves more effectively than before, preserving in this way tmder the new condi- tions the teacher's moral freedom and independence of undesirable political restraints. This rapid movement of concentration among the various bodies of teachers has culminated in the establishment of a Teachers' Register and of a Teachers' Registration Council. The last-named body promises to become to the teaching profession what the Medical Council is to the doctors, namely, the accredited organ of a semi-autonomous pro- fession, recognized and to some extent regulated by the authority of the state. A supple organization, preserving group-autonomy within a frame- work of national unity, is the keynote of the English social changes of the day. Of that organization, a free but self -disciplined temper is a necessary presupposition. Such a temper must be fostered by the schools. In order that it may continue free, the schools and the teachers must have liberty. In order that it may be disciplined, the schools and the teachers must themselves submit to reasonable organization. 2. Since 1900, English people have realized that education generously planned is a vital necessity to a modem state. The distinctive marks of English education, as compared with the systems of most other European states, have been its duplications and its freedom from state control. No other European country, except perhaps Russia, has so many alternative types of school and imiversity as we have. English education is social in its fundamental purpose. Therefore, as England preserves a great variety of social ideals within the outer framework of its national life, we have a corresponding complexity of schools, each attached to one or other of our social outlooks. Further, to a considerable degree, every type of school tends to produce a tjqje of mind. This system is interwoven with our social history. It is deep-rooted in our past. It is what we prefer. It is the nursery of a certain kind of group-independence and of a certain kind of group-initiative. It is conservative. It maintains established codes of principle. But, on the other hand, it is very expensive. It involves I Sessions] CHANGES IN ENGLISH EDUCATION SINCE IQOO 147 intellectual waste. Nevertheless it is national, if by the word "nation" you mean an aggregate of groups united in the defense of certain funda- mental necessities but free to develop infinite varieties of opinion and of preference. To link the different social groups, with their several educa- tional institutions, into a unity of national organization without destroying the elasticity of their varied life has been the aim of English educational statesmen during the last fifteen years. And because we were weak in our sense of the state, it is the national side of educational organization that they have emphasized. In response to their argimients and efforts, the English people have acquired a new feeling of the national duty of every type of school. Since the reign of Queen Elizabeth, England has never had so strong a national self-consciousness as she has today. And this new feeling of national duty is reflected in the schools. Once realize that educa- tion is a national thing and you find artificial barriers due to obsolete class distinctions intolerable. Free passage from the bottom to the top there must be for every boy and for every girl who has capacity to seize and profit by educational opportunity. This means schools everywhere, and every- where passages of communication between grade and grade thruout the whole fabric of the school system. In so far as this easy communication can be established by administrative devices, it has been generously secured in English education by a liberal supply of scholarships, many of them carrying adequate allowances for maintenance. But in so far as this easy communication from top to bottom in the educational and economic life of the community depends upon psychological conditions — that is, upon the customary way of looking at life and its opportunities for the energetic individual — all one can say is that in England the change in social outlook among the poor and the rich, among employers and employed, has been rapid during the last fifteen years, and has been profoundly influenced by American feeling and by the habit of mind which is general in the self- governing overseas dominions of the British Empire. 3. The point of view of the administrator in regard to the essential purpose of education has shifted very noticeably since the century began. It has become more liberal, less mechanical, more humane. Into the schools of the people, the tradition of self-government is passing from the older schools of the wealthier classes. Arnold of Rugby is the educational hero of the English primary school-teacher of today. Sir Robert Baden- Powell, founder of the Boy Scouts, is the Arnold of contemporary England. English educational administrators at the present time realize that healthy bodies are as a rule the accompaniment of healthy minds. The health service in our schools grows more important year by year. And for this we owe much to German example. But we cling, and cling rightly, to the ideal of the self-contained house as the most conducive to healthiness and solidar- ity of home life. In this, we are in my judgment wise. But the independ- ence of the English home makes it a long business to introduce into family 148 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iGeneral life the new standards of personal hygiene which the school medical officer inforces by inspection and the school-teacher encourages by instruction and example. Steadily, however, the significance of physical well-being, with all its consequences in housing reform and in changes in diet and ventilation, is dawning on the minds of the masses of the English people. A sense of the need for change in the hygienic conditions of our factory life and of industrial employment in England is one root cause of our labor unrest. The influence of our new education spreads the ferment of new ideals of life. And that ferment will in turn produce a further inevitable change in the Englishman's conception of the values and methods of education. SEX HYGIENE AND SEX MORALITY AS THE AIM OF SEX EDUCATION THOMAS M. BALLIET, DEAN, SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. The need of sex education is almost universally recognized among thinking people today. It is solely a question as to matter and method, and the agency or agencies thru which it is to be done. Some maintain that it is wholly a problem for the parent and that the only thing we need to do is to educate the parents. Parents have a large responsibility in the matter, but it cannot safely be wholly left to them. Many parents are too poorly educated to be able to comprehend the scientific facts which need to be presented to adolescents; many, especially fathers, are by nature imfitted to do it; many have not the delicacy of feeling and purity of mind to do it effectively. Others maintain that it is for the parent and the church together to give this education. But it has been left to these two agencies for nearly two thousand years and they have failed. There are certain aspects of it which many parents can be held responsible for, and this sort of education needs the reinforcement which comes from reli- gion; but it needs above all a scientific basis which makes a universal appeal, and the school must find a way of doing its part of this work. The school caimot escape this responsibility. I. We must make a distinction between sex instruction and sex edu- cation. Instruction is only a means to education; while education is the end. German writers speak even of "educative instruction," implying that there may be instruction which is not educative. Sex instruction is only a part of sex education, and specific instruction as to the scientific facts and laws of sex in human life is only a comparatively small but a most vital part of such education. There are writers on this subject who seem to assmne that such education consists exclusively of instruction as to the facts and laws of sex. They speak of "sex science" and "sexology." Sessions] SEX HYGIENE, SEX MORALITY, AND SEX EDUCATION 149 2. The aim of sex education is twofold: it has for its purpose hygienic living and moral character and conduct. Sex hygiene and sex morality are its objects; all other purposes are subordinate. 3. The biological and physiological facts in regard to sex in the human sphere should, therefore, be taught solely as reasons for hygienic and moral living. They should not be taught merely as scientific facts, but as scientific facts having important implications and applications. The instruction should suggest at all points the moral law. This should be the funda- mental principle of selection of subject-matter. 4. The basis of such education must, therefore, be scientific and not merely dogmatic, either in a philosophical or in a theological sense. Such scientific instruction cannot be too strongly reinforced by religious motives, but these must not be made its chief basis. They have failed in the past. 5. The less children and youth think of matters of sex the more whole- some their lives are; therefore one aim of sex education must be to reduce sex consciousness to a minimum. This can be done in various ways: (i) By satisfying not prurient but normal curiosity, and children until their minds have been contaminated have no prurient curiosity. The questions which little children ask should be truthfully answered, but not in a way to stimulate further curiosity. In this respect sex instruction must differ from all other science teaching. Curiosity ceases when it is satisfied. We are curious, not about what we understand, but about what we do not understand. Knowledge reduces curiosity as food reduces appetite, unless it is imparted in a way to suggest further mysteries. (2) By protecting children and youth against the immoral influences of low shows, evil com- panions, and bad literature. (3) By giving them plenty of wholesome occupation in the form of play, amusement, athletics, and work. Idle- ness of mind or of body is unwholesome in its effect. 6. It follows from this that in specific sex instruction, everything must be avoided which tends to arouse the sex impulse or prurient curiosity. This principle, if correct, condemns considerable information now given in some books on sex written for the young by persons of high motives. 7. Sex education, having for its aim right living, must deal with the control of conduct. The sex instinct, like many of our other fundamental racial instincts, needs not to be developed but to be controlled. Sex edu- cation must therefore utilize all the various factors of control, of which knowledge, as we shall see, is only one. Chief among these factors are the following: i) Habit. — ^This is the earliest effective one and should be especially emphasized in sex education during the preadolescent period. It should be emphasized all thru adolescence along with the other factors. The habit of clean thinking and clean living early established makes clean living com- paratively easy later in life. ISO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General 2) Feelings. — The sex impulse is controlled by the feeling of modesty, or sense of shame. This feeling should therefore be cultivated; modesty in dress, in behavior, and in language should be inculcated; and children should be protected against the influences which tend to weaken or under- mine this feeling. Among such influences are the conduct and language of vicious companions; low shows; many of the pictures in our daily papers and in some of our magazines; and the disgraceful posters which offend our eyes at almost every turn in some of our city streets. It is controlled, furthermore, by the feelings of respect and of self- respect; by the feeling of chivalry; and by the sense of the dignity and the sacredness of the human body — all of which sex education must seek to cultivate. 3) The sex instinct is controlled by high ideals of manhood and of womanhood. These are most forcefully presented in literature, both secular and sacred. The ideals of womanhood as portrayed by Sophocles, Shakespeare, and the Bible are among the most powerful factors of control. Moreover, high ideals of love between the sexes as depicted by the greatest literary artists of the world is a most powerful controlling and transforming force in the lives of adolescent youth. 4) Knowledge. — It is needless to say that knowledge alone is not effective in controlling conduct; but to assume that because of this fact it is of small value as a factor of control is to mistake its function. While the feelings and the will are the mainsprings of action, intelligence has the double fimction of guiding action, and of apprehending truths and conceiv- ing situations which arouse the feelings and the will. It is here where sex instruction finds its place in sex education and it may properly cover a wide field. a) The reproduction of life in plants and in the lower forms of animal life should be emphasized in the upper grades of the elementary schools as a part of nature study. The child should be impressed with nature's marvelous ways to secure the perpetuation of life. The child at this period will not, and it is not desirable that he should, connect this information with the thought of sex in the human sphere; but such knowledge will give him an emotional attitude of wonder toward the process of reproduction which will form a basis for the wholesome reception of the truths which he must know later in regard to his own life. h) The child's questions as to the origin of human life should be answered truthfully as soon as they are asked. This allays curiosity and makes the child immime against contamination by the influences of the street. This part of sex instruction is the fimction of the mother, and it is the business of the school, at the "Mothers' Meetings" now so common in most schools, to teach her how to do it. c) The knowledge which children need to guard them against injury to health and morals at the age of puberty must be given them in season to i Sessions! SEX HYGIENE, SEX MORALITY, AND SEX EDUCATION 151 serve its purpose. This is the duty of the intelligent parent and of the teacher. It is needless to say that such knowledge should in all cases be imparted individually and privately. d) In the courses in biology, hygiene, and ethics, instruction should be given in secondary schools covering the simple facts of heredity, and in the later teens such facts as to the social diseases should be made known to the pupil as will guard him against their dangers. This latter instruction should be given in the course in ethics and its full ethical significance be impressed upon the mind of the pupil. It should never be given to mixed classes, and in many cases only privately. Instruction at this period should also aim to protect the child against the wiles of the quack doctor. e) The sacredness of the family should be deeply impressed upon the mind of the pupil in the class in ethics, and he should be made to realize that the highest and holiest manifestation of sex is found in the love of father and mother and brother and sister in the sacred precincts of the home. /) In the biology class, emphasis may profitably be laid upon the evolu- tion of the higher sentiments, and the relation may be pointed out, as Fiske did years ago, between the dependence of the young and parental care, and in consequence the evolution of maternal and paternal love. Biology may thus reinforce the teaching of ethics as to the significance of the family and the home. 5) Conscience. — On the basis of this knowledge, the strongest possible appeals must be made to conscience, as the highest and normally the strongest single factor of control in mature life. 6) Religion. — The foregoing factors should be given all the reinforce- ment which comes from the deepest religious impulses and motives. This is especially the function of the church. PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS The following practical suggestions may be made in the light of the foregoing: 1. The problem of sex instruction in school is one for the teacher and not for the physician. It is easy enough for any well-educated person to master the scientific facts and laws involved; the real difficulty is one of method, selection of matter, and time and order of presentation, not of medical knowledge. 2. Hence such instruction should be given by one of the regular teachers of the school who teaches other subjects as well, and who is fitted by personality to create the right atmosphere for such instruction and who possesses the tact and good sense required. It is a mistake to appoint physicians to go to the schools and give such instruction. 3. There should be no special course in "sex education." AU sex instruction should be given in the courses in nature study, biology, and ethics. 152 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General 4. It should be quietly given by exceptional teachers in these courses, and at first necessarily on a limited scale and in a carefully guarded way. 5. No announcement should be made beforehand that such instruction is to be introduced, and no formal permission should be asked of the board of education. It is better to get the "nine points of the law" first. A board of education is often perfectly willing to wink at a new feature of education which its members privately believe is right when it would not be willing to assimie formal responsibility for it imtil it has been proved a success. To appoint physicians to give such instruction and ask the board of education for a special appropriation to pay them, and then announce in the public press what it is proposed to do, is the most effective way I could conceive of making such instruction impossible. Yet this blunder has actually been made in one of our large cities. 6. Such instruction should never be attempted by all teachers or by teachers generally; it should be given in each school by the principal or by one or several regular teachers, designated by him, who are by person- ality and training best fitted to give it. 7. The schools generally are not ready to undertake the more intimate phases of such instruction. The teachers are not competent to give it, and public sentiment is not ready for it. But it is time that educators studied the problem. They will have to meet it. But in a few high schools, as for example in New York City, where there are exceptional teachers, every phase of this subject is today taught effect- ively. Such "experiment stations " will work out the pedagogical problems involved and other schools will follow. 8. The, one phase to emphasize at present in all schools is that of instructing mothers, in the "Mothers' Meetings" after school hours, how to give such instruction to their own children. All communities except the most backward are ready for this step, and it is the most effective way to create a pubHc sentiment which will permit the teaching of the subject in school. At these "Mothers' Meetings," physicians and cultivated mothers who are not teachers can render valuable aid to the school. EDUCATION IN GUATEMALA FEDERICO S. DE TEJADA, ASSISTANT CHIEF OF THE PROTOCOL BUREAU OF THE DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS, GUATEMALA, S.A. For many years after independence from Spain had been consiunmated, Guatemala remained submerged in the darkest night of ignorance. The majority of the governments which followed one another from 182 1 to 1870 did not bestow due importance on the problem of the education of the masses; teaching was restricted in those far-off times, as during the I Sessions] EDUCATION IN GUATEMALA 153 colonial epoch, to reading, writing, moral duties, and behavior, the doctrine of Christianity, and the four rules of arithmetic. The idea prevailed that instruction could be imparted only by severity and thus the most cruel punishments were inflicted for the slightest faults of the scholars. The poor did not learn even this much; only the children of the well-to-do could attend the schools existing in those times. With the political and social movement brought about in 187 1, proclaim- ing the enUghtened principle that education ought to be laic, gratuitous, and obligatory, the modem school sprang up. The governments that held sway from that date until 1898, altho it is true that they gave some atten- tion to the matter, were careless, and there was one ruler, who, thru a regrettable error, suppressed with a stroke of the pen this indispensable branch of the pubHc service. Fortunately for my country, in 1898 there was called to undertake the functions of President of the Republic, first in due course of law, and then by the unanimous vote of the people, a poUtician of lofty conceptions. Licentiate Manuel Estrada Cabrera, who, inspired with the idea of erecting on indestructible foundations the happiness and welfare of the nation, as his first step ordered the immediate reopening of the schools. "The first thing that every individual and every community should attend to," said this eminent statesman, "is its education and public instruction, as the elements which give birth to moral life in man and in societies." Among the Indian-Spanish nations an apostolate has been necessary for the propagation of the benefits of education. The governments, so as to make it a reality, have had to strive against the opposition of the indige- nous races, the apathy of the Creoles, and the egotism of the moneyed classes — the first named constantly endeavored to make a profit from the manual labor of the children and refused to send them to the schools; the second paid no attention to this all-important problem; and the third had no interest beyond that of its own descendants. Consequently, there being no private initiative, it was incumbent on the state to direct and develop it and to give it impulse. Struggling against many difficulties, the illustrious president of Guate- mala, Estrada Cabrera, since 1898 has decided to devote his entire energy and his eminent talents to the great work of the education of the people. The schools were reopened, and many new ones were established of both elementary and secondary education, as well as of higher grade. Since the year above mentioned, schools exist in the most remote localities, rural schools for agricultural laborers, night schools for workmen, schools for the fine arts, for telegraphy, commerce, tachygraphy, stenography, agriculture, etc., all due to the same prolific and beneficent initiative. The law of pubHc instruction, promulgated forty years ago, tho suited to that time, ceased to be so later on, and President Estrada Cabrera emitted a new one in consonance with the tendencies of modem pedagogy 154 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General and the brilliant destinies which the future augurs for Guatemala, as con- ceived by its actual ruler, thru the education of the people, in its three peda- gogic and rational aspects — education and physical development, education and moral culture, education and mental attainments. Estrada Cabrera has given a palpable proof of his love for Guatemala by estabUshing in the capital, out of his own private resources, the first practical school for youths, on the fine Boulevard of the Reform. This consists of a handsome palace and several annexes built in the same style as the principal edifice. On the same model, practical schools for youths have been erected in all the capitals of the departments; all count with a competent stafif, and in addition to science such mechanical arts as carpen- try, cabinet-making, printing, book-binding, and blacksmith's work are taught; they have grounds for physical exercise and games — ^gymnastic and mihtary — which represent in modem commimities the development of strength combined with elegance of form and the grace of movement to which the Greeks accorded the most fervent admiration, and which the Latins did not despise, while the one conquered the world by their art and the other ruled it by the wisdom of their laws. The motto of the illus- trious president of Guatemala is " to give reality to the pedagogic prescrip- tion of educating simultaneously and in harmony the physical, moral, intellectual, and aesthetic faculties of the individual so that he may be able to comply duly with his mission in the struggle for existence." President Estrada Cabrera, whose rest is labor, has persevered without cessation in his prohfic task of bestowing benefits on the coimtry, and with the noble desire of elevating the formerly little appreciated efforts of the teachers, the propagators of the divine spark of inteUigence, stolen by Prometheus from heaven, by Decree 6oi of October 28, 1899, he founded the Festivals of Minerva, denoting the last Sunday of October of every year as the date for a solemn, popular, and general celebration thruout the Republic, dedicated exclusively to extolling the education of the young, and to placing in high reUef the work of the masters, the humble heroes of civiUzation. In the scholastic festivals, which since then have been observed with great eclat and pomp in all the coimtry, and which have impressed them- selves greatly on public imagination, prizes are distributed and valuable rewards are given to those teachers who have most highly distinguished themselves by their zeal in imparting education to the people, and to the children who excelled in behavior, application, and proficiency during the scholastic year. Professors of acknowledged reputation hold conferences relative to different branches of knowledge. There are also held scholastic exhibitions of agriculture, mining, cattle, etc., which bring to view every advance realized in the various orders of himian activity, and serve as a profitable objective lesson for the pupils. Sessions! EDUCATION IN GUATEMALA 1$$ These brilliant tourneys of intelligence last for three days, and all the vital forces of the country take part therein — commerce, industry, the banks, agriculture, the intellectual classes, the working people, etc. Natives of European and American nations who reside in Guatemala, and, imder the protection of peace and the liberal institutions which prevail, have foimd work, weKare, and riches, have erected in honor of the juvenile students elegant and artistic pavilions on the field of Minerva, where the celebrations take place. This field stretches out over a splendid plain to the north of the city of Guatemala, terminating at the superb and monu- mental edifice of the Palace of Minerva, a work of great intrinsic merit, dedicated by Licentiate Manuel Estrada Cabrera, the educator of the nation, to the children of the coimtry. In all the capitals of the departments where, as already stated, magnifi- cent practical schools for youths and young women have been established, there have been erected Palaces of Minerva, similar to the one in the city of Guatemala. While among other nations it is considered the proper thing to make a display before natives and foreigners of materials for war, and of all the fighting forces of which the country can dispose, Guatemala, since 1898, has prided itseH and boasted of the processions of boys and girls, the pupils of the schools, colleges, and academies, in the festivals of Minerva carrying flags — it is true, the flag of Guatemala, but symbolizing in infantile hands a token of fraternity presented to the titular genius of the Fatherland, in the palace of science, of moral law, and of public safety. What a noble spectacle for the Guatemalans, who in unison with their honored president are upholders of peace by legality and of legality by peace. Convinced of the transcendental scope and the lofty aims of the Festivals of Minerva, eminent and famous thinkers of the United States and of Ameri- can and European countries have rendered to the noble crusade imdertaken by the illustrious president of Guatemala, the most sincere, the most spontaneous, and the most merited applause. He prepared the furrow, he scattered the seed, and he is now beginning to reap the crop; the laurel for his pensive brow, the national gratitude and sympathy, has taken a con- crete form, and has placed a handsome bust in bas-relief of Estrada Cabrera, the benefactor of education, in the Palace of Minerva. In the year 1898, the first of the administration of Estrada Cabrera, there were 934 schools of elemental education in existence, with an attend- ance of 29,871 pupils. In 1913, there were 1,849 ^ the exercise of their functions, an increase of 915 schools. In 1898, there were inscribed 29,871 scholars; in 1913, 61,163. ^^ yo^ know how many schools we have today ? A total of 1,820 — in fact, one for every thousand inhabitants; the total attendance is about 65,000, that is to say, 63 per cent of the population. It means that we lead Latin America, along with Uruguay and Argentina. 156 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General With the patriotic wish that the geography of the country should be taught in the most practical manner possible, the educator of the masses, Licentiate Manuel Estrada Cabrera, commissioned the famous engineer, Francisco Vela, to make a true and vivid representation of the country in a striking and animated way, by means of a monumental map in relief of Guatemala, on a site in the immediate neighborhood of the Palace of Minerva. Another creation of the indefatigable protector of popular education in Guatemala, Licentiate Manuel Estrada Cabrera, is that of practical schools for young women, which regularly comply with their functions in the capital, and in the departments, provided with competent teaching staffs, both native and foreign, and furnished with implements and necessaries of the most complete and up-to-date type. The buildings are real palaces, very similar to those erected for the practical schools for boys, which have already been referred to. In these intellectual centers of education, besides arts and science, tuition is imparted in all physical exercises appropriate to the female sex, practical moral duties, needle and fancy work, entertainments and amusements proper to good society, feminine arts of constant applica- tion, such as washing and ironing, sewing, pastry-making, bread-baking, the making of artificial flowers, dressmaking, domestic economy, morality, and poUteness; the fine arts, such as music, painting, and singing; and tachygraphy and stenography. A great evolution has taken place in the system of education in Guate- mala during the last fifteen years, and particularly in that relative to females, which represents so important a role in the development and happiness of the human race. The instruction and training of the army has also been the object of constant vigilance on the part of the actual ruler of Guatemala. There are schools for cultivating the inteUigence, and gymnasiums for developing the muscles, so that if the country should require the co-operation of the citizens in some unforeseen and unfortunate emergency it will find them fit, as the real human elements for the strife, from their true sense of patriotic duty and their physical and physiological aptitudes. A palpable proof of our statement is the MiHtary Academy, founded by our enUghtened presi- dent, the Supreme Chief of the Army, in an extensive, elegant, and striking building, constructed purposely, on the Boulevard of the Reform. Nothing is lacking there in the moral, intellectual, or material sphere for the perfect military education of the yoimg cadets, who on leaving the estabUshment as graduates serve in their turn as instructors to the army. The curriculum of studies in the Military Academy includes the careers of military, civil, and topographical engineering. This center of instruction has much analogy with the school of West Point of which the United States is so justly proud. As agriculture is one of the principal sources of the wealth of the country, the eminent ruler of Guatemala, with the desire to see the cultivation of the .?■ Sessions] JAPANESE EDUCATION IN AMERICA 157 soil carried on in accordance with the latest developments of science, has also established agricultural schools on a well-matured and essentially practical plan, similar to the one adopted in all the educational institutions of the country, in which the edifying spirit of inteUigence is imparted to the children and the young by oral, objective, and reasoned instruction. The government of Estrada Cabrera, all the time in search of wider horizons for the young, and desirous of drawing closer day by day the inti- mate relations that have always been cultivated between the people and government of Guatemala, and the people and government of the United States, promulgated a law in 1899 making obligatory the study of the EngHsh language in the elementary schools of the country. President Estrada Cabrera created also an English Academy for professors. In addition to the superior establishments for professional education, we have commercial schools; schools for tachygraphy, stenography, and telegraphy, and lately established schools for wireless telegraphy; for fine arts, normal and professional; swimming, etc. It is but right to point out that the estabUshment, protection, and development of nearly all these mstitutions are owing to the inteUigent, assiduous, and untiring efforts of President Licentiate Manuel Estrada Cabrera, to the co-operation of his highly efficient government, and to the support, which, without distinction of poUtical party, or of reHgious faiths, all social classes of Guatemala have given to their beloved and esteemed ruler. Guatemala, fellow-delegates, tho insignificant in extent of territory and number of inhabitants, aspires thru the education of its people, its love of peace, and its unfaltering respect for the rights of others, to be great and prosperous, following in the wake of the marvelous coimtry of Washington, the emporium of the wealth, and the sanctuary of the liberties of all the nations of the globe. JAPANESE EDUCATION IN AMERICA KIYO SUE INUI, SECRETARY, JAPAN SOCIETY OF AMERICA, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. The Pacific Ocean, some one has said, will either divide us or imite us. With a contracting world, a world that is getting smaller every day, our starting-point in the discussion on the solution of any problem will neces- sarily be based upon the presumption that the Pacific Ocean will be the theater of imified action, co-operation, and mutual sympathies. If there is anyone in the audience who has the erroneous idea that the attitude of the people on the Pacific Coast toward Orientals is getting worse, I should Uke to correct it. True, Japan is a greater nation than before, and therefore, for some people, a much better subject for notoriety or "grand-stand play" without incurring any political damage, as the Japanese 158 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General do not vote; hence the Japanese question is given much greater publicity. But within the last few years, the feeling of the people on the Pacific Coast toward the Japanese, with the exception of one or two places, has changed wonderfully for the better. What, then, is the real problem ? It was America that first invited Japan to open her doors to the world. It was America that introduced Japan to Western civilization and ideals sixty years ago. Before that time Japan was sleeping an uninterrupted sleep of 250 years in one stretch — I mean so far as her contact with the Western world was concerned. She preferred to live by herself. She was contented with the progress she was then making. She was satisfied with her achievements in the arts of peace. She did not care to open her doors, but you sent Commodore Perry and told her: "Now, Japan, it won't do for you to remain so long in seclusion. Why, this is the last half of the Nine- teenth Century! Japan, you must wake up and seize your opportunity; you must open your doors!" What could we do? We simply had to open our doors for Western civilization. You then said: "We will send you teachers, missionaries, advisers, merchants." So we submitted to the inevitable and welcomed them. Again you told us: "Japan, you had better send your students, merchants, teachers, mechanics, and farmers to America." We did so, were received, and, as a result, 95,000 of us are now in this country. But after some stay here, we have learned of a pecuUar poUtical institution, of state and national governments; we have learned of extraordinary con- fusion and a heterogeneous mass of human races; we have found out some of the sad experiences of the Irish in Boston, of the Jews in New York, of the Germans in Philadelphia, of the ItaUans in New Orleans, and of the Chinese in San Francisco; we have learned that each succeeding race has had to suffer similar exploitation, embarrassment, and discomfiture. And for the last five or six years, the Japanese have had their turn and have been forced to face the volley of these arguments. However, we appreciate the history and the spirit of America. We appreciate also the peculiar political institutions of this coimtry. We appre- ciate the strength and weakness of democracy and have appreciated not a little American friendship and kindness in returning to us the Shimonoki indemnity, in the release of exterritoriality, in the recognition of Japan as a member of the civilized nations, and, above all, America's moral and financial support at the time of the China- Japanese war and the Russo- Japanese war. Not only that, but we appreciate the fundamental principle of sovereignty; that it lies with America to say who shall come to her country and who shall not. In the case of the Chinese, you actually shut your doors against them by exclusion laws. In fact, you slammed your doors at the Golden Gate. We do not care, as an independent nation, to go thru the same experience of humiliation as did the Chinese. So we thought it better, more politic, Sessions] JAPANESE EDUCATION IN AMERICA 159 more expedient, more friendly, and, above all, more neighborly, to shut our doors in Japan so that we could not get out. This is what you call "The Gentlemen's Agreement." Japan herself agreed not to send any more laborers to this country. If you compare the statistics within the last seven years, you will find that there are now in this country several thousand fewer Japanese than there were several years ago. About five Japanese have been going back to about three and a haK or four coming in, and those four are coming back mostly for a second time, while the rest are immediate relatives, wives, and children of those who are already here with sufficient means to support them. In 1908, for instance, there were 103,000 Japanese in this country and three years after the Gentlemen's Agreement went into effect that number became 91,000 and the record of 1908 has since never been reached. Even last year, when many came to this coast on accoimt of the fair, it reached only the ninety-nine thousand mark; but this number seems to be only temporary, as indicated by the movements of the Japanese in June, 1915, when 415 more went to Japan than came from that country. Therefore, while the immigration question is one of America's greatest problems, so far as Japan is concerned there is no immigration question; for Japan is restricting her emigrants in Japan. Allowing the population of the United States to be about ninety-five million, the Japanese constitute only one-tenth of i per cent. California has about 65 per cent of this number. The question with the Japanese, therefore, is not what to do with Japanese immigrants, but rather, what to do with those already here under the jurisdiction of the United States: what to do with one-tenth of i per cent of the American population — or, i^ per cent of the inhabitants of California. Some have called the problem a political one. But I have failed to find it so, altho it has often been a "politician's" question. Some have called it an economic question. The impatient wage-earners have cried that the Japanese work so cheaply that they lower the standard of living and wages. As a matter of fact, if they had postponed their complaint until 1910, they would have found out from the special commission of the state appointed in 19 10 to investigate the Japanese labor condition that an average Japanese agricultural laborer was getting as much as any other laborer engaged in the same grade of work. Then there are still others who call the question racial. But to my mind it is largely a question of assimila- tion and education, in which we are particularly interested this afternoon. The natural question now arises: How much of the Japanese do we have to make over ? What kind of education does he need ? Close observation reveals the fact that in essentials there is a unity between the American and the Japanese; in nonessentials there may be some similarities or differences between them. As, for instance, politeness : your politeness consists mostly l6o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General in praising and elevating others, but leaving yourselves where you are; Japanese politeness consists in leaving others where they are and hiuniliating or belittling ourselves. Altho the form may be different, they both believe in the essential, poUteness. Again, we often ridicule the Enghshman's lack of humor, but every nation has a humor of its own. If the Englishman "cracks" a typical EngHsh joke, you may not appreciate it as quickly as you ought to. For instance, a few years ago I was in England and gave that American illustra- tion of the distinction between an optimist and a pessimist with that familiar story of the doughnut. You say, an optimist sees the doughnut, and the pessimist sees the hole. They did not even smile and I repeated it again and again in vain. But next day in the dining-room of my hotel, I found out that English doughnuts did not have any holes! So you see the trouble was not in the lack of humor in the Englishman but rather with the shape of the doughnuts. Whatever is wrong here is wrong in Japan. What is immoral in Japan is not moral here. Politeness, modesty, generosity, thoughtfulness, kind- ness, truthfulness, filial piety are the universal virtues tho we may express or perform them in different forms or manners. So when it comes to a basic question of morals, principles, and ideals, we do not need to expect very much of a change in a Japanese. Even in the fundamentals of the religions of the East and West, we find a great deal of similarity. Assimilation of the Japanese consists largely in the education in non- essentials such as customs, habits, manners, and ideas (not ideals), all of which can be taught comparatively easily thru language. The question, therefore, is largely one of sociological and not biological assimilation. I believe with Edward Steiner, an eminent immigration authority, who says, "Blood is thicker than water, but language is thicker than blood." The Japanese is fast acquiring the English language, American habits, and American customs. Miners perhaps need the spoken language least of any laborers among whom statistics are taken. In the Report of the Immigra- tion Commission, Vol. XXIII, p. 155, you will find that Japanese compare very favorably with any nation in their ability to speak English. Per Cent No. of Persons Interviewed 47.2 447 Japanese 34.2 225 Finns 23.3 479 Slavonians 22.7 214 Slovaks 18.8 245 Poles 17.0 193 Montenegrins 14.0 175 North Italians 9.0 485 South Italians While this does not cover all cases, many would agree by saying that the Japanese are perhaps the most ambitious race in the study of the English language and in efforts to gain broader knowledge. I Sessions] JAPANESE EDUCATION IN AMERICA l6l There are today no less than fifty English language schools for Japanese in this country, seventeen of them right here in this very city, while many more Japanese are taking private lessons. Perhaps I am not very much mistaken when I say that 70 per cent of those who come to this country today can read or write English. Besides this education in the English language, within the last few years there has been a great awakening on the part of the Japanese to the realiza- tion that they need a wide and systematic education as to American habits, customs, and institutions. There are no less than fifty Japanese associations all along the Pacific Coast. The Japanese Association of America is the mother of thirty-four of them and it might be said that it is the center of Japanese public opinion. For the last few years "assimilation" has been the watchword of the Japanese communities everywhere. Two years ago while the anti-alien land law was being discussed at Sacramento, a con- vention was called by the Japanese Associations of America and they discussed the situation. Instead of showing any resentment, contrary to what one might expect, the delegates of the convention took upon their shoulders the faults or shortcomings that belonged to them. Instead of "fighting" the bill, they voted $30,000 to educate the Japanese on the Pacific Coast. Ever since, "the campaign of education" is a household phrase in Japanese com- munities. Indeed, as there was no proper translation for "campaign of education" they invented a new word, keihatsuundo, which you hear today on the lips of almost every Japanese on the Pacific Coast. Since then such men as S. Ebara, member of the House of Peers and president of the Tokyo Young Men's Christian Association, Y. Hattori, ex-member of Parliament, S. Shimada, Speaker of the House, and K. Tsunajima have been invited to co-operate with the Japanese workers on the Pacific Coast in their endeavor to give that gospel "when in Rome, do as the Romans do": learn to speak as Americans, think as Americans, feel and act as Americans. This year D. Ebina, an eminent Congregational divine, and his wife, and Y. Kanamori, one of the most influential leaders of Japan, were invited to help in this work. With the co-operation of these people and many others, the Japanese Association of America expects to carry on a campaign which may be grouped imder four heads as follows: 1. General social education. — Such subjects as American political institutions; American social conditions; customs, habits, ideas, and ideals of Americans; American home and religious life; relation between America and Japan. 2. Moral education. — For example, responsibility to the commxmity as a neighbor; obligation of contract; suppression of gambling. 3. Sanitary education. — Under this head it is not necessary to say anything except that emphasis will be placed on the sanitation of camp life in particular. 4. Industrial education. — Under this head the usual work of chambers of commerce, commercial clubs, agricultiural associations will be undertaken. l62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General The greatest stress, however, will be laid on the giving of information concerning the industrial and economic organizations of America and the general uplift of business morality. Already the Japanese Central Agri- cultural Association and Business Men's Association have been organized to undertake the fourth department of the campaign. Such an organization as the Japanese Interdenominational Board of Missions has been hard at work to suppress gambling and to reform shiftless people, altho we have found very few of them among the Japanese. A new force has come to help this work. Two years ago the Japanese Association of American College Graduates was organized. The associa- tion, as the name indicates, is composed of Japanese college men who are American bred. Knowing as they do their native land as well as their adopted country, they feel very keenly the necessity of this campaign. Heretofore, most of the Japanese graduates of American colleges have gone back to Japan. Indeed, they are making a creditable showing for their Alma Maters. But members of this organization felt that there was just as much need, if not more, for them in this country among Japanese com- munities as interpreters and connecting links between the Japanese and their American neighbors. There are today 576 Japanese students in 168 different colleges and universities. Together with those in other higher institutions of learning, there are 1,151 Japanese students who are pursuing higher education in America. No doubt many more who would have gone to Germany, England, or France will come here, at least for some years to come, on account of the war. When these students begin their active lives of use- fulness in this country and interpret America to the Japanese, a greater work will have been done. So much for the education of 85,000 adult Japanese. Then what about the education of 14,142 children? All of this number, with the exception of 1,497 are American bom. They are Americans, tho very young, and a very small percentage of them indeed have as yet reached the school age. As we have already noticed, the Japanese as immigrants came to this country only ten or fifteen years ago and their wives have been coming here only for the last six or eight years. There are today 293 Japanese children in American high schools and 3,008 in the grammar schools scattered all over the Pacific Coast. San Francisco, for example, claims about 10 per cent of these children. They are fairly well distributed among the different schools and no one school has, as I imderstand it, much more than 10 per cent of this number. We have no need to worry about them, as they are in the midst of the great system of assimilation, the melting-pot of all races, the American public school. The only feature that I might mention, which is, however, common with all other nationalities, is the presence of thirty-nine Japanese schools I \ \ Sessions] ' JAPANESE EDUCATION IN AMERICA 163 where they teax:h the Japanese language, geography, and history one or two hours a day as supplementary school work. These children are so well Americanized in some cases that they often do not know how to spell the names of their cousins across the Pacific, who often write to them in English. By this I do not mean to say that we teach Japanese to these children with any sense of retaining the language of their parents, but rather we teach them, as a second language, that language which they need most besides their mother-tongue, which is English, as you teach German or French in some other schools. We teach them Japanese because all of us realize that, as neighbors of the Japa- nese across the Pacific, we shall have more to do with them than with any other nation. I hope some day that the study of the Japanese language and history may be undertaken, at least in the schools of the Pacific Coast, one- tenth as much as the Japanese schools are teaching English to their children. These thirty-nine schools have another duty to perform; that is, to teach Japanese children, born in Japan, sufficient English to enable them to join the proper classes in the regular public schools and hasten them in the procession of human races to the melting-pot. Thus, there has not been any Japanese policy of education of their children except to leave it with you and to offer what little we could to help you. If you would call this a policy, our policy for the children has been, "Native land above all" and not Vaterland uher (dies/ Roughly speaking, this is what we are doing for the Japanese on the Pacific Coast. Now you may be interested to know what the Japanese leaders in Japan want us to do. Do you suppose that these Japanese, invited to co-operate with us, would come and say: "Do not forget your country, your Mikado, or your ancestors"? Let me give you my honest and sincere answer. Japan is living, she is moving, moving onward with the current of most modem thoughts and ideas much faster than you can imagine. True, twenty or thirty years ago every Japanese who left that country literally carried a large Japanese flag in his heart; so large was it that he had no room for any affection for any other nation. But things are different today. I can give you no better illustration than to quote what Count Okuma, the present Prime Minister who is so dearly called " the grand old man of Japan," said to the Japanese emigrants to Brazil: You are going to seek your fortune and happiness in a strange country. You are to belong to that country. You are in duty bound first and last to do your best in that country, for that country, and with that country. You are, therefore, advised not to compare the things of your home country and those of your adopted one with any sense of contempt and criticism; first of all adapt yourselves to the new country, and then and then only, see if you can introduce the best that Japan can offer. I. Abe, of Waseda University, spoke these words to a Japanese tourist party who visited that country a year ago: You are aware of the Japanese theory of marriage which signifies the death of the bride to her parental family and birth in her adopted one. You, who are leaving one l64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General family of nations and are to wed another, will do well to intrust your future entirely to your adopted coimtry with the same spirit as the Japanese bride. H. Eitaki, former Japanese Consul-General at Honolulu, said to the Japanese residents there at one of their meetings: While Japan can be much richer, yet she is not quite so poor as anxiously to await your money. It is a good thing to save money but better still to invest it and see what good you can do for yourself and your country, which now is America. Y. Ozaki, former Mayor of Tokyo and present Minister of Justice, J. Soyeda, and many other eminent scholars and statesmen have all sounded the same keynote of cosmopolitanism among the Japanese, just as tho one man wrote all of their manuscripts. This simply shows the trend of the current of thought among the Japanese today. Buddhism has often been spoken of as an obstacle in the assimilation of the Japanese. I do not care to use the term "even Buddhists" in con- nection with Buddhists. For they too are fast becoming influenced by this great current of thought of world-citizenship. Archbishop Asahi, of the Japanese Buddhist Church, who is an old man of eighty- three and had the distinction of shaking hands with Commodore Perry at the age of twenty- one, a man whom you would naturally expect to be the model of conserva- tism and seclusion, gave a Japanese audience this advice a few days ago: "Love your wife, love your work, and love your community." In other words, he advised the Japanese to love San Francisco, love California, and love America. Thus Japanese leaders of today have dedicated the future of Japan to the proposition that the test of a great nation is that her people can make the world their home wherever they go. While I make this admission, I am not here to prophesy whether Japanese will make good Americans. But this we know, that as early as the seventh century, when the Chinese civilization came to Japan, Japan adopted and assimilated Chinese literature, Chinese arts, Chinese religion and institutions within a short time. Again in the middle of the sixteenth century, a few decades after the triumphant religious expedition of that most devoted and energetic teacher, Francis Xavier, about one million Japanese had been converted to Christianity. This rapid change of conditions in Japan characterized the way in which modem European and American civilizations have been welcomed in Japan since 1853. And might I not say without any hesitation what Japan has done ? Within the last fifty years at least she has become Westernized and Americanized much faster than any other nation in the history of the world. Now how about the Japanese in this country? While today it is impossible to find a pure race anywhere on the face of the globe, it is true that the Japanese are a mixture of all the Far Eastern races, and can easily adapt themselves to almost any clime or civilization. While I am not quite ready to accept the statement of Henry Ward Beecher, who said, "Let them come, we will swallow them all," I do Sessions] JAPANESE EDUCATION IN AMERICA 165 want to say that America has the greatest power of assimilation of all nations in the history of the world. We have noticed this fact, that Japanese children bom in this country are, on the whole, taller and their complexions fairer than their parents. This is especially true of Japanese girls, due no doubt to the food and climatic conditions. The writer has a friend who has a little boy five years of age. Upon coming home from kindergarten one day, he was crying very hard. When asked the reason the boy earnestly replied: Papa, today they were talking about a war between America and Japan. Papa, you were born in Japan; you are a Japanese; I was bom in this country; I am an Ameri- can. I am afraid I will have to fight you! Many Japanese are naturalized in Canada. When war was declared against the Germanic Allies, some thousand Canadian- Japanese volimteered to fight for the cause of their adopted country. And yet I do not mean to draw conclusions as to the assimilability of the Japanese. How can you tell whether a nation will become assimilated inside of ten or fifteen years ? That is the length of time we have been here. You used to say the Germans v/ould never forget their Fatherland even after they were here two or three generations. You know now they make good American citizens. You used to say the same thing about the Irish: you used to say that they were good fighters but they would not make good American citizens, but when these good fighters come to America they not only make good American citizens but become so assimilated they even turn into peace oiO&cers. So, friends, we do not know whether we will make good Americans or not, altho we have some notion on this point. All we can say at this time is this: Such societies as the Japanese Association of America, the Japanese Association of American College Graduates, the Japanese Interdenomina- tional Board of Missions, and the Japan Society of America, of which I am secretary, are doing their best to make the Japanese in this country — at least on the Pacific Coast — some day, when given a chance, the best Ameri- cans possible. All we ask of you is, Are you willing to give us a fair chance to do so ? If you welcome Europeans with open arms and Orientals at the point of the finger; if you welcome Europeans with confidence and Orientals with suspicion; if you give the Germans the right to participate in politics and make the Japanese pawns in the political chess game; if you allow Italians the right to own land and become permanent residents and compel the Japanese to lease land for no more than three years at the most, force him to move about the country with his blankets on his shoulders without being able to make a home for his dear little boy or girl, who by birthright is an American citizen, the solution of one of America's problems is bound to be unnatural, liable to be unfair, possibly un-American, and even un- christian. All we ask is a fair understanding and a fair chance. l66 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Let me repeat again, we know our weakness, we are doing our best to correct it. Will you, the makers of future America, will you, you whose hands are to mold the clay of the future citizens of this great Republic, will you help us and co-operate with us ? I come here with this plea not as a delegate of the Empire across the sea but as a resident of your own Golden State, and as one who knows the heart of this nation. I have come to know within the thirteen years of my residence in this country that " Uncle Sam has, now and then, bad manners, but an awful good heart." I come here with these facts, not as a repre- sentative of a foreign country but as a product of one of your own state universities and one who believes in American education. I come here with this plea and these facts for we have come to believe that proper education with the right attitude of heart, the American attitude of heart, will solve many a question. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION— AMERICA'S WORK IN THE PHILIPPINES FRA^TK L. CRONE, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF EDUCATION, DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MANILA, P.I. Altho the American army occupied Manila in August, 1898, three years were required to bring all parts of the coimtry under the control of the American armies. The military authorities had established schools thru- out the Philippines as rapidly as they extended their control, and less than three weeks after the occupation of Manila seven schools were opened and a teacher of English installed in each. By June i, 1899, 4,500 pupils were enrolled in the public primary schools of Manila. The schools opened outside of Manila were taught by soldiers detailed for the purpose; it may be said that the American army advanced into the country with a musket in one hand and a school book in the other. Many of the soldiers detailed for this work chose later to remain in the service of the civil government, and in the list of the most efficient teachers now found in the Philippine service are to be found a number of these soldier teachers. The present system of public instruction in the Philippine Islands is only a part of the great governmental program to make effective the instructions contained in the letter addressed by President McKinley to the Philippine Commission. In these instructions President McKinley stated that the Commission should bear in mind that the new government was not to be designed for our satisfaction or for the expression of our theoretical views, but for the happiness, peace, and prosperity of the Philippine Islands. While all of the work undertaken under the new government, in health, public works, science, agriculture, or other lines, was conceived in a spirit of toleration and a desire to be of real service to the Filipino people, the work done along the line of public instruction has come Sessions] AMERICA'S INFLUENCE ON PHILIPPINE SCHOOLS 167 nearest to the heart of the Filipuio people and has served perhaps better than any other thing to convince them of the benevolent intentions of the American people. The early American administrators in the Philippines were unhampered by tradition, and since they were working among a people accustomed to look to the government for direction to a greater extent than here it was natural to expect that the Philippines should become a great experimental ground. The early American teacher in the Philippines was as unhampered by tradition as his fellow-workers in other fields and was in a position to adapt his instruction to the pecuUar educational needs of the Filipino people. It was clearly seen from the beginning that it was neither feasible nor desirable to attempt to make Americans out of Filipinos. It was clear that it was the great duty of the educator in the Philippines to hold fast to all that was best in Philippine character and civilization and to supplement it with the best we had to offer. No considerable number of American teachers arrived in the Philippine Islands before the middle of 1901. By the end of that year there were nearly a thousand American teachers on duty thruout the Philippines. The task they faced was a difficult one. Few of the teachers had any knowledge of Spanish, which was spoken by the educated classes in the Philippines, and none excepting the soldier teachers had any knowledge whatever of the local dialects. The difficulties presented by difference of customs and habits of thought appeared for a while to be almost unsur- mountable. The few school buildings which had been inherited from the Spanish regime were for the most part in such a condition as to be unusable. Many had been used by the Philippine or American army as hospitals, commissaries, or even stables. Let it be said to the great credit of the American teacher that he set to work to solve the many problems with an earnestness which has seldom been equaled and never surpassed. He began to win his way; and in a few years the Filipino people had come to give the moral and financial support necessary to develop the great system of public schools which now reaches every inhabited island and the most isolated mountain settlements, enrolling 600,000 pupils, taught by 10,000 teachers in 4,300 schools. One of the first great tasks of the American teacher was to train a force of Filipino teachers. Often the teacher devoted half of the day to teaching his primary school and another half to teaching bright young men and women who were ambitious to become teachers. It is literally true that the early Filipino teachers learned one day what they were to teach the next. As fast as Filipino teachers were developed, they were sent out to neighboring hamlets and this was the real beginning of the present public- school system. American teachers at first handled the lowest primary classes, which they turned over to Filipino teachers as fast as they were l68 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General prepared. Now the American teacher is to be found in higher elementary and secondary grades and in work of a supervisory character. Now of the 10,000 teachers in the service less than 550 are Americans. In every section of the country since 1908 or 1909, there has been an insistent demand on the part of the people for more public schools, and a greater number of pupils have presented themselves than could be accom- modated. It may be said that there is no compulsory education in the Philippine Islands and the attendance of more than a half million is entirely voluntary. Due to a lack of sufficient resources, the schools cannot provide acconamodations for all the children of school age in the country, but there is every reason to believe that the people and their representatives will see to it within the next few years that the schools shall be in a position to pro- vide for every boy and girl in the Archipelago. Primary, intermediate, and secondary instruction are conducted by the Philippine Bureau of Education, while the University of the Philippines is managed by a Board of Regents. The University of the Philippines was established long after the public-school system, and, while there is the closest harmony between the two, the university authorities have left the public-school system free to work out its own problems. Those in charge of the Philippine public schools believe that it is the function of a public-school system to prepare every boy and girl for the happiest, freest, and most efficient life possible in the sphere to which his activities will probably be conJ&ned. In accordance with this theory, those charged with the direction of the public schools worked out a balanced curriculum which embraces academic, industrial, and physical education. Since a great majority of the pupils discontinue their studies either before or at the conclusion of the first four years, a primary course has been prescribed, the principal object of which is the preparation of those who quit school for the life which they will probably follow. Many subjects are placed in this course which would naturally be deferred until later if the great majority could avail themselves of the benefits of higher instruction. In this primary course are found hygiene, civics, physical training, good manners, right conduct, and such handicrafts as embroidery, lace, basketry, gardening, and woodworking. Much of the instruction is necessarily simple, but it is the best that can be given pupils of their stage of development, and the majority, who drop out of school early, must secure this simple instruction or none at all. Since the various handicraft courses are especially adapted to the locality, and since there is differentiation of work for boys and girls, these courses are particularly adapted to local and mdividual needs. Pupils who complete the primary course are almost without exception ambitious to continue their studies into the intermediate course, which seems to be a sufficient answer to those who would maintain that a complete primary course would Sessions] AMERICA'S INFLUENCE ON PHILIPPINE SCHOOLS 169 discourage pupils from going farther by leaving them with the impression that nothing further remained for them to learn. Following the primary course is a three-year intermediate course; and knowing that the great majority who enter these courses will stop either at their conclusion or before, an attempt is again made to prepare the student for the life which he will probably follow if he does quit at this period. Farming, trade, domestic science, commercial, and teaching courses have been provided in addition to the general courses which are given in the majority of the intermediate schools of the Islands. These special courses prepare the pupil to become a farmer, cabinet-maker, carpenter, machinist, blacksmith, clerk, or primary teacher. The girl is prepared for house- keeping and homemaking and for supplementing the family income thru certain home industries such as lace, embroidery, basketry, and others of like nature. Even in the general courses much industrial work is pre- scribed. It will be noted that no pupil can pass thru the primary and intermediate courses without having received more or less thoro industrial instruction. It is believed that those who may continue their studies in the high schools and colleges are not done an injustice by being compelled to take these courses which are framed primarily for the benefit of those who cannot continue farther. It may be expected that thru these courses they will complete the higher studies with a greater understanding of and sympathy for the great mass of their people who must work with their hands, not to mention the benefits which come as a result of manual training, so called. In the secondary grades, opportunities are again offered for specializa- tion, courses in surveying, commerce, navigation, agriculture, trade, and normal-school work being offered in addition to the general courses which resemble those given in the American high schools. In the University of the Philippines are found the colleges of liberal arts, medicine, agriculture, veterinary science, engineering, law, and schools of fine arts, forestry, pharmacy, and education. While the university maintains the highest ideals of scholarship, it has freed itself in great measure from the traditions of the past and has adapted its instruction more and more to the life needs of the Filipino student. Working in close harmony with the University are the great scientific bureaus of the government — agriculture, science, and forestry. Public-school work in the Philippine Islands is highly organized, execu- tive control centering in the Director of Education, who is responsible for the conduct of the public schools and has the authority necessary to make his control effective. The islands are divided into thirty-seven divisions, over each of which there is a division superintendent of schools who is the representative of the Director of Education. Each division is in turn divided into districts over which are placed supervising teachers, and repre- sentatives of the Director of Education and of the division superintendent 170 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General of schools. Principals of high schools are responsible to the division superintendent, while those of the intermediate schools may respond directly to the division superintendent or to the supervising teacher, depending upon the importance of the school in question. Practically all of the divisions are supplied with division academic, industrial, and athletic supervisors, who work under the immediate direction of the division superintendent. While in theory the system described is an autocratic one, in practice it is quite the contrary. Teachers enjoy much greater participation in educational affairs than in many other systems apparently much more democratic. The knowledge on the part of the teachers that their opinions are listened to with respect, that just complaints will be heeded, that they will be given due credit for what they accomplish, has done much to permit the esprit de corps which has been the greatest single factor in promoting the efficiency of public-school work. People have come to look to this business-like organization, extending to every part of the Archipelago, for direction in many different lines. If the Bureau of Health desires to invite the attention of the people to the methods of preventing epidemics, the public schools are called upon to instruct the children, who in turn convey the information to their elders. If the Bureau of Forestry or Agriculture or Lands wishes to reach the people with the least delay, their needs are made known to the school authorities. A great corn campaign was undertaken by the public schools which during the past year has enrolled nearly fifty thousand boys, almost half the enrolment of all the com clubs in the United States. Thousands of demonstrations were conducted by domestic science teachers and their classes, and in every section of the country the people have learned to prepare palatable and wholesome com dishes. This has helped to interest them further in the production of com. Within the past three years the production of com has increased 75 per cent and has resulted in a saving of two million dollars to the Filipino people. Last year during the month of December a week was set aside as Clean- up Week; at its close the country was perhaps cleaner than it had ever been in all its history. Most of the work was done by Filipino teachers and pupils. English has been the language of instruction from the beginning; it is now the official language, and no thinking Filipino contemplates the possi- bility of replacing it with any other. It is already spoken to a far greater extent than Spanish. As a result of the athletic program undertaken by the Philippine public schools, which now touches vitally nearly 100 per cent of the pupils enrolled, there is a noticeable physical improvement everywhere and a turning away from vicious amusements. The credit for the establishment of the system of public instruction in the Philippines must not be confined to Americans, but due recognition I Sessions] PROGRESS OF EDUCATION IN NORTH AFRICA 171 must be given to the great force of Filipino teachers who have served faith- fully and loyally, often at salaries woefully insufficient; and also to the Filipino people who in a brief period of fifteen years have come to accept the public-school system built along American lines and who have shown their willingness to make any necessary sacrifice to insure the support of the public schools. The people give unqualified support to the public schools. Not only have they been willing to vote public funds for this purpose, but they have been willing to construct the school buildings in most rural schools of the islands without cost to the government, besides annually making large contributions of money, land, labor, and materials where public funds are insufficient to provide for the proper support of the public schools. There has been in the Philippine Islands a great intellectual awakening, and it may be truthfuly said that no other country has in a brief period of fifteen years progressed so far. ' THE PROGRESS OF EDUCATION IN NORTH AFRICA— PARTICULARLY IN TUNIS BENJAMIN BUISSON, LATE DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION, TUNIS, NORTH AFRICA Tunis, I am afraid, is not a very familiar name to some of you, tho you must all know that it is a city situated near the ruins of ancient Carthage. Carthage, like San Francisco, was burned down, and also like San Francisco had a magnificent resurrection from its ashes, but the Vandals and the Arabs thoroly ruined it a second time, and for centuries it has been only interesting by its very ruins. Two years after the establishment of the French Protectorate in Tunis in 1883, we obtained from the Bey an additional treaty promising to make all the necessary reforms. Of course, the reforms of the educational system were among the most useful and were started at once. I speak of Tunis and Morocco more willingly than of Algeria because I know them better, and also because in Algeria, where French rule has prevailed for nearly a century, public instruction is now organized very much as in France itself. Tunis, in respect both to the government in general and to the question of education in particular, has been a peculiar experiment and I hope I may say a successful one. Our originality, tho, was not quite our own; we have been following the steps and examples of the British in India and Egypt. The principle was not to annex, but simply to protect — to proceed not by suppression but by adaptation of the existing institutions. We kept the Bey and the two principal Viziers with our French secretaries of state and we also kept some of the Arab sheiks or Mussulman professors with our French teachers and professors. We kept and enlarged the good Arab college, but we created a French college. We also created a good 172 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General classical high school, a French lycee for boys, and a high school for European girls; also a large school of agriculture and a high technical college. Very soon excellent work was being done by these different institutions which are now in a flourishing condition. The French college, of which I was a director, had, besides an academic and technical high-school side, a most important normal section, receiving French teachers already trained in normal schools in France, who came to Tunis to practice for some months or years in our model French-Arab school and learn the elements of the spoken Arabic before going to the schools of the interior. The Arab normal students, trained in the Arab college, also learned with them how to teach, and perfected their knowledge in French and other necessary branches. Most interesting was the work I had to do in this college, which became an experimental ground for bringing together young men of different creed, race, and nationality, and from it were sent into the different parts of the country a good many excellent teachers, French and Arabic, who have done very useful work. I made use in this college of what I had found best in the Anglo-American pedagogy. I intro- duced something of the English public-school system of discipline as I had seen it in the Eton, Rugby, Charterhouse, and Harrow schools, the older boys being trusted to train the younger ones by example and precept to loyalty to their school and to self-restraint. I introduced as a help in that way the famous game of football, quite imknown before in Tunis, so bene- ficial for the physical and moral health of boys. I also found in this milieu of Christians, Jews, and Mussulmen a very good means of neutral discipline in the teaching of lay ethics, morale latque, of which my brother has spoken here at length. Of course, we had no difficulty about religion as we did not try any propagandism. I sat often with the Mussulman sheik, teaching Arabic grammar in Arabic to the Arab students, and he also was eager to quote to them from the Koran and from the Arab proverbs. What was most proper to teach them was tolerance and even brotherhood with Christians and Jews. In 191 2, after the establishment of the French Protectorate in Morocco, I was sent on a mission to Morocco to inspect all existing schools and report on a plan to better and increase them. I was stopped in my inspection by the insurrection which broke out at Fez in May of that year. After my return to Tunis, when I was retired on the pension list, my successor in the French college of Tunis was selected to come to Morocco to be director of public instruction there. He still occupies that high position, so it seems that the Tunisian system of education has been well appreciated by the French government and we cannot but feel somewhat proud of it. What our results have been could be best shown by statistics, but I do not like to bore you with many figures. I shall only say that in European schools in Tunisia, we have more than 30,000 pupils of whom nearly half are girls. Of these pupils, 24,000 are Sessions! PROGRESS OF EDUCATION IN NORTH AFRICA 173 in public schools and only 6,000 in private schools. In the boys' schools, almost two-thirds are Arabs and Jews. French and Italian children are about in equal numbers. A very small number of Arab girls come to our European schools for girls, but about ten years ago a special school for Arab girls was success- fully started in Tunis, and other schools of the same type have been estab- lished in Tunis and in other cities and towns. Of course, the Arab girls come only until they are eleven or twelve years of age at the most. They come veiled to school and do not take off their veils until they are inside the school walls. They learn sewing, embroidery, domestic economy, hygiene, with some French, reading, writing, arithmetic, and also Arabic and Koran. My ripe age allowed me to visit the delightful little harem- school, and three years ago I had the privilege to hold there with the director of public instruction and several lady teachers an examination in which several Arab girls (between eleven and twelve years of age) passed success- fully the required standards in French, geography, history, arithmetic, and Arabic. Small as it is, this new feature in education seemed to us full of hope. The fact that a certain number of Arab girls are brought in their early years in contact with French women whom they soon learn to respect and love will help a great deal to diminish, if not to suppress, fanaticism, which is always the dangerous obstacle to the progress of civilization in Mohammedan countries. These young girls, when married, will take pleasure in teaching themselves and their young children to talk and even to begin to read and write French and that will be so much time saved in the school afterward. Tho we have built and opened French or Franco- Arab schools almost everywhere, we have not made instruction in them compulsory and we have kept the old Koran schools. My time being so limited, I cannot speak long of the reforms we have brought in these Koran schools for boys. Those schools, the same as prevailed since the Middle Ages in all Mohammedan countries, have been often described. We have about 1,300 of them in Tunisia with 1,310 teachers and 24,000 pupils. The master sits in the midst of ten children with a long stick in his hand to keep them busy at work, dictating to them verses of the Koran, very often to each pupil a different verse. They afterward repeated each one his verse in loud voice until they knew it by heart. It was a dreadful noise and confusion. We introduced the blackboard to teach the small children in groups the elements of reading and writing, and to save time. Then we grouped the children to learn the same verses together instead of writing and learning each one his own verse individually. We had an inspector appointed to better the conditions of hygiene and to improve the lighting of the rooms and also the method of reading. We also created a special normal school for the training of these teachers of Koranic schools — the same has also been attempted lately in Morocco and those reforms are 174 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General expected to have a good effect in killing fanaticism, that is to say the tradi- tional horror of the Moslem for the Christian. Another reform connected with higher instruction or the Koranic university was also attempted in Tunis. The Arab imiversity is located in Tunis, as in Cairo, Fez, and Constantinople, in the middle of the Grand Mosque. Professors or sheiks sit at the foot of one of the many colunms surrounded by twenty, thirty, fifty, or more students. They read on grammar, the Koran, rhetoric, logic, jurisprudence, Hadith (or memorable sayings of Mohammed), theology, right pronunciation of the Koran and connected matters. Science was left out of the program. An association was started to make up for that omission. It was formed by the broad- minded Mussulmen and called the Khaldounia, after the great Moham- medan and Tunisian historian Ibra Khaldoun. The annex university was intended to teach the students of the Grand Mosque the matters missing in the Koranic imiversity program — history, geography, mathematics, hygiene, natural science, and especially French. This also is an innovation which promises to bear and has already borne good fruit, tho in ways not approved of by a good many old conservative Moslem professors, and even by those Europeans who do not like to help Islamism to evolute but prefer to let it live or die as it is. Before concluding I wish to call attention to three features which may seem original and which are peculiar to our system. They are: (i) our system of school post-offices; (2) our system of cheap boarding schools for the children of small European farmers dwelling far from regular schools; and (3) our system of half-time schools, for the supervised apprenticeship for Arab boys in cities and towns. When we do not find enough children to warrant the establishment of a regular school, we send a schoolmaster who at the same time does the work of a postmaster. He opens a class which at first is attended by only a few boys, but his influence on the parents as postmaster soon brings them to send their children to the class even from far away. When the school is full, it is divided from the post-office and a proper schoolhouse is built. This has been found very useful and has saved unnecessary expense both to the educators and to the post-office department. As for the cheap boarding schools, they are intended to help small French or European farmers who are living within a long distance of all schools and have not the means of sending their children to the more expensive boarding schools of Tunis. The fee for board and instruction is very low and children belonging to large families are even received on paying a half or a third of the fee. The third feature I have mentioned as special to us is the organization of apprenticeship for Arab boys in special schools of half time: that is to say, they come in the morning to school and in the afternoon go to work in the shops of different patrons in the city. A free or very cheap lunch Sessions] RECENT EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 175 is provided to them and special inspectors visit the shops to be sure that the boys are really well trained by the master of the shop, who gets also an indemnity for the pains he takes in the training of the apprentice. This system, which has been in operation now for six or seven years in carpenters', locksmiths', tailors', shoemakers', and watchmakers' shops, has given satisfaction, and it encourages the Arab parents to train their children for a manual profession instead of sending them to school too long until they lose all taste and capacity for a manual profession. THE RECENT EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA Z. T. NYI, PRESIDENT, EASTERN SECTION, CHINESE STUDENTS' ALLIANCE or THE UNITED STATES The attempt of this paper is to trace the development of the Chinese educational system since 1900. The writer proposes to discuss the subject under five headings: (I) Turning-point of the Chinese educational system, 1905; (II) development of a new educational system from 1905 to 191 1; (III) reconstruction since the establishment of the Chinese Republic; (IV) progress made since the reconstruction; (V) Chinese educational problem of today. I. TURNING-POINT OF THE CHINESE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM The choice of 1905 as the starting year of this discourse is by no means arbitrary. It is chosen because the year 1905 marks the turning-point of the Chinese educational system, changing from the old to the new. For it was in that memorable year that a most significant and sweeping educa- tional reform was finally carried out after years of delay and hesitation, and thus was laid the foundation for unlimited future educational develop- ment in China. The great event referred to was the abolition, by an imperial edict, of a time-honored institution, the imperial literary examina- tion. This stroke of vermilion carried China forward five hundred years. n. DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM FROM I905 TO 19II The interval between 1905, the year which witnessed the abolition of the imperial literary examination, and 191 1, the year which marked the end of the Manchu Dynasty, was the period during which China began to construct a modern educational system. We will consider only the main steps that were taken by our government in the construction of the Chinese educational system along modern lines in that brief space of time. I. The formation of the Ministry of Education. — In December, 1905, thru the joint recommendation of the Department of State and the Depart- ment of Education, a Ministry of Education was created and made one of^the eleven great executive departments of the state. 176 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (General In 1906, in accordance with the instructions promulgated in the edict, the Ministry of Education was organized. It had at its head a president, two vice-presidents, two first-class secretaries, two second-class secretaries, and four third-class secretaries. The ministry was divided into five depart- ments, namely, the Department of General Supervision, the Department of Technical Education, the Department of Publication, the Department of Industrial Education, and the Department of Finance, and each depart- ment was subdivided into three bureaus. Each department was presided over by a senior secretary and each bureau by a junior secretary, and on these officers, assisted by twelve national inspectors, devolved the general administration of the new educational system. 2. Spirit and aim of the modern educational system. — For fear that with the organization of the modern educational system the traditional spirit and aim of education might be neglected, a special decree was promulgated in which the aim of the modem educational system was set forth. The decree says: For the development of the minds of the young generation, the following virtues should be inculcated in the aim of education, namely: (i) loyalty to the Emperor; (2) reverence to Confucius; (3) devotion to public welfare; (4) admiration for the martial spirit; and (5) respect for industrial pursuits. The first two virtues to be cultivated were essentially the same as the aim of the old education having for its purpose the perpetuation of the Dynasty. To the masses and many of the conservatives of the day, the prevailing conception was that loyalty to the Emperor is the means of developing patriotism, and reverence to Confucius is the way to morality. The fourth virtue, admiration for the martial spirit, is a radical departure from traditional education and conception, for soldiers in China as a class were despised and looked down upon as of no caste. This virtue was added evidently because of the defenseless condition of the country. In order to make a strong nation capable of maintaining her own existence and of freeing herself from foreign aggression, the government thought the only way was to remove the ban on militarism by a revival of the martial spirit. The last one, respect for industrial pursuits, is inserted obviously because of the changing condition of the world as well as the pinch of poverty which necessitated the change of conception regarding manual labor. Scholars in those days scorned any form of manual labor. This continued to be the aim of education untU the outbreak of the revolution in 1911. 3. Survey of educational condition in China. — Being conscious of the precarious condition of the existing educational institutions in the country and in order to gather accurate data as basis of guidance for the formulation of new educational policies, the Ministry of Education in 1907 instructed the provincial commissioners of education to make a thoro survey of the existing educational conditions in their respective provinces and to report Sessions] RECENT EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 177 the result of their finds. The following outlined headings were called for in the investigation: The physical environment; the census; the racial, intellectual, moral, and reli- gious characteristics of the population; their customs, modes of life, and state of culture; their financial ability, including the total amount of taxes collected and the various forms of local taxes available; and the status of education, such as the number of pupils, the method of support, and the amoimt of funds avEiilable for educational purposes. This investigation, however imperfect it may have been, is one of the most statesmanlike steps that has ever been attempted by the Chinese administrators of education, and it marked the beginning of scientific inquiry in China. 4. The organization of the Central Educational Council. — In 191 1 an important auxiliary educational agency was organized by the Ministry of Education with the expressed sanction of the government. The new agency was known as the Tsung Yang Chias Yu Hui, or the Central Educa- tional Council. The function of the council is purely an advisory one and its duties are similar to those of the Comite Consultatif in France. It was called into being for no other purpose than the gathering of knowledge, experience, and conclusions that had been reached thru the deliberation of the educators in the country. With these data, the Ministry of Education hoped to derive much help and suggestions in formulating a sound educa- tional policy for the nation. The council, having its seat in Peking, was to hold its session of thirty days in summer. The discussions of the council were to include all problems relating to public education from the rank of middle school to those below it. The term of office was to expire in three years. The members of the councU were made up of the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Home Affairs, the Ministry of War, the Metro- politan Board of Education, Provincial Board of Education, national and provincial inspectors, provincial educational associations, heads of schools imder the immediate supervision of the Ministry of Education, and heads of normal, middle, and elementary schools. $. The first modern school system. — Long before the year 1905, the movement of establishment of a modern system of education upon a national basis claimed the attention of the government. In 1901, several edicts were issued advocating the new education. In 1903, a special commission headed by Chang Chih Tung, Chang Pai Hsi, and Sun Chia Nan was appointed by the Throne to draw up a detailed plan for a system of national public education. After a careful study, the commission recommended to the government the following system of education: It provided, as the basis of the system, kindergartens for children between the ages of three and seven; the lower primary schools for chUdren above seven years of age; the higher primary schools for children below fifteen years of age; the middle schools for children between the ages of 178 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General fifteen and nineteen; the provincial colleges for students above nineteen, and the universities, at the top of the system. For ambitious students to do special research work, graduate schools of research were provided, and for the training of teachers, three grades of normal schools, namely, the higher normal, the lower normal, and the normal for industrial training. This, in brief, is the program laid down in 1903 and carried out in 1905, the year which witnessed the abolition of this imperial literary examination with a few modifications. To meet the urgent demand of the time, many special schools also came into existence. They were the school of political science and law, school of medicine, schools for the study of Mongolian and Tibetan languages, schools for the preservation of Chinese culture, and Tsing Hau College for the preparation of the students to be sent to the United States as the "Indemnity Fund Scholars." These were in brief the various schools found under the control of the Ministry of Education previous to the out- break of the Chinese Revolution. There were numerous other schools opened by private funds and mission schools financed by the various missionary enterprises — all these filled in their particular need of the day. 6. Status oj education before the Revolution. — ^The Third Annual Report of the Ministry of Education in 191 1 gave the following statistics in regard to the educational condition of the year 19 10: There were in China 52,650 schools of different type, including normal, vocational, and technical schools with a student body numbering 1,625,534, a teaching force number- ing 89,766, and a corps of administrative officers mmabering 95,800. Besides there were 69 boards of education, 722 local, provincial, and national educational associations, 1,588 educational exhorting societies, and 3,867 public lecture halls. The total income for educational purposes was Taels 23,331,171 and the total expenditure Taels 24,444,309. The educational property owned by the Government amounted to Taels 70,367,882. There were, besides many Chinese students studying abroad, not fewer than 5,000 students studying in Japan, of which half are subsidized by the government, 140 Chinese government students studying in the United Kingdom, and 150 more supported by private fimds, 70 government students in Belgium, 80 in France, 60 in Germany, 10 in Austria, and 15 in Russia. The nmnber of Chinese students studying in the United States in 1910, according to the report of the Chinese Students' Alliance of North America, was 600. In regard to the quality of the work done by the schools in that short period, some idea might be gained by the prizes won in the various educa- tional exhibits held in different parts of the country. In the Nanking Industrial Exhibition held in 19 10, 900 awards were made to the products of the schools. A similar collection of educational articles was sent to an exposition in Italy, and there again many prizes were awarded for excellence and high standards. In summarizing this period (i 905-11) we need scarcely say more than this: The new education was successful in view of the tremendous Sessions] RECENT EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 179 influence it exerted upon the intellectual life of the people. No one can deny that it was the new education which was scattered broadcast that hastened the great Chinese Revolution of 191 1 and it was the abolition of the imperial literary examination that tolled the death-knell of the Manchu Dynasty. III. RECONSTRUCTION SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CHINESE REPUBLIC Soon after the republican government was organized in Nanking, January 9, 1912, a dispatch was issued by Sun Yat Sen to the republican governors of the provinces commanding the reopening of the schools. It embodied a temporary policy governing popular education. It demanded that all the textbooks used should be in conformity with the republican spirit. It abolished the practice of awarding official degrees to the graduates of the primary and middle schools and shortened their course of study. It urged that military drill be taken in place of physical exercises and emphasized the importance of manual training in primary schools. Further- more two radical measures were advocated: (i) Co-education in the primary schools; (2) elimination of Chinese classics from the curricula of the primary schools. The temporary policy also laid special emphasis upon the improve- ment of the mind of the general public by introducing social education, i.e., education thru quasi- or semieducational institutions, such as public lectures, exhibits, libraries, newspapers, moving pictures, and so forth. This was necessary since the formal education would not be accessible to everyone for some time to come. This measure was later taken over by the new Ministry of Education and a special bureau was created to take special care in this important phase of education. When Yuan Shih Kai was elected president of China, one of his very first acts was the formation of a new Ministry of Education with its seat in Peking in the former building occupied by the Department of Education under the old regime. In his first educational ordinances, his new scheme of organization was fully outlined. The ministry has at its head a minister of education who will in general take charge of all educational affairs. Aside from those assistant officials that are common in other ministries, provision was made for sixteen inspectors and ten experts in arts and sciences. There were also provided one general council and three bureaus for carrying on the work of the ministry. The duties of this general council are to have charge of all school matters such as teachers of public schools, educational associations, investigations of educational problems, school hygiene, and repairs and building of schools. The three bureaus are: (i) Bureau of General Education, (2) Bureau of Technical and Professional Education, and (3) Bureau of Social Education. The Bureau of General Education has full charge of matters pertaining to normal schools, middle schools, primary schools, kindergartens, and schools for defectives. Children's i8o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Ckncral school attendance and the selection and certifications of teachers are also under the charge of this bureau. The Bureau of Technical and Professional Education has charge of all matters relating to the university and college, the higher technical schools, the sending of students abroad, the national observatory, the preparation of the annual government almanac, the academy of doctors, the association for the unification of the mother tongue, the examination and certification of medical doctors and pharmacists, and the conferring of degrees. The Bureau of Social Education has charge of all matters relating to the correction of public ceremonies, libraries, zoological and botanical gardens, fine art museums, exhibitions, music, and other similar affairs concerning popular education. One of the most important events after the organization of the ministry was the convening of the Emergency National Conference in Peking at the invitation of the minister of education, Tsai Yuan Pei. The conference opened on July 12 and was formally closed on August 11, 191 2. Ninety-six delegates were present. All were either graduates of normal colleges in China or abroad, or educators of some renown. While in session, the con- ference discussed more than forty-three bills connected with educational problems, of which number twenty-three of the most important were approved in their original or modified form. One of the fundamental changes that have taken place as a result of the Revolution was the change of emphasis in the aim of education. Instead, of loyalty to the Emperor, reverence for Confucius, devotion to public welfare, admiration for the martial spirit, and respect for industrial pursuits, all of which aim at making loyal subjects, the aim of education is now to pay special attention to the development of morals in the individual or the production of virtuous character. This development of virtuous or moral character is to be supplemented with technical and military training and to be completed with a cultivation of the aesthetic powers. Since the establishment of the republic, the school system has been slightly reorganized and new curricula have been introduced. We will here give a very brief resume. CLASSmCATION OF SCHOOLS I. The lower primary school, consisting of a four years' course, leading up to (i) The higher primary school, or (2) The lower-grade industrial school (three years' course) II. The higher primary school, consisting of a three years' course, leading up to (i) The middle school (2) Elementary normal school (one year preparatory work and a four years' course), or (3) High-grade industrial school (three years' course) Sessions] RECENT EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA l8i III. The middle school, consisting of a four years' course, leading up to (i) The university (2) Special schools (with one year preparatory and from three to four years' course), or (3) High-grade normal school (with one year preparatory work and a three years' coxurse) IV. The university, with three years' preparatory work, and from three to four years* work in a special department. P. W. Kuo, dean of the Government Teachers' College at Nanking, in summarizing the changes made in the new curriculum, said that the changes have been along three general lines: the elimination of Chinese classics as a subject in itself, the introduction of new subjects of study hav- ing a social and industrial significance, and the relief of the overcrowded program. These steps in his opinion are in keeping with the progressive ideas of modern education and should therefore be encouraged. For the government of the various phases of the school system, new rules have been drawn up and put into force during the first two years of the republic. The following are included in the new rules: school uniform, school ceremony, transfer of pupils from one school to another, school government, school year, school terms and vacations, school fees, students' records, and textbooks. However, we shall not attempt to describe these rules in detail. IV. PROGRESS MADE SINCE THE RECONSTRUCTION 1. Emphasis laid on primary education. — ^When the new educational system was first organized in 1903, the attention of the government was centered on the universities, provincial colleges, colleges of languages, etc., to the neglect of the primary schools — in short, the system started at the top. Now, however, instead of preparing a few scholars for ofl&cial life, the stress is laid upon giving the mass of people at least the elements of the "three R's." Wherever means are available, elementary schools have sprung up like mushrooms. 2. Improvement in textbooks. — Great advancement has been made in textbooks for elementary and high schools. Since the establishment of the republic, especially after the reconstruction of the educational system, much needed revision has been made and many textbooks have been pub- lished. They are both better in the quality of the contents and cheaper in price. 3. Compulsory education. — On October 19, 1914, Liang Ch'i-chiao, the noted reformer of 1898, presented two important proposals before the Council of State for consideration. One was compulsory service in the army (conscription) and the other was compulsory education. Both these measures will probably not be realized for some time yet as they entail enormous expenditure of money. But it is an encouraging and healthy i82 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General sign of the day when these vital problems are beginning to be considered. Popular education, the basis of democracy, must be accomplished even at the expense of the army. As a beginning toward its final realization, the Board of Education has issued an order for the establishment of half-day schools and night schools to give neglected and poor children a chance to get common education. The course extends over three years and the nimi- ber of hours a week is eighteen. The required subjects are ethics, Chinese language, arithmetic, and physical training. 4. Encouragement of education. — As our government treasury is pressed for money for running expenses, naturally not very liberal sums of money can be devoted to education. In 1913 the government appropriated only $5,207,215 for education. In order to encourage voluntary contribution of more money, the government is never slow in giving recognition to those who contribute money for the advancement of education by conferring upon them the Chiaho Decoration or Tablet of Merit. Recently Chen Hsuan Kai, of Hupeh, initiated a movement for the establishment of a college, and contributed $40,000 as a fund. When the news reached the state department, our president in a dispatch conferred upon him the Chiaho Decoration of the Fourth Order. About the same time Chang Chien and Chang Sha, brothers, also received government recognition for promotion of education and other enterprises in their native district, Nantung. Contributors of money are not the only ones that have received govern- ment acknowledgment. Men that render meritorious service in the field of education have also conferred upon them the same honor. Only very recently a number of teachers, professors, and school administrators were awarded the Chiaho Decoration for services done in the schools of the capital. 5. The present status of education. — According to the latest statistics published by the Board of Education, there are at present 35,998 govern- ment schools of all grades with 875,760 students. These figures do not, of course, include the private schools and mission schools. At any rate, they are disappointingly low. The chief agencies that are responsible for the situation are: (i) the second revolution, and (2) lack of funds. Previous to the second revolution, the three sister provinces, Hupeh, Himan, and Kiangsi, had more than 10,000 schools whereas they now have about 3,000. In view of the general retrogression of education in the coimtry, it is refreshing to note that in the province of Chekiang, instead of a general decrease in number of both schools and students, there is a great increase both in the number of schools and students in the last three years. A corresponding advance was also made in school expenditures. This is due chiefly to the richness of the province, it being the chief silk- and tea- producing region of the republic, and also the high intellectual standard of the population. Sessionsl RECENT EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 183 V. EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS OF TODAY What are the educational problems awaiting immediate solution so that all the bars and the hindrances to progress may be removed and further advancement may be facilitated and made possible? In view of their tremendous significance to the future progress and prosperity of the Chinese Republic, we shall mention a few of the most important ones peculiar to our conditions and shall indicate possible lines of solution. One of the first problems that claim our immediate attention is how to finance the new school system. When China was under the old order of things, all she needed was a certain fixed fund to feed the imperial literary examination system and to pay a few government officials who kept the system going. It was a system to give the educational facilities to a hand- ful. With the changed order of things, the question is entirely different, for it involves not only an enormous outlay of money, but also a huge army of trained men, many times the staff of officials employed under the old system, for the policy of the new education is to extend itself to all the 440,000,000 of people who live in China. Our government is in a dilemma, for the difficulty of raising the large sum necessary is great beyond measure. The ultimate solution of the problem of financing the new school system will have to depend upon the levying of a special tax for the support of schools as American and European nations have done. Until this is done, the existence of our schools will be precarious and the new system of education will be weak and all its functions ineffective. Another problem is that of estabUshing for our language a uniform alphabet, which would materially assist those learning to read and write in Chinese. In the past few years various ways to overcome this difficulty have been suggested, and as to the success of them time only will tell. We shall here list only some of the most important ones for consideration: (i) to simplify words, and modes of expression; (2) to do away with blind memorizing by introducing the rational and natural method of teaching the meaning along with words or characters; (3) to teach Mandarin, the most universally spoken dialect in China, and to publish textbooks and newspapers in it; (4) to introduce a phonetic language system, such, per- haps, as one already invented by H. V. Ku by transforming the eight diagrams of Fuh-Hsie; (5) to Romanize a selected list of the most common Chinese words, say from 600 to 1,000, for popular education. Of all these various means the introduction of phonetics probably will solve the problem most satisfactorily. The use of Romanized Chinese under the present conditions is undoubt- edly the best method of teaching Chinese to foreigners who go to China for various purposes and occupations. The Standard Oil Company has decided to use this method in teaching its employees for the China field. It is of interest to note that the same method will be used at Columbia University in the course of Chinese that will be given there next year. The l84 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General introduction of Romanized Chinese among the Chinese people generally is attended by such difficulties as not to be practicable. The people are too tenacious in their own language and culture to accept the alphabet of the Western nations. In this connection let us raise the question, Is it most desirable to accept one of the alphabets in use, or would it be the part of greater wisdom for the Chinese to invent a new alphabet of their own that will be more scien- tific than any alphabet now in use by the West? The latter course is preferable. It will respect the innate prejudices such as are common to all people who have a great civilization at their back and the change can then be brought about in a remarkably short time. It will be fine poetic justice when the day comes when it shall be decreed that China, in the matter of a phonetic system, is the progressive, up-to-date, scientific nation, and that Western nations will be "put to it" either to use their antiquated phonetic systems, or to adopt the new Chinese system, or else to invent a still better one. Besides the difliculty of language, there are the difficulties of supplying the system with teachers. It is estimated that, to make education any- thing like universal, China needs at least a million schools in place of 36,000, with a teaching force of at least a million and a half. Even with the 36,000 modern schools, the nation finds it no easy task to obtain enough competent teachers to fill them. The various sources resorted to by the government to get proper teachers to meet the urgent demands are the following: (i) graduates of missionary schools, in a way the best available source to feed the new schools; (2) the ranks of literati who have kept themselves up to date by reading up the translated books of the West; (3) foreign teachers from abroad, especially for the higher institutions of learning; and (4) returned students from abroad. When China has organized her revenue system and the lev)dng of a special tax for educational purposes is provided, the recruiting of teachers should come from her own normal schools, or universities, and colleges with special courses or departments of educational pedagogy. Another problem of the moment has to do with the educational work imdertaken by the missionaries, both Roman Catholic and Protestant. This work was originally undertaken for the training of native clergymen or for the education of the children of their converts. This work, altho begun in a hiunble way, has lately assumed such an influence over the progress of education in China that it attracted the attention of our govern- ment. We have no exact report of the combined educational force of the Catholics and Protestants, except that it has been estimated that there are at least 100,000 pupils enrolled in the mission schools in China. The persistent question of today is. How can the mission schools be made an integral part of the Chinese educational system so that there may not be two systems working side by side with points of differences in the Sessions] RECENT EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA 185 source of support, in the matter of control, in the things emphasized, in the method used, and in the ideal emphasized ? As to the ultimate working out of a system of recognition and control, Japan's experience may be utilized to great advantage. In Japan a Chris- tian school may take any one of three conditions in relation to the govern- ment: (i) There is certain government sanction to carry on one phase of a certain definite kind of educational work; (2) the mission school is recog- nized to be equivalent to a certain government grade as fulfilling the govern- ment requirement and is permitted full religious freedom; (3) a school is made an integral part of the government system subject to all requirements and conditions and consequently enjoying all the privileges of a regular government school — this implies that all religious teaching and services are prohibited. At any rate some sort of control and recognition of mission schools should be adopted by the Chinese government so that the graduates turned out by the missions will be still "thoroly Chinese in spirit, fully in sympathy with the best thought and feeling of their own country, and not creatures of new (and peculiar) kind, ill adapted to the environment in which they must by force of circumstances live and work." This cursory treatment of the educational development in China since 1900, a complete change from the old to the new, tho by no means thoro and complete, is enough, we hope, to give an indication of our government's earnestness and determination to organize a system of education that will eventually give educational facilities to her millions. The system, as it exists today, has yet in it defects and imperfections which need elimination, erasing, modification, and retouching. Even among the foremost of modern industrial nations, the program of education is subject to constant improvement, change, and readjustment in order to bring it up to the standard of the day and to the requirements of the times. It is, therefore, but natural at this early state of development when we are adjusting our- selves to the existing circumstances and new conditions, that there is found in our schools "ineffective administration, unskilful teaching, and lack of discipline," but these and other shortcomings, tho apparently serious at present, will in due time, we are confident, be remedied without much difficulty, as better teachers, new methods of teaching, and modern equip- ment are introduced. All that China needs and asks is time — sufiicient time to regain the strength that she has lost in the transformation, sufficient time to decide what of the old order of things should be done away with and what should be preserved, and what new elements of Western civiliza- tion should be sifted off and what should be adopted for our best interest — in short, to develop a civilization that will be an amalgamation of the best of the East and the West and not a substitution of the old by the new. To the great educators of the world, China looks for encouragement and support in her effort of constructing a modern school system and in her love of peace. i86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General THE TEACHERS OF AMERICA AND THE PROBLEMS OF ASIA SroNEY L. GULICK, KYOTO, JAPAN, ASSOCIATE SECRETARY OF THE COM- MISSION ON PEACE AND ARBITRATION, AND REPRESENTATIVE OF THE COMMISSION ON RELATIONS WITH JAPAN OF THE FEDERAL COUNaL OF THE CHURCHES OF CHRIST IN AMERICA Last summer at Miimeapolis, the National Education Association es- tablished a Committee on Foreign Relations to "investigate and report upon the desirability of introducing into the school materials and methods intended to educate the children in an intelligent and sympathetic under- standing of foreign affairs." Since the passing of this important resolution, the great European tragedy has overwhelmed the world with astonishment and dismay. This tragedy throws important light on America's Asiatic problems, for it has suddenly been shown, as by a lightning flash, how important it is that the entire people of each nation should be given adequate and accurate inter- national information and should be controlled by a desire for fair inter- national dealings and by a spirit that demands justice and righteousness in international relations. Correct and adequate international news and a right international spirit are the only basis upon which permanent peace can be established and the true life of the world go forward. The experience of the last year throws lurid light on the consequences of international ignorance, deliberately misguided by a censored or a con- trolled press, and inflamed by incomplete or falsified international news. It is increasingly clear that modem nations cannot be led into war unless they are first deceived by those cliques and classes whose interests are pro- moted by war. It is therefore manifest beyond possibility of a moment's doubt that one of the pressing duties now resting upon American educators for the promotion of the permanent peace of America with all nations and espe- cially for the solution of America's problem of establishing right relations with Asia is to give to the rising generation of American citizens such an adequate understanding of the principles of right international relations that they will, when grown to manhood and womanhood, refuse to be swept off their feet and deceived by distorted and inadequate international news, but will demand and will secure the truth. The youth in our schools should be enabled to understand the real causes, cost, and results of the great wars of modern times. They should be instructed in the principles of the new patriotism and the new coiurage demanded by the new era upon which the whole world has irrevocably entered — a patriotism that recog- nizes how closely interlocked with our own true welfare is the true welfare of all our national neighbors, East and West, North and South; a patriotism, moreover, that will give justice to other lands and races with no less zeal than it demands justice and right for our own land and that sees in the SessioDsl AMERICAN TEACHERS AND THE PROBLEMS OP ASIA 187 stars and stripes of Old Glory the prophecy and potency of the United States of the World. The new courage must also be sedulously taught to American youth. The courage not merely to march to the cannon's mouth and to face bullets and bayonets without flinching, but the even greater courage to insist on truth and justice in every relation of national and international life. In this democratic land of ours, responsibility for right international and interracial relations rests upon every individual citizen. Adequate fulfilment of this responsibility calls with special insistence for this new type of courage corresponding with the new type of patriotism. Only the wide possession by our citizenship of this new patriotism and this new courage can carry forward to permanent success the great American experi- ment of true democracy. Unless these characteristics are widely cultivated and developed among our people, our democracy, overcome by the same forces that destroyed all ancient democracies, will inevitably and necessarily drift into militarism. But militarism is the complete antithesis and contradiction of democracy and finally its sure destruction. There are ominous signs of the dread disease of militaritis having already infected no small portion of the nation. Even the fear of war is disastrous, for it causes international suspicion and animosity and induces increasing armaments, naval and military. Great, therefore, is the respon- sibility of educators in establishing and maintaining world peace and in carrying to permanent success the great American experiment in democracy. During the past year, moreover, impressive evidence has been given the world of the new Asia, with which we have to reckon. Unlike Africa, Asia is no longer a negligible quantity among the nations and races. Asia is awakening. She is possessing herself of the instruments of modern mate- rial civilization with its marvelous mastery of the mysteries of nature and command of its titanic forces. Asia may no longer be scorned and ignored by the Caucasian. Asia is learning how to argue at the point of the bayonet. The new Europe that is to arise out of the present tragic chaos and the new Asia that is already on the horizon constitute together factors of as yet unestimated potency in the creation of the new era upon which mankind is now entering. The United States, however, stands in a relation of peculiar opportunity between the nations and races of the East and the West. To both we may render invaluable aid, if we seek, not peace-at- any-price, but justice-at-any-price and good-neighborliness-at-any-price. If America contracts Europe's dread disease and holds that getting our rights and securing our selfish national advantage is the main goal of national effort and that adequate preparedness for instant war is to be our main reliance for securing those rights and advantages, then will militar- ism be irrevocably fastened not only upon us but upon the whole world. l88 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General If, on the contrary, we are more zealous to give justice to every nation than we are to secure our rights, if we seek first and foremost to be helpful and truthful and just in our relations with the nations, not only will we escape militarism ourselves, but we will show in a practical way to others the real road to permanent peace. In our relations with Asia, it is particularly important that we adopt this policy of justice and true neighborliness. That great section of the human race has suffered grievous wounds inflicted by the ruthless and grasping and aggressive nations of Christendom. America has the oppor- tunity now either to heal the wounds made in Asia by centuries of Caucasian greed and injustice, or thru lack of sympathy with Asia and appreciation of her problems and thru absorbed attention to our own selfish racial and national interests, and by our own scornful attitudes of race pride and prejudice and deeds of injustice, we may make those wounds still deeper and perhaps incurable. Shall China be forced into occidental militarism as has Japan or shall she be given full justice without being compelled to fight for it? That depends largely upon America's attitude and action. The solution therefore of Asia's problems no less than those of America's relations with Asia depends in large measure on America herself. But if America is to solve these problems, it is of the highest importance that American educators shall make their essential contribution. The rising generation of American citizens needs prompt and adequate instruction in these matters of such vital importance to the welfare of the world. They should be taught to respect those great nations of the Orient that constitute one-half of the human race. The color of their skin, they need to learn, is a matter of climate and gives no indication of character, ability, or attainment. The quality of their civilization, moreover, is not to be estimated by their ability to kill with bayonets and battleships. One of the outstanding problems of the present century is beyond question that of establishing righteous and helpful relations between the nations of Asia and of Christendom. This problem cannot be solved on a basis of race pride, prejudice, scorn, and disdain. Only thru mutual good will and respect will its solution be possible. No more effective methods are available for the establishment of this spirit and the promotion of this attitude among the responsible citizen- ship of our land than accurate and adequate instruction of the rising gen- eration of American youth in these matters of such paramount importance and momentous character. With special pain would I call the attention, not only of all educators but of all the responsible citizenship of our land, on the one hand, to the long-standing disregard by our national legislators and federal executives of our treaty obligations to China, and, on the other hand, to the humilia- tion inflicted upon Japan by recent differential race legislation. These Sessions] AMERICAN TEACHERS AND THE PROBLEMS OF ASIA 189 international wrongs should be speedily righted. Only as they are righted can the relations of America to China and to Japan be regarded by ourselves no less than by them as honorable and friendly. The early rectification of these wrongs, moreover, is essential if America is to be regarded as seriously interested in the establishment of world-righteousness as the basis for the permanent peace of the world. It is indeed as President Wilson has so well said, speaking not long ago of our relations with South American countries, "You cannot be friends at all except upon terms of honor, and we must show ourselves friends by comprehending their inter- ests, whether it squares with ours or not." The statement just made that the United States has long disregarded its treaty obligations to China is of such a character that at least a word of proof seems desirable. A full statement would consume more time than is now available. I accordingly confine myself to a single sentence from the judgment of Judge Field of the Supreme Court of the United States: It must be conceded that the act of 1888 [the Scott Act dealing with Chinese exclu- sion] is in contravention of the [Chinese] treaty of 1868 and of the supplemental treaty of 1880 The question whether our government was justified in disregarding its engagements with another nation is not one for the determination of the cotirts This court is not a censor of the morals of the other departments of the government. This seems to be a confession that acts of Congress and decisions of the Supreme Court, even in contravention of treaties, may be good law even tho they are bad morals. Dr. Dernberg, defending Germany's disregard of inconvenient treaties, argues that the United States takes the same attitude toward treaties as does Germany, and cites this very decision of our Supreme Court in support of his contention. Is America to let the matter stand permanently as it is? Can we for a moment think that China is satisfied ? With regard to Japan, it should be made clear to all that she does not ask for free or for any privilege of labor immigration, as her voluntary yet rigid inforcement of the Gentlemen's Agreement shows. In consequence of that rigid inforcement, adult Japanese laborers in the United States have diminished by about ten thousand in the past eight years. What Japan asks and asks earnestly is freedom from humiliating differential race treatment. Considerable study of this whole Asiatic question has convinced me that the just demands of California for protection from dangerous Asiatic immigration and the equally just demands of China and Japan for courteous and friendly treatment are not irreconcilable. There is a method of so adjusting our laws as to provide for all that California needs and also for the earnest requests of China and Japan. This, however, is not the time or place for the explicit statement of the proposal. I must refer you to my books and pamphlets dealing with this matter. IQO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General In the light of these facts and considerations, is it not important that the National Education Association should diligently address itself to the great problem confronting our nation and seek to make its own peculiar contribution thru the education of the rising generation to the rectification of great national wrongs and the promotion of those attitudes of mind and heart and will so essential to national and international justice, to the per- manent success of democracy, and to the peace of the whole world ? I venture to suggest to the Association and to its Executive Committee two resolutions: Resolved, That the National Education Association regards as of paramount impor- tance the adequate instruction of the children and youth in the public schools in regard to the nature of right international relations and the means for their establishment. Such instruction it regards as a vital factor in their preparation for wholesome and intelli- gent citizenship. Resolved, That this Association request its Committee on Foreign Relations, 1. To prepare and issue as promptly as possible, for the use of teachers in elementary and secondary schools, a smtable manual of suggestions as to methods and material for instruction in regard to the international relations of the United States. 2. To arrange for a critical examination of all important readers and all textbooks on history and geography dealing with nations and races, with a view to the nature of their implications and postulates in regard to international and interracial relations and to the nature of the impressions left upon the minds of the children and youth in regard to war and peace and their heroes and to the development of a spirit of national and racial respect, fairness, and good will. Personally, may I not urge all members of this Association and all educators thruout the United States, (i) to familiarize themselves with the facts regarding American infringement of its treaties with China and the humiliation to which Japan has been and still is being subjected; (2) to take such steps as may be wise in their respective localities to promote an intelligent public opinion in regard to these matters; and (3) to exert such moral and social influences as may lead to national legislative action that shall remove the blot from our fair name and place our relations with China and Japan on a basis that provides for their interests and self-respect no less than for ours. EDUCATION IN BULGARIA STEPHEN PANARETOFF, ENVOY EXTRAORDINARY AND MINISTER PLENIPO- TENTIARY FOR BULGARIA, WASHINGTON, D.C. In talking about Bulgaria, one should bear in mind that she is the youngest state on the Balkan Peninsula and in Europe. Prior to 1878, Bulgaria was a simple Turkish province and its inhabitants were deprived of all political rights and privileges. They were downtrodden Turkish subjects ruled by a government whose chief concern was to oppress them and to drain the country of all its material resources. No help or incentive was afforded them for material, intellectual, moral, or any other advance- Sessions] EDUCATION IN BULGARIA 191 ment. Commerce, industry, education, and other enterprises which make for the progressive civilization of a nation were not encouraged, nay, were quite impossible under existing circumstances. Even under these adverse and discouraging conditions, however, the people were keen on education for they felt strongly that in education lay their future salvation. Com- munal schools were maintained without any state help by the people, who, in addition to the taxes they had to pay to the government, voluntarily and cheerfully taxed themselves with a special school tax. Up to 1835, Greek was the language of the schools of the country, for Bulgaria had the great misfortune to become politically subject to the Turks and spiritually and ecclesiastically subject to the Greek patriarch in Constantinople. The bishops and archbishops in whose hands the spirit- ual welfare of the people was placed were Greeks, alien to their flock in language and race, and inimical to its nationality. It is difficult to say which of the two yokes that the Bulgarians had to bear was the most galling and pernicious. While the Turk was satisfied with getting out of the country as much as he could thru taxation and extortion, leaving supremely alone its nationality and language, the Greek bishops not only mulcted the people but were intent upon denationalizing and Hellenizing it. The Bulgarian language was proscribed from the schools as well as from the churches. It was really in the early sixties of the last century that Bul- garian schools with the Bulgarian language as a medium of instruction began to spread and multiply. But since 1878, when Bulgaria was liberated from Turkish rule and erected into a semi-independent principality, education has progressed by leaps and bounds. Its management and direction are in the hands of the state under the guidance and supervision of the ministry of public instruction. Accord- ing to the Constitution of Bulgaria, primary education is free and obligatory, while, for the instruction received in the colleges and the university, a small fee is charged. Every village that has forty houses or more must have a school, while smaller units are grouped together with a common school. Wherever you see in a Bulgarian village a nice-looking building standing prominently in view, you may be sure that it is the schoolhouse. In the primary and in the high schools, as well as in the university, coeducation exists. Attention is paid not only to the education of the boys, but to that of the girls also, and both the boys' and the girls' colleges or gymnasia are full to overflowing. In some of the larger towns, the government is obliged to maintain more than one high school and college in order to meet the ever-increasing demand for education. Illiteracy is diminishing year by year, and Bulgaria stands today at the head of all the Balkan states as the state with the least percentage of illiterates. In the University of Sofia, the capital of Bulgaria, with its three faculties of law, philosophy, including philology and literature, and mathematics, one- third of the students are women. 192 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Besides these institutions, Bulgaria has made provision for commercial and professional schools. Under the Turkish regime, no such schools existed, nor were there any agricultural schools. There are now two such schools, where young men are given an opportunity to learn better methods of agriculture, dairy farming, stock breeding, etc. Diu-ing the summer vacations, the students are sent out among the villagers to instruct them in these various methods. It is surprising to see how ready the peasants are to profit by this instruction. The introduction of modem and improved agricultural implements, as ploughs, reaping, threshing, and wiimowing machines, to replace the former primitive implements is an evidence of the progress that has been achieved in many parts of the country. Normal or pedagogical schools have also been established to prepare teachers, both men and women. In the capital of the country, there is an art and a musical school, in both of which good and creditable work is being done. Classes for teaching cooking, sewing, dressmaking, and domestic economy have been started in Sofia for the girls. Kindergartens are to be foimd in some of the principal towns, and one of them in Sofia is under the management of an American woman. Bulgaria is one of the Balkan countries where America and American institutions are best appreciated and valued. Thru Robert College, in Constantinople, and other American schools in Bulgaria, where hundreds of Bulgarians have studied, as well as thru the education which many Bul- garians have received in the United States, the spirit of American insti- tutions has found entrance into the country. The graduates of Robert College have been prominent in various pursuits of life, as political leaders, teachers, merchants, etc., and have had a large share in molding the destiny of their country. The present ruler of Bulgaria, King Ferdinand, spoke not exaggeratingly when he called Robert College "the nursery" of Bul- garia's public men. Whatever defects critics of American education may see in it, it cannot be denied that it does impart to those who have been brought up in it certain characteristics which are lacking or are not so prominent in the graduates of the educational systems of Europe, and especially of those in the Near East. American education stands for independence of thinking, for self-reliance, self-help, and self-control, for the honor and dignity of honest work, and for the inculcation of morality and spirituality as the surest and soundest basis of character. What Bulgaria owes to American education was officially acknowledged a few months ago by the Bulgarian government. Two American insti- tutions of learning, one for boys and the other for girls, that have existed in Bulgaria for many years, were recently officially recognized by the government and granted the privilege of giving diplomas equivalent to those given by the state schools. In making known this decision to the lady principal of the girls' school, the Bulgarian minister of public instruc- tion expressed in an official letter the gratitude of Bulgaria to the United Sessionsl AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 193 States for all the good these American schools have done to the country by the intellectual, moral, and spiritual training they have afforded the youth of Bulgaria, and the assistance they have rendered to the country in its efforts for greater progress and more enlightenment. The letter is of great significance, for it is the first ofi&cial recognition by a Balkan state of the educational work done by citizens of the United States in those parts of the world. It is significant also of the broad tolerant spirit that animates the Bulgarian people, who are ready to welcome with gratitude what is being done by people alien to them in race, language, and religion, but akin to them in human sympathy and kindly feelings, for the uplifting, progress, and culture of Bulgaria. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION HENRY J. WATERS, PRESIDENT, KA.NSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, MANHATTAN, KA.NS. The principal purpose of agricultural education is to teach people to think straight on all matters pertaining to agricultural production and rural life, and this applies to the city people as well as to the country people. We fall into an error when we assume that we are the first to have to meet the problem of the high cost of living. The problem is as old as civilization and has intruded itself as a serious factor into every civilization that has preceded ours. Plenty of food for everyone at a low cost is the newest thing under the sun and it also has been among the most transitory of things. We have dealt with the problem of too few people on the farm and its result, high cost of living, as tho it were a matter in which the farmer alone is concerned. In truth, he is the only person in all the country who does not suffer from this cause. A situation in which there are too few producers cannot help being highly satisfactory to those who are engaged in produc- tion, just as a situation in which there were too few grocers would be entirely satisfactory to those engaged in the grocery business. Such a situation would be unsatisfactory to the user of groceries, just as the present situation is unsatisfactory to the consiuners of agricultural products, the people of the city. It is therefore the man who buys the products of the farm who is primarily and almost solely interested in having a sufficient number of people on the land. He is quite as much interested also in the kind of people who till the soil as he is in the number of such people. What city people should he taught about agriculture. — It is almost as important that we teach agriculture in the city schools as that we make it a part of the course of study for country children. City children should not be required to study the details of plant and animal production, but they should be so taught that they will have an interest in, and a general understanding of, these basic industries. City children should be made to 194 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General realize that they are dependent upon those who till the soil, not only for their food and clothing, but also for the materials which form the basis of most of the city's industries. Of the raw material used in American manu- factures, one-half of i per cent is derived from the sea; 5 per cent from the forests, 13 per cent from the mines, and 81 per cent from the farm. The children of the man who answers the call of the factory whistle should be taught that not only the clothes which their father wears, and the food con- tained in his dinner pail, but also most of the materials which provide him a chance to work and afford the family a living come from the farm. Those engaged in transportation should understand that it is the soil- produced material which affords them nine-tenths of their employment. Merchants should be taught that nearly all the goods they buy and sell came originally from the farm. The children of the banker ought to know that a large part of the value represented by every dollar which reaches the bank vault was produced in the country. They ought also to know that in the long rim it makes as much difference to them how much of each dollar remains in the country with which to build the right sort of family life as it does how much of the dollar reaches the city with which to support a city civilization. The city children ought to be taught that, tho the farmer has under- taken the most important task of any class, that of providing the world with its food, clothing, and the raw material for its industries, he never has had, and probably never will have, much to say regarding the conditions under which he will perform that task. City children should understand that the way in which society determines the conditions surrounding the farmer will determine the standing and progress of both the city and the country. They should be trained to appreciate the limitations of farm pro- duction and to realize that conditions which they impose that are not to the best interests of the country people will not in the end be for their own best interests. They should early learn that no civilization has withstood the effect of the decay of its rural people. Wastes are a tax upon the cost of living. — Wasteful ways of doing business and extravagant ways of living are a tax upon the cost of living which some- body must pay. Either the consumer must pay more for what he eats — and he already groans under the burdens of the high cost of living — or the farmer must take less for his products altho he already is the lowest-paid man in the world. The American farmer is a business man and not a mere laborer. He has invested in land, equipment, and working capital an average of approxi- mately $8,000, an investment such as fairly classes him with the business man of the town. He is entitled, therefore, to an income comparable with that of the average business man — an income which wiU enable him to support his family as well and to enable him to pay as much toward the support of the school, the church, roads, and the cultures of life as do the Sessions] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 195 proprietors of grocery stores, drug-shops, meat markets, and of other business enterprises requiring no larger investment and no greater intelli- gence. If society cannot pay the price for food which will yield to the farmer fair income, it is time society was looking into its ways of living and of doing business with a view to efifecting such economies as will make this possible. High acre-yields go with low man-yields. — City people have been think- ing too much in terms of acre-yields and too little in terms of man-yields. They have not yet learned that as the acre-yield has gone up — the world over and in all ages — the man-yield has gone down. For illustration, the yearly farm income for all the land in cultivation in Japan is $71 an acre, in the United States it is $15, and in Kansas it is $13.50 an acre. The average annual income of the farm family in Japan is $235, in the United States, $1,000, and in Kansas, $1,560. To take another Dlustration, the average acre-yield of wheat in Germany is nearly 31 bushels, in France it is more than 29 bushels, and in the United States it is 14^ bushels. The average yearly income of the farm family in Germany is $580, in France it is $670, and in the United States it is $1,000. Intensive farming, therefore, is not the simple and easily applied remedy for all our present ills. Intensive agriculture is adapted only to conditions where lands are high and labor is cheap. It is essentially hand farming. It uses little labor-saving machinery. It produces compara- tively little livestock and has not afforded an income sufficient to provide many conveniences for the farm home. Intensive farming developed to a moderate degree has produced the peasant class of Europe, "the man with the hoe." In Saxony, Belgium, and Brittany, where intensive agriculture is more highly developed than elsewhere in Europe, the farm woman frequently serves as a draft animal and is hitched alongside a dog. Carried to its full limit, intensive farming has produced the Chinese and Japanese farmer, the tj^pe that can out-labor and under-live any other type of farmer in the world. Extensive agriculture develops the highest form of rural civilization because it gives an income above the actual physical needs of the family. It afifords the means for procuring the broader cultures of life. It is the kind of agriculture that uses much machinery and raises much live stock, and these in themselves develop the highest type of husbandman. So long, therefore, as society is not made to suffer undue hardships on account of the high cost of living, a reasonably extensive system of agri- culture is best for everybody. So long as a country can get along with farms of reasonable size, it is inadvisable to try to force upon that coimtry an intensive type of farming. Indeed, no country has ever adopted this type of farming until forced to do so by the demands of the people for food and for an opportunity to work. 196 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (General Society demands cheap food, and, in so far as cheap food may be pro- vided without imposing burdens upon future generations thru the waste of our resources and without imposing undue burdens upon the people on the land, the demand is a reasonable one. Low cost of living, however, bought without permanent capital of soil, mine, and forest, is temporary and wasteful. Low cost of living, purchased with the manhood and womanhood of the rural communities, is dearly bought and destructive of our best asset, A sound system of agricultural education, therefore, stands squarely for high man-yields as well as for high acre-yields and seeks to prevent a rural class from growing up in America, a class that is different from, and antagonistic to, the city class. Every obstacle to the free intermingling and intermarrying of the country and town people must be removed. It must not be true that the town girl would rather marry a drug clerk or a city omnibus driver than marry an industrious young man with a farm. Conditions imder which the best women are not content to live will not long attract good men. Teaching thrift. — ^Agricultural education seeks to put the children and the back yards and vacant lots to work, producing food to assist in redu- cing the cost of living, and to teach these children thrift, a quaUty so lacking in the American people. Agricultural education teaches the boys in the country how to market their products and should teach the girls of both the city and country how to buy for the family. It should impress upon every housewife the relation her purchases sustain to the development of local industries and should seek to eliminate much of the waste that we commit daily when we eat in California food canned in New Jersey and when they eat in New Jersey food caimed in California. In Kansas, the leading broom-corn state of the Union, we send our broom corn to Michigan to have handles made. Apply the laws of nutrition to raising children. — Agricultural education is contributing much to our knowledge of how to feed children, for, after all, the feeding of children so that they may reach man's estate well devel- oped and strong follows the same laws of nutrition as have been developed for the feeding of pigs, and colts, and calves, only we have worked out the scientific feeding of pigs and colts and calves. Education the basis of rural sanitation. — The country must be made a more healthful place in which to live. It is of comparatively little importance whether or not city people imderstand the laws of sanitation and become interested in the enforcement of these laws, for organized society determines the sanitary arrangement of the home and the workshop, and forces the people to keep their premises clean. In the rural com- mimity, everything depends upon the education of the individual. There is no rural lawmaking body analogous to the city council or city commis- sion. There is no inspecting agency corresponding to that of the city Sessions] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 197 health officer, city dairy commissioner, or city plumbing inspector. Thus the one-room rural school, poor as it is, has burdens laid upon it that are larger than are the burdens laid upon the city school, efficient as it is. Important as is the education of the city children in respect to their attitude toward country people and country problems, this training is, after all, of secondary importance when compared with the education of the future farmer with respect to the methods he shall employ and with respect to his duties and obligations to society. He must be made to realize that he has undertaken a most important task and that he must discharge his duties efficiently. What the country children should be taught. — Consequently, country children will need to be taught how to produce high acre-yields without bringing upon themselves the evils of the intensive methods of other countries and of other times. They must be made to realize that their right to own land is an artificial right which society may withdraw if they till the soil inefficiently or wastefuUy. They must be taught how deep to plow, when to sow, and when to reap, and how to produce plants and animals that may better serve man's uses. Where agriculture should be taught. — It is a narrow view which limits the scope of agricultural education to the field of activity covered by the agricultural colleges of the country. All such colleges laboring never so diligently and efficiently will not be able to train even the leaders required. The other colleges and the normal schools must help. The resources of the high schools of the country must be employed. When all of this is done, the problem will be very far from being solved, because only a few of those who are to farm ever attend a high school, a normal school, or a college. It is only when a satisfactory system of instruction in agriculture is introduced into the school which the future farmers are attending, the one- teacher rural school, that we shall be planting generally the ideas which will ripen into better systems of farming. But this education must not stop with the farmer's children. It must extend to the farmer himself and to the other members of his family and must continue thruout the farmer's active life. The supreme test of a system of agricultural teaching is made when we apply it to the man on the farm. Early attempts to teach agriculture were unsuccessful. — It is true that the early attempts at teaching agriculture were not highly successful, altho these attempts were made long after education in other lines had become well established. The failure was principally due to the fact that the fanner himself knew more about farm practice than did the teacher. This quickly led to the establishment of agricultural experiment stations, research institutions in which the appUcation of science to agriculture was studied, where the reasons for the most successful farm practices were discovered, and where new and improved practices were devised. Thus for the first time in the history of education, a deliberate attempt was made, thru igS NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General a well-co-ordinated system of scientific research, to create a body of knowl- edge in relation to a subject which it was deemed important to teach, but about which so little of a definite nature was known that it could not be taught successfully. It is true that scientific research has been a part of the activity of most institutions of higher learning since the close of the Napoleonic era, or when von Humboldt, as minister of education of Prussia, sought by this means to rebuild Germany's prostrated industries; but there had not been before an organized, co-ordinated, and compulsory system of research as a definite part of a great educational program. The success of the investigations in agriculture, especially in America, has been a wonderful stimulus to research activity in other lines. Continuation teaching in agriculture. — ^As might have been expected, the first result of this suddenly stimulated activity in research was the accumu- lation of agricultural knowledge more rapidly than it could be absorbed by the farmers and adopted into their practices. A way had to be devised in which to get the man on the soil, who is largely muscle-minded and eye- minded, to adopt these new methods. As a result, a system of extension teaching, thru farmer's institutes, press articles, and farm demonstrations, grew up. It is only within very recent years — indeed, since the passage of an act of Congress by which the federal government joined with the states thru the agricultural colleges — that the effort to carry this knowledge to the people has become general and effective. Thus, new as is the system of agricultural instruction, and halting as was its progress at the outset, it has already marked two distinct and important departures from educational traditions — one in the organized system of research thru which a body of knowledge pertaining to the subject was created, and the other in an organized system of exten- sion or continuation teaching thru which parents as well as pupils were reached with this new-foimd knowledge. Both of these departures have already exerted a large influence upon general educational thought and practice. A stable rural people. — ^Agricultural education seeks to establish a per- manent agriculture, and it recognizes that the first essential of a permanent agriculture is an intelligent, progressive, and contented people. To bring about such a condition among the rural people, it is necessary that these people have, as has already been stated, an income equal to that of city people in its power to procure the real satisfactions of life. Every attempt to keep up the country stock and to resist the power of the city to call the best the country produces on any other basis than this is unsound. Nearly every civilization that has preceded ours has tried the experiment and has failed. But back of all questions relating to the securing of an income either thru greater eflficiency as a laborer, or thru securing a fairer share of what Sessions! EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF EUROPE SINCE IQOO 199 that labor brings, stands the equally important question of the utilization of this income or the coining of it into higher standards of family life. Rural people must be brought to realize that the country is not merely a place in which to work while accumulating the means with which to live in town. They must be shown how to expend the farm income in such a way as to give as satisfactory a life in the country as that which the town affords. The occupation of farming and life in the country need to be idealized, for it is what a man thinks of himself and his work which counts for most. A people never rises above its ideals. In recent years the laboring man has become greatly interested in the cause of labor. He is easy to organize, easy to lead. He has learned the advantage to him and to the cause of labor of bestowing upon those of his own class whatever prizes he has to bestow. It was only when the laboring man had respect for labor that he was able to cope successfully with his age-old enemy, his employer. The producer, the man on the soil, has not yet learned this elementary lesson in self-preservation. He is difficult to organize, impossible to lead. He idealizes every occupation except his own. To him the open country holds no romance. To the farm boy, the heroes are all in the city. As a result, the world accepts the farmer at his own estimate of himself. Thus, opportunity for the rural people equal to that of the town people and the power and inclination to live up to this opportunity, or to phrase it more tersely, income and idealism, are the principal elements out of which a stable and satisfactory rural civilization will be built. To build such a civilization is the only possible excuse we can ofEer for devising and maintaining a system of agricultural education. EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF CONTINENTAL EUROPE SINCE IQOO FREDERIC ERNEST FARRINGTON, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. Within the brief limits assigned to this paper, it is manifestly impossible even to touch upon all the significant steps of progress educationally which have been taken in continental Europe. It has seemed better, therefore, to center the attention upon France and Germany, the two foremost states of Western Europe, and even here much must be left unsaid. It should be borne in mind that this chronicle has no reference to events subsequent to July I, 1914. From the period of Greek intellectual and material supremacy even down to the present, we can trace the movements of the educational pendu- lum as it swung ponderously to and fro between two widely separated extremes — one characterized by the primacy of the rights of the individual, 200 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General the other by the dominance of the interests of the social whole. Just as the nineteenth century was fundamentally an age of individualism, so the twentieth century bids fair to be characterized by the subordination of the individual to the group. Nor does the educational world alone reflect this changed order of things; it runs thru the various aspects of human endeavor, and verily pervades all our political, social, and ethical life. Even monarchic Europe has felt the impulse, altho in those older lands kaleidoscopic changes are practically unknown, and innovation ever advances with measured pace. Whether this trend away from individual- ism be called socialism, or collectivism, or paternalism, or government con- trol, it matters little for our present purposes. It is significant to note, however, that it invariably means wider opportunity for the masses of the people to rise above the level of the generation just preceding, and for some, at least, to lift themselves to the level of the classes above. If one were called upon to select the large domain of education in France and Germany which has been the scene of most significant change during the past fifteen years, the finger would point unhesitatingly to the middle reaches of the scale — the field of secondary education. This very term "secondary education" demands a word of explanation, for secondary education on the continent connotes something quite different from the same term with us. In the United States, we have a secondary course of four, five, or six years superimposed upon an elementary course of eight, seven, or six years, the important fact to note being that — so far as our public-school system is concerned — ^primary education is invariably intro- ductory to secondary education, and that primary and secondary education together constitute two stages of a vertical scale. In Europe, on the other hand, the two exist side by side for at least a portion of the course, with no necessary sequential time relationship between them. The European sec- ondary school is a fee school, while ours is a free school. The latter is a school for the masses; the former is a school for the classes, with class differentiation in the last analysis determined by the economic position of the parents. Neither of the great European nations under consideration appreciates the meaning of educational democracy in the American sense of the term, altho each country has its system of scholarships in secondary schools, which offers some opportunity for the really brilliant child of the lower social strata to rise to the top. Yet the assertion of an American critic a few years ago that not one boy in ten thousand who completes the course in the German elementary school ever goes on to the university is a sufficient commentary on the democracy of the system in that country. With relatively few exceptions the members of the directing classes in all w'alks of life are recruited exclusively from among the former secondary- school pupils, while the elementary-school population is the source of supply for the rank and file and for the non-commissioned officers of the great armies of industry, agriculture, and commerce. Despite the growing demand for Sessions] EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF EUROPE SINCE igoo 201 the Einheitsschule in Germany and the effort to eliminate the preparatory classes in the French secondary schools — a movement which the distin- guished gentleman who represents the French minister of public instruction at this congress has done so much to foster — there is slight reason for believ- ing any such changes imminent. Altho the external relations between sec- ondary and elementary education have not been fundamentally modified since the opening of the present century, internally secondary education in both France and Germany has undergone radical changes. During the nineteenth century two large educational problems were con- stantly before the public eye, one primarily, perhaps, civil and political, but affecting the educational organization none the less, and the other purely educational in the technical sense of the term. The first was the ancient question of state versus church control, and the second the more modem problem of the relative values of humanistic and realistic training, or, if you choose to express it in other words, classical versus scientific learning as the basis of a liberal education. France and Germany have wrestled with both these great questions, and each has solved its problems in its own way. England and our own country have likewise struggled with the same vexed problem of secondary education, but in neither England nor the United States have the solutions been so satisfactory as in the two continental nations. In France, Ger- many, and America, we may fairly say, paraphrasing the words of an emi- nent French writer, that scientific humanism has won the right of sitting side by side with literary humanism. Despite the marvelous progress of scientific research and the undisputed intellectual power of scientific investigators, classicism was so thoroly intrenched in the academic world that science subjects were always looked upon as of subsidiary importance. Classical subjects and classical subjects alone provided the ladder which led to the plane of the cultivated mind. As the nineteenth century drew to a close, signs of a change became apparent. Germany in 1901 and France in 1902 reorganized the scheme of secondary education so that science' became recognized, oflicially at least, as on a parity with the classics — not that classicism was overthrown, but merely that its primacy was abolished. Henceforth it must share its prerogatives with the modern subjects. Under the new dispensation in France, there is only one Bachelor's degree, the former degrees of Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science having ceased to be granted. Faithful pursuance of any one of four dif- ferent courses — ^Latin-Greek, Latin-modern languages, Latin-science, or science-modem languages — will prepare the individual for the Bachelor's examination. Success here offers the only open sesame to university study. Anybody with this coveted distinction, whatever the legend upon its face, may enter freely into any faculty of university study — arts, science, law, or medicine. The Latin student has no oflficial advantage in his favor; the 202 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General science student has no official handicap to overcome. Each French second- ary school offers all four courses indicated above, with such flexibility that the pupil may transfer from one course to another with the minimum amount of loss. In France, then, one finds free choice of courses with fixed studies within each course. Prussia, on the other hand, has attempted to reach the same end, altho in a somewhat more cumbersome fashion. At least a decade before the end of the century, it was evident that changes were impending in this conserva- tive state. Much of the monopoly enjoyed by the old gymnasial trust, so to speak, was due to the system of privileges reserved for the graduates of the Gymnasium — one of the three classes of nine-year secondary schools. Admission to the university faculties of theology, law, and medicine was reserved exclusively for graduates of this type of school, as was likewise unrestricted admission to privileges of study in the philosophical faculty of the university. Supported by this immense power of privilege, is it any wonder that the classical school pure and simple attracted the most intelli- gent among the German youth, since it provided the only gateway to posi- tions among the professional directing classes? True, there were other nine-year secondary schools — the Realgymnasien and the Oberrealschulen — but the most the graduates of the Realgymnasien could look forward to was university study in the philosophical faculty in preparation for modem- language and science and mathematics teaching, while preparation for science and mathematics teaching was the only university privilege open to graduates of schools with non-classical courses. While the reform of 1901 in Prussia was not quite so radical nor so sweeping as that in France of the following year, nevertheless it meant much for Germany, for it marked the passing of the old gymnasial dominance. Henceforth graduates of the semi- classical Realgymnasium and the modem Oberrealschule were to be admitted to imiversity study, with the modicimi of restrictions. Officially, at least, scientific studies were on a parity with humanistic studies as a background of general culture. A coroUary, so to speak, is found in the remarkable spread of the so- called "Frankfort plan" schools in Germany. In discussing the French reform, attention was called to the fact that the various types of secondary courses were found in the same school. Germany has not generally recog- nized the validity of this principle; but maintains, on the other hand, that each school should stand for a very definite type of work. In Germany, therefore, selection of a certain course means selecting a certain school. There is consequently less opportimity of changing from one course to another in case the course first selected does not prove to be a wise or fitting choice. Inasmuch as the German boy enters the secondary school when he is nine years of age, this necessarily implied a selection of life work at that age — a problem which presents manifest difficulties. In order to avoid the necessity of this very early choice, the Frankfort plan was devised. In a Sessions] EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS OF EUROPE SINCE igoo 203 word, a school organized upon this basis offers a Gymnasium and a Real- gymnasium course (a classical and a semi-classical course) with certain adjustments between Latin and French so that there is only a single course for the first three years, and the bifurcation begins when the pupil reaches the age of twelve. Subsequent modifications introduced during the period covered by our survey have made it practically possible to defer this choice until two years later, so that the final selection is made when the boy is fourteen years old. When one recalls that out of approximately 500 Gym- nasien and Realgymnasien in Prussia in 1911, 128 were organized under this Frankfort plan, and that the scheme had then been in operation less than twenty years, it is evident that this modern tendency is finding ready acceptance. One point stands out very clearly in a study of European secondary- school organization, and that is that foreign practice is altogether against the elective system in secondary schools, at least as we know it here. There is absolute freedom of choice of school in Germany and of course in France, but once the choice is made, the educational authorities believe that they know better what the youth should study than does the youth himself, even tho parental preference should come to the rescue. One cannot leave the question of secondary education without referring to the reorganization of girls' secondary schools in Prussia in 1907, since that is only one phase of the general emancipation of woman which knows no country nor clime. Several years before, university doors in Germany had been opened to women, but this privilege was not quite all it seemed, since it still rests with the individual professor to determine whether or not he will admit women to his own classes. As time goes on, more and more university teachers are admitting, if not welcoming, the members of the gentler sex to their classes. Today many German girls' secondary schools have their university-preparatory departments, with the familiar three-fold organization into classical, semi-classical, and modern sections, thus prac- tically paralleling the boys' schools. Yet these privileges have been won only thru the heroic efforts put forth by a group of devoted and indefatigable workers. Continental peoples nowhere look with favor upon the advent of woman as an economic factor. They are jealous of her threatened competition, and grudgingly supply her with the intellectual weapons with which to fight the economic battle. When one recalls that the secondary school on the Continent is the intellectual cradle of the directing classes, one can readily understand the reluctance to sanction the development of girls' secondary schools, at least in so far as they prepare for the university. Woman's work, it is said, is not man's work, so that girls' secondary education should differ from boys' not only in amount but also in kind. It should aim to prepare its pupils for the duties they must ultimately perform. Hence the emphasis upon homemaking, child care, and the like. Girls' secondary schools in 204 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General France likewise dififer fundamentally from those of their brothers. In this latter comitry public secondary education for girls did not exist prior to 1880. In many respects this has been a decided advantage, for there was a fortunate absence of the traditional practices which have provided many a stumbling-block to needed reform in educational circles everywhere. One should note in passing that in no other country in the world does the girl enjoy the educational advantages in secondary or higher education which are open to her in the United States. No survey of European educational progress would be complete without at least a passing reference to vocational education, for this field of work has probably registered more striking advance than any other. This again is a problem which must be considered in respect to general social and eco- nomic conditions, for here the economic world is most closely related to the school. Germany has been remarkably successful in working out these relationships, as the trained educational observer of the German school system has been quick to see, and as the foreign competitor of the German business man has been quick to realize. Co-operation has been the one word which explains it all — co-operation between the government on the one hand and the producer, the manufacturer, the distributor on the other hand — co-operation between the educational authority and the business man. This co-operation has been one great contributing factor in the tran- sition from Germany the agricultural state in 1882 to Germany the indus- trial state in 1907. During these twenty-five years the agrarian population suffered an absolute decline in numbers of approximately 8 per cent, while the industrial and the commercial population increased 64 per cent and 82 per cent, respectively. With these figures before us, it is not surprising to note that during the generation from 1880 to 1910, Germany's per capita foreign trade exactly doubled in value, while that of the United States, which to many casual observers seems to have made enormous strides, increased less than one-sixth. Despite the striking exceptions which immediately rush to mind, we in America are still toiling too much along the individualistic lines of the nine- teenth century. We have not yet put into general practice the co-operative action of the twentieth century. As far as types of vocational schools are concerned, France can probably match Germany in every field, if indeed she does not surpass her in some fields. It is the nation-wide prevalence of the German vocational schools, however, which gives her the advantage. In twelve of the twenty-six states of the Empire, continuation schools are compulsory by state law, while, thanks to the provisions of the Imperial Industrial Code, local authorities in other communities may establish such schools if public opinion warrants, and then attendance may be made com- pulsory. As a result there is scarcely a city of any size in the Empire which does not have its compulsory continuation school, which takes pupils at the conclusion of the elementary-school course, holds them until the age of six- Sessions] IDEAL EDUCATION AND UNIVERSAL PEACE 205 teen or eighteen, and then sends them forth with some specific preparation for their life work, equipped not so much to be better breadwinners as to be more efficient members of the community in which they live. Under the conditions of the apprentice system which still prevails in Germany, this results in the organization and training of an industrial army every whit as eflFective in its field as the military machine which has long attracted the attention of the world. If I were to attempt to embody in a single word the secret of European educational progress during the past fifteen years, that one word would be co-operation. Let it sink deep into your consciousness, for I am confident that it is the largest idea we can gain from European experience. IDEAL EDUCATION THE FORERUNNER OF UNIVERSAL PEACE MIRZA ALI KULI KHAN, COMMISSIONER-GENERAL FOR PERSIA, PANAMA- PACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. Humanity, from the dawn of history, has progressed under the guidance of prophetic teachers from a state of infancy thru the various stages of development leading to its maturity. Even as an infant passes thru the period of childhood and reaches full development at maturity, so humanity — God's idea of man — has had its various stages of growth, and, in spite of great obstacles, has shown an uninterrupted trend toward its higher destiny. Humanity is the arena in which the drama of the oneness of God is being enacted. That is, in the oneness of humanity, achieved on this tangible, visible plane, we shall have the true picture of the oneness of the invisible God. The r61e played by God in nature, in visualizing the divine principle of oneness, finds its climax in the part taken by God in history. In spite of all obstacles to the contrary, the course of himianity, in the long run, has never been impeded by retrogression. Civilization itself, based as it has been upon the triumph of man in the face of obstacles, is a vital proof of the progressive nature of humanity. The greater the unity resultant of the united effort of a section of the progressive mankind, the greater has been the power of the spiritual teacher who inspired that community, for only spiritual training has effected the lasting unity which could resist the inclemencies of world-conditions. The prophets of God, whose gospels were the result of a well-founded optimism, aimed at the unity of man because of their due knowledge of the principle of human unity, which in the mind of God had ever been an accomplished fact. To give that principle a visible form was therefore their aim. Each world-teacher accomplished that plan in conformity with the limited capacity manifested by his people. The message of each was likewise in keeping with the requirements of his own particular section of the human world. 2o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General God applied his original plan for the unification of Israel thru Moses, of the Gentiles thru Jesus, of the Parsees thru Zoroaster, of the Hindus thru the Buddha, and of the other sections of humanity thru other world-teachers and prophets. This was a preparation for the creation, on this visible plane, of the Larger Man — that is, God's idea of humanity — who would finally fulfil the oneness of God by the formation of a united mankind. Today, which to the wise and thoughtful is the day of the maturity of the human race, God will accomplish that noble plan. In the voice raised in all parts of the world in favor of peace, and in the efforts extended by the peace-loving element in the world's population, which constitutes the posi- tive, affirmative principle of the hmnan body politic, we find a potent, manifest proof that the Day of Peace has dawned, and is steadily, tho slowly, breaking thru the dense clouds which temporarily impede its course to the meridian of its glory. Altho the effecting of a world-brotherhood is the determined plan of God, it is for the membership of the human family to co-operate in its realization. The means, therefore, to be employed should be of the nature of that adopted by the past prophets for the unification of their respective peoples. That means, however, should be enlarged and perfected to meet the requirements of a more developed humanity and to be applied in a more universal cause. The lasting unity of man cannot be achieved by the development and strengthening of any one section exclusive of others. The means to be used should be all-inclusive, in order to insure the welfare of all branches of humanity, exclusive of none. In our effort to unify the world, we must therefore take the lessons taught by the past great religions in achieving the moral and spiritual uplift of their respective peoples, for no unity of a people existing in a civilized state could be independent of moral and spiritual character. The building of such character has been the task of every true religion. As our aim today is the creation of a world-civilization based upon a world-imity, we must enlarge our conception of religion to teach the dimen- sions of a world-religion — the religion of humanity. Such religion should include the truth of all religions, and exclude all patriotic, national, and racial bias. It should inculcate the oneness of the world of humanity, the independent investigation of truth, the original oneness of all religions. It should work for unity and show partiality to no man, either for religious or for racial reasons. It should aim toward the training of man in all the threefold aspects of his being — the physical, the intellectual, and the spiritual — ^but it should teach that the physical and the intellectual should be made subservient to the moral and spiritual development of man. It should be in accord with science and reason, and thus prove a reconciliation of true science and true religion. It should inculcate the equality of men and women, their equal responsibilities, tho in various fields of usefulness, and their equal opportunities before the law. It should inculcate in the Sessions] SOME DEFECTS IN OUR LEGAL EDUCATION 207 youths, from the earliest grades of the primary school upward, an ability to see in themselves, not only a part of their own community, nation, country, and religion, but an integral part of the human family which is fostered by the one God, the Father of all. It should teach man to aim toward universal peace, not toward a peace which would unite only his own particular peoples. It should advocate the development of all races of both sexes as being essen- tial to an ideal civilization. It should not neglect the economic and material needs of man while aiming to gratify his spiritual needs, because in man the material and the spiritual are inseparable. Persia's contribution toward these principles during the last seventy years has been noteworthy in a remarkable degree, for by the inculcation of such principles the teachers of this New Day from Persia have successfully brought about the unification of many millions of men and women thruout the world, who are bound together by the tie of such undying ideals. With the progress of these principles, and their application to a larger world, the unity of man, and a better state of society foretold by the prophets of the past, will eventually be realized thruout the world. While under the guidance of divine teachers the world is progressing morally toward that state of happiness, the most successful political and industrial steps taken by any nation toward human betterment are those represented by the federal and industrial institutions organized in the United States, the greatest republic of all time; for these American insti- tutions, in their domestic and international relationships, are impregnated with the spirit of justice, altruism, and broad humanity which is embodied in the religion of humanity already referred to, because they exhale the fra- grance of the noble sayings of the Persian prophet of these modern times: "Ye are all the leaves of one tree and the drops of one sea"; "Great glory is not his who loves his country, but rather his who loves his kind." America is therefore the field in which the seeds of the world-religion are given an opportunity to germinate, which will extend to the peoples of all climes the bounties of the religion of humanity. May we not, therefore, look upon America as the nation which is specially chosen by the Almighty to assist in man's progress upward and to bless humanity with the fruits of universal peace ? SOME DEFECTS IN OUR LEGAL EDUCATION ORRIN KIP MCMURRAY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL. Everyone is prone to think that most of the troubles of the world are due to the fact that matters in his immediate social group are not going quite right. The business man, for example, knows that if only government would let business alone, all would be well; the teacher, that the ills of society are in large part due to the salaries paid in that profession; and Moliere's dancing-master was sure that if everyone would take to dancing, 2o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General humanity's evils would be over. In urging the need of superior training for the lawyer, therefore, I must confess to some apprehension lest my vocational predilections cause me to have an exaggerated belief, both in the importance of the lawyer in modern society, and in the importance of a proper education for members of the bar. Impartial witnesses of the highest character, however, bear testimony to confirm my belief. President Wilson, a few years since, said: "There never was a time when his [the lawyer's] advice was more needed than it is now in the exigent processes of reform, in the busy processes of legislation thru which we are passing with so singular a mixture of hope and appre- hension." And President Lowell, of Harvard University, has said, in speaking of the lawyer's function with respect to constitutional law in our country: "Every American lawyer is in a sense a statesman by virtue of his profession, and may at any time find himself called upon to take part in deciding questions destined to leave a lasting mark upon the govern- ment of the country." And, again: "It is upon that profession that we must chiefly rely for the preservation of constitutional principles in this country." Foreign jurists and publicists who have studied our institutions corrob- orate the distinguished Americans whom I have just quoted regarding the bar and its functions. Mr. Bryce, now Viscount Bryce, says: "The bar has usually been very powerful in America, not only as being the only class of educated men who are at once men of afifairs and skilled speakers, but also because there has been no nobility or territorial aris- tocracy to overshadow it. Politics have been largely in its hands." And the most philosophical foreign observer who has written about our institutions, Alexis de Tocqueville, sees in the legal profession an element of vital importance to the preservation of liberty. He says: "Without this admixture of lawyer-like sobriety with the democratic principle, I question whether democratic institutions could long be sustained; and I cannot believe that a republic could hope to exist at the present time, if the influence of lawyers in public business did not increase in proportion to the power of the people." Even tho we take a more modest view of the lawyer's work than do these eminent men, we must still concede that the legal profession is equal in importance, so far as concerns the welfare of society, to the other great professions. As private adviser in matters concerning the personal and property rights of the citizen, nay, concerning even his conduct in the most intimate and delicate relations in life, as judicial officer, whose duty it is to administer, and, in cases not covered by statute or precedent, to declare the law for the first time, as legislator upon whom devolves the greater part of the labor of improving our laws by legislation, in all these fields the lawyer's work affects the most precious possessions and heritages of our people. I Sessions] SOME DEFECTS IN OUR LEGAL EDUCATION 209 It is, therefore, a matter of considerable moment that the bar of the country should be possessed of high ideals, that it should be independent and courageous, that the character and attainments of its members should be such as to command respect. All of us know lawyers who more or less nearly fulfil this ideal, and the history of our legal profession has, on the whole, been one upon which its members may look with satisfaction. But it must be admitted that there are tendencies in our life which have dis- astrously affected the lawyer's profession. Like many other of our institutions, we borrowed from England the ideas concerning the organization and training of our bar. One who reads the history of that country cannot fail to be impressed with the predomi- nance, thru a great portion of time, and particularly in the eighteenth century, of the aristocratical principle in its polity. The profound and eloquent writings of Burke set forth the philosophy of the state from the viewpoint of the aristocratical principle in a form which has not yet been matched by any champion of the democratic principle. Montesquieu pointed out that the actuating principle of an aristocracy is honor, and as we read Burke we seem to see the truth of the French philosopher's suggestion. It has been characteristic of English custom, of English law, of English institutions, to trust largely to merely moral principles, to the sense of honor, in government and administration. Mechanical devices for securing liberty or efficient administration have never been much in favor with the English school of political thought. Leave things to gentlemen, and they will be done well — that has been in the past, if it is not in large part at present, the theory of English government. "A cynic might even suggest that the easy working of English constitutionalism proves how beneficial may be in practice the result of democracy tempered by snobbishness." I am glad to say that this sentence is not my own, nor was it written by an American. I quote it from one of the most eminent of modern English constitutional scholars, A. V. Dicey, of Oxford University, a man by no means entirely in sympathy with the modern democratic movement. The English bar, like other English institutions, was organized and trained upon the aristocratical principle. It was not an accident that until very recently the only requirement deemed necessary to qualify a bar- rister to practice was to eat a few dirmers in the Temple, nor that Dr. Johnson justified the custom as being as satisfactory a system as could be devised. The division of the profession into two classes, solicitors and barristers, the fact that admission to either branch of the profession and the discipline of members of the bar are even to the present day not matters of state concern, but are left to the bar — these are but additional illustrations of the aristocratical theory of government. The legal education of the English bar has always been dominated by the belief that what is really essential is that the barrister should first of all be a gentleman, in the English sense; secondly, that he should have 2IO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General the education of a gentleman; and lastly, that he should pick up his legal knowledge in a haphazard manner, chiefly thru practical experience in the pursuit of his profession. What is true of legal education is, of course, equally true of other professional education. English engineers and physi- cians have had to learn their professions in the same unsystematic way in which the lawyer has learned his. Along with other ideals of education, this English tradition has been handed down to us. The ^American college, in general, perpetuated the theory of the English university, with perhaps somewhat more emphasis upon the pedagogical side. The English university gave its students an opportunity to gain a broad culture if they would; the American college — perhaps because of its prevailingly Puritan origin — laid down a discipline which he must follow whether he would or not. Both English university and American college had as their ideal the training of men for general power of thought and expression. The ideal of the American college was a fine one, as indeed was that of the institution from which it inherited its traditions. The training of gentlemen in the best sense of the word, the training of citizens whose powers of thought and expression enabled them to assume positions of leadership in politics and other affairs of life, was a most worthy task and one which we cannot now afford to neglect. But in performing such work, noble as it is, higher education had not exhausted its functions. Science must have its place — nay, must occupy the position of chief importance — in the modem scheme of education. And not merely pure science, but science in its daily applications. The practical importance to the state of scientific agriculture, of trained physicians, electrical engineers, and chem- ists, is not likely to be underestimated by modem society. And so long as the applied sciences flourish, there will be found sufficient support in public opinion for the maintenance of the research work which is the life blood of science. Tho the development of the university as distinguished from the college has been a matter of rather recent history, now that we have adopted the imiversity ideal, the training of professional scientific men has been taken up with great readiness by our people. It has appealed to our practical genius and also to our democratic notions. That the farmer boy should become a scientific agriculturist seems fitting and proper in the nature of things. And I believe that nothing could be more abhorrent to present American feeling than such an organization of our higher education as would have rendered impossible the services to science of William Thompson and Charles Darwin had it not been for the fortunate circumstance that they happened to be men of wealth. Why have not the training of the lawyer and the raising of the standard in his profession kept pace with the other branches of scientific training and the raising of standards in other professions ? Why is it that most of our / Sessions] SOME DEFECTS IN OUR LEGAL EDUCATION 2ii law schools are still private institutions, insuflSiciently endowed? How is it that even in our great universities, the law school is usually regarded as dealing with matters outside of the university field, that it is looked upon not, it is true, in the same way as the courses in household economy and folk-dancing, but still in a sense as an interloper? Why do university administrators and the educational public in general maintain an attitude indicating a certain distrust toward the law school, while such distinguished foreign observers as Josef Redlich, of the University of Vienna, and A. V. Dicey, of Oxford, have found in some of our schools of law themes for high praise, even matters for imitation — honors rather grudgingly bestowed by European experts on American university work? I think both the praise and the qualified suspicion spring in part from the same cause. The narrow English tradition which in general regarded the law as a genteel occupation by which a man of talent could gain wealth and social position but not as a science worthy of study for its own sake was to a certain extent carried over into our country. The American colleges for the most part did not attempt the teaching of law, and where they did, with a few very notable exceptions, they taught it as a profession, and not as a science. True it is, the practical sense of the American recognized that some special training was necessary to qualify a man for practice, and that law ought to be taught, not left to a haphazard method of acqui- sition. Hence the American law school. But the ideal of our law schools continued to be professional, not scientific. The best of them have per- fected the training of their students in analytical power, and in knowledge of the English and American law so as to elicit the Austrian and English professors' praise for the thoroness of their work. Professor Langdell's introduction of the case method was an event of the first importance in the history of American law, in the history of higher education, and in the history of pedagogical method. But, notwithstanding the signal merits of this method, it failed to recognize the broader claims of the law to a place in cultural history; it taught the law as a system organized and perfected by English and American courts and legislatures, not as a subject also demanding investigation in a purely scientific spirit. Democracy does not feel particularly interested in fostering a plan of education for the bar, merely preserving and continuing the English tradi- tion which placed professional training entirely in the hands of professional men. So long as the education which the law school offers is given for the purpose of qualifying a man to draw a sufficient pleading, to conduct a proper cross-examination, or to warn a client against a flaw in a title, just so long will even an enlightened public opinion continue to lack interest in those internal problems of the bar, which to the serious-minded lawyer seem so grave. The public cares very little whether a lawyer is familiar with the rule in Shelley's case, whether he is well read in the case-law of this state, whether he is or is not courteous in his relations with courts and other 212 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General lawyers, nay, even whether he is or is not conscientious in his financial rela- tions with his clients. The interest in these things belongs to the client who deals with the lawyer, or to the social group in which he finds him- self. The community is only to a slight degree and in an indirect manner affected by these things. But the community is interested, and vitally so, in having a body of men trained in the law as a science, with sufficient knowledge of its history and tendencies to be able to interpret statutes and decisions broadly, with some sound ideas as to the nature and purpose of law. Modem society demands that the lawyer be something more than an animated bookworm. In addition, it demands that a certain number of properly trained minds direct their attention to constructive and critical legal work — the sort of work that President Wilson spoke of in the quotation in the earlier part of this paper. The universities have not as a rule attempted to supply these needs. Professor Hohfeld, of Yale University, says: Have our university law schook been giving full recognition to what Mr. Wilson calls the conscious struggle for change and readjustment which characterizes oiu: era? And are they doing all that they reasonably might by way of guiding this struggle toward the conservative, fundamental, cind lasting betterment of our legal institutions ? More particiilarly, are our university law schools giving adequate recognition to the constructive science and art of legislation, the latter having clearly become, at least for the present, the chief agency in the evolution of our legal system ? I venture to say that when the law schools raise their ideal from that of equipping practitioners to that of training jurists, public opinion will be found ready in support. Juristic science was the parent of the mediaeval university; the revived study of the Roman law in Bologna not alone created the university but opened the way to the new hiunanism; the juristic faculty will again take its position by the side of the other sciences when it recognizes that it, too, is teaching a science, a subject fraught with the utmost importance in human affairs, a subject which demands to be studied with scientific aims, with scientific method, and with the broadest background of culture. THE EDUCATION OF THE PHYSICIAN RAY LYMAN WILBUR, M.D., LELAND STAISTFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL. The rapid strides made in medical education in the United States in the past fifteen years are due not alone to the general increase of opportunity and interest in medicine by universities. The right track has been found and progress along a blazed trail into a well-made road is comparatively easy. The work of Pasteur, Lister, and others took medicine out of the empirical period, replaced opinions with facts, and made the modern medical education requisite. Sessions] THE EDUCATION OF THE PHYSICIAN 213 The general plan accepted for the education of the physician includes graduation from the high school, two to four years in the university, where work in physics, chemistry, and biology and a modern language is taken, and four years in the medical school with a recommended or required hospital year. Many short cuts have been proposed to escape this rather long and expensive period of preparation for a profession. It has been urged that it is imfair to the poor boy, that it gets a man into his life's work too late, and that a broad general training is not needed. Many still fail to see the great community responsibility of the practicmg physician and even some medical educators view medicine more as a trade than as a pro- fession. Some medical institutions have gone so far in response to legis- lative requirements for physicians as to put in a hybrid year in the medical school in which work in physics, chemistry, and biology is concentrated. We have had the remarkable spectacle of a president of the American Medical Association, perhaps somewhat influenced by his own associations, defending this absurd makeshift. The best opportunity for the correction of existing conditions in medi- cal education interfering with early graduation lies in proper elementary instruction. There is no doubt that our elementary schools waste a con- siderable amount of time for the student who is of average or above the average intellect. A certain amount of telescoping of this elementary work, with the avoidance of repetition, and with sound instruction, should make it possible for the average individual to graduate from the present high school at least by the age of seventeen. If the high schools can be set free from the direct influence of the university, this will probably be much easier of accomplishment. The double function of the ordinary high school should be borne in mind. It has to provide for the student who plans to go no farther in educational work and for the student who plans to take up a profession or do other work of university grade. The work for these two classes of students should be differentiated at some definite period. If the number of years leading up to the high school could be reduced by one by a proper readjustment of the curriculum, and there could be added, in at least the larger centers of population, a so-called advanced high school or senior high school, or perhaps a junior college of two years, it would then be possible for large numbers of students to receive one or two years' additional training which could be recognized by the universities and more definitely controlled by them, and which also could be something of a try- out for those still unsettled as to their educational future. This would necessitate a distinction between collegiate work and the more advanced university work associated with higher scholarship, professional training, and research. The carrying out of such a plan would free a large amount of university funds for more advanced work and would at the same time broaden greatly the scope and opportunity of education in many 214 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General communities. It would also bring a much higher grade of teacher in association with large numbers of our yoimg people. In such senior high schools the work in physics, chemistry, biology, and the languages requisite for medical instruction, as well as for other professional study, could be readily carried out. The present attempt to force the ordinary high-school student thru the class of work which is prescribed by the uni- versity in preparation for courses to be taken there undoubtedly has a very deadening efifect upon the high-school curriculum. This is particularly true in regard to the courses in English, which are almost universally unattractive and dull, except when placed in the hands of some brilliant and inspiring teacher. Even such a teacher is likely to be handicapped by the prescribed work outlined by the universities. A proper training in English and English composition is of the greatest importance to the prospective medical student, and it is unfortunate that this line of work cannot be made more attractive and more practical. Languages are usually taught at the wrong period of life. They can be most readily learned between the ages of five and fourteen. Instead they are, as a rule, reserved until the high-school or university period, when they are taken up from the standpoint of grammar and conjugation and made consequently as much of a task as possible. Some schools should be daring enough to readjust their courses so that children may obtain the modem languages at an early period of life and be able to interest themselves in French, German, and other literature during their teens. As a matter of fact, it makes little difference what the prospective medical student takes in the present high school if he comes out of it with a real knowledge of English composition and the ability to work. The university training of the physician should last for a period of two to four years, preferably three or four. Certain subjects are absolutely necessary in order that the medical curriculum may be taken up without handicaps. A certain amount (one year) of physics, chemistry, and biology, and one or two modern languages, is generally recognized as the minimum. Most important of all is that advanced work should be done in at least one study. The great variety of opportimities in medicine, the various special- ties— ^public health, research, etc. — need men of various training. It is of advantage to the medical school to have one student who is an expert chemist, another who is an expert physicist, another a classical scholar, etc. Only by knowing at least one thing well can the medical student get on as he should in the latter part of his training and in his future life. In the university, some definite effort should be made to enable the student to obtain a knowledge of psychology and of sociology. He is to deal with the human animal in its complex relationships in society, not with figures or stresses and strains or other things capable of being reduced to the terms of mathematics. It is also most important that university training should give the student some knowledge of books and of journals, of the value of a I Sessions] THE EDUCATION OF THE PHYSICIAN 215 library, and some idea of how to go to the original sources in working up a problem; and that he should develop a proper suspicion of the printed word and not depend upon it too absolutely. It is most desirable that a student during this period should keep in mind the necessity of living a sound and healthful life, and developing a healthy body. A healthy body is an absolute requisite for the physician. A large part of his training is that of the senses; of the eyes, ears, nose, fingers, and of the body in general. In order to obtain the highly technical skill required in operations and in diagnosis, all of his senses must be alert and trained. The lecture system in the medical curriculum has been minimized more and more and the student no longer gets the major portion of his instruction thru his ears to be tried out practically upon patients after graduation, but he receives thru the laboratory period and thru the clinical period a thoro individual train- ing in his perceptions and in judgments based largely upon the senses. It is particularly because of this that the prospective medical student should interest himself in outdoor sports of various sorts and in clean living. Not only are athletics of great value from the standpoint of physical well-being, but also if properly conducted in the university and elsewhere they are of great importance in encouraging a proper sporting sense and a sense of fairness, and in the development of the power to associate readily with others so necessary for the give-and-take life of the ordinary physician. Regular habits of exercise should be established early in school life, and offer one of the best defenses of our youth against vice and dissipation of all sorts. The medical curriculum should be made up of a combination of labora- tory and clinical work carried on for the most part by personal instruction — a return somewhat to the old preceptor idea so that the art as well as the science of medicine may be learned. It is a great tribute to the individual initiative and ability of the American that we have so many remarkably successful men trained by a faulty system. The great expense associated with a proper teaching of medicine is the most important factor in crowding out the commercial medical school responsible for this system. The stu- dent has become painfully aware of the fraud practiced upon him when the only thing done in preparation for his coming is to add a new chair to a crowded lecture room. In order to turn out a practitioner from the medical school, interne years in the hospital have been more and more encouraged until at the present time in some states they are required by law, and some medical schools are now requiring a year of hospital work before granting the degree of Doctor of Medicine. This will undoubtedly become universal as soon as the hospitals in this country are brought to a realization of the necessary standards for the adequate care of the sick and the continuous training of the practicing physician, and the medical schools and universities feel their full responsibility. 2l6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION fGeneral If the medical student graduates from the high school at seventeen, he can at twenty-four or twenty-five be ready to begin the actual practice of medicine independently, having had two or more years in the university, a four-year medical course, and a hospital year. In this way we can be assured, if his teaching has been thoro, that he has had considerable technical training, and that his senses are in a condition where they can safely be trusted to recognize and evaluate the many symptoms of disease. In the past attempts to elevate the standards of medical education along the foregoing lines, constant resistance has been met whenever the amount of time required for a medical course has been increased. Particularly it has been urged that the time so spent is unnecessary and that it is an injus- tice to the poor boy. We must not forget that the poor boy must have a fairly complete and usable medical education when he begins the practice of medicine. He has only his brains and body for capital and no money to fall back upon. He must be able to meet on an even basis those who have more money and perhaps better training. The man with means can make up for a poor medical education; the man without means has such a handi- cap that he can only do so with the greatest difficulty. Postgraduate work is very likely to be delayed, and won early only at the cost of great effort and sacrifice. With medical scholarships and the opportunities open in the universities and medical schools for self-help, we constantly see stu- dents graduating in medicine who have taken care of themselves by their own efforts practically thruout the entire course. With assistance they no doubt could have gone farther in some of their work. The industrious boy deserves help at every step, even from the state if need be. The great need of the social point of view on the part of the physician and its slow development in youth must also be kept in mind in this con- nection. We must realize that the man who takes up medicine as a pro- fession needs maturity and enthusiasm, for, at the best, he is almost sure to lead a hard and irregular life — a happy one only when undertaken by those in love with that type of work. The practice of medicine is a very unsatis- factory way in which to make money and no one should be encouraged to take it up from that standpoint. Sound training in medicine with ordinary judgment and industry secures almost invariably a satisfactory living, but never wealth. In conclusion we wish to urge that the prospective physician be encour- aged to make an early choice of his life work so that he may obtain at least the requisite basic minimum of scientific work required for taking up the medical curriculum while devoting his time to those broadening studies in various fields, both in the high school and in the university, which are so .i needful in his future life work. This broadening or cultural work should permit some really advanced work in some one or more lines and should not consist entirely of introductory courses, as it is likely to do under the usual conditions prevailing in many of our universities. - f Sessions] MILITARY TRAINING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS? 217 With the physician becoming more and more of a social agent, it becomes a duty for educators to help the premedical and medical student to become the individual and community guide that he should and can be if the ideals of our profession are realized. SHOULD THERE BE MILITARY TRAINING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS? LOUIS P. LOCHNER, SECRETARY, CHICAGO PEACE SOCIETY, CHICAGO, ILL. Not long ago, in making an inspection tour of the numerous camps of interned British, French, German, and Belgian soldiers that dot the map of little Holland, I chanced to dine with an English officer about whose daring feats as aviator I had read in American newspapers last November. We were discussing political ideals and institutions as affected by the world war, and my British friend was vociferous in proclaiming how the Allies would crush Prussian militarism. "The world will never be a safe place to live in," he said, "until we have beaten the Germans to their knees. There is not a Britisher worthy of the name but will shed his last drop of blood for the liberation of Europe from Kaiserism." This was familiar language to me. I had heard it over in France at the outbreak of the war a year ago, when even the anti-militarist socialists vied with the most conservative of Bourbons in denouncing German imperialism as the greatest foe of peace, and in their official organs admon- ished the "comrades" to make every sacrifice, even to the abandonment of their peace principles, to secure its dethronement. I had heard it again and again in this country, notably in the language of men like Charles M. Schwab, whose company is being so visibly blessed for assisting in overthrowing German militarism that Bethlehem steel shares stand at 500 and are soaring higher daily! I was, then, not surprised at my English friend's lofty tone. But I was not quite prepared for what followed. I happened to venture the opinion that I was not at all sure but that the Allies, in the process of wiping out German militarism, were prone to lose sight of their own democratic ideals. He turned to me sharply, and with a bang his fist came down as he said with warmth and fervor: Yes, thank God, this war will end democracy in England. Socialism, trades imion- ism, syndicalism, and all idle prattle about liberty and democracy will be a thing of the past when once we get conscription. The state has been altogether too lenient with all these cranks and faddists. But there will not be a ghost of a show for them after the war. My British friend was not so far from right when he made this predic- tion. Jane Addams, returning from an investigation of European condi- tions which it has fallen perhaps to no other person to make, tells us: The longer the war runs on, the more the military parties are being established as censors of the press and in all sorts of other places which they ordinarily do not occupy; 2i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General the longer the war goes on, the more the military power is breaking down all of the safe- guards of dvil life and civil government, and consequently the harder will it be for civil life and for the rights of civil life to re-establish themselves over the rights and powers of the military. We find, then, this curious anomaly: the most stupendous war in his- tory, if We are to accept the view most current in America, is being fought in the name of democracy and avowedly in opposition to militarism — a "war to end war" is the phrase applied by Ally and Teuton alike — yet within the warring countries democracy is being more and more over- shadowed by the very militarism which each power is seeking to destroy in the other. The Allies, to crush German land militarism, are raising the most gigantic armies ever assembled and are superseding civil law by martial law in their respective countries (and martial law is no law at all — only the will of the military officer) ; the Germans, to destroy British sea militarism, are building so many submarines and battleships that, should they be victorious and smash the English navy, their own marine equipment for war will be quite as much of a menace to the freedom of the seas as they deemed England's to be. In other words, each country, in seeking to destroy the military ideal in the other, becomes virtually conquered by that very ideal in the process. As an Englishman put it to Dr. Jordan in London last fall: "I fear the conquest by the Prussian spirit more than the conquest by her armies." More than that. So internationalized is human society today that a wave of reaction sweeping over one part of the human race is bound to touch the whole human family. Hence this hysteria in America. Hence this running for cover, for "protection" that doesn't protect, for "insurance" that doesn't insure, for increased armaments and additional naval bases. We, too, are in grave danger of becoming converts to the philosophy of force. There you have the background for the efforts now under way to estab- lish military training in our public schools. It is part and parcel of this general swinging back of the pendulum to the ideals of a century in which the g\m patriots would not have commanded nearly as much notoriety as now. Already the legislatures of Ohio and Massachusetts have been stam- peded into the appointment of commissions to consider the advisability or feasibility of introducing such military training into the educational systems of their commonwealths. Members of the Board of Education of New York City have lately been repeatedly approached to introduce such training. Providence, R.I., has even voted a definite budget for military instruction in its schools, thereby out-Prussianizing Prussia, for even in militaristic Prussia they have not sunk to the level of teaching mere children how to kill. A determined effort will be made in other states and communities to secure similar action unless we can recover our sanity and again face forward instead of backward. Sessions] MILITARY TRAINING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS? 219 The physical and moral aspects of this question must be apparent to any educator who seriously reflects upon the problem. It is not on these self-evident objections that I wish to place the emphasis. Rather would I indict the introduction of military training on two grounds: First, it would be a confession that we are about to abandon the American ideal of democracy and to substitute for it what has become popularly known as "Prussianism," or the military ideal. Secondly, since no nation lives unto itself, a radical departure from our traditional military policy, such as the introduction of preparation for war in our school curricula would involve, would mean a radical rearrangement and realignment of all the great powers, and might easily set in motion a wave of militarism scarcely less calamitous than the great war itself. There are, I suppose, as many definitions of what the American ideal of democracy is as there are theories about the tariff. Most people are agreed, however, that it is the very opposite of autocracy and militarism. Ask any one of the many thousands upon thousands of immigrants from military-ridden Europe as to why he came to this land of opportunity, and he will tell you, among other things, that it was because he "did not raise his boy to be a soldier"; because to him America meant the land of indi- vidual liberty, the "land of the free and the home of the brave," because he wants his progeny to grow up free from the crushing burdens of military service and war taxes that so stifled individual initiative in the old country. Ask the foreign observer who comes to our shores to study our life and our ideals what it is that distinguishes us from the Europeans, and he will always enumerate, among other points, the absence of the military. I recall an incident that occurred in Washington two years ago. Some two hun- dred foreign students, representing thirty different countries, had gathered at Cornell University in an international congress to deliberate upon prob- lems common to students of all nationalities and to advance the ideal of universal brotherhood. From Ithaca they traveled to Buffalo, to Niagara Falls, to Philadelphia, to New York, to Baltimore, to Annapolis, and finally to Washington. I was sitting in a cafe one noon with several Italian students, when suddenly one of them sprang up excitedly and pointed out of the window. "At last I see an American soldier," he said. "I had often heard in Italy that you are a non-military nation, but I never dreamed that I would travel thru five of your largest cities before meet- ing a soldier." George Washington in his famous "Farewell" address emphasized* the incompatibility of militarism and democracy: "Overgrown military estab- lishments are, under any form of government, inauspicious to liberty, and are to be regarded as particularly hostile to republican liberty." No one can question that these establishments in every nation today, our own included, are overgrown — that is, swollen beyond all reasonable proportions thru fear or misapprehension of others. 2 20 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IGencral Here, then, are the two ideals: The so-called Prussian ideal, which makes citizenship and soldiery synonymous; the other, the democratic ideal, which exalts pacifism as the highest form of patriotism, and which regards the work of the soldier as the very last resort after the failure of law and justice. There is no doubt in my mind as to which ideal the great body of American teachers favor. There is no doubt as to which the rank and file of the common people favor. The very fact that the sympathies of the United States, broadly speaking, ar-: on the side of the Allies because, rightly or wrongly, they see in a German victory the triumph of the military ideal, shows how devoted we are to the democratic, pacific ideal. And even those in our coimtry who sympathize with the Teutonic powers in this struggle do it because they believe that a sweeping German victory will rid the Fatherland once for all from the dangers surrounding her, and, in the words of Congressman Bartholdt, will enable Germany to disband her army and abolish conscription at the close of the war. If, then, we are all taking sides one way or the other, our technical neu- trality notwithstanding, because we want to see the world freed from the military ideal, is it not just a little bit inconsistent, to say the least, to want to enthrone that ideal in the very cradle of liberty, the American public school ? Are we to be regarded as sincere if we ourselves do not practice what we preach ? If Prussianism is an undesirable thing, then why instil it in the hearts of our youth ? It is a current statement in the trenches of Europe that this is really an old men's war, that the splendid young men of this generation are forced to fight for ideals of an older generation, for ideals which they no longer share. John R. Mott, Jane Addams, and others who have been abroad tell us that the young men vow that when this war is over they will see to it that their new ideals of international co-operation supersede these older notions. Are we to be more backward than the man in the trenches? While Europe is bitterly regretting that it ever succumbed to the military ideal, and is pathetically trying to shift the blame for this war one upon the other, shall we adopt that outworn ideal in our presumably up-to-date educational system by installing military training? Even the Prussian educational system does not provide for military instruction in the common schools. Shall we outdo Prussia? Ramsay MacDonald well pointed out the dangers of militarism in a recent speech in Birmingham. Said the distinguished member of Parliament: Great Britain is nearer militarism than ever it has been in its existence. Of course, people say it is only temporary, but let them not make any mistake about that. When they go into militarism for temporary pxirposes they have to abandon the view which is at war with militarism. If they submit to conscriprion in any shape or form now the arg\mients in favor of conscription will continue after peace. And so it will be with the idea of military training in public schools. At first it will be a voluntary matter for the children. Then it will be compul- Sessions] MILITARY TRAINING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS? 221 sory. Then it will be extended into the high schools, the colleges, and the universities in ever-increasing measure. Soon it will appear advisable that the young men who are unable to go beyond the grammar school be given the same opportunity for "patriotic" service that their more fortunate comrades have at the high school or colleges, and workingmen's and busi- ness men's military training will be provided. Do you not see whither we shall then be drifting, whither, in fact, we are already drifting? A few legislators controlled by gun-makers and munitions manufacturers, a few big papers subsidized or at least swayed by the same influences, a potential enemy dangled long enough before our eyes — and conscription is only a question of time. And once conscription is introduced — well, I let General Leonard Wood speak. Said the general in the course of one of his recent attempts to militarize our colleges and universities, "If we had conscrip- tion in this country it would stop all this pacifist talk in twenty-four hours." But perhaps I am seeing things in too pessimistic a light. Supposing military training in public schools were an unqualified blessing to the youngsters taking it. Still I would oppose it, particularly at this time of international unrest. In our modern state of interdependence, no nation any longer lives unto itself. Whatever is said or thought or done in one part of the universe becomes part of the world-thought or the world-mind. Even war among so-called civilized nations is no longer possible between two isolated countries, but, as we now learn by horrible example, has become so internationalized as to draw almost a dozen countries into the holocaust. It follows that any new governmental policy, especially a military one, introduced in one country is bound to be felt thruout the world. We have abundant proof that this is true. When our fleet sailed around the world to show everybody we could "lick them to a frazzle" it became responsible for the inflated naval programs of several South American sister republics. Our huge military appropriations make similar appropriations in Japan almost inevitable — and Japan has no money to pay for them; only debt. When the German Emperor decades ago uttered his famous Unsere Zukunft liegt auf dem Wasser, he brought about an almost revolutionary realignment of the European powers, and soon converted the traditional enmity between France and England into friendship. When France two years ago in "self-defense" against outside threats extended her military conscription period from two to three years, she drew out an instant response from Germany in that that country levied a heavy income tax upon her rich people so as to swell her "defensive" war chest. When Russia showed special signs of activity in the Baltic region, the Swedish people implored their king to increase the armaments of their country. And so on. The military program of one country is invariably bound up with that of the whole civilized world. 222 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General Anyone with any imagination whatever can foresee what would happen if the most cherished shrine of hberty and democracy, the American school- house, were to become infested by the military ideal. The world, already sorely shaken in its faith in the peace ideal, would see its last ray of hope disapp>earing. A wave of mihtarism scarcely less calamitous in its poten- tialities than the great war itself would follow. The laborers, the socialists, the reUgionists, the men of good will everywhere who in their respective countries have been pointing to our unfortified frontier of 3,800 miles on our northern boundary, to our arbitration and "cooling ojQf " — or one year's delay — treaties, to our freedom from land mihtarism, and to our compara- tive "unpreparedness" as living demonstrations of the better way, will go down in defeat before the jingoes when America, too, succumbs to the ideal of force. Do the educators of America want to take upon themselves the tremen- dous responsibility of helping our coimtry become a prime factor in per- p>etuating the system that has been the imdoing of Eiu-ope ? Not if I read aright the history of American education. The American teacher has always been arrayed on the side of progress. He will not fail us in these troubled times, even tho all the forces of darkness are at work to draw us off the path of truth and Ught. It is not an easy task to stand out boldly against the eflForts to drag p>atriotism down to the level of the war system. It is far more popular to cry "preparedness" and to denounce peace propaganda than it is to remain sane and calm in the knowledge that the world will not forever remain at sixes and sevens, but that ultimately the reaction must set in and a period of soberness must follow. To be a pacifist nowadays is to incur the stigma of "moral flabbiness," of "degeneracy in moral fiber," of "physical and moral cowardice," to cull but a few choice phrases from the vocabulary of those who would rush us into war. But do not let that worry us. As a dear old German professor said to me in Berlin last May, when we were discussing the grave world situation: Our time, too, is bound to come despite all that you see round about us. And then I look forward to our yovmg men and women from the imiversities, to our teachers and educators, taking the lead in ushering in the era of a world united, of co-operation where there is now antagonism, of mutual understanding and good will. One of our best known Americans has said, "Not once in a thousand years is it possible to achieve anything worth achieving except by labor, by effort, by serious purpose, and by willingness to run risks " May the people of good will everywhere not look in vain to the American teacher to accept willingly the risk of impopularity in setting himself or herself like a wall of adamant against the attempt to militarize our priceless heritage — the free, liberty-inspiring public schools. Sessions] THE EDUCATION OF THE ENGINEER 223 THE EDUCATION OF THE ENGINEER CHARLES D. MARX, LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL. Engineering schools are of comparatively recent origin in this country; they are less than a century old. Troy Polytechnic was founded in 1824, the Sheffield Scientific School in 1847, the Lawrence Scientific School of Harvard in 1850, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1865. Then followed a more rapid development, and now we have a large number of such schools doing excellent work, it is true, but still falling short of the best French and German schools in the character of the product turned out. For this engineering educators are being criticized; they are being told that they attempt to teach too much, thus giving the men a mere smattering of information. On the other hand, they are told that they do not teach enough, and that they are sending out men who lack training in broad humanizing subjects, men deficient primarily in a knowledge of their own language, let alone a knowledge of such modern languages as French, German, and Spanish. Our men are accused of knowing nothing of history, business law, or economics. Unfortunately this is true in many instances, but in a four years' curriculum the engineering educator cannot find time to make up these educational deficiencies — deficiencies which to my mind exist in far too large numbers after a course of preparatory training in our high schools. Having had experience in teaching which extends over thirty years, I feel justified in saying that our engineering students go out into the world lacking in many things in which they should be prepared, because their high-school training has been defective. I think as engineering educators we have the right to expect that students who have spent from three to four years in the study of their mother tongue should come to us prepared to write and speak English correctly; they should not come to us as most of them do now with a disgust for the study of English. In my opinion no engineering school of high grade should be called upon to exact of its students that additional time be given to the writing of English themes, and yet, at the present time, it is absolutely essential that such additional training be given. Professor Burr, of Columbia, in a recent paper on "Training and Engineering Practice," well says: If the duties of an engineer bring him into the administration of affairs, it means that he must constantly be brought in contact with his fellow-citizens in the community in which he discharges his duties. Under such circumstances, he must have the power of communicating with them gracefully and effectively in such a way as to please and per- suade them. He must have a reasonable command of language and such a faculty of presenting his propositions and his reasons for supporting them as will be persuasive and convincing. We have a right as engineering educators to insist that our young men come to us with this ability after four years of high-school work in English. 224 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (General But they do not, and to my mind it is the duty of the members of the National Education Association to see that this improvement in the teach- ing of English is brought about. As I said before, the absolute importance of this work is recognized, and the necessity that our engineering students bJiVell trained in English is imperative, but the engineering school should nfcS^ called upon to remedy this defect. ^" Wm*^s to modem languages as part of the requirement of a general ed^edtidh.XJt cannot be denied that a knowledge of one or two modern l^^iSi^f ^^^d be eminently desirable as part of the preliminary training oF^il^A^rf^eSf However, I have serious doubts whether it is worth while f(^f^'6tt?"fe'ttilife?fts to spend any time at all in the high school on modem- li*^fe^s$fi^, unless the courses can be so arranged that at least two years' ^Sj^^^^-'ift^^^dern language is required, so that the student can come to iffe^^Jvfth?^ tftorS^eading knowledge. Most of our students now bring in tftStf^liflidi^lSiffil^nce requirements some modem language, but here too, aS'^ift ^f(?as@ ^teiglish, the student has acquired as a rule a distaste rather tJ^iS^lil^fii^^^B)^8te language work. Graduates of French and German pi^^fklc^J^l^liifMfeSfbifife'-to the engineering school at about the same age t«a?^f^om^%*h^fflie*i^^^^^^nile have at least a reading knowledge (^^h|y^ddfeiWJlShpi^^4^«Hit?^Mtf Ji4ve studied. Have we engineer- i^^u^t<»fe ^?fCilSi^^ig}?«?Mrefi^,««^Mite9)«tet our young men who Ha^%iiM96a^^y0S^M^?^^^!i¥^^r%1|}^^difS^IiPaS(^^ to us with tKfei^h^'''^(5l^i'4^^-^#h6'''^d6^l(^%y#ieamilimkvt§iri^^mAy-\iJS[i^^rm'm>s^'k3^^^n who have sMa^4^^S9a?!fim^^H§gW4ifctf%ik «*^^^^i^5Pffi^Work, the time da^0^tfWaife%ersons are becoming abun- dant in the East as they were once in the West. In view of this, I now pro- pose to present a problem — a problem that may perhaps invite your attention and provoke thought. First of all, we have to bear in mind a truism, a truism that is frequently overlooked by Westerners: That is, China is not a part of the Western world. That country was not affected by the achievements and influences of the ancient Eg5^tians, Greeks, Jews, Romans, and some of the less civilized races — the achievements and influences which we now arbitrarily call Western or modern civilization. The Chinese people have their peculiar traditions, customs, beliefs, and hence behavior, and if you take the exclu- sively Western viewpoint, they might seem grotesque and barbarous. The latter term we generally attach to things differing from our own. Whether social or poUtical, religious or educational, our institutions were adapted to our fundamental, if somewhat primitive, needs. Apart from the contact China occasionally had during a very remote period thru commerce, exploration, or pilgrimage with the Romans, the Persians, and the Hindoos, the Chinese cultural process may be spoken of as always evolving on its own line, assimilating little of what is compatible with it. That the archaic Chinese system of education was ineflicient, prescientific, stiff, and undemo- cratic cannot be gainsaid, and I do not attempt in any way to justify it. It is noteworthy, however, that it was entirely a product of that kind of society, and, up to a certain extent, it had served its purpose: not a few scholars were made, numbers of administrators were trained, literature and poetry were perpetuated, and learning was universally admired. In short, the archaic educational system of the Chinese was efficient in the community and at the same time kept the community from the evils of disruption. Sessions] THE DEEPER PROBLEM OF EDUCATION IN CHINA 231 The nineteenth century was a most wonderful century, for marvelous things had been achieved or done in those hundred years. To the Chinese, the once isolated, self-esteemed, inactive, but ever-successful race of an archaic civilization, nothing is more wonderful than the advent of the Westerners. Their mechanical skill, material wealth, active and evangel- istic spirit, not to say the more fundamental things such as science, phi- losophy, and religion, have bewildered and humiliated, if not actually awakened, the Chinese mind. The coming into contact of two utterly different cultural processes is always attended with far-reaching results. Conflict is bound to come and must be accompanied by victory on one side and submission on the other. To cope with the new situation, the change of the old order was hailed. Above all things the educational program must be recast, for to face the invading civilization we must adopt the training methods of the invaders. Social matters are more complicated than we can generally conceive and here lies the danger of hasty and reckless imitation of alien educational methods without any reference to the social background. In other words, national education must take into considera- tion social conditions, for an educational system must fit the society and at the same time hasten its improvement. This, I think, is the crucial problem that is being presented in China. For the last twenty years, there has been a perceptible increase of the number of schools and school population. In a country like China, where the proportion of literates is low and milHons have never been put in any educational institution, the opening of new schools can only be construed as a most welcome sign. Yet they are not all successful, tho at the present time we are still too early to make any prediction. Fancy the children of an agrarian population whose training in the art of agriculture has been always in the field put into a school building where words and textbooks are taught without any reference to their future occupation and their proper environ- ment. Reading and writing are to the child but the means of which voca- tional training is the end. The mechanical way of reading textbooks is of little use when an adequate training for life is necessary. The Chinese shopkeep>ers have very httle schooling, and have always been apprenticed in stores for a number of years. Now when there is set up a commercial school of which the curriculum is deficient in practical methods of trading, we are not astonished to know that doors are shut to its graduates and that the children of the peasants learn their trade in the old-fashioned way. Time would not allow me to go over all the concrete facts. Another instance may be referred to, further to illustrate my point. The effort of foreign missionaries along the line of education must be counted as one of the greatest educational influences in China. Their devotion is as admirable as their enthusiasm is strong; the consequence is just as great. Thousands are taught to master a foreign language and to 232 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General know something Western. Yet in this, as in the two cases I referred to above, regrettable, if not disastrous, eflFects are to follow. The missionaries are handicapped, on the one hand, by the fact that they are foreigners car- ried by a strong religious fervor — overenthusiastic of Christian morals and assailants of native traditions; and on the other hand, by their ignorance of current, advanced theories and methods of education in the West. After staying for a number of years abroad, most of them lose touch with the new thoughts of their own land. How possibly can the educational system fit to the society if the leaders are ignorantly antipathetic ? If my words are doubted, the works on China by missionaries and the theological doctrines they preach and teach may serve as glaring examples. Is it any wonder that social rebels are turned out from missionary schools who are not in sympathy with their own social traditions and yet fail to comprehend completely and fairly the essentials of the foreign culture to which they profess allegiance ? I do not wish to belittle the influence of the missionaries in promoting education in China — their influence is ever pre- dominant. Nor am I blind to the pioneer works they have done. Still less dare I to pronoimce any apathetic criticism of their loyal, indefatigable spirit. What I want to emphasize here is its defects rather than its merit. Time has come, I think, for the government to determine a constructive, progressive policy of national education whereby the inconsistencies which I have tried to illustrate may be brought to an end. The Chinese lack administrative ability, but experience and time may educate them. And the government will, by its supreme f>ower and extraordinary opportimities, centralize knowledge and distribute it to different educational centers with a view to the improvement of our educational system. For this purpose, the amassing of available past experiences, whether they were successes or failures, is necessary. Traditions and morals, customs and beliefs, which are native in origin, beautiful and sublime in meaning, and national in spirit, must be preserved. Education must be standardized. Thus the problem of education in China is not religious nor merely is it the scarcity of educa- tional institutions. It is social in the sense that education must be appropri- ate to the society, must tend to promote and not to destroy its weKare, and must preserve social heritage. HIGHER IDEALS IN EDUCATION CHARLES F. THWING, PRESIDENT, WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY, CLEVELAND, OHIO The first higher ideal may be called a higher ideal of the practical. The practical has its more and its less noble side. To that less noble side, let no one be blind or deaf. But there is danger also that to the nobler rela- tions of the practical, himaanity will be indifferent. There is danger that Sessions] ATHLETICS AS EDUCATION AND AS BUSINESS 233 one will become so absorbed in the outer that he will forget the inner; so absorbed in raising corn in the valleys that he will not look up to see and feel the sky-kissing peaks. The nobler ideal of the practical should rest upon these results: clear seeing; pure feeling; right choosing; intellectual laboriousness. A type of this higher ideal of the practical is found in Lord Kelvin, who appHed the highest scientific skill to a most important concern of daily life. His compass makes the sea safer to every mariner. This type may be found also in WiUiam T. Harris, one of our United States commis- sioners of education. A great philosopher, the most distinguished Hegelian in America, he also was concerned with details of schools in Alaska. The second higher ideal in education is found in a broader ideal in reli- gion. Religion represents man's relations to ultimate being. That ulti- mate being one is inclined to interpret with narrowness. We have often limited that being to a God whose goodness was in turn Umited to a small part of the human family. God has also been too often interpreted in the terms of feudahsm. He should be interpreted in the most comprehen- sive intellectual and deepest emotional terms of democracy. The type of this high idealism as seen in a broader conception of religion is best found in Phillips Brooks. The third ideal in education relates to a deeper conception of the worth of personality. Personality is what one is — it is *' you." It is distinguished from what one is thought to be and from what one wishes to become. It is your actual being. It is the creature which God has made. It is the material plus the immaterial. It is body plus spirit. It is that which thinks, reasons, judges. It is that which lives, aspires, hates, rejects, despises, exalts, plans, and hopes. It is that which refuses or accepts. It is that which declares the eternal "Yes" or the eternal "No." It is that which exults at the right or is gnawed with the tooth of remorse at the wrong done. Education in its high idealism has to adjust itself to a deeper ideal of the significance of personality. The t5^e of such high idealism is found in two living Englishmen who have a certain close relation to America — James Bryce and John Morley. Of all Americans, perhaps Emerson is the most fitting representative. ATHLETICS AS EDUCATION AND ATHLETICS AS BUSINESS WILLIAM T. FOSTER, PRESIDENT, REED COLLEGE, PORTLAND, ORE. Athletics are conducted either for education or for business. The old distinction between amateur and professional athletics is of little use. When athletics are conducted for education the aims are these three; (i) to develop all the students and faculty physically and to maintain health; (2) to promote moderate recreation, in the spirit of joy, as a preparation for study rather than as a substitute for study; (3) to form habits and inculcate 234 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General ideals of right living. When athletics are conducted for business, the aims are these three: (i) to win games — to defeat another person or group being the chief end; (2) to make money — as it is impossible otherwise to carry on athletics as business; (3) to attain individual or group fame and notoriety. These three, which are the controlling aims of intercollegiate athletics, are also the aims of horse racing, prize fighting, and professional baseball. These two sets of aims are in sharp and almost complete conflict. Roughly speaking, success in attaining the aims of athletics as education is inversely proportional to success in attaining the aims of athletics as business. Intercollegiate athletics today are for business. The question is pertinent whether it is a legitimate function of schools and colleges to promote athletics as business. Nearly all that may be said on this subject about colleges applies to secondary schools. The lower schools, as a rule, tend to imitate the worst features of intercollegiate athletics, much as young people in fraternities tend to imitate the empty lives of their elders that fill the weary society columns of the newspapers. If the objection arises that intercollegiate athletics have educational value, there is no one to deny it. "Athletics for education" and "Athletics for business" are general terms used thruout this discussion in the sense already defined. Exceptions there may be. Only the main tendencies are here set forth. The whole discussion is based on my observations at no fewer than one hundred universities and colleges in thirty-eight states during the past five years. Opposed to the three educational aims are the aims of athletics as business — winning games, making money, and getting advertised. To achieve these ends the dominant ideal is excessive physical training for a few, especially those who need it least, to the neglect of the many, especially those who need it most. The coach is the embodiment of this ideal; it is the first article of his creed; he succeeds in the work of managing athletics for business to the extent that he neglects athletics for education. The ends of intercollegiate athletics are best served by the neglect of those in greatest physical need. In our country, we often quote the remark of the Duke of WeUington, that Waterloo was won on the playing grounds of Eton. It is well for us to observe that the Duke of WeUington did not maintain that Waterloo was won on the grandstands of Eton. A graduate of Cambridge University, England, on a visit to Syracuse University inquired how many crews there were. "Three, possibly four," was the answer. ' * Is that so ? " said he. ' ' At Cambridge, in my day, we had one hundred and five." At some colleges, all students are required to pay fees for the support of intercollegiate athletics. The bills are rendered and collected by the Sessions] ATHLETICS AS EDUCATION AND AS BUSINESS 235 college, with tuition and laboratory charges, but students are not required to participate in games for their own benefit. Thus in such colleges, athletics for business are compulsory; athletics for education are elective. If our universities had grown up with the ideal of athletics for educa- tion, they would not have been content with athletics by proxy. What do we find? One university with two thousand women students and no playground for women, another university with five thousand students and less than forty acres of campus — in fact, only a few large universities in all America with fields sufficient for conducting athletic games in the interests of the bodily health and development of all their students. When we add to all this the fact that the ideals of athletics for the select few are antago- nistic to the ideals of athletics for everybody, we understand why, as a matter of fact, intercollegiate athletics have failed to promote the interests of athletics. But intercollegiate athletics are everywhere defended on the ground that only by such contests can interest in athletics be maintained. The theory is that boys from sixteen to twenty-five years of age cannot be induced to play out-of-door games for fun or for their bodily development, but will play if there is any hope of "making a Varsity team." This theory is flimsy. In the first place, it is an affront to youth. A boy, unspoiled by athletics for business, would rush that theory off the gridiron. In the second place, the theory is inconsistent with known facts. A competent coach can quickly eliminate the greater part of a student body as unfit for his purposes. j Altho the present system of athletics by proxy has had imbounded opportunity to demonstrate what it can do for the entire student body, and has proved, on the whole, a failure, athletics have had no fair oppor- tunity in America to demonstrate what they can do without the hindrance of business aims. This alone is a sufficient reason why a few institutions should experiment. No theory of education at variance with popular prac- tice can ever be tested while institutions are confined to imitation. The fact that all schools pursue a given policy in athletics — or in anything else — does not prove them right. We all know that, but we find it difficult to act in accord with our belief. The history of education is one long story of educational procedure universally accepted as sound by one generation and condemned by another. Doubtless the schools of this generation teach various matters — besides our absurd spelling — which will some day be discarded. Doubtless we are worshiping some false gods: one of these may be intercollegiate athletics. Why not overthrow it and see what happens ? Reed College has ventured to do so, by adopting this settled policy: Out-of-door games in moderation for all students and faculty, especially those who need them most, instead of the excesses of intercollegiate athletics for a few students, especially those who need them least. This plan for 236 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General athletics was adopted by Reed College in 19 10, when there were no buildings, no students, no faculty, no alumni, no traditions. Last year every student in Reed College, men and women alike, with but six exceptions, took part in athletics for recreation, health, and develop- ment. Last spring 60 per cent of the men of the coUege played baseball in a series of intra-mural games; 95 per cent were engaged in some form of out- of-door games. About 74 per cent of the men and about 60 per cent of the women took part in some form of athletics five or six days out of six. All but seven of the total of 234 students took part in athletics at least two days out of the six. How much does it cost the student body to enjoy athletics by participa- tion instead of by proxy ? Let us ask first what it costs students to pay for intercollegiate games in institutions famous for grandstand athletics — including membership tickets, subscriptions, and special assessments — to say nothing of takmg trips and making bets to "support the team." Is it less than five dollars per student? In some colleges it is more than twenty dollars. At Reed College last year there were series of football games, basket-ball games, baseball games, track meets, tennis tournaments, handball toiu-naments, games of volley-ball, gymnastic exhibitions, a tug- of-war, and other athletics. There were not a dozen students in the college who failed to participate in these games. In payment for all this, the average amoimt collected from the students and exp>ended, according to the report of the treasurer of the athletic association, was sixteen cents. No money for trainers, coaches, banners, badges, silver cups, or other trinkets; no money for training tables, railroad fares, and costly uniforms to be carried away as trophies; no money for advertising, grandstands, brass bands, and rallies. The "necessities" of athletics for business would have cost the Reed College athletic association sixteen dollars per student instead of sixteen cents. Fortunately, it is the unnecessary expenditures that pile up the burdens — "the fooUsh squandering of money," as Coach Courtney says. The amount that need be spent annually on athletics in the interests of the health, recreation, and character of all the students is comparatively small. The economical poUcy is athletics for everybody; the wasteful policy is athletics by proxy. Almost invariably the arguments of students in favor of intercollegiate games stress the business aims and ignore all others. Win games ! Increase the gate receipts! Advertise the college! These are the usual slogans. After all, how important is this end for which such sacrifices are made ? To hear the yeUing of twenty thousand spectators, one might suppose this aim to be the only one of great importance in the life of the imiversity. Yet, who wins, who loses, is a matter of but momentary concern to any except a score or two or participants; whereas, if there is one thing that should Sessions] ATHLETICS AS EDUCATION AND AS BUSINESS 237 characterize a university, it is its cheerful sacrifice of temporary for perma- nent gains — in Dr. Eliot's fine phrase, its devotion to the durable satisfac- tions of life. The making of money thru intercollegiate athletics continues a curse not only to institutions, but as well to individual players. Only innocence or blindness need prevent American colleges from seeing that the rules which aim to maintain athletics on what is called "amateur" basis, by forbidding players to receive pay in money, are worse than useless, because, while failing to prevent men from playing for pay, they breed deceit and hypocrisy. There are many ways of paying players for their services. Only one of these, and that the most honorable, is condemned. Hundreds of boys know that they are paid to win games and keep silent; they are hired both as athletes and as hypocrites. The sporting editor of one of the leading daily papers said recently: "It is well known that the northwestern colleges are at present simply out- bidding one another in their desire to get the best athletes. Money is used like water. It is a mystery where they get it, but they do." No eligibility committee knows where all the money comes from or even has the right to question motives. But the objectionable motives themselves can be elimi- nated by one act. With the subordination of winning games as the chief end in athletics, falls also the money-making aim and its attendant evils. All the serious evils of college athletics center about the gate receipts, the grandstand, and the paid coach. Yet the aim of nearly every college appears to be to fasten these evils upon the institution by means of a costly, concrete stadium or bowl and by means of more and more money for coaches. When the alumni come forward to "support their team" they usually make matters worse. The extent to which interest in athletics is deadened by paid coaches was shown last spring when a track team from one university, after travel- ing over two hundred and fifty miles — at the expense of the student body — to compete with the team of another institution, took off their running shoes and went home because the coaches could not agree on the nimiber of men who should participate in the games. Could there be a more abject sacrifice of the educational purposes of athletics ? Consider the spectacle. A glorious afternoon in spring, a perfect playground, complete equipment in readiness, two score of eager youth in need of the health and recreation that come from sport pursued in the fine spirit of sport. Could anything keep them from playing? Only the spirit of modern American intercollegiate athletics and the embodiment of that spirit, the paid coach, who knows that he can commit but one crime — that of losing a contest. The conflicts frequently arising between faculties and students over questions of intercollegiate athletics are the natural outcome of the inde- pendent control of a powerful agency with three chief aims — winning games, making money, and getting advertised — which are antagonistic to the 238 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General chief legitimate ambitions of a university faculty. No self-respecting head of a dep>artment of psychology wotdd tolerate the presence in the university of persons working in his field in no way subject to him and with aims subversive of the aims of the department. No professor of physical education should tolerate a similar condition in his department. It is one of the hopeful signs in America that several of the men best qualified to conduct athletics as education have declined to consider university positions unless they could have control of students, teams, coaches, aliunni com- mittees, grandstands, fields, finances, and everything else necessary to rescue athletics from the clutches of commercialism. I have a copy of the letter of one of the ablest teachers in America, declining to accept a certain university position under the usual conditions, but outlining a plan whereby, as the real head of the department of physical education, he might begin a new chapter in the history of American athletics. His plan was rejected, not because it had any defects as a system of educational athletics, but solely because it would cause a probable decline in victories, gate receipts, and newspaper space. That university con- tinued the traditional dual contest of coaches and physical directors with their conflicting ideals. Recently I received a letter from the professor of physical education who did accept the position, himself one of the ablest athletes among its graduates, declaring that he would no longer attempt the impossible in an institution that deliberately prostituted athletics for conunercial ends. A few of the more notable coaches of the country are aware of the possibilities of athletics controlled by the faculty for educational piuposes. Mr Courtney, a Cornell coach, spoke to the point, when he said: If athletics are not a good thing they ought to be abolished. If they are a good thing for the boys, it would seem to me wise for the university to take over and control ab- solutely every branch of sport; do away with this boy management; stop this foolish squandering of money; and see that the athletics of the University are run in a rational way. Have I exaggerated the evils of intercollegiate athletics? Possibly I have. Exceptions should be cited. But I am convinced that college faculties agree with me in my main contentions. My impression is that at least three-foiu^ths of the teachers I have met the country over believe that the American college would better serve its highest purposes if inter- collegiate athletics were no more. At a recent dinner of ten deans and presidents, they stood up one by one and declared confidentially that they would abolish intercollegiate athletics if they coidd withstand the pressure of students and alumni. Is it therefore necessary for all institutions to give up intercollegiate athletics permanently ? Probably not. Let oiir colleges first take whatever measures are necessary to make athletics yield their educational values to all students and all teachers. If intercollegiate athletics can then be con- Sessions] THE SUPREME IDEAL IN SCHOOL EDUCATION 239 ducted as incidental and contributory to the main purposes of athletics, well and good. But first of all it must be decisively settled which aims are to dominate — those of business or those of education. And it will be difficult, if not next to impossible, for a college already in the clutches of commercial- ism to retain the system and at the same time cultivate a spirit antagonistic to it. Probably the quicker and surer way would be to susj>end all inter- collegiate athletics for a college generation by agreement of groups of col- leges, during which period every effort should be made to establish the tradition of athletics for education. If an institution could not survive such a period of transition, it is a fair question whether the institution has any reason for survival. Typically American tho our frantic devotion to intercollegiate athletics may be, we shall not long tolerate a system which provides only a costly, injurious, and excessive regime of physical training for a few students, especially those who need it least. The call today is for inexpensive, healthful, and moderate exercise for all students, especially those who need it most. Colleges must sooner or later heed that call: their athletics must be for education, not for business. WAY OF APPROACH TO THE SUPREME IDEAL IN SCHOOL EDUCATION HENRY HOLMAN, FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF WALES, AND ONE OF HIS MAJESTY'S INSPECTORS OF SCHOOLS No intelligent observer of social development can have failed to realize that the last few years have seen the almost universal development of political, industrial, religious, and other disintegrating forms of human imrest, which are the historical preludes to great and vital changes in social structures. Among the elements of this world-ferment of unrest and instability, the ferment in education has not played the least part, and it is already evident that it will take a foremost place in the readjustments which will result. And this is not surprising, for what all such upheavals do spasmodically, and often with cruel violence, education does contin- uously and peaceably, that is, it shapes the destiny of man. To get the greatest efficiency from a school system, it must be national; to be national, its ideals must appeal to the average man; to appeal to the average man, the ideals must be convincing and practicable; and to be convincing and practicable, the ideals must be based upon sound and exact knowledge, and formulated in language which can be understood by the people. Herein is involved the true relation of the educational experts to the schools, thru the average man; and until this is clearly recognized and practically realized educational progress will be severely handicapped. The great duty, one may say, of the scientific educationists is to find the 240 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General deepest and soundest truths for the educator; while the chief duty of the educational poUtician and administrator is to convince the general public of the high practical value of these and the necessity of realizing them thru the schools. The main purpose of this paper is to endeavor to suggest how this issue may be met. Now it is quite obvious to the student of education that, thruout the ages, individuals, commimities, and nations have sought to achieve or perpetuate their ideals of life in and thru their schools. It is in this way that the evil of training children as tho they were miniature, or rather mimic, men and women has arisen. During the last few years there has been in England a growing public agitation which, based upon a vague feeling of discontent with the results of school education, is gradually assuming the form of a definite demand for some radical changes in our schools. The result of this movement has been that education is today, what it has never been before in England, an affair in which the man in the street concerns himself. Most of the leading daily newspapers in the country give a comparatively large amount of space and attention to edu- cation. The Times has pubHshed an educational supplement monthly during the last two years, and pohtical and other public speakers enlarge on the matter. Unfortimately neither the man in the street nor the news- paper writer often knows much about the subject. But not only has the general public been actively concerning itself as to school aims, but educationists and teachers have shown an unprecedented interest in the discussion of new ideals and ways of teaching. The use of handwork in schools has made very considerable strides; the writings and work of such men as Herbert, Stanley Hall, Dewey, etc., have led to reforms in school work; experimental pedagogy is fast becoming a hving influence among the more enHghtened and progressive teachers; and individual efforts in investigation and experiment are beginning to be made. The Montessori method has given rise to such keen pubUc discussions that overcrowded halls and overflow meetings have been frequent — things hitherto unknown in public meetings for educational discussion. It is not surprising that in all this pubHc and professional ferment there should be much breaking loose from ancient moorings, much unsettlement and unrest, and much anxious seeking for some sohd foot of earth, so to say, upon which to rest the feet. Educational aims and ideals are in the melting-pot, and there is likely to be a veritable chaos of conflicting sug- gestions and assertions. Groups of parents, more or less manipulated by teachers, start schools to carry out their own views of what education should be; individual believers in some form of socialism or anarchy do the like; and even serious social workers, and educationists, associate themselves with individuaUstic and titled amateur enthusiasts in conduct- ing smnmer courses, conferences, and private schools, on the plea that the Sessions] THE SUPREME IDEAL IN SCHOOL EDUCATION 241 times are critical and that solutions of our difficulties must be found. All this is, of course, by no means without certain good results, and is men- tioned mainly as evidence of the present condition in affairs of education. If the foregoing be true to fact, it is apparent that never was there a time when clear and definite views on the highest ideals in education were more generally needed, and, therefore, no time more opportune for the consideration of the question whether a supreme ideal for school education can be helpfully formulated and applied. Unless we can formulate and get the public to accept some clear and commanding ideal, the progress of education is likely to be spasmodic, unscientific, and unsound. It will be noticed that the question is here limited to school education. There will, in fact, be two vital and limiting conditions which must be borne in mind thruout this paper; first, that by school education is meant systematic education from the age of three, at the very earliest, to the age of sixteen; and, second, that by "supreme ideal" is meant, not a final or absolutely perfect ideal, but the best possible here and now, according to the best knowledge and means available. It is only by keeping our minds clear on these two points that we can hope to discuss the subject profitably. Fundamental differences between the education of an average child who cannot, except in a tentative way, and to a limited extent, order his own life in any sound and safe way, and the average adult who should be reasonably able, and reasonably free, to do so, are generally ignored by writers on education. The result is that we get the perpetuation of the old fallacy, tho it is in a new form, of treating children as adults who have not yet grown up. As examples of this we may mention: the requiring of originality, invention, self-expression, etc., in infants' schools; expecting children to take fully responsible parts in the establishment and conduct of communities organized on the lines of the ripest forms of adult evolution; letting school children take the lead in town improvements; and requiring the young ones to fill their minds with the reasons for peace, and against war. Again let it be said that certain forms of these things are not without their elements of good for children; but if Professor James was right when he said, "I think I have seen college students unfitted ever for philosophy from having taken that subject up a year too soon," how much more likely is it that children may be similarly incapacitated for later life by our beginning the teaching of adult subjects to them from half a dozen to a dozen years too soon. Yet even progressive teachers who condemn such things in classical schools cultivate them in the most modern schools. But the most serious instance of the evils of the imposing of adult forms of development upon children is in the teaching of religions as a means of child culture. Let it be noted that the term "religions," and not "religion," is used, for these are very different things. Religions are particular phi- losophies of life, organized into systems of prescribed forms of faith and worship, while religion is, at least in the minds of most intelligent and 242 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General thoughtful people, a basic element, in any and every philosophy of life. It is impossible in the time at our disposal fully to discuss so grave and dis- turbing an issue as this, notwithstanding that it is most urgently in need of full discussion. In England this issue has been the most constant and the most disastrous obstacle to national progress in education and is so at the present moment. Two challenging criticisms must, however, be offered here, and these are: first, that it is quite unnecessary to settle the final issues of philosophies of life before going on with practical education, and, second, that philosophies of life are not the concern of children as such. This brings us to one fundamental element in any possible supreme ideal for school education. It must primarily and mainly be concerned with the actual interests of the child as such, understanding by "interests" those things which the child desires and strives after instinctively because of the needs of his nature, and not with his possible interests when he is grown up. A second element obviously follows from the one just mentioned. The ideal should embrace all the substantial interests of the child, as such, for only by attending to all of these can we hope to get a reasonably complete development of his whole being, which is a complex, interrelated, and inter- dependent imity. This takes us to the very heart of the matter, for if we can make clear to the average man what is the real nature of the child, and what, in consequence, are the inevitable limitations of sound education during school life, we shall not be likely to have much difficulty in getting him to accept a reasonable form of educational ideal. Here, as in so many realms of thought, the scientific thinker will find his safest starting-point in what is the almost universal usage with the average man, the regarding of himian nature as a trinity in unity, i.e., a human being is regarded as made up of body, mind, and spirit. For our present purpose, we shall return as nearly as may be to Plato, and define the spiritual part of man as that part of him which concerns itself with deciding what is his highest destiny and how best to order his conduct so that he may achieve it. We shall, therefore, speak of physical, intellectual, and moral education. We ought to find it easy to demonstrate to the plain man that in the measure in which we are successful in developing all the child's chief physical, intellectual, and moral powers to their fullest and best forms during child- hood— and this is the supreme ideal of school education — in this measiu-e he has been best prepared for developing himself as a good churchman, citizen, artisan, etc. Then, and not till then, is it likely that the true sense of responsibility for education will be found where it ought to be found — in the mind and heart of each and every citizen. But the public will, very properly, demand to know something of the details of what is involved in "developing all the child's chief physical, intellectual, and moral powers to their fullest and best forms during Sessions! THE SUPREME IDEAL IN SCHOOL EDUCATION 243 childhood. To decide these details, we must call in the anthropologists, biologists, physiologists, and psychologists, and ask them to give us the greatest possible amount of information as to the best that is known thereon, so far as this can be said to be generally approved among the best authorities; and we must ask the scientific pedagogists and practical edu- cators to show us the best methods and means for realizing what is involved. In these matters, the public must be prepared to leave itself in the hands of the experts, in the same sense and to the same extent as the average private person places himself in the hands of his medical adviser. We can, however, say, in general terms, that, with the help of such knowledge, we shall be able to educate or assist in the self-development of: (i) the body in such a way that it shall be healthy and strong, highly skilled and efficient for practically carrying out the desires and resolves of the individual, and capable of readily receiving and fully enjoying and utilizing all sorts of physical experiences; (2) the mind, so that it shall think sanely and wisely about all the experiences of the individual and thus relate him to his environments in the most happy and helpful ways; and (3) the moral nature, so that the individual shall appreciate all that is highest and best in human life and endeavor, and shall order his conduct accordingly. Two vital limitations are necessarily attached to the realization of these results: first, they can be realized only in so far as, and to the extent that, the individual is endowed by nature with the power to be developed and its capacity for development; and, secondly, that during childhood only certain powers can be developed and these only to a certain extent. For example, reason, as the ordinary adult understands it, does not exist in the child nor does sex. Thus the scientist tells us that it is absurd to talk of teaching science to a child; and this is largely true, but it is not less true, and it is vitally essential to recognize, that true reasoning and scientific thinking have their preparatory stages, and if these are not properly pro- vided for, the later stages seriously suffer. Similarly with regard to reli- gion, politics, sex, etc., the child has to be prepared for these, and unless this is done wisely and well we shall be likely to get agnosticism, skepticism, anti-sociability, sex-perversion, etc., in their worst forms. This is a grave matter and demands urgent and serious attention. We have already learned, thru painful failures, that the teaching of certain stages of certain subjects should not be begun in the infants' schools, or in the lower part of senior schools, because the child is not yet ready for them, and is hindered and injured by attempting them. It seems that we have yet to learn this all-important truth with regard to religion, politics, sex, etc. We should take care that we do not learn this, accidentally, thru disastrous blunder- ing, but deliberately, by means of scientific investigation and experiment. At the bottom of all this lies the old fallacy of treating children as adults who have not yet grown up, but are otherwise quite capable of thinking and acting in the same way. 244 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General We have said that two vital limitations are necessarily attached to the education of children, and it remains to be said that one other limitation ought in equity to be attached to it, namely, that there should be a delib- erate and definite attempt to avoid, as far as possible, prejudicing, thru school education, the views and convictions of the individual when he or she comes to adult age. There are, of course, parental and poUtical, as well as educational, reasons for this. With the two first of these we are not now concerned. Of the third, we can say that the educational objec- tion to such prejudicing of the mind in favor of certain views and con- victions is, in principle, the same as prejudicing the physical education of the individual. One result must be a very inadequate and one-sided form of development, which as a matter of fact may not eventually be utilized and will always be an obstacle if not a barrier to other forms of physical development. But another, and still worse, result will be that individual and collective human progress is thereby prejudiced. Probably much, if not most, of the progress possible for each generation is lost thru the young adult not having had his powers, as a whole, properly prepared, and kept sufficiently unprejudiced to judge life's problems fully and fairly, and to carry out his judgments with adequate skill and force. One of the chief remedies for this is a clear conception of what is the supreme ideal in school education and a generous devotion to the task of realizing it. This is, at least, one means by which a man may save his soul aHve, and thus fulfil his part in the efforts by which humanity seeks to achieve its highest destiny; for it will help him, by the most scientific means, to make the best of him- self as a child, and leave him as a man, free and wise, to do what can only be done when he is a man, and by himself. No man is well educated who is not as highly qualified and as free as it is possible for him to be to decide for himself what he will do with his self and his inner life; and this is the first and last justification for the search after the supreme ideal in school education. DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTERNATIONAL SPIRIT THRU EDUCATION MAY WRIGHT SEWALL, ORGANIZER OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF WOMEN WORKERS TO PROMOTE PERMANENT PEACE, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. The first requirement in the education of childhood and youth thruout the world is such a revision of the definition of patriotism and such modifica- tion of the methods employed in the inculcation of this virtue as will lift the sentiment out of racial, national, and territorial boundaries into what may be termed the sense of international relationship or the spirit of inter- nationalism. The necessity for the development of this spirit arises from present economic conditions and from the fact that industry, commerce, science, Sessions] EDUCATION AND THE INTERNATIONAL SPIRIT 245 art, and even social life are now internationalized to such a degree that changes in the relations of nations are responded to by fluctuations in the employment and in the wage of the individual laborer and the petty shopman, as well as in the affairs of capitalists. The old patriotism to a pitiable degree still extant breeds pride, arro- gance, and a habitual overestimate of the qualities of one's own country with a corresponding disdain for ''foreign" peoples and institutions. The objection that the development of the spirit of internationalism is an ideal too exalted to be realized is answered by the testimony of history. Internationalism, a sense of human solidarity, is no farther removed from the localized patriotism which characterizes the present stage of man's social and political development than is patriotism, as we know it, removed from the' conception of tribal relationship and tribal obligation out of which it grew. The necessity for the development of the spirit of internationalism is more or less imperative in different countries according to the degree to which the population of each country is already composite. As the popula- tion of the United States is more composite than that of any other country, and as the elements which enter into it have been more rapidly and even suddenly brought together here than elsewhere, so the need for inculcating the spirit of a fellowship of international scope and quality exists in a higher degree here than elsewhere. Altho a marked improvement has been made, both in the textbooks of national history taught in schools and in the spirit of historical instruction, it remains true that the history of most countries, both as written and as taught in the schools, tends toward the development of jingoism. The most imperative need in the schools of the United States and, presumably, to greater or less degree in the schools of all other countries is a textbook which will supplement and illuminate national history. For years I have been urging the need of a book that tells the simple story of the successive immigrations into the United States from all other lands that have contributed to its population. In such a book the story of each new inflow of the tide of immigration should be prefaced by a sym- pathetic analysis of the character of the people coming hither and by a clear statement of what each nation to which these peoples respectively belong has contributed to the sum total of human quality, development, and achievement. Facts prejudicial should not be suppressed, but emphasis should be placed upon the good qualities instead of upon the defects of the contribut- ing peoples. The causes leading to the immigration with a statement of the contribution made by each inflow to the industrial development of the United States, to its art, its literature, its social customs, and its ideals should be sympathetically presented. The inevitable effect of having the youth of the country study a book of this kind written and taught in the spirit indicated would give to each 246 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General element in the population a proper self-respect and fill all with an appre- ciative regard of one another which would eliminate jingoism from the thoughts and speech of patriots and give all our citizens that sense of proportion which is the only cure for an egotistical provincialism. THE EDUCATION OF THE WORLD FOR A PERMANENT PEACE FANNIE FERN ANDREWS, SECRETARY, AMERICAN SCHOOL PEACE LEAGUE, BOSTON, MASS. The force of public opinion. — ^The civilization of the future depends on the pubUc opinion of today. This alone can save for humanity what is left when the present cataclysm has passed by. What men and women think about this war wiU decide to a great extent the future of the war system. The terror of this catastrophe which should be burnt into our very conscience demands immediate and persistent action by men and women thruout the world. There should be, and there is, a clear, definite course to be taken at this critical moment, and each succeeding moment becomes more and more critical and renders action more and more imperative. There is no sense in the plea that while the war continues we can do nothing. Three distinct questions face us today. First, how can the war be stopped ? Second, what shall be the terms of settlement ? Third, what plan shall be adopted to prevent future wars ? We should try to answer these questions. An informed public opinion should express itself in a definite policy. This is the obvious safeguard for the future. How can the war be stopped? — ^Let us consider the immediate question which confronts the civiUzed world — how can the war be stopped ? I fully realize how delicate any discussion of this question is and how ill-timed and futile it seems to the great mass of people, but can anyone review the past twelve months' carnage and look with indifference on any suggestion or any hope which may break the deadlock in this ghastly struggle? We are informed by the press that each nation will fight to the finish, and therefore nothing can be done until one side or the other gives in. It is true that the belligerents have refused President Wilson's offer of mediation, altho every nation now fighting signed the Hague Convention for Mediation by Neutral Powers; and this pohcy of non-interference is well sustained by oflicial utterances from the foreign offices. But is each nation determined to fight to the last man? I must say that my experiences in Europe during the months of April and May lead me to believe that this is not an absolute policy. There are some conceivable circumstances which might lead the nations to accept negotiations for peace. I have not gathered this impres- sion from the European press or from general expressions of opinion. These ideas were brought to me from men and women who analyze thoughts and passions and situations. One striking fact stands out, that in all the bellig- Sessions) EDUCATING THE WORLD FOR PERMANENT PEACE 247 erent countries there are two parties — the mihtary, which respects nothing but force, and which is determined to crush the enemy at all costs, and the international, which deplores the slaughter of human life, and which seeks to conciliate the world thru organized justice. The latter sentiment is stronger than one can realize in the face of this world challenge; but it is there, and it is the only hope which the world has for eliminating the sudden outbreak of war; moreover, it is the only hope which the world has for securing a peace founded on justice. As J. Ramsay Macdonald says: That there was a strong peace and international sentiment in Germany alongside the patriotic one I have always believed. Now we are finding that this is so. It ought to be met. It is not responsible for militarism or for military policy. It wishes for peace. By and by it will be able to secure peace — whilst the soldiers are still in the trenches. No better proof could be given to show that international good will exists in the midst of this world-madness than the conduct of the soldiers themselves. Reports from the front show on both sides a human hesitancy when it comes to the actual point of killing. Karl Liebknecht, the distin- guished German socialist, declares: Nowhere have the masses desired this war. Why should they, then, murder each other to finish it ? It would be a sign of weakness, it is said, for any one people to suggest peace. Well, let all the people suggest it together. The nation which speaks first will not show weakness, but strength, and will win glory and the gratitude of posterity. Already among the German workers there is far greater opposition to the war than is generally supposed, and the louder the echo of the cry for peace in other countries the more vehemently and energetically will they work for peace here. This international sentiment makes a united appeal in this chaotic time. It condemns the contention of the militarists that the enemy must be crushed. No nation can be crushed; all history proves that a virile people cannot be wiped from the map. This conviction ought to find a ready assent in a generation so advanced in philosophy, science, economics, and ethics. But the nations can become exhausted, bankrupt; and if this is to be a war of exhaustion, why go to the limit ? The plan, put forward by many of the most influential thinkers, for a conference of neutral nations which shall offer continuous mediation as long as the war lasts, presents one method of opening negotiations among the warring nations. Since this plan, however, has been before our administration for nearly a year, there seems to be some reason why it is not feasible. I came home from Europe feeling con- vinced that some more effective method than this must be devised to bring about peace negotiations. One is very conscious in talking with the citi- zens of European neutrals of a well-founded timidity about any official expression of opinion. I got this impression, not only from representative citizens of the neutral countries, but from some of the members of the diplomatic corps at The Hague whose opinions I sought when the resolution providing for a conference of neutral nations was brought before the Reso- lutions Committee of the International Congress of Women. At the moment of this writing, however, the Dutch Anti-War Council, composed 248 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General of some six hundred Dutch organizations of widely varying interests, is asking the Dutch government to call a conference of neutral nations. The suggestion to create an unofficial mediation commission has been indorsed by important observers of international conditions, and if any accurate judgments can be made at all at this time, this commission, if its personnel bore sufficient influence and confidence, might be able to secure information as to the demands of each government and to transmit them to the others. Certain it is that the need for some definite knowledge as to what the nations are fighting for is of first importance. The Union of Democratic Control is asking the British government to define the terms upon which Great Britain is willing to make peace, and demands that these be made known to the Allies and to the enemy. Arnold Bennett declares that the publication of the terms of peace might prevent an imnecessary continuance of the war. "It would indeed be tragically absurd," says he, "for the fight to continue because both sides were in ignorance of each other's feelings." So long as the terms of peace are unknown, the military leaders of the two factions are able to incite resistance by representing those terms as so objectionable and disastrous that sacrifices, however great, and resistance, however prolonged, would be preferable to their acceptance. This is the view expressed by the Union of Democratic Control. "A pubUc pronounce- ment by the Allies," says this body, "as to the conditions which it is their intention to demand would deprive the German military leaders of this valuable moral asset." What shall be the terms of settlement ? — From the foregoing, it is obvious that discussion on stopping the war is neither ill-timed nor futile, and this fact leads very directly to the second great question before us — What shall be the terms of settlement ? Shall the peace settlement be made behind the scenes and by the same group of men who made the war ? An informed public opinion should express itself on this matter. As the democratic control of foreign poUcy is in the platform of every organization meeting during the past year to work out a plan for a permanent peace, the people should insist that the democratic control of foreign policy should begin at the peace settlement conference, that this settlement should not be made by a group of diplomats, but by men acting under instructions from their parUaments, and they should further insist on their right to know what their parliaments intend to do. This necessitates prolonged study and discussion on the part of the people. A clear distinction should be made between the form of settlement which would compel a continuation of militarism in every country and one which will break down militarism and free the world from the fear of another calamity like the present one. People should realize that the kind of settle- ment made at the close of the war will determine the condition of civiliza- tion for generations, and therefore it is necessary to formulate principles which will not defeat the purposes of progressive justice. It is impossible Sessionsl EDUCATING THE WORLD FOR PERMANENT PEACE 249 at this time to draft a specific treaty of peace, but it is possible to stipulate certain lines of action which should be followed. If the peace settlement is to be based on justice, two principles must be adopted: (i) No transfer- ence of territory shall be made contrary to the wishes and interests of the population; (2) no power shall seek its own aggrandizement. The war would end today if the public opinion of the world were solidly against aggrandizement and the transference of alien people against their will. In fact, the war would never have started if the peoples had been clear as to the effect of these practices. How to prevent future wars. — With the breaking down of secret diplo- macy, by making this peace settlement conference a representative body responsible to parliaments, the world is prepared for a conference of the nations which should be called immediately after the peace settlement to work out a plan of organization which shall provide for the permanent peace of the world. There can be no complete security for peace until the causes of war are eliminated and a new political organization established. Peace will come only when the peoples of the world recognize the fallacy of the prevailing ideas concerning the relations of governments, and when, with the acquirement of right ideas, the peoples demand a political machin- ery to make them effective. The determination to secure a permanent peace among the nations involves a world-wide education of the people in these two directions. They must understand — the common people must understand — how wars are brought about, and they must see the logic and the justice of a world-organization in which the welfare of the people is understood to demand peace rather than war. This is a struggle between peoples and governments, a struggle between democracy and autocracy, and it involves two processes — the disillusiormient of the people themselves, and the forcing of their ideas on those who are in a position to put them into effect. The opinion that, to secure a permanent peace, one nation or the other must be crushed in this war, is a striking phase of the illusion which dominates the world. Each side in the struggle openly claims to be fighting for a durable peace. Under such conditions, is it not imperative that some- thing should be done to eliminate the old ideas which render possible this contradictory spectacle of futile conflict ? The idea has begun to dawn upon the masses, as it has upon many of the thinkers of the world, that the "nations are passive clay in the hands of their goverrmients." The peace of Europe was in the hands of some twenty individuals. They could make war; and the millions who were to fight and to suffer could not stop it. It is the governments only who are rival units, I not the nations. This will continue to be the case so long as the abstract entity, the state, is recognized to be distinct in its interests from the men, women, and children who inhabit it. "Co-operation between nations," says Norman Angell, "has become essential for the very life of their peoples. But that co-operation does not take place as between states at all." 25© NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [General The great step in world-reform depends on making the welfare of the state coincident with the welfare of the people. The world will never be truly civilized imtil patriotism implies the co-operation of all peoples for their common security and welfare. Until this is so, there can be no true progress in civilization and therefore no free development of peoples. "When love for one's country," says Mr. Crane, "is expressed in hate of another's country, what was a grand sentiment is twisted into a dangerous delusion." G. Lowes Dickinson says: "A man of science may be a patriot, but his patriotism has nothing to do with his science. He goes to learn where he can learn best, and to work where he can work best; and the result of his work is a treasure not for his country alone but for mankind." The true situation would regard the several states of the civilized world as fellow-workers, supplementing and aiding each other in the progress of civilization. James Bryce says: "Every race and nation must learn it ought not, even in its own interests, to desire predominance or seek to enforce its own type on the world. It must recognize that it exists not for its own good but for the good of its neighbors." Human solidarity. — If the people had ruled the world, there would have been no war. It is even argued that if Europe had remained sane for twenty years longer, such a conflagration as the present could never have broken out; that the international organization among the peoples and the conse- quent power of order and good will would have been sufficiently strong to have overcome such a convulsion as this. One writer says that the declara- tion of war at this time was a crime against hmnanity for the very reason that good will had come to be such a distinguishing feature of human society. The solidarity of himian purpose was strikingly illustrated in the Inter- national Confidential Meeting at The Hague which I attended the first week of last April, when thirty men and women of twelve different countries came together to work out a plan for the permanent peace of the world. International jurists, statesmen, and economists, coming from Germany, Belgium, England, Austria, Hungary, meeting with equally distinguished representatives from the neutral nations almost in the midst of the terrible conflict, presents a spectacle which will be valuable in history to illustrate the existence of good will in the midst of international anarchy. No stronger word on the solidarity of peoples has been uttered than by Hans Wehberg, associate justice of Diisseldorf. Never before in history has the feeling to work together come in such solemn manner to all those who earnestly desire the agreement of peoples. Representatives of inter- national law in all cases ought especially to draw nearer together, because of the recent events more than ever before, to promote the ideals that seemed in danger of breaking down. The meeting of the International Congress of Women, convened two weeks after the International Confidential Meeting at The Hague, is pecu- liarly important as showing that the good will which had always charac- terized the international gatherings of women could be sustained in the face Sessions] EDUCATION FOR WORLD-LIVING 251 of a threatened collapse of civilization. The women who initiated the Con- gress were firm in their conviction of the solidarity of women; they reasoned that those who had been meeting together year after year to discuss measures contributing to the welfare of human beings could decide on some unanimous action concerning this world-catastrophe. The central idea in this inter- national gathering, shared equally by the representatives of the belligerent and neutral nations, voiced the cry that this catastrophe must never be re- peated; that this must be the last war; that human wisdom and foresight must devise practical means of ridding this agitated world of legalized, wholesale human slaughter; that the keenest intelligence of all countries should concentrate itself on the solution of this world-problem. The duty of the United States. — ^Any plan which has in view the educa- tion of the world for a permanent peace must consider the human recon- struction which is sure to follow the war. An iron law will compel those now engaged in mutual destruction to seek one another again. The day will come when the peoples of the world will work once more in common. This reconstruction will not be the task of any one nation, of any one people. The world wUl face it together. It may be that our country will assist in shaping events which will lay the foundations for a higher civiliza- tion. The United States must play its part. The development of the American ideal is dependent on the way in which this country reacts on the military, economic, and moral condition of the world. The upheavals in Europe have already affected our conception of future ideals and have thrust upon us a responsibility for civilization which we must inevitably assume. If civilization breaks down in Europe, we shall suffer just as vitally, altho not so directly, as Germany, Great Britain, or France. The unique position of the United States, however, gives her the leadership in establishing a new form of world society which will lay the foundations of a higher world life. Every citizen of our country should be conscious of this new obligation and should understand the method by which the United States may render this service to the world and in so doing protect herself in the free development of her national ideal. The United States has the opportunity of organizing a world league of peace, and each and every citizen, acting with careful intelligence, should assist in creating this new organ of human society whereby human justice can have full sway. EDUCATION FOR WORLD-LIVING HENRY CHURCHILL KING, PRESIDENT, OBERLIN COLLEGE, OBERLIN, OHIO The present world-situation is inevitably a time of heart searchings; for this terrible war is an arraignment of our inteUigence and our morals — our education and our reUgion. The subject assigned me is therefore plainly called for. 252 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION {General Two reasons, among others, suggest the necessity for education for world-living. In the first place, thru improved methods of transportation and communication and thru the press, the world is unified and the peoples mingled as never before in the history of men. No education is adequate today that does not enable men to enter inteUigently into the life of the world. In the second place, what is taking place among men is the gradual spread of Western civilization over the world. It deeply concerns all who care for civilization at all that, not simply the external trappings of that civilization, but its higher characteristics and its spiritual roots should be carried over the world. Even these reasons alone indicate that an education for world-living demands much: a world-wide vision, the conquest of race prejudice, intelli- gent and unselfish co-operation on a world-wide scale, and those moral and religious convictions that form the spiritual roots of all that is best in Western civilization. What kind of education do such demands require ? We may take one out of many lines of approach to our question. At least, education should give us the thoughtful man, in the widest sense of that term. World- living needs the thoughtful man. We must think enough to know ourselves, our tasks, the means we are using, and the ends we seek; enough to see what civilization, democracy, education, reUgion, mean; enough to feel and to pmpose them whole-heartedly, to their last inference, and without self- contradiction. The present war is a demonstration of need at every one of these points. In a similar way, education for world-living demands the thoughtful man in several other senses also: as the man who discerns and obeys the laws of life; as the man who has inner integrity; as the man who sees things in proportion; as the man who is considerate; as the man who enters into the great intellectual and spiritual achievements of the race — coming, that is, into personal sharing in the scientific spirit, the historical spirit, the philosophic mind, aesthetic appreciation, the social consciousness, and religious discernment and commitment. We have talked about these things. We have not insisted that education means personal sharing in them. The present world-situation shows failure at all these points. Our education and our religion show themselves to be inconsistent, provin- cial, self-contradictory, and self-condemned in all these respects. It is not that the true ideals of science and Christianity are insufficient. It is that we have never thoroly applied them, that we have lacked that utter inner integrity without which the highest can nowhere be achieved. Education for world-living must give us the radically thoughtful man. DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE CINCINNATI MEETING, FEBRUARY 23-27, 191 5 SECRETARY'S MINUTES FIRST DAY EVENING SESSION— Tuesday, February 23, 1915 The Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association met in the Cincinnati Music Hall, Cincinnati, Ohio, at 8:00 p.m.. President Henry Snyder, superintendent of schools, Jersey City, N.J., presiding. The session opened with an invocation by Rev. Edward Mack, of the Lane Theo- logical Seminary, Cincinnati, Ohio. Under the directorship of Joseph Surdo, the combined orchestras of the Woodward and Hughes High Schools gave the following selections: Overture — "Poet and Peasant" Suppe "Meditation" GoUschalk Addresses of welcome were given by Frederick S. Spiegel, mayor of Cincinnati, and John M. Withrow, president. Board of Education, Cincinnati, Ohio, to which response was made by Franklin B. Dyer, superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass. William Lowe Bryan, president, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind., presented a paper entitled "The Trap." SECOND DAY MORNING SESSION— Wednesday, February 24, 1915 The meeting was called to order by President Snyder at 9:30 a.m., in the Cincinnati Music Hall. The following program was presented: 1. "The Protection of Professional Interests" — Charles H. Judd, director, School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. 2. "Textbooks — Educationally, Commercially, and Politically" — ^A. E. Winship, editor, Journal of Education, Boston, Mass. 3. "The Training of Teachers": a) "The Spiritual and Professional Assets of the Normal School" — Bruce R. Payne, president, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn. b) "The Training of Teachers in Service" — Calvin N. Kendall, state commissioner of education, Trenton, N.J. c) "The Training of Rural Teachers" — Fred L. Keeler, superintendent of public instruction, Lansing, Mich. d) "The Training of Superintendents" — Carroll G. Pearse, president, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. General discussion. 4. "Vocational Education": a) "A State Program for Industrial and Social Efficiency" — ^Arthur D. Dean, chief, Division of Vocational Schools, State Education Department, Albany, N.Y. A motion was made to the effect that steps be taken to carry out the suggestion of Charles H. Judd whereby the Department of Superintendence shall devise plans by means of which the organization may learn at frequent intervals thruout the year something of 253 254 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati the educational activities of different sections of the country and by which the interests of superintendents and of the department may be protected. It was voted to refer this matter to the Committee on Resolutions. President Snyder appointed the following committees: Committee on Resolutions Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich. Ben Blewett, superintendent of instruction, pubUc schools, St. Louis, Mo. James Wilmer Kennedy, assistant superintendent of schools, Newark, N.J. Charles H. Judd, director. School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Nathan C. Schaeffer, state superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. Committee on Nominations William M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. T. H. Harris, state superintendent of education, Baton Rouge, La. L. D. Harvey, president. Stout Institute, Menomonie, Wis. James M. Green, principal, State Normal School, Trenton, N.J. W. E. Hoover, sup)erintendent of schools, Fargo, N.D. AFTERNOON SESSION— Wednesday, Febsuary 24, 19x5 The meeting was called to order at 2:00 p.m., in the Cincinnati Music Hall, and the following program presented: "Vocational Education" {continued): b) "The Evolution of the Training of the Worker in Industry" — Charles A. Prosser, secretary, National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, New York, N.Y. c) "Continuation School Work in Wisconsin" — "R. L. Cooley, director of Continu- ation Schools, Milwaukee, Wis. d) "Vocational Training for Women" — M. Edith Campbell, director, Schmidlapp Bureau for Women and Girls, Cincinnati, Ohio. e) "The All-Day Trades School" — E. C. Warriner, superintendent of schools, Saginaw, Mich. /) "The Field for the Corporation School and Its Relation to the Public Schools" — W. L. Chandler, assistant treasurer. Dodge Sales and Engineering Company, Mishawaka, Ind. g) "National Aid for Vocational Education" — ^John Lapp, director, Bureau of Legislative Information of Indiana, Indianapolis, Ind. A) "Problems of Vocational Guidance" — Frank E. Spalding, superintendent of school, Minneapolis, Minn. Discussion. EVENING SESSION— Wednesday, February 24, 1915 The meeting was called to order at 8:00 P.M., in the Cincinnati Music Hall, and the following musical program presented: "Hymn of Praise" Marchetti "Little Orphant Annie" Clayton Thomas "Wake Miss Lindy" H. Waldo Warner Combined Glee Clubs of Woodward and Hughes High Schools Louis E. Aiken, Director The topic under discussion at this meeting was: "Should Our Educational Sj^tem Include Activities Whose Special Purpose Is Preparation for War ? " Lindley M. Garrison, Secretary of War, Washington, D.C., found it impossible to be present, but he sent not only a telegram to the department but also a digest of remarks he would have made if present. The topic of the evening was discussed by Nathan C. Schaeffer, state superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa., and John H. Finley, state commissioner of educa- tion, Albany, N.Y. Superintendence] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 2$$ THIRD DAY MORNING SESSION— Thursday, February 25, 1915 The meeting was called to order at 9:30 a.m., in the Cincinnati Music Hall, and the following program given: 1. "School Curricula and Organization": a) "Principles Underlying the Determination of a Course of Study" — ^James M. Green, principal, State Normal School, Trenton, N.J. b) "Should Essentials of the Course of Study Vary to Satisfy Social Demands in Different School Districts ? Within the Same District ? " — EUor Carlisle Ripley, assistant superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass. c) " The Demands of Rural School Districts " — Frank W. Miller, state superintendent of public instruction, Columbus, Ohio. 2. "Is a National Standard of Education Practical?" — ^William Howard Taft, president of the United States, 1909-13, Kent professor of law, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. 3. "School Curricula and Organization" {continued): d) "The Six-and-Six Plan" — P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of educa- tion, Washington, D.C. e) "The Pros and Cons of the Gary System" — David Snedden, state commissioner of education, Boston, Mass. General discussion. The annual business meeting followed the program. The nominating committee reported as follows: For President — M. P. Shawkey, state superintendent of schools, Charleston, W.Va. For First Vice-President — ^Lawton B. Evans, superintendent of schools, Augusta, Ga. For Second Vice-President — ^Lucy Wheelock, principal of Kindergarten Training School, Boston, Mass. For Secretary — E. C. Warriner, superintendent of schools, Saginaw, Mich. The persons named were unanimously elected as officers for the ensuing year. The Committee on Resolutions presented the following report: We, your Committee on Resolutions, beg to submit the following report: 1. Resolved, That we believe that the right to vote in the various departments of the Association should be limited to those whose work is of the character indicated by the name of the department, and that we suggest that the by-laws of the Association be amended, if necessary, so as to secure such limitation. 2. Resolved, That the president of the department appoint a committee of five to consider and report at the next meeting a plan for such an extension of the organization of the department that professional relations shall be more adequately defined and pro- fessional interests shall be promoted, not only at the regular meetings, but also during the interval between meetings. 3. Resolved, That the department heartily indorses the organization of bureaus of efficiency and educational measurement as adjuncts to the superintendent's office. The constant investigation of school problems by permanent school officers is far more effective than any other form of scientific study. It is to be recognized that temporary commissions are in some cases justifiable. The superintendent or the board of education should be in a position at any time to call in impartial professional advisers in case they find that school interests require such special discussion. Professional aid from without will, however, be for the most part unnecessary if the regular supervisory staff, together with the teachers, has been active in constant studies of the types which can be carried on by the permanent bureau of efficiency. 4. Resolved, That the department commends most heartily the activity of the United States Bureau of Education in issuing special bulletins reporting the results of educational investigations. The range of subjects covered and the great body of valuable informa- tion thus made available to the teaching profession justify, in the judgment of the depart- ment, an extension of the support which the federal government gives to the work of the bureau. 5. Resolved, That the department recognizes the urgent need of provision for the more complete training of teachers in service. The famiUar devices of teachers' institutes and sporadic lectures do not adequately meet this need. State departments of education and local communities should be urged to make provision for regular, systematic training both in technical professional lines and in general subjects. 2S6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ICmdnnati 6. Resolved, That we note with approval the increasing tendency to establish, begin- ning with the seventh grade, differentiated courses of study aimed more effectively to prepare the child for his probable future activities. We beUeve that as a result of these modifications a more satisfactory type of instruction will be developed and that a genuine economy of time will result. 7. Resolved, That in the judgment of the department it is of the greatest importance that support and encouragement be accorded to night schools and continuation schools organized for the training of adults. The dissemination of intelligence in a cosmopohtan population like that of our coimtry demands, not only that the children of the nation be educated, but also that educational opportimities be offered to many of the older members of the community, especially where adequate opportunities have been withheld in earlier years. 8. Resolved, That we heartily approve the increasing attention which is being given to the hygienic and sanitary problems of the rural school and bespeak for the recommenda- tions of the Committee on Health Problems in Education of the National Council of Education the most widespread publicity thru the United States Bureau of Education and all other suitable mediums of publicity. g. Resolved, That we again reaffirm our declaration favoring a national imiversity and note with pleasure the fact that the Fess Bill establishing sudi a university has been favorably reported to the House of Representatives. We trust that this action indicates the eventual passage of this or similar legislation. 10. Resolved, That the legislation which is pending in the Congress of the United States for the protection of children of school age from undesirable employment deserves most careful consideration. We recommend to the United States Bureau of Education and Bureau of Child Welfare that they, as the representatives of the educational profession, co-operate in promoting all national legislation looking toward this end. 1 1 . Resolved, That in view of the commonly observed fact that the bringing of popular recreational, social, and civic activities within the jurisdiction of the school authorities tends to purify them and to elevate their character, we believe that such emplojonent of the school machinery should be regarded as essentially educational, and recommend to all boards of education that they include extension activities in their regular programs. 12. Resolved, That we reaffirm our beUef in the efficacy of the small board of education as the most satisifactory method of administering public schools. 13. Resolved, That we express our appreciation of the action of the various railroad associations which gave to this meeting the open rate, thereby securing to our members a very considerable saving in expenditure for transiX)rtation. 14. Resolved, That we express our appreciation of the hospitality extended to the department by Superintendent Condon and the committees and the citizens of Cincinnati, and of the courtesy extended by Mr. and Mrs. Charles P. Taft, the trustees of the Art Museum, the management of the Rookwood Pottery, the Municipal Hospital, the High School Teachers' Association, the Chamber of Commerce, and the other dubs of the city. We especially thank the May Festival Chorus and the Cincinnati Symphony Orches- tra for the complimentary concert, and the orchestra and glee clubs of the Woodward and Hughes High Schools for the most excellent music provided. 15. Resolved, That the thanks of the Association are extended to President Snyder for the most excellent program presented at this meeting. 16. Resolved, That we commend the hotel nmnagements for the many special courtesies provided. 17. Resolved, That we thank the representatives of the press for their excellent reports of the meetings of the departments. Respectfully submitted, Chaxles E. Chadsey, of Michigan Nathan C. Schaeffer, of Pennsylvania Ben Blewett, of Missouri J. W. Kennedy, of New Jersey Charles H. Judd, of Illinois Committee W. H. Maxwell, superintendent of schools, New York, N.Y., spoke as follows: I rise with some diffidence to take exception to one of the resolutions presented by the Committee on Resolutions. With the greater part of these resolutions I am in entire accord. I cannot believe, however, that the majority of superintendents are ready to accept the apparently im- equivocal declaration contained in these resolutions of the value of differentiated courses in the last two years of the eight-year elementary-school course. Such a declaration Superintendence] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 257 involves two conceptions whidi to my mind are at variance with soimd educational theory and with the best educational practice. The theory underlying the resolution is that children of twelve years of age — for that is the normal age of children completing the sixth year of school work — are prepared to elect their future course of instruction and presumably their future life work. It is, on the other hand, I trust, the accepted theory of the majority of American teachers that there is a great body of knowledge useful for practical purposes and useful for equipping the mind for future experience tliat should be acquired before specialization begins. The theory involved in the resolution I conceive to be absolutely at variance with the accepted theory. In the next place, the almost uni- versal practice of American schools is against the theory and practice set forth in the reso- lution. Before making this proposed expression of approval of differentiated courses, would it not be well to wait until these courses have been more fully tried ? I submit that the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association should not thus commit itself to what at best is only a very doubtful experiment. It was moved, seconded, and carried that all resolutions except No. 6 be adopted. It was moved, seconded, and carried that resolution No. 6 be adopted. President Snyder invited to the platform representatives of cities desiring to invite the Department of Superintendence for 1916. By vote of the department, each city was allowed five minutes for the presentation of its invitation. Detroit, Mich., Miami and Palm Beach, Fla., and Omaha, Nebr., extended invitations. It was voted that on suc- cessive ballots the city receiving the fewest votes should be withdrawn. On the first baUot, Detroit received 400 votes; Palm Beach, 190; Omaha, 176; Miami, 29. President Snyder declared Detroit to be the place of meeting for 1916. Rochester, N.Y., thru her mayor and Chamber of Commerce, sent an invitation for the 19 1 7 meeting. Secretary Springer introduced the following motion, which was carried: Resolved, That the request of the Commission on the International Congress on Edu- cation that the officers of this department take charge of the Congress on Professional Supervision of the Public Schools to be held at Oakland in August be granted. AFTERNOON SESSION— Thursday, February 25, 1915 The afternoon session was given to round tables as follows: (a) round table of state and county superintendents Chairman — Charles A. Greathouse, state superintendent of public instruction, Indianapolis, Ind. Topic: State School Codes a) "Financial Support of the Public Schools" — ^M. P. Shawkey, state superintendent of schools, Charleston, W.Va. b) "The Appointment, Salary, and Tenure of Teachers" — A. G. Yawberg, super- intendent of Cuyahoga County schools, Berea, Ohio. c) "The Selection of County Superintendents" — ^W. E. Chancellor, Hoge professor of political science. University of Wooster, Wooster, Ohio. d) "The Determination of the School District" — Francis G. Blair, state superin- tendent of public instruction, Springfield, 111. e) "The Supervision of Rural Schools" — ^J. George Becht, executive secretary, State Board of Education, Harrisburg, Pa. General discussion: Charles P. Cary, state superintendent of public instruction, Madison, Wis.; Jessie Yancey, superintendent of Mason Coimty schools, Maysville, Ky.; Arthur H. Chamberlain, secretary, California Council of Education, San Francisco, Cal.; Grace M. Shepherd, state superintendent of public instruction, Boise, Idaho; and John Enright, superintendent of Monmouth County schools. Freehold, N.J. (b) round table of superintendents of cities with a population of over 250,000 Chairman — Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich. "The Essence of Success in Evening Vocational Work" — Frederick H. Evans, principal of Vocational School, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, HI. 2S8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati "Illiteracy and Industrial Efl&ciency in Large Cities" — Albert Shiels, director, Division of Reference and Research, Department of Education, New York, N.Y. "The Education of Adult Immigrants" — Ben Blewett, superintendent of instruc- tion, public schools, St. Louis, Mo.; William M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.; P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C.; Lewis M. Dougan, principal, Shaw School, St. Louis, Mo. General discussion: Randall J. Condon, superintendent of schools, Cincinnati, Ohio; Elmer K. Sexton, assistant superintendent of schools, Newark, N.J.; H. H. Wheaton, specialist in immigrant education. United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C. (C) KOUND TABLE OP SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES WITH A POPULATION OP PROM 25,CXX> TO 250,000 Chairman — Frederick E. Downes, superintendent of schools, Harrisburg, Pa. Topic: Current Methods of Dealing with the Exceptional Pupil a) "The Backward Pupil" — ^Adelaide Steele Baylor, assistant state superintendent of public instruction, Indianapolis, Ind. b) "The Mentally Defective Pupil" — Frank B. Cooper, sup>erintendent of schools, Seattle, Wash. c) "The Delinquent Pupil" — George I. Aldrich, superintendent of schools, Brook- line, Mass. d) "The Anemic Pupil" — ^James E. Bryan, superintendent of schools, Camden, N.J. e) "The Bright PupU" — ^J. G. Collicott, superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, Ind. General discussion: Carey Boggess, superintendent of schools, Springfield, Ohio; Richard O. Stoops, superintendent of schools, Joliet, HI.; Edwin J. Brown, superintendent of schools, Dayton, Ohio; and Joseph M. Frost, superintendent of schools, Muskegon, Mich. (d) ROUND TABLE OP SUPERINTENDENTS OP CITIES WITH A POPULATION UNDER 25,000 Chairman — ^William McK. Vance, superintendent of schools, Delaware, Ohio. "Current Practices in the Appointment of Teachers" — ^William C. Griggs, superin- tendent of schools, Gadsden, Ala. "How Shall the Efficiency of Teachers Be Tested and Recorded ? "—Edward C. Elliott, director. Course for the Training of Teachers, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. "The Promotion of Teachers on the Basis of Merit and Efficiency" — Clyde C. Green, superintendent of schools, Beaver Falls, Pa. "A Satisfactory Basis for the Promotion of Pupils" — ^Joseph Rosier, superintendent of schools, Fairmont, W.Va. General discussion: A. C. Pa3Tie, superintendent of schools, Mooresville, Ind.; James T. Begg, superintendent of schools, Sandusky, Ohio; Henry M. Maxson, superin- tendent of schools, Plainfield, N.J.; J. T. Giles, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Ind.; J. Stanley Brown, superintendent. Township High School, Joliet, 111.; Walter S. Deffenbaugh, chief. Division of School Administration, United States Bureau of Educa- tion, Washington, D.C. (e) round TABLE OP CHILD RELATIONS Chairman — Reed B. Teitrick, deputy state superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa. "The Administration of Compulsory Attendance Laws" — S. O. Hartwell, superin- tendent of schools, Kalamazoo, Mich. Discussion: Homer O. Sluss, superintendent of schools, Covington, Ky. "The Issuance of Work Permits and Its Bearing on Other School Problems" — Helen T. Woolley, director. Bureau of Vocational Guidance, Cincinnati, Ohio. Discussion: Owen R. Lovejoy, general secretary. National Child Labor Committee, New York, N.Y.; Frances E. Walker, chief attendance officer, Rockford, HI.; Fred A. Verplanck, superintendent of schools, South Manchester, Coim. Sower to see things in the large. The teacher with pedagogical training thinks of his subject in terms of its relation to other subjects. He thinks of it in terms of its influence in the whole educational scheme. He knows education in his own county, city, and state, as well as in other states and coimtries. Larger niunbers of them feel the necessity of increasing their vision both by reading the literature of their special subjects and by the study of educational theories and tested facts. They err less frequently by building their work upon worn-out educational principles or a discarded psychology. In the list of psychical assets, open-mindedness to new truth must not be neglected. In the summer-school faculty, where are assembled the teachers from various t3^es of institutions, one may almost select those who have pedagogical training by their willingness to adopt new ideas, new plans, and new methods, and those who have not by their reluctance to give up theories and facts which have been foimd to be untrue. As a good illustration of this, one has but to follow the discussion of mental discipline and faculty psychology to prove the point. The theory of special disci- pline and the negation of the theory of general discipline have been more readily accepted in the teacher-training schools than elsewhere. Student- teachers do much more independent thinking than other students. The progressive spirit, then, is most prevalent among trained teachers. Nothing accounts for the progress of teacher training in this coimtry as contrasted with other forms of training so much as the progressive spirit which is prevalent among its devotees. The faculties of academic departments and Superintendence] INTANGIBLE ASSETS OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL 285 the departments of law in universities might learn profitable lessons from such open-mindedness and aggressiveness. One of the strongest characteristics of young prospective teachers which I have discovered in my visits to these schools is their power to generate enthusiasm for what seem to other people to be iminteresting endeavors. When one views the monotony of the teacher's tasks and the diflficulty of his imdertakings, he more highly prizes this asset. What school official anywhere, in what sort of school, would care for a teacher, however highly trained, of whom it could be said: "He has no enthusiasm for his profession and can arouse no emotion or affection for his subject" ? I know of no visit a man could make in order to discover more quickly in its essence the spirit of consecration than to the campus of some of the normal schools of America. The experienced visitor can almost distinguish the normal school from another institution of learning by this particular characteristic of its atmosphere. Its students have more desire for genuine service than college students of the usual type. This atmosphere of service is as striking as its buildings, its students, its faculty, its library, and its other physical facilities. The prospective teacher is doing things less for his own personal entertainment, or for the hope of social or financial reward, than any other type of student. This produces longer hours of work and more daring attempts for knowledge and power, a certain fidelity to thoro- ness, and definite eagerness for light to be carried to others. No class of students in America has higher moral standards or lives up to them more thoroly. Indeed, the teachers of America represent the most religious professional class which we have, except possibly the clergy. They are more responsive to the higher appeals of spirituality and person- ality. They may come from poorer homes, or from richer homes, from commimities of culture or the opposite; nevertheless, when they enter the campus where teachers are prepared, they enter and become part of a moral and religious atmosphere, so that very rarely will an irreligious or immoral student graduate from a normal school. This is the highest tribute that can be paid to these organizations exerting such a tremendous influence in the creation of good citizenship. Surely, if they so imiversally and per- fectly display this asset on their books, they are well worth the investment and well worth all the commendation of good men everywhere. There are many contributing causes to the high moral state prevailing in this type of school. Perhaps the requirements of society are heavier in their demands upon the teacher than upon others. The student-teacher is probably more generally poor than any other student; at the same time he is more uncertain of obtaining a lucrative position ; which is a combination of circumstances calculated to draw out the best there is in him, for in some strange way poverty, when combined with a moderate ambition and reasonable hope, presents a splendid basis for moral culture and integrity. 286 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cmcinnati In addition to this, it is well worth noticing that, more than other students, normal-school students are definitely interested in definite tasks with definite ends ahead of them. They have such a multitude of worthy and valuable interests that it less frequently occurs to them to seek those interests which are artificial and damaging to human character. May there not be a lesson to all schools in this fact ? If the students in all forms of school life were so busily engaged in doing things with which they are even in a small measure as delighted as are students in the normal schools, surely there would be no disciplinary measures or religious problems to exhaust the energies of faculties and school oflScials. In the end, the one supreme test to apply to any organization which has a right to exist in these United States is that of democracy. Nothing else counts in our land when that is lost. So long as this country hopes to survive and prosper in the struggle of the enlightening nations, so long must every institution be shot thru and thru with this vital principle. Democracy, then, must dictate the platform of oiu- political parties, order the cardinal tenets of our social structure, prescribe the creeds of our sacred religion, and permeate the fibers of all our cherished educational insti- tutions. The normal schools have not failed the Republic at this strategic point. For they are par excellence the democratic institutions of learning in America. Nowhere is the right to a hearing more generously accorded, nowhere is representation more certainly assured to every individual, nowhere is there a more charming intimacy and generous consideration for the opinions of others. The university president may autocratically lord it over his faculty; the executive of the college may become a martinet; the director of the technological school may engineer his schemes thru, but the president of a teacher-training school must deal fairly with his pupils and constantly weigh the opinions of his colleagues. The non-democratic teacher has no permanent abiding-place in the normal school. The students in these schools live to serve all the people, from whom they come and to whom they gladly return to offer themselves, so that every citizen of tomorrow may have his equal chance and his fair opportimity to develop the rarest qualities within him for the welfare of society and the upbuilding of the nation. When I observe the devotion of the students in our normal schools to the ideal of democracy and the advantageous use to which they apply it in their post-school careers, at such tremendous social, financial, and physical sacrifices, I heartily renew my allegiance to them and to the institutions that produce them. Supermtendence] TRAINING TEACHERS IN SERVICE 287 B. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE CALVIN N. KENDALL, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, TRENTON, N.J. If the work of schools is to be well done, the continued education of the teacher is fundamental. The training of teachers should not end with a normal-school or college diploma; it should not end with getting a life certificate; it should not end with experience; by no means should it end when one becomes a high-school teacher. Vast nimibers of teachers in American schools, however, are imtrained. The majority of teachers are young, if under thirty is young. The plain fact is that many now teaching have little ambition to make themselves more capable. We cannot shut our eyes to this. Many, perhaps the majority, regard teaching as a temporary vocation. As has been pointed out, the average service of a teacher is only five years. But the number of teachers with a professional attitude is increasing, and they respond eagerly to good supervision when they are fortimate enough to have it. The important duty is to develop teachers in classroom service. That duty is squarely up to the superintendent. It is so close, however, that it may be overlooked. A pressing need of the schools is to do better work in the plain things. Anything half done or poorly done spells inefficiency. So long as reading and geography and English composition and arith- metic occupy so large a space in our elementary programs^ so long must the energies of superintendents be directed to secure the best kind of teaching in these and kindred subjects. This means training teachers in service. We must not allow oiurselves to become so engrossed in organization and administration and school extension as to cause us to forget that organiza- tion and administration and extension are only half oiu* work. The other half is bringing about supervision that helps teachers in all schools. Some of these teachers are in kindergartens, some in school kitchens, in school shops, and in continuation schools; others are in high schools, in the third grade, in the seventh grade, in rural schools. School systems cannot rise to their proper level unless the main stress is put, not upon administration, but upon good teaching. The best of school systems, all other things being equal, is the one which makes the most of whatever potential talent there may be among teachers. Now what are the means that may be employed for the training of teachers in service ? In order to verify or modify my own convictions, I addressed letters to certain teachers in ten representative school systems in the country, inviting a frank expres.sion of their views. Similar letters were also addressed to several superintendents in charge of school systems somewhat widely recognized as progressive systems. What follows is a mixture of my own convictions with a consensus of opinions received. 288 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati Summarized, there seem to be two widely recognized means of improv- ing teachers in service: 1, The means that bear directly upon the art of teaching; the means that make for increased schoolroom efficiency this week and next week. 2. The means employed to increase the personal worth of a teacher, to enlarge her interests, to improve her general scholarship, to widen her vision, to give her broader culture (if I may be permitted to use the word), to furnish individual resources. This latter means has for its purpose a more abundant life. It is not imrelated to efficiency in the classroom; it is not unrelated to making teaching more attractive to high-grade men and women. In passing, let me express my strong conviction that, in view of prevailing economic and social conditions, the question of making teaching attractive cannot be safely ignored. One reason is the competition of the increased number of occupations now open to women as well as men. Addressing myself to the direct means of improving teachers in service, I have time to mention only the quality of the supervision, meetings of teachers, and investigation and study by teachers of certain school problems. There appear to be two kinds of supervision, or supervision so called: First, there is the inspectorial kind. Teachers too commonly say that in their teaching experience they have had no criticism, no commendation, no suggestion, no opinion, from any supervisory officer as to methods or results. Such supervision is dormant, inactive. It may indeed create good conditions under which teachers may do their work, but it fails to affect in any appreciable degree the quality of instruction. Teachers speak of constructive supervision and its value, but some of them say they do not get it. Second, there is the kind of supervision that inspires teachers by means of active, positive, constructive leadership; the kind that gives teachers confidence in themselves, especially those who are young and inexperienced; the kind that encourages teachers to make use of the lessons of their own experience; the kind that is humane; the kind that knows that the evolu- tion of a good teacher is a slow process; the kind that is patient, that is not unforgetful of the demands made upon teachers; the kind that has a sense of hiunor. What is the attitude of the teacher toward criticism ? Let her speak for herself. She admits that it is a difficult matter; she says that it depends largely upon the person who gives it; that if it is intelligent and impersonal she welcomes it. Says a grade teacher who is one of the best in her city, "A child is too valuable an asset to suffer from careless teaching." And what is the attitude toward commendation ? One good teacher, with much insight into human nature, says: "Criticism is bad enough when accompanied with a little commendation, but positively deadening without it." Superintendence] TRAINING TEACHERS IN SERVICE 289 Says President Eliot in a fine passage relative to criticism, too long to quote here in full: The faculty for discerning quickly and surely excellences and virtues in persons, peoples, nature, and art is an immeasurably more valuable and useful faculty than the faculty for seeing weaknesses and sins. It ought to be carefully and incessantly culti- vated by school, college, and the experience of life, for it is capable of contributing greatly to happiness as well as to material success. The faculty of discerning and using con- spicuous merit in other people distinguishes the most successful administrators, rulers, and men of business. If commendation is worthily bestowed, it is a real tonic to teachers; nor is it without a tonic effect upon superintendents, if we would admit it. To deny the truth of this is to deny hiunan nature. And yet it is not difficult to procure testimony — and that in too great abundance — that some teachers go on year after year without commendation. Teachers testify to the inspiration for growth that comes from children. But the satisfaction and happiness so desirable for the growth of teachers that come from work with children are enormously enhanced by the expres- sion of appreciation. The increasing and expanding duties of what I deem to be the greatest local office in a municipality, that of superintendent of schools, will finally tell heavily upon the real efficiency of schools if these duties cause any diminution of interest in the supremely important effort to secure better day-by-day teaching, not in some departments or schools but in all. The coimtry needs more facilities for the training of supervisors and superintendents. To be sure, this training should rest upon practical experience in teaching, but the supervisor should have a definite profes- sional equipment as well, an equipment that will sometime be measured not merely by successful experience in teaching. We need more well- trained women for the supervision of the work of teaching younger children. The natural handicaps to efficient supervision in primary grades by men are so formidable that women may well be left in possession of the field. Teachers' meetings as a means of promoting growth seem to hold, in the minds of teachers, a subordinate place to good classroom supervision. This subject is too large to be adequately discussed here. These meetings, however, should have point, purpose, brevity. They should stop when finished. They should not be held after school hours only. It is not easy to accomplish serious work or do constructive thinking after what should have been a hard day's work in the schoolroom. The early afternoon is a better time. The net effect of a teachers' meeting should be to encourage teachers. Meetings should inspire confidence: "Too much theory," "Too much talking," "Too much holding the floor by the superintendent" — these are quotations. Here is another quotation: "The cry of the teacher in the ranks seems to be for the concrete expression of a theory." Overwhelming indeed is the evidence that teachers approve strongly of the demonstration lessons with classes of children, provided the lessons are 290 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati given under as natural conditions as circumstances permit, not forgetting the suspicion that is caused by such a performance if the children, and the teacher herself, make no mistakes. The organization of teachers into committees for the co-operative plan- ning of courses of study is a means of teacher training. In Buffalo this year such committees have been given definite assignments for the study and investigation of certain school problems. In Boston, at present, forty committees, which include in all four hundred teachers, are working on various problems connected with a proposed revision of the course of study in that city. This is not working along the line of least resistance in framing a course of study. It is a comparatively slow way, but there seems to be little doubt that it is an effective method of promoting the growth of teachers, to say nothing of other considerations. In my own state a super- intendent says: I never bother my head about the general efficiency of a teacher who has become sufficiently interested in her problem to make a study of some one question which she is actually fadng. It really makes little difference what the question is; the important fact is her own mental attitude. Such a condition as this implies direct encouragement on the part of the superintendent in teacher investigations, and a sufficient knowledge of statistical methods to give her direct help. Some representative undertakings the current year in that particular system are: compilation of a list of library books which have proved interesting to children in the different grades; a comparison by Binet test of the same pupil year by year, question by question; the effect of definite drill in teaching pupils how to study on their ability to pick out the essential ideas in geography and history; the relative effect of two different systems of reading determined by the extent of the child's vocabulary at the end of a stated period of time; variations in marks given by different teachers; and the development of fatigue during a session measured by accuracy in marking out " A's." There remains to consider — and necessarily in brief compass — the second of the means already indicated of training teachers in service. Here belong facilities for giving teachers increased personal resources, if not professional ones. These means are well known. A mere enumeration of some of them are: summer schools; study classes, conducted perhaps by the superin- tendent, the principal, or the high-school teachers of history, literature, and art; university extension courses; reading circles; lecture courses; leaves of absence for study or travel; institutes for business, not for entertain- ment; the sabbatical year with part pay, which will probably become more common. Some of the courses taken may be used for credit in a college or uni- versity course or on a teacher's or principal's certificate. They obviously serve in this way a double purpose. A school system which can avail itself Superintendence] TRAINING TEACHERS IN SERVICE 291 of the services of live, wide-awake college professors for work with its teachers is fortunate. In my own state last year there were fourteen hun- dred teachers who were students in sununer schools. There were four well-attended schools operated by the state. More than a thousand New Jersey teachers are this year availing themselves of university extension courses. Mention may be made of the scholarships for teachers in service that have been established thru private sources in Indianapolis and Pittsburgh. In the former city, teachers have by this means been enabled to study at universities, not only in this country, but, in two or three instances, in Germany. I was particularly interested by the statement of a teacher in one of the most noted school systems in New England, who expressed appreciation of the value to her of a correspondence course at a western university. When will it be possible for every state to offer to teachers in rural schools assistance by correspondence? The literature relative to schools and to teaching has of late become so extensive and so good that there is no reason why teachers should not every year read or study some of it. We are beginning to be embarrassed with riches in this field, but this welcome embarrassment is comparatively new. I recall that during my first superintendency, which happened to be in southern Michigan, I asked William H. Payne, head of the Department of Education in the University of Michigan, what work I should attempt to do in the way of study classes with a corps of forty teachers. I have never forgotten his reply, which was in substance: "It does not make so much difference what you do. The main thing is to do something. Let it be Spanish if you like." I remember that we studied, in alternate weeks, Baldwin's Psychology as Related to Teaching and Bryce's American Commonwealth, which had just appeared. Indicative of some special efforts for the improvement of teachers in service, it may be mentioned that in New York City an organized attempt is being made this current year to train regular teachers for special subject teaching. To one of the training schools are sent one day each week during the year thirty teachers who are believed to have special ability in music and physical training. They there receive special instruction in these subjects with the purpose of becoming departmental teachers. One conspicuous leader in education believes that the board of educa- tion should have direct or definite control of the teacher's time to the extent that part of the summer vacation should be especially devoted to study or professional improvement, and that the teacher's contract should call for service a week or two before the beginning of the school year. A teacher in St. Paul suggested that an exchange of teachers between different cities or towns would be productive of growth. I do not know to what extent this has been carried on, but it is worthy of consideration. 292 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION fCincinnati Finally, the conditions under which teachers do their work influence their growth. If these conditions are attractive, an environment is created in which efficiency grows. The number of children the teacher is required to teach is one factor here. The establishment in the system of special classes for defective or backward children, thus withdrawing them at least for a time from the regular classes, is a factor. Well-lighted, well-ventilated, well-kept, and attractive schoolrooms, with restrooms with sanitary and other conveniences, are other factors. A pension system, freedom from politics and pull in the promotion of teachers, a tenure of service law, so framed that it protects not only teachers but children as well, are other fac- tors which cannot be overlooked in a consideration of the growth of teachers in service. TOPIC: VOCATIONAL EDUCATION A. A STATE PROGRAM FOR INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL EFFICIENCY ARTHUR D. DEAN, CHIEr, DIVISION OF VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS, STATE EDUCA- TION DEPARTMENT, ALBANY, N.Y. How a state may consciously and consistently evolve a program for developing industrial and social efficiency is a large question. Our special concern today is the share that education is to have in such program-making. The industrial world moves on while we hesitate over such matters as "aims of education," "relation of the school to the community," "the six-and-six plan." The educational world is slow. A study of this splendid program shows that we are just realizing the importance of the constructive policies which were proposed thirty years ago by individuals who failed at that time to stand pat. All this time the industrial god has been at work, and are we keeping up with him ? The industrial god is not discussing pros and cons. Its program is far-reaching. It has steel birds swooping upon defenseless cities; iron swordfish which hunger for armored plates; skyscrapers that touch stars. It has an electric speech which brings the soxmd of the Liberty Bell of a Philadelphia to the World's Fair of a San Francisco. It has visualized on a screen the life-history of a housefly which repeats itself for a nickel. It has wormed its way beneath flowing waters and has bridged, with sweeping curves, broad rivers. It has made automatic the crafts of a Barnabas; has brought to all the labored script of a monastery. Yes, and this god has made and vmmade men and women. It has made blood and spirit of little girls into artificial flowers for a few bits of copper. It has used the nimble fingers of four-year-olds in tying knots for willow plimies that some social leader might preside at a child-labor conference. It has taken the tan of a youth and turned it into the pallor of a mine boy. Superintendence] INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL EFFICIENCY PROGRAM 293 It has made millions work overtime in a busy period at a seasonal trade only to bring idleness and viciousness in a dull one. Wonderful god! nearly everybody works for him. Some worship his graven image; a few study the workings of his mechanical mind, hoping to discover a lubricant of sympathy and hmnan interest. An industrial relations commission is seeking, as all good investigators should, to get to the foundations and has learned that every social and industrial and economic question is within the field of vision of this god. But we are beginning to guide this all-powerful personage. According to some connected with big business, our Schoolmaster President has been the one who put the "sigh" into psychology, but, be that as it may, his attitude is but the concrete expression of many forces of public opinion which are now saying that industry exists for the people and not the people for industry; thatbusinessis the servant and not the master; that demands are to be human and not always material. We are about to say that the purpose of all activity is the increase of human wealth; that the dollar sign must find its final expression, not in figures, but in streets, schools, libraries, churches, musemns, playgrounds; in music, art, literature — in the people themselves. And this conception of human needs in an industrial age is finding con- crete expression in legislative halls. The industrial betterment program is broadening its course of study, inserting new subject-matter, differentiating its activities, developing policies for a new order of things. This program recognizes that the industrial god needs redirecting and that the people who now do his bidding must be helped — so helped that some day industry will express the consciousness of the people. The state is beginning to "personally conduct" industry, at least in so far as concerns questions relating to the conditions under which its people shall work. The state is either discussing or enacting laws relative to minimum wage, working- men's compensation, factory inspection, industrial insurance, apprentice- ship, occupational diseases, collective bargaining, child labor, mothers' pensions. Note that all of these things are a part of a state-wide program appli- cable to all people of the individual state, the benefit and the tax to fall upon all concerned. It waits not for its successes upon the theory of local option of individuals or communities. It rests not upon prejudice, tra- ditions, local boards, ward politics. Once enacted, academic discussion is ended. It moves with the strength and speed of the industrial god. Perhaps we say it is all folly, too rapid. We would hesitate and discuss it academically and earnestly as we do the relation between the high school and college or between business and the church. But the industrial better- ment program takes its cue from its teacher, the industrial god — a god which works universally, constantly, irresistibly. The enacted and pro- posed legislation for industrial betterment is to work universally, constantly, 294 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati irresistibly on the theory that the universality or democratization of the human benefits which might come from industry must be as clearly defined and irresistibly applied as the evils which have been incident to industry. Meanwhile where is oiur educational program ? Have we a state-wide program which will turn a share of the profits of industry into educational opportimities for all the children of all the people ? I think it reasonable to say that we have not consciously thought of such. This is not saying that individual cities have not established such a program. But the state as a whole — ^where does it stand ? Has it a minimum education law which it enforces? Has it a teachers' compensation law; a school inspection law; occupational education law; teachers' pension law; adolescent educa- tion program; medical inspection law? Generally speaking the states have no such program. The educational program is still on a local option basis. It still rests upon either prejudice and tradition, or local initiative and foresight. Meanwhile, to repeat, industry of the good and of the evil sort is state-wide in its workings. Meanwhile legis- lation looking to industrial betterment is state-wide in its consideration. And the educational program, far more disjointed than the trolley systems of a state, still has its high spots of efficiency and effectiveness only in individual communities — ignoring the possibilities of a state-wide system of tnmk lines reaching every hamlet and every person. If, for example, our good-schools movement in the Empire State could have a $200,000,000 issue of bonds corresponding to the good roads issue of bonds, or a $130,- 000,000 issue similar to the barge canal bonds, in order that means could be provided to carry our youth to better schools, to finer ideals, to more prac- tical and far-reaching benefits to childhood, we would indeed be making progress. Picture three parallel columns. In the first column, place all the state- wide changes which have taken place imder the name of industrial progress; in the second, all the legislation which has been or is about to be enacted for the state-wide industrial and social advance of workers ; in the third, all the state-wide programs for the educational advantage of our youth and adults, and you will see how far behind we are as states in the conservation and the increasing of hmnan wealth as it might be influenced by the public-school system. Industry neither argues nor sleeps. It works. Labor unions argue long and earnestly and then place their final word into a workingmen's compensation law. Social workers confer and confer and confer again; and behold, the state has a child-labor law, or a widows' pension, or a mini- mmn wage. But we — ? Of course the states have done something — some far more than others. I should be the last to deny that. The progressive ones are those which consider that education is the affair of the state; that the child is not to be disadvantaged by the community in which he happens to be born; that Superintendence] INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL EFFICIENCY PROGRAM 295 medical inspection is as important as factory inspection; that fire escapes on schoolhouses are as important as those on a factory; that a decent wage for women teachers is as necessary as for the shop girl; that a system of taxation for supporting good consolidated schools is as beneficial as a state highway system; that certified teachers are as worthy of consideration as certified milk; that a free university training in liberal subjects is as reasonable as a free college training in agriculture; that extension service for the mechanic is as sensible as that for the farmer. It is such things as these which make up to a considerable extent a program for industrial and social efficiency. There is one article of a state educational program to which I would call your special attention — an article which would place educational thought on the same plane with that section of the industrial betterment platform dealing with child labor. I refer to the question of child labor in its relation to education. This article might have the following sections; 1. That the education of yoxing people is of public concern and that it consists of more than the training received in the all-day school and consequently the school must assume a guardianship of its youth beyond the period of day schooling. 2. That the purpose of employment of children up to eighteen years of age is for the benefit of the child, forms a part of his educative process, and involves a consideration of the most important question of how far employment in occupations suitable to childhood can be made educative. 3. That no child is to go to work imtil he has reached a certain maturity, the degree of which is not to be fixed entirely by age limitations. 4. That no child is to go to work until he is physically fit to enter upon an occupational life. 5. That children are to work only in those occupations which have been approved after investigation by the state department of labor, a list of such occupations to be on file in the oflSce of the local superintendent of schools. 6. That children are to work only in those local places of productive and distributive labor the physical and moral conditions of which have been favorably reported upon by the state labor department and the names of which are on file in the ofl&ce of the local superin- tendent of schools. 7. That no child is to go to work until he has an employment certificate entitling him to work at a specific occupation for a specific employer. Every month the certificate is to be renewed or indorsed at the office of the superintendent of schools and due note to be taken relative to the change of process or occupation to which the child 'has been assigned. 8. That no child of normal health is to remain idle, for immediately after the child has ceased to be employed the employer is to notify the local school authorities and the child is to return to his proper grade in the regular schools or in special classes organized for such children. 9. That when a child goes to work he is to work the first year at profitable employ- ment for not more than one-half of the time formerly provided for in the child-labor law; that the second year the child is to be employed not more than two-thirds of the time formerly provided for such emplo)Tnent; that in the third year the child is to be employed not more than three-fourths of the time formerly provided and that not until the child is eighteen is he to work in profitable employment for a full working day. 296 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ICbcinnati 10. That a child is to spend in school the difference between the time when he would legally be at work if section 9 did not prevail and the time when he is at work after section 10 prevails. 11. That the school instruction for such young people is to have any one or a com- bination of any of the plans herein set forth. To wit: (a) that the school work is to continue along lines of general education; or, (6) that it is to give prevocational training which will assist the young worker in determining his vocational qualifications for a particular occupation; or, (c) that it is to give trade or occupational extension work in order that he may be more proficient in the occupation at which he is now engaged. Much has been left unsaid m outlining even the twelve sections of one article of an educational program which will make for industrial and social efficiency at least in so far as it concerns youthful workers in trade and industry. This and other articles will be written on the statute books of progressive states and it is then and then only that we will approach the solution of those industrial problems which properly belong to the educa- tional forces. In conclusion, we must remember that the state is to do everything in its power to make the child able to meet the physical and mental emer- gencies of life adequately; make him acquainted with Mother Earth and her generous boimty by actual work on the soil; make him happy in the joy of cheerful labor; assist him in learning to use the eye and hand in useful yet beautiful craft work; bring him to the point of enjoying that character-building which comes only with actual participation in the processes of feeling, seeing, thinking, doing; help him discover his aptitudes and interests, and send him on the road to a vocation with some knowl- edge of its direction and some proficiency in walking thereon. These are some of the steps in the educative process which will make for an increase of human wealth. Gradually we are gaining ground. Gradually we are attaining a con- ception of democracy in education. We started out to make gentlemen as in the days of Sirach; then thinkers as in the days of the academy; now we are placing emphasis on vocational training. Some day let us hope education may be such that all men will be gentlemen, all liberal in their mental attitude, all vocationally directed. B. THE EVOLUTION OF THE TRAINING OF THE WORKER IN INDUSTRY CHARLES A. PROSSER, SECRETARY, NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE PROMOTION OP INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, NEW YORK, N.Y. The century that gave us Shakespeare and Bacon had economic and social problems of the same general character as those of our times — the decay of towns, the social unrest, the instability of the rural population, the increase of pauperism and unemployment, and the diminution, actual Superintendence] TRAINING THE WORKER IN INDUSTRY 297 and feared, of industrial skill. The Elizabethans established a system of compulsory apprenticeship to solve them, which embodied a philosophy and established general policies with regard to child labor and child train- ing in industry to which we must give heed before we can meet successfully the same question. The Elizabethan statute of compulsory apprenticeship was the expression of the experience of the English nation stretching over a period of more than two centuries with regard to the employment and education of children for industry. In a primitive age it asserted certain fundamental principles concerning the relation of the state to the training and conservation of youth which are no less true and applicable in our own day. 1. A nation-wide system of industrial education is necessary to the eco- nomic prosperity and supremacy of the country. The chief reason for making apprenticeship compulsory was without doubt that of promoting England's trade supremacy by the heightened skill of her workers. Already experi- ence had taught the nation that thoro and systematic training was necessary then, as it is now, to the efficiency of her craftsmen. The ability to compete in the markets of the world was then, as it is now, dependent upon the ability of her workers to produce more goods of a better quality than her competitors. The prosperity of the local communities was dependent then as now upon the intelligence and dexterity of the workers in their struggling industries. England's place in the sun, like that of any people past or present, depended first and foremost upon the prosperity of her working people. Industrial education in Germany is based squarely upon this idea and the growing movement here for state and national grants to aid local conmaunities in the support and supervision of vocational education is an assertion of the same principle. 2. Governmental control and regulation of the employment and training of the youth in industry is necessary to the accomplishment of a nation-wide system of industrial education. England adopted compulsory apprentice- ship partly because the trades left to themselves had failed to maintain the control of a system of industrial training adequate to meet the growing needs of a manufacturing and commercial people. The German experience has been no less significant. Germany at first endeavored in vain to develop, thru the voluntary co-operation of the employer with the schools, opportunities for the training of her industrial workers. Then the farseeing Bismarck, recognizing the need of state control and regulation, established the compulsory continuation schools which have played such a large part in the commercial supremacy of modem Germany. For ten years the advocates of industrial education have carried on a propaganda in the country which has taken hold of the imagination of the American people as probably no other movement in education has ever done. Nevertheless it is doubtful whether, as the result of the voluntary activities of schools and shops, there are today, in the whole United States, 298 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati facilities and opportunities for the industrial training of even twenty-five thousand workers. And there are more than twelve million to be reached! Nothing short of legislation compelling town and shop, parent and child, to co-operate in the tasks will ever give to us, as it gave to early England and modem Germany, a national system of industrial education. 3. Training for industry and the labor of children in industry are matters of public concern which the state has the duty as well as the right to control, as far cts the welfare of the youth and the public good may require. The Eliza- bethan state secured this control by binding every child entering industry for at least seven years to a master upon whom was placed the responsibility for his care and education. The master's obligation was enforced thru the local guilds, who, in an impoverished age, unable to employ public insp)ectors, supervised as self-appointed searchers — forenmners of the modem factory inspectors — the shops of the crafts which they represented. This they did partly to determine and insure the quality of the work and partly to see to it that the young worker received the kind of treatment and training guaranteed to him by his indenture. This was a degree of supervision which was not ventured upon by the reformers of the nineteenth century, nor even by those of the twentieth century, who are most keenly alive to the evils of child labor. 4. The child is the ward of society over whom the state should assert such a guardianship both in his employment and in his education as may be neces- sary to make him a responsible citizen and an intelligent worker. In the Elizabethan apprenticeship, the state exercised a wardship over the youth in industry more comprehensive and systematic than any other since the days of Sparta. This wardship, delegated by the contract of indenture into the hands of the master, extended from the first day the first papers of the apprentice were signed until he had arrived at the mature age of twenty-four, and covered in the most intimate way every feature of his life as an adolescent and as a worker. We have no equivalent to this in modem industrial life. The nearest approach to it lies in the series of prohibitory measures by which the state has sought to protect the employed youth against the dangers of his work. 5. The primary purpose of the youth in industry should not be immediate profit to his employer or to society but preparation for life and for labor, and his career cts a young worker should be controlled and supervised by the state so as to insure this end. The Elizabethan apprentice was a learner exchanging his service to the master for an education which was both civic and voca- tional. In the home of the master the apprentice received the best gen- eral training fitting him for the exercise of the civic virtues which the age afforded. In fact apprenticeship was the only means by which the employed youth might come into the privileges and responsibiUties of citizenship as a freeman of the town. The statute required the master to teach him a trade in return for his labor, prescribed that only properly qualified masters Supermtendence] TRAINING THE WORKER IN INDUSTRY 299 should undertake this education, and provided for the systematic inspec- tion of their work as teachers of the trade. The modem child in industry is from the start a wage-earner on his own account, bartering his service in our great child-employing industries for money instead of preparation for life. The Elizabethan system of compulsory apprenticeship established a national system of training in industrial education for the masses of England which cost the government practically nothing during the centuries it flourished. The misuse and misdirection of child labor was prevented; unemployment was lessened; the property of industrial towns falling into decay was improved; the wastage of industry was reduced; and the foundations were laid for the intelligence and skill that have wrought the marvelous industrial and economic expansion of modem England. The state provided a systematic means by which the child should make his way into industry. In a sense it was an organized scheme of vocational guidance which undoubtedly resulted in a very careful consideration of each case by all interested parties before final papers were signed. "Regula- tion was introduced over the whole field of industrial juvenile labor." The casual and shifting emplojonent so injurious to character in our own day was prohibited by binding the young worker to the trade and binding the master to him during the period of his training. The period of demorali- zation now so common among young workers was avoided by making the master legally responsible for the conduct of the apprentice until long after he had attained his majority. "Tho there were individual cases of ill- treatment, the youth received a fair return for his labor in self-support and education." All the children who became apprenticed were certain of thorogoing training for a work in life, after employment, and a permanent career. The active supervision by the guilds prevented the sweating master from exploiting his apprentices. During the centuries when opinion was probably hardest toward youth and when there was least idea that child labor might be harmful, the conditions were even minutely regulated. This regulation must have had considerable influence in mitigating or preventing the ill effect of children's work. In fact, apprenticeship had a eugenic value. In spite of its excellence as a system of industrial education, it must be admitted that the compulsory apprenticeship of the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries was by no means a universal solution of the problems of child labor and education. It did not include the children engaged in agriculture. There were in those days, as now, many unskilled occu- pations. Employment in these was wholly unregulated. The story of apprenticeship is at best only the story of the more fortunate leamer of the skilled trade. Compulsory apprenticeship foundered and slowly went to pieces on the rocks and shoals of capitalism. The eighteenth century, an age of simple 300 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati industrial processes, compared with the nineteenth, was the scene of the disaster. While there were other contributory causes, capitaUsm broke down the guild organization of industry and with it went the system of training yoimg workers which the guild had protected and enforced for more than eight decades. Capital, in a laissez-faire age, was unwilling, as it now is, to be controlled by any organization as to the number of workmen it might employ or the amount of goods it might sell. When the employer or the corporation equipped with large capital took the place of the master, the old domestic and paternal relation to the appren- tice disappeared. With the old personal bond went the sense of responsi- bility for the welfare of the worker, for his preparation for joumeymanship, and for the integrity of the craft. Eager for large profits and immediate returns, the capitalist, then as now, looked upon the preparation of young workers as an investment for the future which he was quite willing, in fact more than eager, for others to make but which he regarded as an overhead charge on his business, too remote in its return to justify the expense and trouble of dealing with it. Fourteen years after the opening of the nineteenth century, the English Parliament repeated the then obsolete statute of compulsory apprenticeship. Voluntary apprenticeship by special contract between the employer and the youth, which had grown up in the declining days of the guilds, became the method by which, since that time, a few of the trades and industries in decreasing degree have prepared "new workers." Here and there are excellent examples of industrial efforts to meet the needs of particular establishments or of national or local organizations by schemes which from the standpoint of efficient vocational training are undoubtedly far better than most of the instruction under the Elizabethan plan. But these usually deal with the small selected groups of young people and reach only a very small part of the total workers in the highly skilled trades, while the low- grade skilled and unskilled occupations in which the great mass of wage- earners toil are entirely neglected. In England less than 7 per cent of the workmen in the highly skilled trades have served an apprenticeship. In the state of New York there was in 1908 less than one apprentice for every twenty journeymen in a small group of highly skilled callings. The United States census reports that in 1909-10 there was in the whole United States a total of 77,371 apprentices, both indentured and uninden- tured, an average of only one for every 322 workers of the more than twenty- five million people employed in gainful occupations other than agriculture, yet nearly every state in the Union has on its statute books legislation enacted for the purpose of encouraging indentured apprenticeship but now long since obsolete. The effort to revive the old plan of training workers is interesting as an experiment but must of necessity fail to accomplish by legislative fiat that which industrial and economic conditions have made I I Superintendence] TRAINING THE WORKER IN INDUSTRY 301 impossible as a large solution of the present-day problem of training workers. The indifference of capitalism and the aggressive spirit of individualism which, spite of many splendid examples to the contrary, have usually opposed, whenever personal interests were at stake, the effort of society to regulate business for the conservation of either our natural resources or of human kind — these have been, in the last analysis, the moving cause of the utter lack of systematic training for the great mass of modem workers. Large-scale production, extreme division of labor, and the specialized machine, themselves the product of capitalism, broke down the old crafts where apprenticeship flourished. They made men into machine workers no longer able to learn the whole trade, and increased the demand for a kind of unskilled labor which untrained children and women can perform better than a man. Even where apprenticeship lingers, it is too often a method of procuring cheap labor which evidences a decay in the quality of the thing. Desire of freedom from restraint spread to the young worker himself, who, as a free American, became more and more unwilling to bind himself to a system of training which he chose to call "wage slavery." The immediate rewards in wage for emplo3anent in special tasks are more attractive than the remote benefits of a preparation for a trade. Like his employer, he too has learned to set the seen returns of the moment above the unseen rewards of the future. Blinded by the material evidences of our material prosperity, public opinion for a long time believed that unregulated child labor was not only harmless but a good experience, valuable and necessary as a training for life. It is not the employer but the spirit of the age which has been to blame for the overworking of children during their tender years and for the total disregard of what becomes of them afterward. The very nature of our present industrial organization makes impos- sible a return to apprenticeship as a device for either the protection or the education of young workers. With the introduction of machinery, a child no longer served as an assistant toa master, but as a principal, performing almost entirely without direction a simple and highly specialized task. A few apprentices to the trade still survive — ^relics of an earlier day when youth entered industry as a learner of a highly skilled process. But far more significant is the great army of literally hundreds of thousands of our children who are no longer employed in industry as learners, but, in a sense, as independent workers in a multitude of socially and economically impor- tant but simple occupations. Widely as the conditions under which they manifest themselves differ, we are confronted with many of the same economic and social problems which the Elizabethan statute was aimed to meet. Our volimtary efforts to train young workers have failed and experience shows will continue to fail to produce anything approaching either a state-wide or a nation-wide system of vocational education that is for any occupation in which the 302 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincmnati masses toil. Even more acute and difficult with us is the task of supply- ing our industries or of the industries supplying themselves with the trained workers necessary to the conmiercial prosperity and progress of the nation. Unemployment shows its grizzled head in a much more exten- sive and dangerous form in the day of large cities and increasing influx of foreign and ignorant labor. The social xmrest of the working class whose roots always lie deep in the lack of an economic independence among the masses that can only come from efficiency born of training strikes at the very foundation of the Republic. Vocational guidance and placement of youth have become an even more necessary and certainly a much more difficult service in an age when the home has lost the ability to cope with the complex conditions of modem industry and capitalism has to a great extent lost the old sense of personal responsibility for the education and guidance of the yoimg worker. The complicated problems of modem democracy demand a more enlight- ened citizenship than the world has yet known. The age of Elizabeth recog- nized this same need and met it by a system of compulsory education, giving both civic and trade training which afforded practically the only means by which the working boy might come into the privileges of citizenship as a freeman of the town. In the declining days of compulsory apprenticeship the strongest argument made for its continuance was that it was necessary as a means of preparing the youth of the day for participation in the duties and responsibilities of a citizen of the realm. Our American method has been to abandon the adolescent at the age of fourteen, entirely without supervision and instruction, to an industrial system that has long ceased to give either any systematic, general, or vocational training. Spite of the splendid victories which the child-labor movement has already gained for the protection of the employed child, nothing is clearer today than that prohibitory legislation alone cannot prevent the exploitation for personal rather than social ends, the shifting employment, the wasted years, the misdirected efforts, and shortened and decreased proficiency at the upper end of the career of the yoimg worker, which our age has almost come to regard as a necessary tho regrettable feature of many of the child- employing industries. The statute of Elizabeth, as has already been shown, undertook to meet these conditions by directly raising the age of entrance far above the custom of the day in imregulated industry, requiring a seven- year service imder a single employer, supervising the training of the appren- tice, protecting him in his employment, and insuring for him a fair return for his labor after employment and a permanent career. We have dealt with the misuse and misdirection of child labor thus far almost entirely by prohibiting legislation raising the age of entrance into industry, regulat- ing the physical conditions of employment, and preventing the use of the child in certain occupations dangerous to health or life or morals. Even Superintendence] TRAINING THE WORKER IN INDUSTRY 303 these reforms have been spasmodic and piecemeal, differing widely for different states and for different industries. It was natural that the child- labor movement, crying out against the awful conditions of the nineteenth century, some of which in lessened degree still linger, should divert its efforts almost entirely to legislation prohibiting the most flagrant abuses. The time has come for the twentieth century to treat industry in such a way as not only to protect the child, but, in addition, to make it, as did the Elizabethan statute, an important and responsible part of the machinery of the state for the civic and vocational education of young workers. How shall this be accomplished ? A return to the old compulsory system of apprenticeship is, of course, out of the question. The same causes which brought about its overthrow are present to an ever-increasing degree in our social and economic life and make a system of voluntary apprenticeship equally impossible as any large solution of the question of training even our skilled workers. No successful system of apprenticeship has ever been discovered for any other than the highly skilled trade. A nation-wide system of volimtary appren- ticeship would, at the best, reach only a small part of the great army of employed children. We cannot look to the industries imaided by the public schools to give the employed youth either the civic or vocational education he needs and to which he is justly entitled. The state owes the same duty in providing thoro training in citizenship for the young wage-worker as it does to the youth who remains in school. Even where apprenticeship still exists in the skilled trades, many large corporations have found it necessary to develop a special school of their own to teach the technical knowledge which the industry alone never has and probably never will be able to give. The schools can never reach the great mass of employed youth, as long as they must rely upon the voluntary co-operation of industry. The number of employers who feel that there should be greater regulation of the train- ing of the working child is growing; but most of them feel unable and imwill- ing to cope with the problem singly and will welcome legislation removing the matter from the field of competition between plants by making the same requirements upon all. Entirely aside from the need of close contact with the real industry in discharging the task, the schools have neither the resources nor the equipment with which to undertake the training of the great mass of wage-workers. The state needs, first of all, a program for the conservation of the employed child far more even than a plan of action in protecting its natural resources — a program that will deal with the employment and education of the young worker in a constructive rather than a merely prohibitory way. This program should be founded upon a soimd social philosophy and be put into effect in such ways as to win and hold the united support of all the interests which are today concerned with the adolescent boy and 304 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cmcinnati girl. In order that it may speak in terms of the quickened conscience and widening vision of the twentieth century, that philosophy should be stated in terms of the conservation of childhood. The chief asset of the state is its children. They are the raw material out of which the state, like a living body, renews itself. In the interest of self-preservation and efficiency, the state has always asserted the right, in an increasing degree, to control the life of the child to such an extent and by such means as it deemed necessary to accomplish both these ends. This attitude of the state toward the child is merely one phase of the asser- tion of the right of the state to control all its citizens for the same end. The proper conservation of the boys and girls of today, who are to be the men and women of tomorrow, is of far greater importance to the eco- nomic as well as the social well-being of the state than the conservation of our natural resources. Conservation of human beings, like conservation of mines and forests, not only costs money but calls upon the state to exercise self-denial and a vision that will set the unseen returns of the future above the seen and temporary advantages of the moment. From the standpoint of the state, the purpose of childhood is to prepare for social well-being — for social and economic efficiency. This is not only a heritage to which each child is entitled as a part of his inalienable right of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, but a social end which the state must secure for its own preservation. It is the duty of the state so to super- vise and to regulate the employment as well as the education of children as to secure this right for the child and this protection for itself. How far the state shall go in scope or method depends not only on how far it finds it necessary to control the career of its youth but how willing it is to pay the cost. Such a theory of the purpose of the "period of infancy" — to use John Fiske's expressive phrase — of the use to which the period of youth of the future man and the citizen and worker should be put, already has its appli- cations in such things as the safeguarding of the health and morals of chil- dren and the protection of the dependent and delinquent. We are here concerned only with the application to the problems of the employment and training of the young wage-worker. Such a social philosophy of the con- servation of childhood must accept at once the fundamental principles of the Elizabethan compulsory apprenticeship: that the training of the employed youth is necessary to his and the nation's well-being; that governmental control of the employment and education of the youth is necessary to a nation-wide system meeting the needs and rights of all; that it is the right, as well as the duty, of the state to control the labor of children as far as their welfare and the pubUc good may require; that the primary purpose of the youth in industry should be not immediate profit but preparation for citizenship and for workmanship; and that his career Superintendence] TRAINING THE WORKER IN INDUSTRY 305 as a young worker should be controlled and supervised by the state as the guardian of his interests as far as may be necessary to insure this end. This does not at all mean a return to the detailed control and minute regulation by the state of the whole career of the young wage-worker which the Elizabethan statute established. This we could not, even if it were advisable, restore. The statute simply made obligatory upon all a trade custom which had for more than a century been the recognized method of training new workers. So excellently was compulsory apprenticeship adapted to the old handcrafts that its enforcement was in effect not an interference with, but an assistance to, the organization and operation of industry. Modem industry is so organized as to produce goods, not to prepare workers. The specialization of tasks which is ever on the increase narrows both the requirements upon the worker and the opportunity to secure any breadth of skill and knowledge in the shop or factory. We cannot return to the old handcrafts. Neither can we revolutionize industry so as to have each worker make the whole of the finished article instead of performing a special task. One might as well attempt to suspend the law of gravity as to stem the evolution of modem industry toward the large-scale production, division of labor, and specialized processes by which it makes more goods at a cheaper price to supply human wants and tastes. We are beginning to realize that under modem conditions the industrial education which fits the usual worker for his task and opportunity must be a more direct and specialized training than the all-round training for the old handcrafts. Even if it were advisable to do so, it would be impossible to regulate modem methods of production so as to insure to each worker an all-round experience in every phase of all the processes used. The mag- nitude of the task, as to both the number of workers and the complexity of the many factors involved, would prevent. Even an age so accustomed to the sweeping and minute regulation of trade as that of Elizabeth would not and could not have established compulsory apprenticeship had the plan involved an interference with industry comparable to the proposal that the present organization and fundamental methods of manufacturing be revolu- tionized so as to afford a better means of preparing the employed youth for its work. When we come to apply the principles lying back of the Elizabethan attempt to conserve the young worker, we must accept the methods of production in modem industry as a fact and adjust our program of action accordingly. We need today a program of action in the protection and education of the employed child which will set up definite goals toward which we may move. These goals themselves should be variable, which will advance with social, economic, and industrial changes and with the growth of a quickened public sentiment. I have, for my own satisfaction, constructed a suggestive program. 3o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Cmdnnati 1. A rising standard of maturity for the child who leaves school to go to work. — ^No child should be permitted to leave school to go to work until he has reached a certain minimum of maturity. This standard varies from twelve years in many of the southern states to as high as sixteen in a few northern ones. It should today nowhere be less than fourteen. In some of the states it will probably, within the next five years, go to sixteen for all children. Personally, for reasons which cannot well be given here, I beHeve we should move toward fifteen years as the minimum age for the employ- ment of either boys or girls, between whom no distinction should be made, providing that there is provision for the further education, in some such way as is described below, of those above that age who are employed. 2. A rising standard of physical fitness for the work undertaken by the employed child. — No child under sixteen years of age should be permitted to go to work until he has reached a rising standard of physical fitness. This will mean not only a physical examination to determine whether he may be allowed to go to work at all, but the beginning of an attempt to distinguish between the kinds of work which different children are physically fit to imdertake. 3. A rising standard of general education for the youth entering wage- earning. — This varies among the states from no requirement to a sixth- grade standing. In some this will doubtless rise in time to the requirement of graduation from the elementary school. Personally, I should favor, as a final arrangement, permission to go to work for those over fifteen who have reached a sixth-grade standing and who were required by law to attend a continuation school for further training. 4. Enforcement of all regulations for the young wage-worker. — ^No child of any age should, of course, be permitted to go to work in any occupation or under any conditions forbidden to him by law. Many of the states have already defined these in their statutes. We may except legislatures from time to time adding to the list. We need here above all a state-wide and impartial enforcement of this regulation. $. Adaptation of the employed youth to his calling. — ^The state should, thru its schools and all other necessary agencies, help the youth when he goes to work to find the employment and opportunities for advancement best suited to his interest and ability. This means, among other things, prevocational training before leaving school, vocational guidance and place- ment, and the service of some such device as the juvenile labor exchange. 6. Administrative discretion in a state agency to protect unhealthy or hazard- ous work. — Personally, I believe that after the state has by legislative fiat prohibited the employment of children where the best public opinion agrees that the results might be injurious, there still remains a large field in which administrative discretion should be given to the state department of labor or the state industrial commission, so that the question of the fitness of occupations for children may be handled in an elastic and constructive Superintendence] TRAINING THE WORKER IN INDUSTRY 307 way. We are, of course, a long way from this, but I believe it is the goal toward which we must move. 7. Local supervision to determine suitable employments for children. — ^No child imder sixteen years of age should be permitted to go to work save in an occupation whose conditions are approved by the school authorities as being on the whole such as to make such employment advisable. This is an immediate goal toward which we must work. Personally, I believe the time will come within a generation when this regulation will extend to all those under eighteen. To discharge properly the responsibility which this requirement will make upon the school authorities will require, in my opinion, the organization of something akin to a juvenile labor exchange as the enemy of the public schools. 8. A reasonable working day and no night work for immature workers. — No child imder sixteen years of age should be permitted to work more than eight hours per day, nor at night. This is a goal which some of the states have already reached. Personally, I believe that within a decade this regulation will be extended to cover all those under eighteen years of age. 9. Continued education in approved employment. — All children in indus- try under sixteen years of age should be required to give a part of their working time to civic and vocational training in the continuation school. Thus far the compulsory continuation school laws of Wisconsin, New York, Massachusetts, and Indiana have made their requirement only upon the youth who went to work without completing the work of the elementary school. The need of vocational as well as further civic education will in time extend to all wage-workers imder sixteen. The amount of time, usually four hours per week, given to the continuation class is not sufficient to give the youth what he needs and we may expect to see it increased. The youth over sixteen and imder eighteen will ultimately come into the benefit of the same regulation. 10. Compulsory education, keeping in the schools those children prohibited by any rise in the child-labor law from wage-working. — Child-labor regulations prohibiting the employment of children should always be accompanied by compulsory education laws insuring the attendance of these children at school up to the same age. If the schools are to retain pupils until they reach a greater age or attain a higher grade standing, they must enrich their courses of study and diversify their methods so as to appeal to the interests and the varying abilities of the adolescent boy and girl, and make school attendance seem more worth while as a preparation for what lies beyond the schoolroom. Child-labor advocates can well afford to give some of their attention to the legislation and the community action which in many quarters is necessary to better the service which the school renders to the boys and girls destined to becom- wage-earners. Some of our schools, excellent as they are otherwise, need reforming in this respect almost as much as industry does. 3o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iCincknati 11. Compulsory training for the idle and the unemployed youth. — ^Any youth under sixteen years of age who, for any cause whatsoever, loses his employment as a wage-worker should be required to return to school for full time imtil he secures another position. This regulation will, of course, ultimately extend to those under eighteen years of age, wherever they are also required, when employed, to attend the compulsory continuation school. 12. The self-improvement of industry in dealing with every phase of the employment and training of young workers. — Beyond the law and the schools lies a wide field whose boundaries have no limit for the betterment which employers can make and where so many have already made valuable and lasting contributions — the selection, initiation, protection, training, and promotion of the employed youth. Here again efiforts of the employment manager and foreman must be supplemented by an enlightened public opinion, practical vocational guidance and placement, scientific management of the right kind, and effect- ive use of some such device as the juvenile jabor exchange. C. CONTINUATION SCHOOL WORK IN WISCONSIN ROBERT L. COOLEY, DIRECTOR OF CONTINUATION SCHOOLS, MILWAUKEE, WIS. The Wisconsin Industrial Education Act was passed by the legisla- ture of 1911. This law was of unusual interest thruout the country because it provided: 1. An independent board to administer the work. 2. Power for the Board of Industrial Education to levy a special tax of one-half mill on the assessed valuation of the city. 3. Compulsory attendance upon the part of apprentices and those under sixteen years of age working on permits. 4. Attendance was made free to all persons over fourteen years of age not by law compelled to attend some other school. The local boards of industrial education are charged with the duty of fostering and establishing commercial, industrial, evening, and continua- tion schools, and these terms are not defined or restricted in any way except by the provision that safety, citizenship, English, sanitation, and hygiene are to be included in the curriculum. In the case of appren- tices, it is provided that the work must be supplemental to the trades to which the young people are apprenticed, and an apprentice is required to attend the school five hours each week while school is in session during the entire period of his apprenticeship, unless he sooner attains his majority, when attendance becomes voluntary. The state Board of Industrial Education was given power to deter- mine what schools should be given state aid. It is provided that all courses of instruction, as well as the character of the teaching done, must Superintendence] CONTINUATION SCHOOL WORK IN WISCONSIN 309 meet with the approval of the state board before state aid can be granted any community. Not more than $3,000 in aid can be given one school and not more than $10,000 can be granted one city. The state authorities, under a rather broad construction of their powers, have required that in all communities, as a condition for receiving full state aid, four activities must be carried on simultaneously as follows: 1. A school for fourteen- to sixteen-year-old permit workers. 2. A school for indentured apprentices. 3. An all-day industrial school for temporarily unemployed permit workers. 4. Schools for adults — particularly evening schools. There has not been a demand for these four phases of work in all communities. Some communities have no boys and girls working on permits, others have no indentured apprentices. The state authorities have, however, urged that, to the extent that there is need of the four phases of work enumerated, state aid be proportionately withheld when any phase is not offered. There has, in compliance with the law and these requirements, been established in each of the twenty-nine communities in Wisconsin now having boards of industrial education an institution which is on the whole less conventional and more adaptable than any the community has known before, and which meets a distinct need for education. The provision of the law making the city superintendent of schools a member of the local board of industrial education has, I think, added greatly to the strength and importance of his position in the community and has given the superintendent a new leverage with which to make his ability and personality felt in matters of education. He is usually the executive member in fact of the industrial board. His position is established by law and is one which gives him a clearly defined inde- pendence of action. He speaks both as a member of the board and as an authority on matters of education as questions arise, and, in view of the fact that the board is composed of employers and employees, is the element in the mortar which makes for compatibility as occasions require. We feel that this arrangement works very well. No friction has arisen and, in my opinion, Wisconsin people are well satisfied. In the short time that has elapsed since organizing the work in the state of Wisconsin, with but one man in the field, 29 cities have inaugu- rated 49 schools, and raised, including the state aid, $341,000 for their support. There have been during the past year 25,004 people who have found what they wanted and needed in these schools. Milwaukee, to which my activities are limited, is, as you may all know, a city of over four hundred thousand inhabitants. It is a city of varied industries and mixed nationalities, with the Germans and Poles predominating. Iron, steel, and allied industries hold first rank, meat products second, leather third, coal and coke products fourth, beer and 310 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [CmdnnaU malt tonics j5fth, building sixth, boots and shoes seventh. I mention these facts to correct a national misapprehension. The elementary schools are good — compulsory school attendance thru the fourteenth year is well enforced and child labor is not excessive. Never- theless real apprenticeship to the trades has about disappeared; each year three thousand boys and girls go to work before their sixteenth year and before the completion of the elementary grades, and thousands of adults still need and desire training which will help them to earn their living. These were not provided for in any adequate manner in our scheme of education. The Board of Industrial Education began actively to arrange to carry out the provisions of the law by which it was created in September, 191 2. At this time a director was appointed to take charge of the work. He was given the powers usually assigned a general manager in a well- organized business, and has for two years been permitted to attack the problem presented with a directness not usually permitted in school matters. For the inauguration of this work, two methods of procedure pre- sented themselves: to make a comprehensive survey of the city before establishing the work, or to attack the obvious and proceed. The latter plan was chosen for two reasons: first, the state aid could be obtained only in the event of the school being in operation by November, and, secondly, it seemed perfectly feasible to attack the problem in that way, surveying as we proceeded and proceeding as we surveyed. Since the law required all indentured apprentices to attend school one half-day each week, a contract was made with the extension department of the University of Wisconsin to furnish the instruction and the appren- tices were placed in its charge. It had been specifically provided in the law that such a contract might be made with the state university. Since all boys and girls working on permits were required to attend school one half -day each week, two hundred of these were next called in and space in a downtown manufacturing building was made over into suitable rooms for their accommodation. To this school the boys and girls came one half-day each week while working and four hours a day each day while temporarily unemployed. In October, a night school was established by the board in one of the elementary-school buildings. The hope was to develop a new type of night school in harmony with the purposes of the law. Thus the four activities required by the state board were inaugurated. A detailed description of our work with apprentices and the evening schools would not particularly interest this audience. This work is similar in character to that offered in many communities, with which you are entirely familiar, and our main purpose was to extend this service adequately to the needs of the community. We have now taken over Superintendence] CONTINUATION SCHOOL WORK IN WISCONSIN 311 the apprentice activities from the University of Wisconsin extension department and established a central school to which all apprentices come. We have at present provision for pattern-makers, machinists, printers, bakers, plumbers, power-plant operators, bricklayers, electrical workers, and sales people. The need of the apprenticed boy as revealed by knowledge of his previous education and the shop conditions under which he works determines our method of procedure with him and the subject-matter of our instruction offered to him. Many boys come to the school on their own time in excess of the com- pulsory time for which they are paid by their employers. We have in attendance over three hundred apprentices actually indentured, and expect that the number indentured will largely increase in the near future. We stand ready to attempt to meet adequately the needs for training which will supplement the shop or factory experience in all lines to which boys or girls are admitted thru apprenticeship. The evening schools are now seven in number, outside of and in addition to those operated by the Board of Education, and have over three thousand pupils in actual attendance. In our steam, internal combustion engine, and electrical courses, as well as in much of our other work, we are pursuing the method of correspondence schools, supple- mented by lectures, laboratory work, and quizzes which bring the pupils and instructors face to face. In this way, we are getting much work done at home and are enabled to put the attendance on a two-nights-a-week basis, which is all a workingman ought to spend away from home. The teachers engaged are given time during the day to correct the papers pre- pared at home. The correction of home work is much appreciated by the men. The work we have done in Milwaukee in which you would likely be most interested is that of bringing back into school in one year five thousand young people who had left school under sixteen years of age, aver- aging about sixth grade education, and entered into juvenile jobs. This is an extension of the work alluded to in a preceding paragraph. These young people come to school during the day — four hours each week for thirty-two weeks in the year as a minimum. Some come oftener and stay longer. During the past week, boys under sixteen years of age attended 1,965 half-days and girls 1,602 half -days. There were 1,580 boys in actual attendance, and 1,258 girls. Our number working on permits is less than last year by about one thousand, but that merely reflects the conditions of unemployment that have prevailed among all classes of people. Our attendance averages 91 per cent of the number enrolled. We require all of these boys and girls to come to a centrally located school where, in the downtown section, space has been rented in well- lighted structures built for manufacturing purposes. The space rented 312 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Cincinnati has been divided into suitable shops, laboratories, drafting-rooms, and classrooms. The teachers and equipment, being grouped in one place, can be used to greatest advantage and the large number of pupils coming to one place enables us to receive pupils on the days they can be best spared by the employer and make such shifts in the assignments to par- ticular days as result in the maximum of accommodation without sac- rificing the character of the work to be done. We have no itinerant teachers and no classes conducted in the shops, factories, or stores. All pupils attend the full time required in one attendance. No Saturday work has ever been offered except to those who have been delinquent. We have felt that the Saturday holiday was too good an institution for the worker for us to interfere with. No demand for Saturday instruction has arisen. Seven hundred and fifteen different employers have sent 3,349 em- ployees to our school within the past few months under this arrange- ment. Of these employers, 483 employ but one boy or girl. The balance are employed in various numbers. Most of the work in which these young people are engaged is of such a character that there is no element of apprenticeship in it. The boys and girls do not expect to remain in their present jobs, nor do their employers expect them to do so, and neither they nor their employers contend that their school work, in view of conditions, can or ought to be, in many instances, related to their present employment. Our plan is to give the girls cooking, sewing, and academic work with home lessons and brief lectures in assembly. We teach them in brief weekly talks illustrated by slides, for instance, that there is life beneath the power of the naked eye to see and that what is dangerous to us in that life is usually associated with dirt. When that lesson has been taught a good piece of work has been done. Or we acquaint them with our city govern- ment by simple short talks, and at other times take up the matter of amusements. Strange as it may seem, many of these young people know nothing of our splendid system of social centers conducted by the city, in spite of the efforts hitherto made to get the information to just such as they. One teacher devotes her whole time to putting books from our public library out among the young people, and two thousand books a month are now going out to these homes where scarcely any books went before. Definite instruction in their present emplo)anent is not given except when especially desired by the young person in question, as in the case of office or store girls who hope to become bookkeepers or clerks. In these instances we recognize that some elements of an actual apprenticeship condition exist and treat the cases accordingly. In all of our work with the permit pupils, and particularly in the case of boys, our attempt is to discover and accentuate ambitions, not merely Superintendence] CONTINUATION SCHOOL WORK IN WISCONSIN 313 to get a job, but to prepare to earn a livelihood in a man's job. To that end, little booklets are given all pupils applying for permits to work, which call attention to the necessity for serious consideration of the problem of the selection of an occupation for which they are to prepare themselves. These little booklets explain that we now ofiEer instructions in the follow- ing nineteen occupations in which men make a man's wage: Baking Bookkeeping Carpentry Cabinet-making Concrete work Drafting Electrical work Machinist work Masonry Painting Pattern-making Printing Plumbing Power-plant work Sheet-metal work Steamfitting Stenography Store clerking Tinsmi thing The object of the work is: To make the boys familiar with the use of tools and to aid them in selecting a trade or other skilled work that will help them to earn substantial wages when they become men. When such selection is made the subject-matter of instruction is built up around the shop or other work clearly related in the child's mind to such preparation. We allow not more than twenty pupils to a teacher and require the teacher to spend his entire half-day with the same group. During our first year we had the shopwork conducted by one teacher, the drawing by another, and the academic work by a third. The result was that each teacher came in contact with over six hundred different pupils each week. Under our present arrangement, we are getting much better results. Our teachers are required to teach eight half-days each week, and one full day is given to getting into touch with the boys and girls outside of school. The Board of Industrial Education has conceived its special function to be that of establishing an institution so varied in what it teaches and so flexible in its administration as to meet adequately the needs for further practical education of all people who are working and wish such advantages. The response when such opportunities have been offered during the past year must set at rest forever all opposition which arises from reasonable people who have doubted the importance of giving those members of the community who must remain employed a chance to improve their condition both civically and economically. D. THE ALL-DAY TRADES SCHOOL E. C. WARRINER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SAGINAW, MICH. The first part of this paper is a brief statement concerning the Saginaw Trade School, Saginaw, Mich., as we have been operating it now for the sixth year; the second part is a discussion of the educational field for the 314 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tCincmnati all-day trades school, as it is illustrated by our own experience, and as it appears from a study of such schools thruout the country. Saginaw is a city of 50,000 people, divided by the Saginaw River into two school districts. The eastern school district has a population of 30,000 and a school enrolment of 4,800 with 160 teachers. Our problem, then, has been that of vocational training in a small city, and, if the figures given below in regard to our trade-school department seem small, this fact of oiu- population should be borne in mind. In the fall of 1909, W. R. Burt, a public-spirited citizen of Saginaw, com- mimicated to the board of education his willingness to contribute $2,000 toward the establishment of a special course of instruction for boys, to be known as a trade school. Mr. Burt had previously made it possible for us to erect a modern manual-training high school by contributing three- fourths of the entire cost of the plant, which was $240,000. This second offer of $2,000 to start a trade school was accepted by the board of education, after some discussion and after a protest by the machinists' imion of the city. The trade school occupies rooms in the manual-training high school and uses the high-school shops, thus reducing the expense of equipment and maintenance. When the initial donation was used up, the trade school was taken over by the board of education and has been carried on by it up to the present time. A two-year course is provided, looking toward the machinists' trade, as a greater demand exists in Saginaw for machinists than for any other one craft. One-third of the pupil's time is given to academic work with industrial content in English and arithmetic and two-thirds to drawing and shopwork. The shopwork includes woodwork and forging the first year and pattern-making and foimdry and machine-shop practice the second year. Thus trade school is not perhaps so appropriate a name as vocational school or prevocational school wotdd be. The name trade school was chosen because it is easily understood by the public. It is impossible to teach the machinists' trade in two years anywhere, and it is impossible to teach any trade thoroly in any school alone without com- mercial shop practice. It is possible, however, to give a boy a good ground- work in the essentials of the machinist's trade in two years. That is what we are doing and it is about all the public schools can be expected to do in an all-day trades school. The per capita cost of the Saginaw Trade School for teachers' salaries and supplies during the year 1913-14, based on the average attendance, was $66! 66. The method of admission to the school is as follows: appli- cants must be at least fourteen years of age; this is the only absolute requirement. On account of lack of room, we have not been able to accept all who have applied. For the past three years, therefore, we have used this selective test. An examination has been given all applicants in the fundamentals of arithmetic; their standings in their regular manual- Superintendence] THE ALL-DAY TRADES SCHOOL 315 training work in the grades have been secured, and their last teacher has been asked to mark the applicants in persistency and likelihood to succeed. The average of these three standings — arithmetic, manual training, and perseverance — ^has been found and those having the highest standings have been admitted. Even with these precautions, we have had difficulty in holding these pupils thru the two-year course. In the first entering class there were 28, of whom 7 completed the two-year course; the second class had 20, 11 of whom stayed two years; the third class 26, with 7 gradu- ates; the fourth class 21, with 7 graduates. The fifth and sixth classes have not yet completed their courses, but the prospect is good for holding a much larger niunber. The compulsory school laws of Michigan require pupils to attend school until the age of sixteen, so we are able to hold them until that time, but, after that, numerous causes lead even trade-school pupils to drop out. The reasons assigned for our losses are as follows: lack of interest, 60 per cent; financial conditions of home, 25 per cent; sickness, 5 per cent; other reasons, 10 per cent. This loss of pupils will always be the case in schools of this kind. It will always be impossible to tell with exactness whether a boy will "make good" in the machine shop except by the method of trial. Our vocational-guidance friends will help us to lessen the number of failures, but those in charge of vocational schools will always have a considerable percentage of loss. It would be possible, of course, to set the admission standard to vocational schools so high as to exclude all but the intellectually bright, but vocational schools ought to be schools of opportunity, and, if they are to be this, the doors must easily be opened altho the records of accomplishment are not all that might be desired. Of those who have completed our trade-school course, 70 per cent are working in machine shops successfully and coming back to our evening classes for further study. The numbers in our school have steadily increased, the spirit is growing better, and the experiment has proved a success. And this without state aid, for Michigan has not as yet enacted industrial-school legislation. I have not given this account .of our experiment because it contains anything novel or striking, but because I believe our experience will be found typical of all such schools in small cities, and because of the suggestions our experience affords of the direction in which the solution of the problem of industrial education will be found. As I have already said, there will always be a leakage from a vocational or trade school unless some way is found to determine without fail what a boy's vocation in life is to be. This way will never be found in America. In this new free country there must be unlimited opportunity for experiment, for trying this occupation, then that. This is the distinction of America and its glory that the whole world is open before our young men. Vocational guidance is good in that it will lead our young people more systematically than in the past to study them- selves and to study the world, its callings, and its opportunities. Voca- 3l6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Cincinnati tional guidance will help to arouse ambition in boys and girls — ambition, which is the greatest lack of students in this easygoing age of luxury. But vocational guidance can never decide in advance absolutely what one's vocation will be. Nothing can do this except a stratified society. It is this stratified society which makes the problem of vocational education so much easier in Germany than it is in our coimtry. Travelers in Ger- many during the past ten years, looking with genuine admiration on the clean streets, the attractive homes, the evident thrift and comfort of the people, have often asked themselves and each other and their German friends why so many Germans have longed to come to America. The answer is that in America is found the opportunity for growth and change which (Jermany does not afford. I well remember a conversation I had one afternoon in Leipzig with a German lady who had spent many years in the United States and who was then returned to Germany for a visit. I put this question to her: "Leipzig is a beautiful city. Why do its people leave Leipzig for America?" "O!" she replied, "In Germany, you know, once a servant, always a servant." We must see to it in developing a scheme for industrial training in the United States that we do not make its success depend upon attempting to cast the young lives of our adolescent boys and girls into rigid molds from which they cannot escape during the rest of their lives. For this reason, there will always be many who after enter- ing the vocational school will not like it and will drop out. We must dis- courage frequent changes of this kind for trivial reasons, but if the world is to be free for trial we must expect some shifting out and in in these schools. Again, it will always be difficult to hold students in an all-day trade or vocational school for more than two years. A trade school, as the name implies, is designed to teach a trade and to make journeymen craftsmen of its students. Now the rewards of this sort of life are not such as appeal to persons of the keenest intellect. Those who like study will wish to take the four- or the six-year high-school course. Those who love study will go to college or engineering school. Those who are to become the world's craftsmen will not, many of them, care to remain in a school more than two years in order to prepare themselves for industry. They will be tired of study at the end of this two-year period and will long to enter the fray outside the schoolroom. To be sure many of them will be back in evening classes or part-time classes later, which is well, but to attempt to keep these students in preliminary school work more than two years will result in failiu-e. Closely allied with this phase of the problem is its financial aspect. The families from which trade workers are recruited are absolutely unable to keep their children in school beyond the age of sixteen and many not this long. The Douglass Commission in Massachusetts in 1905-6 reported a large percentage of homes which said they could keep their children in school had the school anything of value to offer them. No doubt this is Superintendence] THE ALL-DAY TRADES SCHOOL 317 true in many cases, but in very many instances also financial pressure will force yoimg people out of the trade or vocational school even before the term is completed and certainly at the end of two years. It follows that three- or foiu--year courses in a trade or vocational school are out of the question for any large number of students. These considerations show why the enrolment in such schools as we are considering is not large relatively to the population of their cities, and why the average attendance is not so high as might at first blush be expected. Another important factor in this whole question is the cost of the equip- ment. To carry on a trade school worthy of the name and purpose requires the tools of the trade in large niunbers and up to date. Such equipment is expensive and beyond the reach of small cities. When instruction is offered in many and diverse trades, this cost is greatly increased and soon becomes prohibitive. These considerations lead us to understand why the per capita cost of maintenance of trade schools is high, ranging from $80 to $200, a rate much higher than our communities are now used to. All types of schools must cost more in the future than in the past, but at present a per capita cost of $200 may well be considered excessive. I have already hinted at the fact that it is quite impossible to bring the atmosphere of the commercial shop into the schoolroom. It is there- fore out of the question to teach a trade in its entirety in school any more than it is possible to make a practitioner in law or medicine in college. The elements can be taught in a trade school, but this instruction must be supplemented by actual shop practice. You may now perhaps guess whither my reasoning is leading. The all-day trade school, meaning a school in which young men are to spend four years, from fourteen or sixteen to eighteen or twenty, and which will turn them back to society skilled and finished workmen, will not be the solution of the industrial education problem in the United States. Young men cannot spend this much time and money to learn a trade in school; they cannot determine well enough what their life occupation is to be; the school cannot give the shop atmosphere; and such schools are too expen- sive for any but the largest and wealthiest commimities to support. What then is the present outlook on the field of industrial education ? We have been working at this problem in a large way for only ten years, certainly not long enough to reach a conclusion in a matter so large, but long enough to enable us to arrive at some conception of the probable direction of future development. As it looks today, three types of school are to occupy the field of industrial education in our coimtry: I. Continuation schools, in which will be foimd boys who have com- pleted the compulsory school age of either fourteen or sixteen as the state law may provide, or who are permit boys, that is, boys excused from school by the proper authority. This is the celebrated Fortbildungschtile of 3i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iCindnnaU Germany, which has been started on a large scale in the state of Wisconsin, where there were forty-five of these schools in operation in 1913-14, the total number authorized by the Wisconsin law of 1913. These schools will be conducted twice or three times a week with from five to eight hours of instruction. The instruction will be what may be called academic with an industrial content, that is, shop arithmetic, drawing, and industrial information in regard to the particular trade pursued by a certain group of students. These schools will be truly continuation or supplemental schools to keep boys who are learning their trades in shops or factories in the habit of study. It will be a remarkable achievement of incalculable benefit to industry and to society to instil in the minds of such boys the idea that study has a place in their lives even after they have left the day school. 2. Another type of school which promises to do much for the welfare of the country is the co-operative part-time school first put into practice in the Fitchburg High School and in the University of Cincinnati. The growth of co-operative schools will depend upon the progressiveness of manufacturers. School men everywhere will be foimd ready to enter heartily into the part-time arrangement, but employers whose traditions cause them to look with incredulity on the worth of school training are slower to appreciate the value of this arrangement. The prime and obvioiis merits of the continuation and co-operative schools are that they do not require a special and expensive equipment in the school. The shopwork is done in the shop, the school does the correla- tive academic work, and the student in the factory comes at once into a real shop atmosphere and is learning commercial methods from the start. 3. The third form which industrial education will take in this country will be a pre-vocational course of two years parallel with other courses offered in the schools for pupils between the ages of fomrteen and sixteen. K the six-six division comes to obtain thruout the coimtry, this course may nm side by side with a general and a commercial course in Grades VII, Vm, and DC, but, for its highest value to the individual, the vocational course should be taken up at the age of fourteen. This pre-vocational coiurse will include one-third academic work with industrial content in arithmetic and English and two-thirds shopwork in both wood and iron. The shopwork will be determined by the financial ability of the school to provide equipment. It is desired to have forge, foundry, and machine shop in addition to woodworking shops if possible. The aim of this two- year pre-vocational course will be to try out those boys who think their ability is of a mechanical nature. The school shoidd afford a means of experimentation to save these boys from defeat in the world of industry after leaving school. This will be the program of the small and middle-sized manufacturing city. Larger cities where there is a greater concentration of wealth and a more varied lot of industries with a larger population to draw from and Superintendence] CORPORATION SCHOOL AND PUBLIC SCHOOLS 319 greater opportiinities for diversified employinent will ofifer trade instruction in many lines. The New York City Vocational School for Boys is this year offering instruction in twenty-four trades. But it is only the largest cities which can emulate such a course as this. The great service to industry in the upbuilding of a citizenship skilled in the fundamentals of all hand work will be done by such schools as I have described above. The term trade school has been little used by the public schools. The Girls' Trade School of Boston, the Manhattan Trade School for Girls in New York, the Worcester Trade School, the Columbus (Ohio) Trades School, the Philadelphia Trade School, the Milwaukee School of Trades, the Arthur Hill Trade School of Saginaw, West Side, and the Portland (Ore.) Trade School are the principal examples of the use of the name. This is no doubt due to the knowledge on the part of school officials that schools can- not teach trades in a real sense and to the desire not to use a deceptive title. I have treated the term all-day trade school, however, as including all schools in which students devote their entire time to studies whose purpose is to prepare directly for a trade. This should include, then, the industrial schools of Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Connecticut, the vocational schools of New York, as well as the two-year courses in many individual cities for seventh- and eighth-grade and high-school pupils. Recent returns received from forty states indicate that sixteen states have what may answer the description of all-day trade schools. These states are Connecticut, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mis- souri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Virginia, Wisconsin, and Michigan. From out of the apparently confused mass of experimentation in industrial education which the schools and the industries of the coimtry have heroically taken up in the past ten years contrary to all theories and practices of the past, there will emerge within the next generation a system of industrial education which will, I think, take one or all of the forms I have described: continuation, co-operative, or pre-vocational schools. E. THE FIELD FOR THE CORPORATION SCHOOL AND ITS RELATION TO THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS W. L. CHANDLER, ASSISTANT TREASURER, DODGE SALES AND ENGINEERING COMPANY, MISHAWAKA, IND. I look upon this moment as a very auspicious one. The business world and the schools need to get together and put their shoulders to the wheel for the promotion of their mutual interests. It is proper to say that the schools are like factories turning out graduates, which, in turn, become employees of business houses and may be considered the raw material of business. It is very wise then that we should get together and tell our troubles. 320 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati If a business house was buying bread from a baker and the baker was in the habit of delivering it in a half-baked condition, the business house would never hesitate to go to the baker and tell him what the situation was. Co-operation between the baker and the consumer would result in a much better product from the bakeshop and would give greater satisfaction all around. Similarly, when the product of the schools reaches business in an underdone condition, it is proper that we should get together and analyze the situation. The interests of the schools and business are mutual. We are all aiming for the one end — that of a line of school graduates who are better fitted to earn a living and serve the community. Corporations do not want the schools to turn out himian automatons to act like machines turning out a certain product, but they want the brains and thinking powers of individuals developed, so that they may intelligently do their work. All business men should realize that they should first co-operate with the eugenists in an e£fort to provide the schools with little individuals with sufficient gray matter to make it possible to develop the proper amount of intelligence. There is a proper field for the corporation school. For instance, a corporation is justified in teaching methods which will increase the sale of its products — methods which are, in most cases, peculiar to that particular corporation. A telephone company is justified in teaching girls how to operate switchboards, and machine shops may well teach boys the rules and methods common to good shop practice. However, the corporations have been led into an improper field of operation thru a lack of co-operation or getting together of the schools and corporations. Some of these corpora- tion schools have been teaching arithmetic, spelling, penmanship, etc. This is an encroachment upon the functions of the public school, and such subjects should be left to those schools. The National Association of Corporation Schools was formed about three years ago. The fimctions of that association are as follows: 1. To develop the efl&dency of the individual employee. 2. To increase efficiency in industry. 3. To influence courses of established educational institutions more favorably toward industry. The association is on record as favoring the various forms of continuation schools. In order to further the matter of co-operation, the membership in the association is open to anyone interested in that work, and any of you would be welcome to membership. The fee for membership is $10 a year, for which each member receives a copy of the proceedings together with the monthly bulletin. I believe it is conceded that it is not possible to reproduce the business atmosphere in school. You may approach it, but a school imitation must necessarily lack the ozone that keeps the business employees on their toes in an effort to render the greatest service to the customer and build up I \ \ Superintendence] CORPORATION SCHOOL AND PUBUC SCHOOLS 321 an ever-increasing business. The only way to secure the real business atmosphere is to use the shops, stores, and ofl&ces of industry as laboratories of the schools, and, in order that the teachers may thoroly understand the situation before the students, they should have intimate connection with business and preferably be given positions during vacations. A business training would be a very desirable portion of a normal-school preparation for teaching. In this way, the schools and business can co-operate in furnishing high-grade employees. There are certain business ethics which might well be reflected thruout school life, such as turning work out on time, making delivery to the cus- tomer at the time promised, keeping the product up to a standard degree of excellence, always endeavoring to increase sales, etc. Another feature that I have noticed in regard to employees reaching our corporations direct from school is that they have formed the opinion — unconsciously perhaps — that, inasmuch as they have been in the habit of passing from one grade to the next without a perfect score having been reached, when it comes to doing their work in an office or shop, work of about 75 per cent of accuracy will get them thru. In teaching, I judge that it is important that the method of reaching a conclusion should be correct even tho perhaps the actual conclusion might not be quite right, as in an arithmetical problem. In business, on the other hand, not only must the method of reasoning be sound, but, above all, the answer to the problem must be absolutely correct. For instance, if the bill clerk is pricing up a man's invoice requiring addition, multiplication, and subtraction, the net amount of that invoice must be correct. This necessity for accuracy seems to be one of the hard blows to those persons just out of school. I have also noticed that many teachers are teaching away from business, particularly away from shops. They seem to have a fear that their pupils may get into the factories, and yet they know that the great bulk of them in most communities must of necessity go to factories in order to earn a livelihood. A closer familiarity of the teachers with modem shops would show them that there is no cause to fear a shop existence, particularly for the student with brains. One with the executive instinct has a particularly brilliant prospect in the shop. In all business it is necessary to have more or less supervision of the work. In some institutions there is a foreman for every five employees. This costs money and makes high cost of the article produced or sold; but, on the other hand, with such supervision the cost of the article is less than it would be without the supervision, because employees left to them- selves would turn out a lower quality of work, would spoil a larger per- centage of the material handled, and would waste an undue amount of time. The more practical knowledge and comprehension of business ethics an employee has, the less supervision he will require, and consequently the material turned out by him will be produced at a lower cost. The lower 322 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cindnnati the cost, the greater the volume of sales that is possible, and hence the community is made correspondingly richer and the demand for labor in that community that much greater. Cincinnati is the mother, and, I believe. Dean Schneider the father, of what is known as "part-time" or co-operative education, whereby the schools and industry put their shoulders to the wheel for the common good of the community. This plan is being quite generally adopted all over the United States for shop, store, and office employees. I believe I am safe in saying that the business world will be willing to co-operate with you in this form of education, tho it may be necessary in some communities to educate the people to the advantage of this form of education. F. NATIONAL AID FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION JOHN LAPP, DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU OF LEGISLATIVE INFORMATION OF INDIANA, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. There is pending before the Congress of the United States a bill provid- ing for national aid for vocational education. The proposition has been before Congress for many years and the present bill is the composite of many proposals worked out by the Commission on National Aid for Voca- tional Education appointed by President Wilson one year ago. By the terms of the bill, the sum of seven million dollars will be appro- priated annually for the purpose of aiding vocational education in trades and industries and agriculture and in the training of teachers of vocational subjects. Three millions of the appropriation will go to agriculture; three millions to trades and industries; and one million to the training of teachers of vocational subjects. The bill provides that this money shall be spent under the direction of state boards provided for by the state legislatures and upon plans submitted by such boards and approved by the National Board of Vocational Education consisting of five members of the cabinet, namely, the Secretary of Agriculture, the Secretary of the Interior, the Secretary of Labor, the Secretary of Commerce, and the Postmaster- General. This proposal for extensive national aid raises at once the question of the duty of the federal government in the premises. To provide and man- age education has been recognized as being particularly the duty of the states. Under the Constitution, the federal government can take no part in the direct administration of the educational system. Nevertheless, the duty rests upon the federal government to promote the general welfare, and, when certain conditions are found to exist which are detrimental to the general welfare, the federal government owes an obligation. It is obvious that the federal government should not assume any of the burdens of education unless the need is of such importance to the national Superintendence! NATIONAL AID FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 323 welfare as to justify national aid. In determining the extent of its obliga- tion, therefore, we may say that federal aid should be given only for those forms of vocational education for which there is an urgent need that is not now being met, and where it is clear that the states cannot take action quickly enough to meet the present and growing need. The discussion of federal aid as outlined in the proposed bill should, therefore, relate to the need for vocational education in particular lines and the relation of those needs to the national welfare. The country has been somewhat aroused to the deficiency of our public- school system in its failure to give proper attention to the first problem of man's existence, that of earning a livelihood. Vast changes have taken place and the schools have not met the new conditions. They have not kept pace with the changing times. They meet the heavier responsibilities which are put upon them far less effectively than they did their lesser responsibilities a quarter of a century ago. They have doubtless taught well the things which they have taught, but the question now before the country concerns the desirability of teaching much that is taught. Certain it is that so far as fitting youth for a vocation very little has been accomplished. The federal commission declared that not more than one person in a hundred had been trained properly for the work they are doing. "More vocational schools are found," the report declares, "in the city of Munich, Germany, than in all the great cities of our country put together." Judging the system of elementary education by its universality, for in a democracy it must be so judged, we find that while we have set up the standard of graduation from the elementary schools as the minimum for our youth, as a matter of established fact only about half the children reach the final elementary grades and only 10 per cent reach the final grade in high school. We find that 10 per cent have left at thirteen years of age; 40 per cent at fourteen; 70 per cent at fifteen; and 85 per cent at sixteen years of age. What has education done for the 50 per cent of the nation's children who thus leave the schools before completing the elementary courses ? Has education performed its function of adjusting these millions to the condi- tions in which they are placed and implanting in them the inspiration to grow in power and appreciation ? These are questions to which a militant democracy demands answer and which the nation must consider. It will be taken for granted that education must give as a minimum the possession of the tools of knowledge and of fundamental facts and must establish "habits, attitudes, and ideals." All after education, general or vocational, can be built only upon such a foundation. Doubtless the essential tools, reading, writing, and arithmetic, are taught with a keener appreciation of their fundamental importance than ever before, but it would be a bold person who would assume that any considerable portion of the 324 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ICindnnati children educated in our schools are equipped with power to read interpre- tatively, to express clearly, or to do accurately the ordinary daily compu- tations. Yet these are essential to their freedom and their protection. What else is given to these millions of our youth by the schools ? Prac- tically nothing! Not one in a thousand derives other benefits. The school gives no knowledge conducive to self-preservation or that will facilitate gaining a livelihood, leaving such knowledge to be picked up at random in after life. They give no knowledge of the duties of home or of parenthood and slight power or insight into citizenship. The great masses of children unequipped for life are cast into the industrial struggle. Lack of knowledge makes their experience blind. The way of progress is barred because they do not have the necessary tools to weld experience and knowledge into power for success. Practically all are doomed to hard, monotonous toil without hope and outlook to relieve it. Andrew S. Draper saw clearly the great educational void which the schools were not even attempting to fill, and he expressed his opinions boldly in these words: When but one-third of the children remain to the end of the elementary course, there is something the matter with the schools. When half of the men who are responsible for the business activities and who are guiding the political life of the country tell us that the children from the elementary schools are not able to do definite things required in the world's real affairs, there is something the matter with the schools. When work seeks workers, and yoimg men and women are indifferent to it, or do not know how to do it, there is something the matter with the schools Our elementary schools train for no industrial emplojntnent. They lead to nothing but the secondary school, which in turn leads to the college, the university, and the professional school, and so very exclusively to professional and managing occupations. One who goes out of the school system before the end or at the end of the elementary course is not only unprepared for any vocation which will be open to him, but too commonly he is without that intellectual training which should make him eager for opportunity and incite him to the utmost effort to do just as well as he can whatever may be open to him. He goes without respect for the manual industries where he might find work if he could do it. He is without the simple prepara- tion necessary to do definite work in an office or a store. He is neither clear about his English nor certain about his figiires. The adaptation of education to useful purposes reaches its most com- plete failure in the rural schools which have been following a regimen of studies utterly imfitted to their environment. The teaching of elementary subjects in these schools has been formal to a degree that is shocking to conmion-sense. Instead of relating these studies to the life-motives of the young, and teaching them in such a way as to connect them with life; instead of taking advantage of the opportunities which in the country are unequaled for applying knowledge to things, the schools have been allowing the children to live off the dry husks of knowledge. Teachers for these schools have been trained in the village or city high schools and have per- haps gone thru formal training in normals or colleges. They have little S)anpathy with rural life and their knowledge of the country is limited. It Superintendence] NATIONAL AID FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 325 is ridiculous to see a teacher of this sort who may not know barley from beans attempting to teach agriculture in a flower pot in the winter time to red-blooded rural youth. Such has been the teaching in a great part of our rural schools. False standards are set up, boys and girls are made to dislike educational work, and such influence as the rural school exercises is in favor of the trend away from the country. Besides the duty that this democratic nation owes to every one of its children, the need for vocational education is a national one, involving as it does our success in our relations both to foreign countries in trade and commerce, and to our social and economic problems at home. In the future struggles for commercial supremacy in the world's markets, that nation will win, and will deserve to win, which makes the best goods at the lowest price. Dependence upon supplies of raw materials is only a temporary advantage which does not count in the century-long commercial struggles before us. In fact, only a part of a century will be needed to remove the advantage which we now possess in our supplies of raw materials, unless we reform our wasteful and ignorant methods of mining, lumbering, and farm- ing, and of utilizing the products of mine, forest, and field. We cannot depend in the future as in the past upon a few industrial leaders of brilliance to keep us well up in the race. We have managerial skill of a high grade, and upon it we have built what we now possess. But the supply of such men is limited and the specialization of industry has cut off the source from which the most efficient have come. There is a wide gap now between the men in the management and the men in the ranks, and that gap is widening. A few men in the factory do the thinking while thou- sands automatically work on and often are even discouraged from thinking. Combination of thought and work is reduced to a minimum. Such a con- dition may be temporarily successful but is disastrous in the long run, and that disaster extends to the commercial life of the nation. Industrial efficiency must mean efficiency all along the line. Efficiency must mean the ability to do a task in the very best manner and the desire to do harder and more important tasks. Promotion and an outlook must, in some manner, be held before all men and that can be done only by wide- spread training, reaching every man in the ranks. Germany recognized the necessity for universal training and it was recently her proud boast that in a few years there would not be such a thing as an untrained man in the Empire. What that would have meant to the trade of nations were it not for untimely war can only be conjectured. Certain it is that the unfaltering advance of German trade and commerce has been due to vocational educa- tion. The nation's purpose held to that course and planned for a further advance by promoting educational efficiency thru every grade of labor. Our nation must learn the lesson and apply the method, if any solid, per- manent, world results are to be accomplished in our commerce. 326 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Cmdnnati Up to this time we owe little to the schools for our progress. To use words of Herbert Spencer spoken in derision of English education of the middle of the last century: All our industries would cease were it not for that information which men begin to acquire as best they may after their education is said to be finished, and were it not for this information which has been from age to age accimiulated and spread by imoflScial means, these industries would never have existed. That increasing acquaintance with the laws of phenomena which has thru successive ages enabled us to subjugate nature to our needs and in these days gives the common laborer comforts which a few generations ago kings could not purchase is rarely in any degree owed to the appointed means of instruct- ing youth. The vital knowledge — that by which we have grown as a nation to what we are and which now imderlies our whole existence — is a knowledge which has gotten itself taught in nooks and comers while the ordained agencies for teaching have been mimabling dead formulas. The nation must also recognize the social significance of vocational education in industrial work and promote such education as a means of furthering the security of the established order. Undeniably, social unrest pervades the land. Everywhere one finds evidences of unsound conditions in the social fabric. They break out in the form of strikes and riots; in the demand for legislation regarding hours and conditions of work; in the propaganda of the socialist; or the demands of the Industrial Workers of the World. These conditions cannot long continue without serious consequences to the national welfare, and the nation's clear duty is to find immediate cor- rection. One of the most potent forces for correction is certain to be found in vocational education. It goes to the very root of the causes of discontent. By providing a means for each man to find a way out and up, it puts the divine spark of ambition into men. It places promotion in the way of every man who will profit by it and thus removes the one chief evil against which men justly complain. It opens up the safety valves thru which the right- eous discontent of the workers may escape to the profit of the man and the benefit of the nation. National eflSciency and social security alike demand action, and all the agencies of government, national, state, and local, must respond. The importance of agricultural education to the national welfare scarcely needs to be referred to here. Agriculture is the principal basic industry of the coimtry and upon it depends the prosperity of the nation. Markets rise and fall upon the reports of the crop yield. So closely is our industrial fabric knit with agriculture that captains of industry and great financiers wait with anxiety to get the first ofl&cial crop predictions. But this basic industry has been practically at a standstill. After forty years of agricultural education, such as it has been, we are confronted with relatively worse conditions than when scientific agriculture first began to receive serious attention. Average yield of farm crops has been practically at a dead level; the soil is being exhausted at an alarming rate; tenantry Superintendence] NATIONAL AID FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 327 is increasing; the rural population is shifting to the city; and the cost of living rises at a rate far in excess of increased capacity to pay. The facts are simply that the data of agricultural science have not been effectively put into possession of the men who till the soil. Hundreds of millions of dollars have been spent on agricultural education and yet we are relatively about where we started. A wider education is needed to make agriculture keep pace with the demands upon it and this can be achieved only by vocational schools of agriculture within the reach of every boy on the farm. It should be the nation's purpose to foster agriculture; to preserve the soil; and to build up a countryside which shall be a solid bulwark against social decay. The economic profit is great and the social value is incalculable. In this the nation, the states, and the local units should join heartily and effectively. All profit by the co-operation and all should pay the cost. Our welfare is primarily dependent upon our physical and vital resources. Conservation of those resources is a national duty and it is time that the nation surveyed its losses and took effective steps to prevent them. We have been living in an age of exploitation. We have been wasting and allowing waste of our resources like drunken sailors. The policy of taking all that could be gotten without regard to wise use or to the economy of the whole has been disastrous; we have ruined our soils and robbed them of their fertility in order that the exploiters could gain the highest immediate return without putting anything back on the land; we have mined coal, iron, and other minerals with criminal losses due to the greed of the exploiters who would mine the best because there was the greatest profit at once even tho it meant the permanent loss of the less productive veins; we have sent crude materials abroad and bought them back in fine fabrics and delicate machinery; we have permitted insect pests and diseases of plants and animals to take their toll of billions while the knowledge of prevention lies dormant; we have allowed a fire waste which is a disgrace to the nation because we have not made application of existing knowledge and known practice to the art of building; we have allowed our farms and roadsides to grow up to foul growth, a drain upon the soil and a hindrance to produc- tive crops; we are wasting hundreds of millions of dollars thru lack of edu- cation in the care of farm machinery; we waste other millions by the inability of our people to judge the value of their purchases in food, dress, or furnishings; we lose billions thru preventable diseases, and we bring untold loss, pain, and misery to the thousands who are needlessly killed and maimed in our industries every year or who suffer from preventable diseases. In all we waste $50,000,000,000 every year thru ignorance. The most widespread need which is not now being met is that of pro- viding teachers for the great task of universal vocational education. This task is one of analysis and cautious advance. We must know what we are attempting to do and make plans on the basis of ascertained facts. We must know what knowledge is worth while, and the "relative value of 328 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cindnnati knowledges," and we must learn efficient ways of imparting what has been determined to be of most worth. We must answer the questions: What is it the farmer needs to know because he is a farmer and tills the soil ? What is it that a homemaker needs to know because she is a homemaker and interested in realizing the ideal of the home ? What is it that the carpenter, plumber, machinist, and engineer need to know to perform their work with greatest skill? What is it that the masses in other occupations need to know to give them efficiency and consequent joy in their work ? What is it that all persons in whatever walk of life need to know to make them effec- tive imits in our civic and social life? These questions can be answered only by close study of industry, agriculture, business, and the home as well as the broader needs of civic life. The answer will give us the data upon which to build the elementary-school courses, the vocational schools, part- time and evening schools, correspondence work, and the vocational library. Enough knowledge is already stored up to revolutionize the practical world if it could be brought into action; enough scientific knowledge of agriculture is in printed form to make two blades of grass grow where one grows now if it were effectively put to work; enough of industrial science has been accimiulated to bring a new era of efficiency if a channel could be opened to conduct it to the right workers in the office and shop; enough science and art stand ready to improve the millions of homes in the lands if the homemakers were given the opportunity to get that part which is useful to them; enough principles and facts of business are available for the business man to give business a broader, more permanent, and more efficient character if they can only be wrought in the right proportions into the minds and actions of business men; and enough facts are at hand to prevent enormous wastes of our vital and physical resources if the dormant knowledge were only awakened and put to work. The main task is to find men and women capable of translating all of this knowledge into action thru the teaching process. National aid is needed to stimulate the production of a new kind of social teacher who can grasp the problems presented by the new time in order that the movement for vocational education shall move steadily forward without being diverted from its real purpose. What has been said of the nation's duty applies in a larger way to the individual states. The competition which the nation enters into with the world is, in miniature, engaged in by the states with each other. Each state has its own developments to sustain; its special industries to promote; its own resources to conserve; and its own peculiar social problems to solve. Thus the promotion of textile manufactures in Massachusetts in competi- tion with those of the South is a problem which Massachusetts is most con- cerned in solving but in the right solution of which the nation has an interest. If that problem is solved by Massachusetts thru education whereby a finer and ever finer grade of textiles shall be the product; if the Superintendence] NATIONAL AID FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 329 people of Massachusetts meet the competition of Georgia by learning to make better goods and leaving the coarser goods for Georgia's development, the result is a national benefit and a state asset and of great local impor- tance to all cities where textiles are made. The counteraction of any com- petition, whether between states or nations, is to be found in the development of new or superior products. In the friendly rivalry of states, each state can profit greatly by the development of its products thru educated skill. The cities and towns have a greater interest than the state or nation in education which fits their industries. Their concern is immediate and prevailing. The results are tangible. They can be seen in the direct prosperity of the community and its citizens. In the nation and the state, the result is merely observable in the aggregate; to the cities and towns, it means concrete betterment; to the citizen, it means efficiency, prosperity, contentment, hope for himself and his children. But there are other considerations calling as loudly for unity of action, chief among which is the mobility of our workers. A man may be bom in New York, may be educated for a trade in Cincinnati, and may spend his days in Chicago. His vocation may call him into many states in a single year, and perhaps in the course of a lifetime he may have done useful work in every part of the country. According to the census of 1910, only 57 .3 per cent of the urban popu- lation were bom in the state where they were then living. Even the rural population showed only 74 . 5 per cent were natives of the state in which they were then living. An investigation by the Russell Sage Foundation in 1913 showed that in 78 American cities only 15 per cent of the fathers of the 22,027 boys thirteen years of age were bom in the city where they were living. Of the boys themselves, only 58 per cent were natives of the city where they were attending school. The mobility of population brings also another inequitable distribution of burden thru the massing of unskilled, native, and immigrant labor in a few industrial centers. No one would argue, for instance, that it is just for the cities of New York and Chicago and Boston to bear the entire burden of educating the foreign immigrants whom the laws of the country permit to enter but fail to distribute properly. The inequitable distribution of burden from all of these causes is the most powerful argvunent in favor of the distribution of burden among the localities, states, and nation — the joint beneficiaries. A second consideration of great importance lies in the unequal abilities of the states and the local units to provide the kind of education which the national purpose demands. The Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education. estimated the wealth per capita of school population with sig- nificant effect. Their estimates show that the average wealth for the whole country per capita is about $5,674. In ten states the average exceeds $10,000. In five other states the average is less than $1,900. It is apparent 330 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati that the resources of some are relatively totally inadequate. The commis- sion makes the following statement: Assuming that the people of the several states are equailly disposed to contribute to the support of their schools in proportion to their means, there will be expended per capita of school population in Nevada nearly ten times the amoimt available in Georgia or Alabama; in California approximately five times as much as is available in Arkansas, Florida, Kentucky, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Texas, or Virginia, and approxi- mately twice as much as is available in Delaware, Indiana, Maine, Maryland, Missouri, South Dakota, Utah, Vermont, Washington, or Wisconsin. The ability of the states may also be roughly estimated upon the present state indebtedness, which varies from 3 cents per capita in Iowa, to $10.46 in Virginia, $13.02 in Arizona, and $22.78 in Massachusetts. Thirteen states average less than $1 per capita, while twelve states exceed $6 per capita. A similar story can be told of the relative ability of the cities, towns, and rural districts to meet singly and alone the burdens which increased educational facilities put upon them. The problems involved in giving an education which shall meet the voca- tional needs of all the people, which shall promote the bases of prosperity — industry and agriculture — and which shall conserve the resources of the nation, are vast and formidable. All that has been done in vocational education is as nothing compared with that which is yet to be begun. The need for vocational education increases faster than the facilities for pro- viding it. Teamplay on the part of nation, state, and local units is urgently needed if we are to meet the need and advance the national welfare. The part of the nation in this teamplay should be to give guidance in the study of the problem and such aid as will stimulate vocational education in agriculture, trades and industries, and the training of teachers — the most urgent needs — not for the purpose of assuming the burden of such education or of directing it, but of stimulating the work by conserving the local interests, initiative, and responsibility of the states and local com- munities. All that the federal government should ask is that the funds be devoted to the purposes for which they are granted and that they be spent imder such conditions as will make certain efficient results. The states and local communities cannot ask more and the federal government should not give less. Whence then the opposition to national aid for vocational education when the challenge is by circumstances put squarely up to the nation to fulfil the purpose of its establishment — "to promote the general welfare" ? Two opponents have appeared: the unconstitutional crank and the agricultural colleges and experiment stations. The former mumbles about the rights of the states to control education and the lack of power delegated to the nation. Forgetting precedent to which he so fondly clings in other cases, he screams his feeble protest. Let us review one item of evidence. First and last the federal government has given nearly $600,000,000 to the states for education. It is today giving many millions annually for agri- Superintendencel PROBLEMS OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 331 cultural colleges and experiment stations. With this statement, we may dismiss the unconstitutional crank and leave him to his mumblings and his futile screams. The agricultural colleges and experiment stations are theoretically in favor of vocr.iional education, and, of course, desire the results, but they oppose the vocational school. They have their own enterprise — the extension work — to foster and they very evidently do not care for any rivals to that work. In consequence, they would leave the boy to get what he can from the dry husks in the rural schools, and then, when he goes to work on the farm, they will show him some of the tricks in their bag. The boy must be safely out of school and at work before the coveted prize of vocational training is given to him. No matter that thousands are driven out of school by the profitless methods; no matter that the precious years of youth are wasted in fruitless teaching; no matter that the boy is drawn to the city by the failure of the school. He must wait for instructions for profitable employment until he goes to work. It would seem to be about time that everyone should recognize that the agricultural colleges and experiment stations, the Department of Agri- culture at Washington, and all the other agencies have failed to do any more than keep us from slipping back; they have not, on the whole, put us forward in agricultural development. Great as their work has been, something more is needed. Heroic efforts must be made and instead of opposing, for selfish reasons, broad education which industry and the countryside need, the agricultural colleges should stand in the forefront. Not that they should do less of extension work, but that they should get a keener appreciation of the educational needs of rural youth. The agri- cultural colleges and experiment stations and their agents should not be allowed to dominate rural education nor should they be allowed to build up an independent system of education for youth in the rural districts outside the schools. The rural school should be the center around which all activities of education for youth should center. Grave dangers confront the country in this respect thru the growth of agricultural extension. G. PROBLEMS OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE FRANK E. SPAULDEsTG, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. More completely than any other single movement, vocational guidance must take for its function the conservation of human resources. This movement enters this limitless field of effort not as a distinctly new agency; it seeks rather to differentiate itself from old agencies — the school, the home, the occupation — by clarifying, co-ordinating, and rendering more effective the efforts of these agencies whose function is also some phase of human betterment. The vocational-guidance movement seeks the co-operation 332 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (CindimaU of these numerous other agencies, and must depend for its efficiency largely upon securing such co-operation. Out of the problems of these other agencies, rather than de novo, the vocational-guidance movement is formulat- ing its problems and thus defining its field. Merely to state a half-dozen of these problems as they seem now to be taking shape — with no attempt to suggest their solution farther than their statement may suggest it — is all that the limits of this paper will permit. The first problem of vocational guidance seeking to conserve himian resources is to know the existence of those resources and their extent and number, and to gain and exercise some measure of control over them. Hence the vocational-guidance department of every school system should be responsible for an accurate and always up-to-date census of all the children and youth of the commimity, covering the ages from four or five to at least eighteen, or, better, twenty-one years. Furthermore, within these years the vocational-guidance department should exercise legal control over the children and youth of the community: first respecting their schooling, later respecting their employment, or combined employ- ment and schooling. Hence, the issuance of all school exemption and employment certificates should be under the control of this department, and should be so systematized that the department may know at all times, and control in accordance with law, the whereabouts and employment of every youth of the community. The second great problem of vocational guidance concerns types of schools and school curricula. While the vocational-guidance department must not be charged with the full responsibility of determining what types of schools shall be maintained and what subjects shall be taught in a given community, this department must render invaluable assistance in deter- mining these matters. For it is the function of this department to know more completely, more extensively than any other, the two great factors which must determine the scope and character of schools and programs of study — on the one hand, the children and youth to be educated, their capacities and needs, and, on the other, the needs of society, the oppor- tunities that society affords for worthy service. The vocational-guidance department should become a great repository of knowledge, always up to date and significant, of these two great factors in every community — the children and the work of the community. To secure this knowledge, the vocational-guidance department should stimulate and assist the study of children thruout the schools. Every teacher should have a part in this study, which should materially influence her attitude and work; at least the larger generalizations from these studies in the schools should be formulated and made available for quick reference in the voca- tional-guidance department. Equally should this department stimulate and take part in frequent industrial, commercial, and occupational surveys of the Superintendence] PROBLEMS OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 333 community, and the significant findings of such surveys should be always available in intelligible form in the office of the department. But no vocational-guidance department should serve merely as a repository of such knowledge as this. Its knowledge should, indeed, be available for the use of all who may seek it; but the department itself must be at least one of the prime interpreters of this knowledge. When it is a question of the adjustment and the constant readjustment of schools and of school programs to the changing needs of the children and of the com- munity, it may well fall to the vocational-guidance department to take the initiative in bringing about the necessary adjustments. One important feature that the vocational-guidance department must help to introduce in some effective way into the school program of every community is a study of the rich and varied possibilities of service that not only the local community but the world affords. Such studies must be made not only informing, but inspiring, to the end that youth may not merely know of the existence of opportunities for service, but that youthful desire for activity, for self-expression, may be aroused and directed into worthy channels. Vocational guidance may well formulate for itself a third problem, that of the moral effect of the school on the child. I refer not especially to the conscious and intentional efforts of the school to train the character as well as the intellect — most schools are fully alive to the importance of such character- training as a means of vocational preparation — I refer rather to the continuous, unavoidable, yet rarely appreciated effect of the conditions imposed upon the pupil thru the organization, administra- tion, and conduct of the school and of the school work. The character effects growing silently and inevitably out of these fundamental conditions are probably more important than those resulting from conscious and intentional efforts of instructors. They are of all kinds — ^beneficial and detrimental — measured in terms of their contribution to the realization of each individual's possibilities. Demanding especial attention from the standpoint of vocational guidance are those conditions which develop in a large percentage of pupils — and usually in the very ones most needing vocational guidance — feelings of personal unfitness and discouragement, habits of failure. Those who know industrial conditions to which young workers are subject, rightly deplore the prevalence of the blind-alley job, the frequent changes from one job to another, the repeated failures to get a sure footing anywhere, for out of these conditions graduate that most pitiable class — the imemployables. It is high time for us to realize that many children in our schools are subject to like conditions — blind-alley studies, repeated and continuous failure, whose character effects are inevitably the same as those resulting from like conditions in industry. 334 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cindnnati The vocational-guidance movement should help to bring from the industrial world to the school the impressive lesson that the conservation of human resources — in general and in the individual — depends upon success — the habit of success, the feeling of self-confidence that grows out of habitual success. No one wants to fail — least of all the youth whose normal condition is that of confidence and hope. The school must learn to adapt its work and requirements to the natural desire to succeed, so that the entire school life of every pupil may be a series of successes, to the end that, however meager the intellectual accomplishment, the habit of success may be formed. Without this fixed habit of success, any young person is poorly prepared to face the discouraging conditions so prevalent in the world of industry. The young person entering industry with the habit of failure developed in school has already made several grades toward graduation into the class of unemployables. The fourth and the iromediate problem of vocational guidance is the individual. Vocational guidance must see that the individual learns to appreciate his own capacities and possibilities; that he informs himself concerning the opportunities for worthy service that the world offers; that he prepares himself as adequately as time and conditions permit to apply his powers to the rendering of the highest service of which he is, or may become, capable; that he learns to concentrate his thought, his energy, and his ambition, to this end of large and worthy service. This problem — like most other problems of vocational guidance — is not one for the voca- tional-guidance expert or councilor alone; it is a problem that must enlist the thought and effort of everyone, especially teachers and parents, who has any responsibility for the development and success of the child and youth. The fifth problem of vocational guidance demands extensive knowledge of opportunities for service, especially in the lomaediate community, but also in the world at large. Such knowledge must not be confined to indus- trial and commercial occupations — service in the professions, any oppor- tunity for worthy service, great or small, is the concern of vocational guidance. This knowledge must be intimate as well as extensive. It must embrace essential conditions of each distinct occupation — the general character of the occupation from the standpoint of social and civic welfare; the extent of the demand for service in that occupation; preparation necessary; steps, conditions, and limitations of progress; health and other conditions with their effects on workers; seasons and hours of work, wages, and other advantages. In short, a well-equipped vocational guid- ance department should have at its command such practical analyses of every important organized form of service as were worked out so admirably for certain typical industries in the Richmond survey. Obviously, the gathering of such knowledge and keeping it always up to date, as is neces- sary, is an immense undertaking. Here, again, the co-operation of many Superintendence] EDUCATION AND PREPARATION FOR WAR 335 agencies — industrial, commercial, professional, civic, social, and educational — must be enlisted. The sixth and culminating problem of vocational guidance has to do with the successful transition of children and youth from the favorable conditions of healthful growth, and of practical education, which the schools must provide, into different but also favorable conditions for continued growth that occupations must be brought to afford. I state this final problem advisedly, with at least some realization of the prodigious responsi- bility imposed on vocational guidance — the responsibility of influencing the conditions of industry in favor of human welfare. To accomplish this undertaking in any considerable measure is unquestionably be- yond the unaided power of any vocational-guidance movement that is likely soon to develop. But fortunately many organized agencies, public and private, are already engaged in this same undertaking. I refer, of course, to all those agencies whose object is the banishment of human exploitation, the elevation of human welfare above mere industrial and commercial profit — those agencies that are already doing much to shorten the long hours, to improve the working conditions, and to increase the pay of wage-earners. It is the function and the unparalleled opportunity of vocational guidance to co-operate with all such agencies, to co-ordinate their efforts, and to concentrate them all to the fullest conservation of human resources. That the motives of vocational guidance may be above question, this movement should be supported at public expense, just as the public-school system is supported. Any distinct organization for the purpose of stimulat- ing, directing, and making more effective the vocational-guidance movement should be a part, a department, of the public-school system. The ideal of vocational guidance is but an elevation and extension of the educational ideal for which the school exists. Vocational guidance seeks the largest realization of the possibilities of every child and youth, measured in terms of worthy service; vocational guidance seeks this not thru the school alone but thru the upbuilding influences that work and life beyond the school ought to afford every human being. SHOULD OUR EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM INCLUDE ACTIVITIES WHOSE SPECIAL PURPOSE IS PREPARATION FOR WAR? i. lindley m. garrison, secretary of war, washington, d.c. Telegram Pressure of work is such that I feel obliged to notify you that I will not be able to leave Washington to go to Cincinnati. This telegram is in accordance with my arrangement made with you at the time we spoke about my going. I have delayed advising you until the last moment in the hope 336 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION icincinnati that I could so arrange matters as to get away, but the pressure is worse than usual and I literally cannot leave my duties here to go elsewhere at this time. I will write you a letter embodying certain views that I desire to have presented to the convention, I greatly regret that I cannot have the privilege myseK of being there in person and nothing less than imper- ative duties here would keep me away. Letter As my wire last night informed you, I find that circumstances are such that I have no right to go away from here at the present time for any excepting some imperative official purpose. I very much regret this, as I had looked forward with genuine pleasure to the meeting at Cincinnati. You must know the intense interest that I take in the matter of national defense. I do not know whether you read my annual report and various other articles and addresses that I have since made on the subject, but I assimie that in a general way you are aware of my position. I feel that it is the cardinal duty of those that are interested in our country's safety to take those reasonable precautions which wise consideration leads us to find necessary under all the circumstances. It always has seemed to me to be idle to discuss this matter from the standpoint of whether one favors war or peace, because I have never met anyone in my life that favored war. It would be difficult to find anyone who would openly favor the many things against which precautionary measures on behalf of the people are absolutely essential. Diseases, fires, floods, calamities of all descriptions, are likely to happen and must be pro- vided against; and so it is in this other field — war is likely to be forced upon a nation, however pacific its intention and however desirous of avoiding it it may be. Until this situation has been changed, every self-respecting nation that is guided by wisdom must take those reasonable precautions or suffer the hideous consequences of failing to do so. By reason of our distaste for the subject, our shrinking from war, our desire to avoid it, we have gone to the other extreme and have failed to look the situation manfully in the face and deal with it in that enlightened, intelligent, and forceful way that we have dealt with other problems. There is another unfortunate situation, arising out of a failure correctly to represent facts in our history. The lack of proper precaution has pro- duced woeful results which are overlooked in the final success that attended the fortunes of this country. One has to be a most careful student of history to ascertain the truth, because, generally speaking, the narratives of our history would lead one to believe that militarily we had handled whatever situation confronted us with great skill and efficiency. That such is not the fact is known to every real student. The inherent manhood, fortitude, and courage of our people finally triumphed, but all of the untoward con- sequences of a lack of proper precautions were felt. That such imtoward Superintendence] EDUCATION AND PREPARATION FOR WAR 337 consequences were finally overcome and that we succeeded despite them is surely not an argument for a continuance of a similar condition. It is another unfortunate fact that people who should think about this matter with an open mind and informed intelligence and an earnest desire to reach a wise, patriotic conclusion, refuse to do so because of the shadow of militarism which they evoke and shrink from. I cannot sjonpathize with this state of mind. There is no proposal that I know of that this country should build up a great military power for the sake of such power, nor that the civil authorities should be impinged upon or interfered with in order that we may have a great military power, nor that any of the effects of militarism should be produced in this country. But this country must have sufficient military force to enable it to maintain its proper position among the nations of the earth. It gains nothing by feebleness, and I for one have no fear of the misuse of its strength. I feel a perfect confidence that if the citizens of this country could be made to see this matter freed from the prejudices which encrust it, they would be practically of one mind, and all the difficulties would disappear. It is this which inclines me to think that very useful work might be dpne in the schools and colleges. Just how this work should be undertaken, to what extent it should go, and what form it should take, I am not advised. I feel about this as I do about many matters: that it is more important that it should be done well than that it should be undertaken speedily. Very often a subject-matter of great importance, and one which would produce very beneficial results, is so treated and handled as to defer or to defeat its beneficial effects. In the matter that we are considering, so much depends upon the way in which it is done that I for one wish to be sure that we have adopted the best way before we co-operate upon any way. My suggestion, if I may be permitted to make one, is that the con- vention appoint a committee with full power to go into this subject-matter and to co-operate with me and those whom I may designate for the purpose in a study thereof, with a view of making a report of what, in our joint judgment, is the wisest, most patriotic, and most efficient way to handle this most important subject. If the convention thinks well of this idea and adopts it, I will enter into the execution of my part of it with enthu- siasm and will do all that I can to produce a result which will be beneficial to the great system which you represent, to the many who will be affected thru your efforts, and to our country as a whole. n. NATHAN C. SCHAEFFER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUC- TION, HARRISBURG, PA. A cartoon in Punch represents a mother with her head tied up, suffering from a violent headache, while her little daughter in the foreground solilo- quizes, saying, "I do not see what mama will do. Between the cook and 338 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincbnati the Kaiser she is completely distracted." The average teacher is like this mother because between the teaching of cooking and of current events, between the demands of vocational education and the teaching of the war, she is well-nigh distracted. But when the demand is made that militarism be introduced into our public schools as an integral part of our vocational training, her distraction reaches its climax, and if she ever succeeds in fulfilling this latest requirement, we may develop a race of Amazons more fierce than the militant suffragettes. It is a widespread notion that military drill benefits a boy's physique and that it is an essential part of physical education. If this be so, why are the girls excluded from military drill? The war-brides need as much bodily health and vigor as the soldiers who marry them if future generations are not to show signs of decadence. Mili- tary drill for girls would be the logical conclusion if military drill were essential to the development of a healthy body and a sound mind. Investigations have shown the contrary to be true, and in these days nothing in educational practice is considered conclusive unless based upon scientific experiments. Says Dr. Darby of London: Experiments which were conducted in a public school with a view to ascertain the relative value of gymnastics and mere drill showed that the average results yielded by the former were more than three times as great as those yielded by drill alone. Relatively, therefore, this method of physical culture is inferior. Military drill is defective inasmuch as it does not to any extent meet the physical demands of the body. Its efifect upon boys is not salutary. It does not, as the community at large has beUeved, make a youth erect or give him a graceful, manly bearing. On the contrary, it tends to make him stiff and angular in his movements, as well as to droop and round his shoulders. This conclusion is in entire harmony with the investigations of Dr. Sargeant, of the Hemenway Gymnasium at Harvard University, who claims that the gracefulness which is thought to characterize the movements of young cadets is not the outcome of drilling and marching, but rather of the hours spent each day under the direction of the dancing master. This eminent authority says: After taking the most favorable view possible of military drill as a physical exercise, we are led to conclude that its constrained positions and closely localized movements do not afford the essential requisites for developing the muscles, and improving the respiration and circulation, and thereby improving the general health and condition of the system. We must further conclude that in case of any malformation, local weakness, or consti- tutional debility the drill tends, by its strain upon the nerves and prolonged tension on the muscles, to increase the defects rather than to relieve them. Is there any more justification for the introduction of military drill into the school curriculum on moral grounds than there is on physical grounds ? I answer emphatically in the negative. Military drill seeks to develop imquestioning obedience, so that the soldier will move forward in the face of danger and even certain death, but it does not develop obedience to conscience, to a sense of right, and to the divine imperative to duty. The lessons of the Sunday school are thrown to the winds upon the field of battle. I Superintendence] EDUCATION AND PREPARATION FOR WAR 339 The explicit declaration of a British commander-in-chief that maxims like "Truth always wins in the long run," "Honesty is the best policy," did very well for copybooks, but are not to be acted upon in warfare, shows how war and preparation for war upset our ethical standards. Legitimate warfare includes and justifies all the mean, false, cowardly, and unchivalrous actions which youths have been taught to despise in their own behalf, such as strategems, ambushes, spying, eavesdropping, hitting from behind or when a feUow is down, lying, forging letters and telegrams, signals to mislead the enemy, following up a beaten enemy and hammering at him with cavalry and artillery to annihilate him; insisting upon the severest possible terms of surrender, or refusing all offers of surrender with the order "Take no prisoners." It is bad enough when these practices and principles enter into adult life. To instil them into the subconscious life of adolescent youth results in moral damage from which the pupil never recovers. Having been taught by militarism that it is permissible to suspend the decalog for his country's sake, he is in danger afterward of repealing the Ten Commandments for his own sake whenever any advantage can thereby be gained in the political or financial world. At the University of Pennsylvania, Dr. Reichert has been delivering lectures upon dual personality and the subconscious lif« of the soul. He and others have shown the danger of dropping wrong ideas into the sub- conscious depths of the soul and of stirring up what man has inherited from his savage ancestors who lived by war and the chase and by activities as savage as, but less ruthless than, modem warfare which is now little more than butchery by big guns and slaughter by centimeters. In a recent lecture he said: The morality, the culture, the religion, the ideals that characterize the highest mani- festations of our pretentious civilization are but a veneer that covers our greatest sub- conscious mental life — a form of mental life that is our chief psychic heritage from imtold warring progenitors, and which, like the smoking, smoldering volcano, is likely to break into an eruption and overcome all. Break this fragile skin, and Dr. Jekyll becomes Mr. Hyde, Dorothy is transformed to Becky, and the real Miss Beauchamp is changed to the Devil Sally. Let us cast our eyes to the flaming horizon beyond the ocean, and behold the highest ideals of civilization set aside for the ordeal of steel and blood, and witness between the rise and set of the sun the culture of a Dr. Jekyll transformed to the barbarous perfidy and diabolical savagery of a Mr. Hyde leading to the greatest and most imfamous tragedy in the history of mankind. From this point of view, it matters much what we sow into the sub- conscious depths of the soul. The study of war, the military drill during the most impressible periods of adolescent life, leave in the subconscious depths of the soul the materials for wars and the worst that human nature is capable of. The question before us, however, involves far more than the intro- duction of military drill into our public schools. We all agree that it is the province of the public school to prepare its pupils for citizenship. To 340 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION icincinnati attain this end a threefold concept of the state should be developed in the pupil's mind. In the first place, the state should be conceived as organized force. The state of Pennsylvania manifests herself as organized force in her mounted police — an organization which has done wonders in maintain- ing peace and order during strikes and labor troubles. The state as organ- ized force is manifest in the army and the navy. We shall always need an army and a navy for defense and for police purp)oses. Our commerce needs protection on the high seas; our citizens need protection in foreign lands; our border and our ports must be protected from violation of the rights of neutrality. Suppose the Kaiser should land an army in New York for the purpose of invading Canada as he did in Belgium for the purpose of invading France — ^what would our government do ? Would we allow any foreign power to say that treaties guaranteeing the rights of neutral territory are but scraps of paper ? The day will never come when the nations of the earth can do without armies and navies for purposes of self-defense and police protection. In the next place, the state should be taught as organized justice. Our courts have done away with the duel, with private revenge thru violence, with tribal feuds in which death was the invariable penalty exacted without trial and in the heat of passion. If the state is lax in the administration of justice, lynch law asserts itself with all its attendant barbarities and horrors. The courts may have to fall back upon the state as organized force for the purpose of enforcing their decisions and decrees; they may make errors in the administration of justice; nevertheless there is less suffering and violence where courts of law are established and maintained than under the operations of lynch law. Without doubt the schools should inculcate respect for law as administered by our courts of justice. The law should never be made a device for letting guilty men escape, nor a means for bol- stering up rapacious corporations. Our liberties and free institutions are safe so long as the people do not lose their faith in the ballot and the judi- ciary. Hence it is of the utmost importance to develop in the minds of pupils while studying history and civics the concept of the state as organ- ized justice backed by organized force. And as soon as the nations rise to the concept of an international court of arbitral justice as a substitute for war in the settlement of disputes and difficulties, so soon will they abandon the theory that might makes right and that weaker nations have no rights which the strong are bound to respect. Personally, I see no difference between the ambition of England to be mistress of the seas, the ambition of Germany to control the markets of the world, the ambition of Russia to control the major portion of the arable land on the earth's surface, and the ambition of certain jingoes in the United States to dominate the New World for the glory of the flag and the benefit of our men of wealth. In dealing with our weaker neighbors, justice, and not force, is the glory of the nation. Superintendence] EDUCATION AND PREPARATION FOR WAR 341 In the third place, the state should be taught as organized good-will. What is the meaning of our hospitals and almshouses, of our schools, colleges, and orphans' homes, of our post-offices and our parcel post, of our interstate commerce and public-utility commissions, of donations and appropriations for the relief of our destitute populations ? The good-will of the United States was manifested when our government prevented the partition of China, when it offered to mediate between Russia and Japan, when it announced the Monroe Doctrine as a protection to our South American republics. Our attitude toward Cuba at the close of the Spanish- American War in which we made every possible blunder except the choice of an enemy was another shining example of the state as organized good- will. John Hay's assertion that he applied the Golden Rule to the treat- ment of nations as well as to the treatment of individuals is a concrete enunciation of the doctrine that the state is organized good-will. The most shining triumph of the spirit of good-will among the nations is found in the hundred years of peace between the United States and Great Britain. This century of peace was worth while for our churches and schools to cele- brate in spite of the dreadful war into which Great Britain has been drawn with the leading nations of Europe, some on her side and others against her. President Butler speaks of those "who are longing for the day when justice and not force shall rule the destinies of the world." This day will not dawn unless in addition to conceiving the state as organized justice backed by organized force, we also regard the state as organized good-will. At this stage of our discussion, it is necessary to differentiate between teaching war and preparation for war, between efforts to prepare for war and efforts to prevent war. We hear much about the propriety of teaching the causes and the conduct of the European war. What should interest us far more is the termination of the war and the prevention of wars in the days which are to come. What can the public schools do to prevent war and to make unnecessary the vast expenditures upon armies and navies? Here is a legitimate field for the activities of the public- school teacher. This war should no doubt be referred to among current events. Is it wise at this time to spend much time upon the causes and concomitants of this war which instead of being a historical or biological necessity is the greatest biological crime of the ages? Instead of being a survival of the fittest to live, it means the destruction of the strongest and most valuable lives and the survival of the weakest to perpetuate the race. May not the teaching of war among current events be overdone ? When the war broke out my youngest daughter exclaimed: "What a lot more of horrible history we girls will have to learn while this war is in progress!" "How will it be," exclaimed her sister, "after the war is over!" When is our teaching of history successful and satisfactory ? Is it when the facts of history and the details of government abide in the mind as mere knowl- 342 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cindnnati edge? I say emphatically, "No." The pupil should leave the class from day to day with higher ideals of patriotism and civic duty. He should say to himself: "I will work and vote and live for the best interests of my country, yea, if need be, I will fight for my country and die in its defense." Does this justify the introduction of military drill into the curriculum ? Will preparedness for war prevent war? The present European struggle is the answer to that question. The Czar and the Kaiser did not begin war until they felt that every possible preparation for war had been made. There might have been no war if there had been no military class anxious to try the inventions and preparations which had been made during four decades! And while these preparations were going on, did the European governments introduce military drill into the schools whose pupils had not attained the age of eighteen years ? They did this only when the exigencies of war drove them to subordinate the individual to the state. Will the lack of preparation for war prevent war? Three times the United States went to war unprepared. The last time President McKinley told the committee of jingoes who visited him from Congress before declaring war against Spain he would like to have powder enough on hand to keep up the war at least two weeks. If we would prevent war, we must approach the problem from an entirely different angle. In other words, history must be taught from the peace point of view. The teaching of history should be so broad in its scope and so philan- thropic in its content that like John Hay the pupil shall be willing to follow the Golden Rule in dealing with nations as with individuals. Right here we get a new point of view. We conceive the state as existing for the welfare of the citizen, but there may arise crises during which we must adopt the Persian idea that the citizen exists for the state. In other words, it may become the citizen's duty to take up arms in defense of his country. If military drill is harmful during boyhood and during adolescence, it should be postponed to the period when the youth has entered college or started upon his vocational career. So long as it is necessary for some of our people to learn the art of war, provision must be made somewhere for this training and instruction. After the adolescent period is ended, the necessity for military drill may be met by summer camps for college men where they can acquire a knowledge of military tactics if not of the art of war. Our land-grant colleges give this sort of instruction during the regular sessions. The young men upon whose education the government is spending millions of dollars owe the country a debt in the way of preparation for military duty. How far militarism should be carried into our denominational colleges is a question worthy of discussion. My two sons entered college too young for the military drill. The commandant would not admit them; they were too small to take the soldier's stride. I could not see that this lack of military drill did them any harm from any point of view unless perchance in time of war they might have to enter the army as private soldiers and Supermtendence] EDUCATION AND PREPARATION FOR WAR 343 not as oflScers. The time that would have been consumed in military drill could be used for higher and better purposes. To most of my audience, the Civil War and the Franco-Prussian War are ancient history quite as much as the battle of Thermopylae or the Carthaginian wars. To me both the Civil War and the Franco-Prussian War are as vivid as if they had occurred yesterday. The survivors of the Franco-Prussian War were my chums and seatmates at the University and the survivors of the Civil War had been my schoolmates in my native state of Pennsylvania. I am sure that their experiences in the war neither improved their health or their morals, nor did it make them better able to lead a life that is worth living. Before this military drill becomes a passion of the soul, the school should instil sane ideals of life by glorifying the arts of peace above the art of war. The student of the land-grant college should be made to see that a scientist who adds millions of bushels to the com crop of a state is a greater bene- factor than he who sinks a battleship or kills a regiment upon land. He should be made to see that smokeless powder and machine guns have taken from war its glamor and glory. The day of the infantry charge that thrilled the poet is fast fading. The cavalry assault that produced the charge of the Light Brigade is dying. There never will be another charge like that of Pickett's at Gettysburg; machine guns have made such charges impos- sible madness. There may still be dramatic possibilities in the submarine of Holland and the aeroplane of Wright, both of them American ideas evolved without the aid of military drill in the public schools. From this point of view, one cannot escape the conviction that over against the concept of the state as organized force, organized justice, and organized good-will, military drill in the public schools is organized insanity and, in so far as it is necessary for national defense, it should be postponed to the years when the youth can see war as it really is — a hell on earth. Finally, let us not permit the student to forget that there is a God in history who controls the destinies of peoples and nations. Nineveh and Babylon, Persia, Greece, and Rome were military nations whose militarism did not save them from destruction. The militarism of the so-called great powers of Europe has come to judgment. Have you ever watched German women hitched up with dogs drawing carts thru the streets while their sons were drilling ? Have you noticed how little the Italian peasant has to eat and wear? Altho working the most fertile soil under the sunniest of skies, the products of his industry are consumed by the army. Have you looked into the hovels of Russian peasants, and seen their tables and their backs almost stripped bare of food and clothing in order that the army might be fed and clothed and supplied with guns and powder and missiles of destruction? Have you seen the Russian farmer, when the tax-gatherer had taken his last heifer, hitch his wife and children to the plow so that there might be another harvest ? Have you seen that peasant selling the grain which he and his children would need during the winter in order to 344 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [CincinnaU escape a flogging by government officials, while the mother with tears in her eyes was trying to keep alive the suckling at her breast, gone dry, by the offer of a little bread moistened with saliva? Have you stood at Ellis Island and watched the incoming tide of Europe's poor, with the light gone out of their eyes, many of them trampled out of shape under the heels of the war lords of their native land ? Could you doubt that some day Europe would stand at God's judgment bar and pay the penalty for its militarism ? What is the lesson of our own country's history ? Once we sold slaves. Women were torn from their husbands and children. Good men stood looking on apparently unconcerned. "Year after year the atrocity went on, and it seemed as if it might go on forever. Poor black woman, she could not protect herself and there was no one else to protect her." Then came a war which no one wanted any more than the common people of Europe wanted the present war. Abraham Lincoln at last saw the meaning of the war; he bowed his great soul before the Ruler of the world, sajdng: "If every drop of blood drawn by the lash must be paid for by blood drawn by the sword, even then we must say that the judgments of the Lord are true and righteous altogether," If we would avoid plunging the land of the stars and stripes into another hell, let us keep military drill out of the public schools.^ in. JOHN H. riNLEY, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, ALBANY, N.Y. If by " our educational system " you mean our elementary and secondary schools thru which a republic is consciously, sacrificially trying to give her eighteen million children each year tuition of a longing that in its very trans- mission becomes a prophecy; an institution whose very maintenance is a prayer uttered by one generation thru a thousand hoiu-s of every year for all that "it could never be"; an institution in which the future takes counsel of all the race hope and hmnan failure of the past; and if you mean by "war" that hellish thing which is now going on in Europe, that vocation of jealousy, envy, and hate, pursued with every skill that the human mind and hand have learned, with every passion that the brute has bequeathed, but exposing incidentally every virtue that a god knows. If you mean by "our educational system" that which attempts to express what we most want to keep, out of all human experience in the eternity back of us, and what we most desire to hand on to those who are to live in the eternity before us — some haunting memory of the Creator's purpose for man, some stirring strain that drives us, leads us on, that "harries man to love the best"; and if you mean by "war" that which drags one man back to the savage even while it lets the divinity in another find its exalted eternal expression, that which is strewing with stark and rotting corpses fields already twice red with the carnage of Caesar and 'In the last paragraph I have used the ideas and some o( the words of Charles E. Jefferson's The Cause of the War. Superintendence] EDUCATION AND PREPARATION FOR WAR 345 Napoleon, that which, as in the days of Jeremiah, has "taken away the voice of mirth and the voice of gladness, the voice of the bridegroom and the voice of the bride, the soimd of the millstones and the light of the candle." If you mean by "our educational system" not merely curriculums and budgets and licenses and pensions, and miserable lonesome rural schools and beautiful urban structures, but the visible, organized, disciplined aspiration of a race moving toward some higher goal; and if you mean by "war" that which is pictured in the recent report in the Alumni Weekly of a Yale man, fresh from the trenches in the north of France: Then the machine guns opened on them witheringly, they were falling in hundreds, but on they pressed (in dense ranks). They came nearer and the British could hear them singing "The Watch on the Rhine" — thousands of voices, while hundreds carried the air on mouth organs. They were getting close. It was time for musketry. The English observed that only half of the approaching mass wore uniforms. "Shoot low," com- manded the English ofl&cer, "they are only boys; aim at their legs." .... Only a few reached the trenches. If you mean by "our educational system" the "substance of things hoped for" in a democracy's highest faith; and if you mean by "war" that sublimated brutish game played under international rules, whose issue is absurdly assumed to determine relative values of civilizations; that greatest tragedy which would be the greatest comedy if it were not tragedy — then I answer "No!" "Our educational system," in its basic nation-wide disciplines, in its earth-wide racial heritages, and in its voca- tional courses, should not include those whose special purpose is preparation for "war." No, by all our hopes for the millions of children of all nations, whose ancestral hates we seek to quiet or quench, whose parents unite in taxing themselves for the support of the schools which we represent here tonight. No, by all the innocent sufferings and blightings of the millions of the "gory nurse's" children whose fathers and brothers are facing each other on hundreds of miles of entrenched borders this same night. No, as many times as there are children, here and there. But if, holding to the definition I have made of "pur educational system" (keeping its fences open only on the infinite side), you will let me define "war," I am ready to answer "Yes," — ^yes, by all the lives that without hate have been nobly given for the love of something higher than one's self; yes, by the "adorable faith" of the soldier who from being a mercenary, a paid slaughterer, in time became a patriot and a martja*; yes, by all the suffering and struggle and victory of himian evolution from beasthood to manhood. If you will let me define "war"! And I begin my definition, as is the custom of the lexicographer, with the derivation, the etymology. My defi- nition of war will stand on my definition of militarism, and my definition of militarism goes back thru the Roman milites, helmeted and bespeared, massed in legions or formed in testudines, back to the slopes of Kabulstan 346 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [CincinnaU and the plains of the Jumna and the Ganges, to the places of the mother- language, the Indo-Germanic, to the Sanskrit word "mil," which signified to associate, to unite — ^back to the primeval soldiers, those who joined one another to achieve some common object. And, as the most usual common purpose was to attack, or to defend themselves against other hmnan beings, so it came about that in many languages, Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Latin, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Old High German, and Middle Dutch, the word in which they spoke this common object ("guerre," "werra") had the sound of the wings of the followers of Apollyon, which John heard in the Apocalypse, "the soimd of chariots, and of many horses rushing to war." I am a militarist in this pristine Aryan sense. And I build my martial system on the same foimdation as that which all European languages of militarism remember — the assembling, the organizing of individual men into mUites, militia. It is of such a militarism that Kipling sings: a militarism not primarily of individual valors but of miracles of organization; a militarism in which, as Chesterton says, there is no "epicurean comer," no "place of irresponsi- bility"; a militarism which calls into specific sacrificial service what each man has to give even if it takes him away from his personal prospects, or his personal gain, or takes from him his life. On my way to France from England just after the declaration of war in Europe last sununer, I journeyed in a compartment from London to the Channel with six or seven Frenchmen and a Russian who had left their occupations and families to join their comrades, each in his appointed place. One was a maker of meerschaum pipes, proud of his skill, but going unques- tioningly and without a word of comment or complaint except the hope that "it would not come to bayonets." At that same time, Doctor Carrel, who had but a little time ago received the Nobel Prize, and who had made the heart to beat long after the death of its owner, was going to hospital service in the south of France. And down in Austria there was a musician, Fritz Elreisler, the violinist (whom I heard last Satiu*day night), joining his regi- ment, later to be rescued insensible from a trench, where he had been ridden down by the Cossacks, and even now lame from the spear-thrust. These all tell of a marUal organization which, in its provident thought, had a definite place alike for the meerschaum-pipe maker, the world-famed surgeon, and the composer of the "Caprice," and which, if you could make your way to the German trenches, would reveal a provision for every martial need or emergency, and comfort even, only less than omniscient. (One of my former students who has just returned from there tells of officers in the field, in the lull of battle, listening by field telephones to music in Berlin.) Such a militant organization and with it a specific prediscipline, a preparatory training! (And preparation for war is war, even as preparation for life is life.) I think I am almost ready now for the Landwehr and a Landsturm, a continuation school in which each man shall, apart from Superintendence] EDUCATION AND PREPARATION FOR WAR 347 his vocation, or quitting even for a time his vocation — as every able-bodied man of France, Germany, Austria, Italy — undergo physical and mental disciplines for the sake of the state, for the sake of the race. Five years ago, after reading William James's essay on "The Moral Equivalent of War," I wrote him that I was prepared to recruit a regiment of volunteers for his army, which, he urged, should be conscripted. Perhaps you recall that most stirring of martial docmnents, put out as peace propa- ganda, in which he advocates the conscription of the luxurious classes to be sent to the coal and iron mines, to freight trains, to fishing fleets, to dish- washing, clothes-washing, and window-washing, to road-building and tunnel-building, to foimdries and stokeholes, to the frames of skyscrapers, in order that they might know " the sour and hard foundations of the higher life," and feel that they belonged to a collectivity superior in some ideal aspect to themselves, something for which they were ready to pay a blood- tax. I was not ready then for conscription, having memory of an experience as a boy in seeing citizens in this very valley work out poll taxes on the roads. But when I see the miracles wrought by martial organization, I am impatient at times that we have to wait for the conscription of our individual ideals. When journeying thru a pass in the Jura Mountains a few years ago one March day, I saw, silhouetted against the cold evening sky, the figure of soldiers climbing along a ridge to their fortress at the end of a day's marching or scouting. In Florence I saw troop after troop crossing and recrossing the Amo to and from the hill of San Miniato where Angelo's David looks across the city to the Apennines. At Siena I was waked by the tramp of soldiers' feet. In the place of the Caesars I saw crowds held in by lines of soldiers, while kings from north and south passed. Every- where soldiers, and always was rising this thought, "If these men, compelled to military service" — useless as it seemed to be then except in its disciplines — "if they could only be trained and employed to fight against the real foes of a city, a nation, a race, what a power would be released for the general good!" And here my definition of war emerges upon battlefields of promethean yet newest heroisms (if indeed there are such places as battlefields to be left to history). Even while I was making this definition in that reciuring thought which came to me in Italy and France, someone, I have learned only within the last few days, was at that very time framing a like definition in Russia: Our awfulest enemies, the elements and germs and insect destroyers, attack us every minute without cease, yet we murder one another as if we were out of our senses. Death is ever on the watch for us, and we think of nothing but to snatch a few patches of land! About 5,000,000,000 days of work go every year to the displacement of boundary lines. Think of what humanity could obtain if that prodigious effort were devoted to fighting our real enemies, the noxious species and our hostile environment. We should conquer them in a few years. The entire globe would turn into a model farm. Every plant 348 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tCincinnati would grow for our use. The savage animals would disappear, and the infinitely tiny- animals would be reduced to impotence by hygiene and cleanliness. The earth would be conducted according to our convenience. In short, the day men realize who their worst enemies are, they will form an alliance against them, they will cease to murder one another like wild beasts from sheer folly. Then they will be the true rulers of the planet, the lords of creation. But I have found a more recent and effective statement of the thought that was flimg across the sky of many an earth mind by the philosopher James before he went away, the thought that troubled me whenever I heard the measured tramp of feet or saw the bayonet in France or Italy, the thought that at the same time was stirring this Russian, imknown to me, to cry against the war philosophies of Gumplowitz, something that has at last got from the philosopher's study into the street — even as the phi- losophies of the European professors have reached the triggers of the peasants' rifles and made men different from all other animals, in that they prey upon their own species. "But where does the martial spirit come in?" says the cynic. And the American philosopher, after James's own spirit, replies: *'The nation has never made us look at it in the right way." There is nothing "animat- ing about wallowing in a trench or lugging a haversack and a heavy gun all day, except as it is a part of an organized national enterprise. Well, then, organize yoiir national enterprise against nature instead of the Belgians or Canadians." As it has been since the Titans fought the gods, "Nature is our implacable enemy. Russians aren't, Germans aren't." We have too much softened our vocabulary and our spirits. We speak of "public service" and of "doing good" when we ought to be making such war, fighting evil, and enduring hardships. We ought, as some old militant Christian said, to put on our armor and not take it off till we put on our shrouds. For life is not service. Life is struggle alone, struggle together. Life is war. I discovered when following the Mississippi River to the Gulf a few years ago, that it was the War Department that was watching its every movement, that was carrying on constant battle with floods, shoals, erosions, burrowing animals, and the clouds which every year send the army of waters down the valley with the power of 60,000,000 horses. It is the War Department that has dug the Panama Canal, that has made some regions accessible, that has made others habitable, that has stayed pestilence and ministered most effectively to cities overwhelmed by disaster. It is to the War Department that we turn in our extreme emergencies — flood, fire, famine, and earthquake. It is the War Department that is illustrating how we may fight our real and common race foes. And I would have the conservation of health and the direction of educa- tion conceived of as functions of the War Department, scientifically, austerely administered for the conunon good. Kitchener's letter to the expeditionary force going into France is the best possible literature for us to Superintendence] EDUCATION AND PREPARATION FOR WAR 349 use who are directing the expeditionary forces which this generation is send- ing to battle in the thirties and forties and fifties of this century. Here is a meeting of the general staff, Generals Maxwell and Schaeflfer, Claxton and Flagg- Young, Jordan and Snyder, who must largely determine their far movements. Would we might commandeer every luxury,, every degenerate habit, every extravagant whim, every waste, to support this army. Would we might use one slice of bread for our sandwich instead of two slices if we could thereby make them fight more effectively against ignorance, disease, intemperance, incompetence, sloth, and passion, and fight for those things without which human existence were a colossal jest. Till we have taxed ourselves for schools as Europe is taxing herself for wars, we shall not have done too much. But if you say that this is all Utopian, and that without war as it is illustrated in the trenches and on the mine-spread seas, we cannot preserve or foster that priceless spirit of courage, honor, disinterestedness, contempt of life, I would point to the soldier. Colonel Goethals, who has divided the continent, and the soldier. Colonel Gorgas, who kept away the hostile diseases while this Hercules was at work; I would point to Pasteur, who dragged around with him a half -paralyzed body for twenty years and more, fighting microbes, when he might have been living in Horatian ease; I would point to the martial geologist Van Hise, to the martial sanitarian General Wood, to the martial peacemaker Jane Addams. I could, in protesting proof, point to thousands, all the way from the invincible endurer Prometheus who gave fire to men, to that gentle fighter, Richard Watson Gilder, who wrote this for me not long before his death: 'Twas said: "When roll of dnim and battle's roar Shall cease upon the earth, oh, then no more . "The deed, the race, of heroes in the land." But scarce that word was breathed when one small hand Lifted victorious o'er a giant wrong That had its victims crushed thru ages long; Some woman set her pale and quivering face, Firm as a rock, against a man's disgrace; A little child suffered in silence lest His savage pain should wound a mother's breast; Some quiet scholar flung his gauntlet down And risked, in Truth's great name, the synod's frown; A civic hero, in the calm realm of laws, Did that which suddenly drew a world's applause; And one to the pest his lithe young body gave That he a thousand thousand lives might save. I am not so unpractical as not to know that we shall have to prepare for protection, that for a time we shall have to train some men to shoot 3 so NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincmnati Other men. I have had that training myself and I approve the temperate and sensible program, so far as I vmderstand it, of such practical anti- militarists as General Wood and President Schurman. But what I do con- tend for, beyond this, or in spite of this, is that we must not turn our great public-school system into recruiting stations or barracks for the idea that war, as illustrated in Belgium, Poland, and Servia, is the supreme expres- sion, or the necessary school, of a nation's valors or of a virile world civilization. I had come to the end of my address when a morning's cablegram from the edge of the Eiiropean war brought me the summarizing, prophetic, graphic epilog of what I have been attempting to say. It may not be true, but it intimates how what I have been saying may come true. The cable is as follows: Berne, February 22 (Dispatch to The London Morning Post). — "All the young men in Germany between the ages of seventeen and twenty who have failed to volunteer for the army and cannot give an adequate excuse are now being called out to serve as an vmtrained Landsturm. The older boys and girls, with the consent of their parents, are to be employed in farm work this spring, summer, and autumn in the East Prussian provinces as well as in Bavaria, for which purpose they will be excused from school attendance." They are to go to the farms. They too are to fight for their country and in the field ; fight for it with the plough and the harrow, the planter and the harvester, the insect exterminator and the fertilizer. And some day all physical war will be as this. The Landsturm of Fear and Envy and Hate will become the Landsturm of disciplined, scientific, aspiring industrial, and invincible struggle for man's supremacy over earth, sea, sky, and self! With that definition of "war," I am ready to say that the schools should, must prepare for it, body, mind, and soul. TOPIC: SCHOOL CURRICULA AND ORGANIZATION A. PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE DETERMINATION OF A COURSE OF STUDY JAMES M. GREEN, PRINCIPAL, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, TRENTON, N.J. I am interested in my subject, not because I think I am able to offer any new principle of education, but because I believe there is need of our considering the cmriculum from a more comprehensive point of view than has been usual. I am of the opinion that if we examine our educational history and our practices very carefully we will conclude that as a people we are too much inclined to piecework. The history of a great many of our institutions of learning will show that while they pretend to general education they are really actuated or Superintendence] DETERMINATION OF A COURSE OF STUDY 351 biased by some special purpose. The ardent advocates of some one type of education to the disadvantage of all other types are familiar to us. How often we hear the demand for the practical, industrially speaking, set forth with an emphasis that would imply that such subjects as language, arith- metic, and geography were not practical. It is not uncommon to find those who plan the education for a state prompted by some special motive or influence. There is a discrimination in the education for the city and that for the country, and yet the boundary lines of our different classes of education are often so arbitrary that it is diflScult to reconcile the different departments and districts. One who takes any certificate of training or education as a passport and undertakes to go from country to city, or from city to city, or from state to state, will get a vivid impression of the great variety in our judgments of educational values. There is perhaps an explanation for our lack of standards and coherence in several conditions, such, for instance, as our youth, oiu" great stretch of relatively sparsely settled territory, our rapid accretions by immigration from many countries with widely different types of character and widely differing conditions, and our consequent lack of homogeneity. Whatever may be the causes of our conditions, there is undoubtedly a growing sense of the need that educators define their plans and purposes more exactly. For the advantage of my subject, I should like to divide life into two parts: the one, the period spent in the school; the other, the period following school. Broadly speaking, the school is the organized arrangement for teaching that which we shall need to know after we leave school in order to perform our daily industrial and business transactions and imderstand our social and ethical relations. This department is entitled "National." The question naturally arises: Is there anything national that concerns us educationally, or do we take this title simply because we are assembled from all parts of our nation ? There has always been the implication that there should be that in our education that was national. This implication has manifested itself in our songs, in our familiar references to our national character, and in the records of our national activities in our histories. It must, however, be admitted that our notions of a distinctly national education from a curriculiun point of view are hazy. It is not uncommon to find men of prominence on the plat- form and in current literatiure comparing features of our government with those of the Old World in a way that indicates that they fail of any real conception of our national integrity. I appreciate teamwork and there is one on this program who has a masterful conception of our nation, one who has been its ofl&cial head, but I will not be presumed to anticipate him in asserting that it is possible to organize certain knowledge in a way to add clearness to that understand- ing of our natioQ which we somehow feel but do not well express. 352 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati One who carefully reads English history will realize that when those New England settlers who were in a very real sense our nation-builders chose for their compact equality before the law and freedom to worship God they were laying the cornerstones of the only arch that coidd be tritmaphal in progress over the Old World and could make possible the ful- filment of their hopes. The errors and minor inconsistencies of these same settlers were evidences that it is one thing to have an ideal and another thing fully to measure up to that ideal, but this only proves that while they builded better than they knew they were yet human. If we follow up these two principles and note how they subsequently manifested themselves in our provisions for an independent court that should not be amenable to any class or influence other than our funda- mental law; in our provisions for the common defense thru civil as well as military instrumentalities; in our care for the general welfare by dredging harbors, dyking rivers, opening public lands to settlers, establishing postal systems, regulating the currency; in our efforts to so regulate business as to prevent the undue ascendency of any one class or interest over the people at large, we gain some suggestion of the underlying principles that have influenced our national activities. The point I wish to emphasize is that there can be no safe formation of a scheme of public education that is not founded on a well-defined com- munity sense. It may seem that I have inverted the natural order in considering community education, or, in other words, state or government education, before individual education, but it must be borne in mind that man is a social being, that in our government the state is the educational imit, and that our individual activities are regulated by the community interests if they are well planned. The niunber of persons who prepare for any one activity, whether industrial, commercial, or professional, must be determined ulti- mately by the needs of the commimity, and the amoimt and quality of preparation are determined by commimity conditions. The kind of educa- tion required in our thinly settled country in 1840 was vastly different from that required now. We have in our national capital and in many of our state capitals and in many of our larger municipalities bureaus of information of one form or another, many of which are doing valuable work. This work should be thoroly efficient and should be popularized in our common schools. The good teacher will know how to reduce important themes to simplest forms of presentation thru junior republics, student government, and other devices, and when she has done this she will feel that she is a worker worthy the dignity of her undertaking. There is nothing in our dear country more disappointing or more pathetic than the army of the poorly paid and the unemployed unless it be the feebleness of our efforts permanently to remedy these conditions. Superintendence] DETERMINATION OF A COURSE OF STUDY 353 The bread-line may serve as a temporary specific, but, unless our education leads to a permanent relief, we shall feel that our land of liberty has come short of our fondest hopes. Keeping in mind our commimity ideals, let us turn our thought to the individual. In considering the needs of each individual it is worth our while — in imagination at least — to divest ourselves for the time being of our heritage of learning, our peculiar notions of the classical or cultural or informational, and placing the individual at the starting-point in life ask what are his needs and what must be known in order to supply those needs. Primarily his needs are food, clothing, shelter, language, and religion. Doubtless the enumeration of this set of elementary branches will be regarded as mimdane and a shock to our old philosophy of idealism and socialism, but careful thought must convince us that it is natural and the groundwork for our study of the history of our conventions in education. Man was created both animal and spiritual and must accept both the economic and the social. If we take as the beginning of our plan for the personal curriculum any one of the foregoing elements, as, for instance, shelter, it will suggest the need of arithmetic, not as the science of numbers but of measurement, and the limits of necessity in arithmetic; it will suggest drawing as the only possible expression of form and appearance; it will suggest hygiene as the condition of health; it will suggest boundary lines as the protection from trespass; it will suggest highways as common and joint possessions. If we take food and clothing, they will suggest our geography, the sources of our foods and the materials of our clothing, and the conditions of their production, manufacture, and transportation. Out of our condi- tions of manufacture and transportation will grow the economic and social problems and the relation of those problems to definite conditions. Good language is the clear expression of exact ideas. Out of the activities mentioned will come the regulating influence of our language. We will not be found studying words merely for the sake of words, but rather for the sake of ideas we must express to make known our needs. Thru such an approach to religion, the heart not only will find expression in an ideal but will relate that ideal to the conditions of life. My plea for the curriculum does not displace books, but approaches books from a different point of view; it does not destroy categories and conventions, but gives the selective power among categories and conven- tions; it does not destroy the study of history, but culls from history that which turns the light of the best social and economic experience of the past directly on our own problems. Our race has become so old and our printed matter so abimdant that the temptation is to gormandize the words of others at the expense of vigor of thought. Wp turn from the man who knows much of a subject to the one 354 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati who has read many books and comments somewhat on many things, from the thoro to the versatile. The conclusions to be drawn from my paper, then, are: 1. Man by nature is social and individual. Therefore both of these elements should be found in the curriculum and with proper balance. In determining social and personal values the standard should be definite conditions and needs. 2. The scope of the curriculum should be commensurate with the requirements lor eflSciency and should be so planned that it leads from that general knowledge that is essential to all and gives mobility toward that special knowledge which is economic and efl5cient. 3. The best school is the school that selects the best subject-matter for the curriculmn considered socially and economically in the light of what has been and is to be and teaches that subject-matter in the best way. B. SHOULD ESSENTIALS OF THE COURSE OF STUDY VARY TO SATISFY SOCIAL DEMANDS IN DIFFERENT SCHOOL DISTRICTS? WITHIN THE SAME DISTRICT? ELLOR CARLISLE RIPLEY, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BOSTON, MASS. Drawing, music, nature study, and various forms of physical training have gained, thru expert supervision, a relatively large place in school systems. Able supervisors in frequent visits follow these subjects in great detail and demand definite products from teacher and pupils. As a result, special subjects have tended to obscure the ancient and honorable essen- tials. The permanent but perhaps exaggerated place of special features in the curriculum may be one cause of recognized need for emphasis on attainment in essentials. A second cause lies perhaps in absorbed attention to the activity of the teacher with resulting neglect of that of the child. It is not what the teacher does but what children know which secures successful mastery of the essentials of arithmetic, reading, and writing. Should courses of study vary to meet differing social demands ? This is a very different question from " Should the essentials, arithmetic, read- ing, and writing, vary to meet differing social demands?" This second question is the one set for discussion. As there seems to be no accepted definition of essentials, for today's convenience they may be regarded as those phases of formal study which serve as preparation for further school progress and for meeting the common demands of life. In most school systems, instruction in the arithmetic of upper grammar grades is shaped to prepare children for high-school mathe- Superintendence] THE COURSE OF STUDY AND SOCIAL DEMANDS 355 matics. Thru percentage, interest, ratio, and proportion, the boys and girls are started on the road to algebra and geometry. For many city children, at least, preparatory arithmetic seems less valuable than does that which may be described as actual. Ratio and proportion, and beyond their bare elementary phases, interest and percent- age, seem to give less training than courses in practical problems based on measurements, simple mensuration, buying, selling, different phases of trade, or simple merchandizing. Training is used here to mean experience in thought. The value of experience in thought to school children may be measured in terms of its amount. It is believed that a greater amount of thought is exhibited in classes working on actual applications of mathematics than in classes puzzling over preparatory phases of the subject. Actual applications give children more experience with the mathematical phases of environment than preparatory arithmetic can secure for them. These are reasons why, for the purpose of meeting varying social demands, districts may differ in their courses in seventh- and eighth-grade arithmetic. It is, however, the early phases of arithmetic which have given that subject its hold on the school curriculum. Integers, simple and common fractions, familiar weights and measures, and reasonable speed and accuracy in the four fundamental operations are the essentials. It is not the subject, but these elementary phases of it, which the real proprietors of the schools demand. Are schools justified under different social conditions in modify- ing courses in elementary arithmetic ? Much of the hard-won skill obtained in this subject is lost soon after leaving school. The adult, thru daily practice in a particular occupation, may retain the speed and accuracy he possessed as a pupil, but most per- sons have few or no calls for more than fourth-grade computing ability. Courses in arithmetic would suffer marked collapse if permanent utility determined their inclusions, but permanent utility does not seem to be a factor in human growth. Development implies forsaking and forgetting. Brain impressions connected with learning to walk, to talk, and to read are lost or obscured. In like manner the nutriment which builds up the body serves its purpose without becoming a permanent possession. Perhaps at this particular time the pedagog may render schools and people a service by insisting that permanent utility is too small a measure to hold all the real values of educational processes. That children are best educated when put thru a course of study based wholly on practical knowledge has not yet been demonstrated, nor has it yet been proved that there really is such a germ as the "irreducible minimum" much sought of able men. The fundamental essentials of arithmetic may possess but a small degree of practical and permanent utility. But they do give children expe- rience in perceiving and establishing relations; they demand exercise of 356 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati thought; they give means of, and power in, a liberalizing form of expression. It is not the practical need which permits no variation from the essentials of elementary arithmetic; it is the experiences gained in getting its knowl- edge and skill which require that every child be equipped with the funda- mental essentials of arithmetic. An attempt has been made to express the opinion that social demands may profitably modify seventh- and eighth-grade courses in arithmetic, but that the fundamental essentials of that subject should be required from every child. In speaking of modem progress, a writer says that prior to the invention of the railway locomotive it took as long to travel from Rome to Paris in the nineteenth century as it did a thousand years before. The invention of the steam engine reduced the journey from days to hours. Popular educa- tion is drawn along by all the strong currents of quickened trade and travel. Everybody must know how to read! There is imiversal yearning for the largest and deepest thoughts of men. Literacy grows concurrently with and thru all forms of progress, altho demands for literature may fall ofif. Reading has always been the prime school art and chief and earliest aim of formal education in the United StateS; yet there were in our country in 1910 two and a quarter million men of voting age unable to read, and the range of illiteracy in the states was from 17 per thousand in Iowa, to 142 white and 484 colored per thousand in Louisiana. If our appalling total of five and a half million illiterates possessed the essentials of reading, they would do much " to promote the highest good of society, to forward material prosperity, and to remove a menace to national weKare." A suggestive tho insufficient measure of some relations of reading ability to differing social demands is discovered by identical tests in differ- ent school districts. Simple tests were recently made in the eighth grades of four very differently conditioned schools. The first stanza of "The Village Blacksmith" was read and classes directed to "tell about the blacksmith." Then the third stanza was given with the direction to "tell what the verse says you can hear." The prose reproductions of these verses showed "sledge" as the word oftenest used in the school least favored economically. "Sinewy" reversed this record, being oftenest used in the best-conditioned school and hardly known at all in the poorest conditioned. "Chestnut tree" made a stronger impression in the poor than in the favored districts. " Brawny " did not fare well any- where but found its lowest record in the poorer conditioned schools. "Muscles" was about equally popular in all four schools; "sexton" scored very high in a district where fimerals are important public events, but apparently was not imderstood in another district. The same classes were also asked to use in a sentence each of eight words selected from the first twenty-five lines of the fifth act of Shakespeare's Merchant. (Performed, penitence, trespass, companion, bred, sorely, bene- I Superintendence! THE COURSE OF STUDY AND SOCIAL DEMANDS 357 fit, and seldom.) One child in each of two districts used all the words cor- rectly, but no child in either of the other districts met with this success. The maximum of possible points in the least favored district fell below those of the most favored by 25^ per cent. A third vocabulary test was made by recording associations with the expression "twenty-five cents." In the first ten papers examined from a poorly conditioned school, nine pupils mentioned only food and money; the tenth wrote: "twenty-five cents: money, mine, pocket." Opposed to this result, the first ten papers from a well-conditioned school give so wide a range of associations that their classification would require many groups, and the vocabulary was not only more varied but much more specialized. These test papers showed differences in fluency and quality of expres- sion as well as distinctly different equipment with which to pursue reading beyond the stage of essentials. While it is true that some selections could be used in all the districts, the nature and scope of reading delightful and educative in one would be unwelcome and of little value in another. In other words, there seems to be ground for marked variation in dissimilar districts of the upper-grade courses in reading. It is a common observation that reading ability varies less in the lower grades of different districts than in their upper grades. A frequent explana- tion of the greater success in primary reading is the superior skill of primary teachers. At the present time, facts hardly justify this explanation. It is notably true, however, that reading attainment of American primary schools is one of our great national achievements. But primary-school success in reading does not meet the essentials in that subject. Below fourth readers, vocabularies are narrow, words are of individual rather than class application, and first, second, and third readers do not accustom chil- dren to the use of sentences with clauses. The American citizen needs the product of training in these directions. Press, public speech, texts on industrial subjects, and simple standard literature call for a breadth of vocabulary and a kind of word and sentence not embodied in readers below the fourth. All this training is needed to give "essentials of reading." Such reading ability contributes not only to further progress in school but also to the welfare and comfort of everyday life. Varying social demands cannot, it is believed, release any school from unremitting attempts to teach every child of every district to understand and express the meaning of a reading text equal to that fitted for fourth-grade use. What is essential in penmanship ? Power to read script and write it legibly at reasonable speed. Like reading, writing is practically a daily necessity and subject to frequent school and life demands not sufliciently varied to justify different requirements in essentials of the subject. Social conditions may affect the ease with which the essentials are gained, and it is obvious that a child from the home using a five-thousand- 3S8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati word vocabulary will escape difficulties falling to one who is familiar with only one thousand words. In the newer essentials of hygiene and health and ideals of citizenship, the work of the schools is set by the character of the homes. Hence varia- tions in courses of study in these subjects must be wide indeed, ranging from merely supplementary inspirational instruction in some districts to thoro and complete courses in information and liberal training in habits in other districts. The all-important old-time essentials of character and conduct are based on principles including not only all districts, but all men of all time, and need no discussion as to variation under differing social demands. Do different social demands in the same district justify varying courses of study there ? Viewed from so near a standpoint as the single district, varying social demands are seen as individual children. Here is the boy who forsakes his desire to be a grocer for automobile repairing "because automobiling is the becoming trade"; the pupil who makes a brilliant dash thru tasks costing a neighboring child long toil; the irresponsible traveled girl; the dependable, thirteen-year-old caretaker of a motherless family. Each child presents a specific social demand. In a sense, the niunber and degrees of variations of the course of study give an index of the teacher's skill. In the large, however, principles bearing on variation in different districts apply equally to the single district. From the standpoint of administration, a district containing several classes of parallel grades can today most fully meet its purpose by carrying its courses to satisfy the needs of pupils who are and of those who are not preparing for high school. This paper has attempted to express the opinion that essentials of read- ing, writing, and arithmetic should be gained by all children in the first four grades; to suggest an opinion beyond the scope of its discussion that two additional years should foster fiu*ther advance in these and other studies; to say that marked variation should begin in the seventh grade. C. THE DEMANDS OF RURAL SCHOOL DISTRICTS FRANK W. MILLER, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, COLUMBUS, OHIO In the midst of the wealth of literature on the rural school which has been produced within the last decade, the question still stands out in bold relief: "What are the solutions of the rural-school problem?" Principles of education have been worked out by our leaders of educational thought, but the task remains to get these principles into actual practice in the niral schools. The problem of the rural school is the problem of rural life and of the rural people. The problem is ethical, social, sociological, hygienic, and economic. Supermtendence] DEMANDS OF RURAL SCHOOL DISTRICTS 359 The first requisite is to let loose a charge of dynamite that will awaken the entire people to the remotest comers of the land and lead them to a real- ization of the condition of their schools and the possibilities of improve- ment. When this awakening is once produced, there wdll be discussion, and discussion will lead to improvement. The greatest obstacle to improve- ment is tradition, the tradition that the little red schoolhouse is the embodi- ment of the best principles of American democracy. We cling more tenaciously to our traditions in education than in any- thing else. The farmer who believes that the little red schoolhouse, the one-room school with its barren walls, its imattractive environment, its lack of equipment, its absence of sanitary convenience, and its poorly paid teacher, is still good enough for his children for the reason that he and his grandfather attended the same kind of school, is not so bound by tradition when it comes to securing modem implements for his farm. He is willing to discard an implement that is still in good serviceable condition in order to place on his farm an implement of modern type that will produce for him better results. If the "good old way" is good enough for the children of the present day, why should we not be consistent and go back to the "good old way" in industry, in medicine, in surgery, and in agriculture ? It is now conceded by all educators who have studied the subject that the consolidated or centralized school is the best type of school for the rural districts. The consolidated school requires the transportation of the pupils, and it is here that the only objections arise from the parents. Parents object, and justly so, to having their children remain too long in the wagon in going to and from school. When the roads are heavy the progress of the wagon is slow. If the roads in a school district are good, a motor- wagon can be used which will transport the children with dispatch. Such a movement for better schools by means of better roads requires a large amount of public teaching and in this every teacher and superintendent should take an active part. Good roads are conducive to better market conditions for the farmer and to better social conditions for him and his family. The great nimiber of country people who are removing to the city is one of the greatest destructive tendencies in our national life. Many of the young people are starving for social opportunities. The dreaded disease of many boys and girls on the farm is loneliness, and too often is the cure sought in city life. In one of our hospitals for the insane in Ohio I was given the sad information that 67 per cent of the women inmates of that institution are from the country. The cause of this preponderance can be spelled in one word, "loneliness." Here is a great opportimity for the teachers and the superintendent. They should be leaders and should be instnmiental in providing social functions for the people of the district. They can be instrumental in pro- viding literary societies, lecture coiurses, debating clubs, com shows, canning 360 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ICincinnati clubs, sewing classes, agricultural clubs, socials, and many other occasions which I will not take your time to mention. Such functions will not only provide the people with social opportimity, but will also be of educative value and will create a better school spirit in the community. Too many of our rural schools are but poor imitations of the city schools. In most instances the schools must be rescued from city courses of study and must be reconstructed in terms of rural life. Agriculture should be taught in every coimtry school. Every boy should learn the use of the common tools. There should be a course in tinkering. Every boy should learn how to construct a shed and make some of the minor repairs about the house. He should be able to make most of the repairs required for the farm machinery. He should be able to weld pieces of iron. Forges can be purchased at a small price and the ability to weld pieces of iron will very often save both time and money. Some of the most common and important points in business law should be taught, together with some of the prin- ciples of bookkeeping such as may be necessary for keeping farm and home accounts. Every girl should have the opportvmity of stud3dng home economics. The term "home economics" or "domestic science" is not imderstood by many of the rural people nor by many of the rural teachers. In Ohio we have coimty normal training schools for prospective teachers, and in each of these schools there is a course of one week in domesdc science suited to the niral home. The course is given by two women who are trained espe- cially for this work. While they are giving this course, the women of the community are invited to be present. In one of these schools this teaching came as a revelation. The people for the first time understood and they demanded that the subject be taught in their schools. But their buildings were too small. An election was called in that district recently and a bond issue of $60,000 was voted by the people to build a new consolidated school, a monument to the teaching of domestic science in the rural schools. These things are not visionary, for we have many rural schools in the United States in which they are now carried into effect. If the people of a farming community are taught better production only, the opportunity for exploitation by speculators and middlemen is great. Wheat rises to $1 . 66 per bushel only after it has long since passed out of the hands of the producer. The farmer must work hard for what he gets, and is therefore reluctant to part with his money for better schools. The American farmers do not organize as do the men of the city. If legislation is desired by a city, train loads of boosters besiege the state house to press their claims for the needed legislation; and they generally succeed in getting it. Farmers are not organized to press their claims and are obliged to take whatever legislation is given them. In some of the European coimtries, notably in Denmark, there is co-operation among farmers in marketing their products. They Superintendence] DEMANDS OF RURAL SCHOOL DISTRICTS 361 employ their own agents in the large centers of population which serve as their markets, and thereby avoid giving rich profits to a host of middlemen. If co-operation can be conducted so profitably by the farmers of Denmark, why cannot the same be done in our country. A knowledge of the best methods of marketing his products is as important to the farmer as it is for the manufacturer to know how to market his products. In the cities we find night schools conducted by the board of education. These schools are well attended, not merely by children of school age, but by many people of middle life. The Y.M.C.A.'s conduct schools that are well attended by adults. Correspondence schools do a thriving business. But what opportunities for improvement are there in the country for the grownups? None! There should be a term of school of about three months in the year when farmers are least busy. This course should be open to all residents of the school district without regard to age or previous training. The course should contain agriculture in its various phases, civil government, sanitation, the simple forms of bookkeeping such as may be used in keeping farm accounts, some of the more common points in commercial law, deeds, mortgages, writing of wills, and banking. The course should also include arithmetic, and such subjects as history and literature for the development of the broad cultural side of life. The attendance at the farmers' extension schools conducted by some of the universities and the popularity of the moonlight schools in Kentucky bear witness to the fact that there is a strong demand for such a course in the rural schools. The vacation periods in the rural schools should be determined by the nature of the occupations in which the services of children may be employed, not only with profit to the parents, but with even greater profit to the children who thus have an opportunity to learn how to do something as well as to know something. If the rural school of the earlier days seemed to turn out men and women who became leaders in public life, it was due to the fact that children in those days were taught to work. The time-honored subjects must receive new emphasis in their appli- cation to rural life. The new form of leaven in the old essentials should be a permeation by the spirit of the farm. Some teacher may ask, " How are we to teach all these new branches without destroying the work in the old essentials?" In some subjects, new and better methods are time-savers. The statistics of the last few years have shown that the pupil who applies himself to some practical or industrial study has his mind quickened to do better work in his academic studies. The experience of the past few years has demonstrated that the boy who is engaged for a few hours each day at the bench makes better progress in his spelling than does the boy who must serve under the drill master. The boy who uses the square, ruler, and yardstick will grasp the meaning of a problem involving these imits more quickly than .will the boy to whose mind those units are mere symbols. 362 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati The boy who must make out his bill for the limiber he needs and the prices to be paid will get a new insight into business methods and problems. Elnowledge gained by experience in our youth is most tenacious knowl- edge, and prejudice is probably the greatest impediment to progress that has ever been known. We teach school as we were taught; we proceed with our business as in the days of our youth; it is only by our ability to accept the knowledge given by reason or argimient that we shall prove our ability to handle the things of life. It is highly essential that every teacher receive the advantage of the reasoning and arguments of others. This requires a training course for teachers and the reading of professional liter- ature. By reasoning and argimaent the teacher must pass beyond the elementary stage of his education. In the country we need teachers who have the right vision. They should be men and women who have grown up with country life. Too many of the rural teachers have been like the wandering Jew. The teacher should become a part of the community life of the people of his district. Their interests should be his interests, their pleasures should be his pleasures, their problems should be his problems. We frequently hear people in the country complain of the quality of teaching they are able to get from young teachers who are not in full sjonpathy with rural life. They complain that many of the teachers in the rural schools are town and city girls who go back and forth like a shuttle and do not mingle with the people in the rural community around the school. They complain of the practice of many town and city boards of education in requiring their own high-school grad- uates to teach in the country for a few years after graduation before they will emplo}- chem in their home schools. There is an answer to this objec- tion. If farmers do not want their schools taught by city boys and girls, they have the remedy entirely in their hands. The rural boards of edu- cation are made up of their own number. Many a prosperous farmer does not encourage his son to prepare for the profession of teaching with its meager salary imless the community in which he lives offers less than the average opportvmity in agriculture. Few of the well-to-do families of the district care to be bothered by keeping the teacher as a boarder, and often the best houses in the community are closed to the teacher, and he must either room in town and thus lose almost every opportimity to affliate with his patrons, or accept accommodations in a home whose standing in the community will not help the teacher in gaining that social influence which he has a right to expect. In one of the wealthy townships of Ohio, a woman teacher could find no place within a reasonable distance to room. But she was not to be outdone. She had a small house constructed on wheels and every time she was hired to teach in a different school she would have her house drawn by four horses to a comer of the yard of the new school. Thruout the school year she washes, she irons, she cooks, she eats, and she sleeps in the same room. Superintendence] PROS AND CONS OF THE GARY SYSTEM 363 Most of the rural communities are better able to pay good salaries than the cities, as shown by the fact that the school tax rate is usually lower in prosperous rural communities than in the most prosperous industrial centers. Of the $36,000,000 of bonded indebtedness for schools in Ohio, over $30,- 000,000 is charged to the cities, where the demand is greater for better buildings, better salaries, and better equipment. But the rural boys and girls are just as deserving as the city boys and girls, and are as certainly worth saving aiid educating. D. THE PROS AND CONS OF THE GARY SYSTEM DAVID SNEDDEN, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, BOSTON, MASS. In its principal features, the so-called "Gary System" of organizing and administering public schools is already familiar to educators. Bulletin No. 18, 1914, of the United States Bureau of Education, gives a good general description of the system as a whole. In their order of interest to the lay- man, the following are the unique features of the Gary System: 1. It permits of such use of school buildings that substantially twice as many children can be accommodated in the ordinary type of school building as is usually the case. In addition to classrooms, they have assembly hall, workrooms, and gymnasium. 2. All of the teaching is in greater or less degree on a departmental basis. Teachers can specialize their instruction along the lines of their greatest aptitudes, altho, in some cases, they do not specialize along the lines of specific subjects, but rather of groups of subjects requiring similar treatment. 3. The buildings, equipment, and activities of the entire school system are used as laboratory and workshop for the practical activities, including the so-called "industrial training," of the pupils, from the lower grades thru the high school. 4. The so-called "practical" or "industrial" activities of the pupils in the grades and in the high school are of so thoroly definite and utilitarian a character as to insure valuable educational results in a field where heretofore the layman has suspected that a considerable portion of the instruction offered has been of a dilettante, unsubstantial, and impractical character. 5. Educational agencies other than the school are drawn into active co-operation with the school to some extent. These agencies include the pubUc library, the church school for religious education, industrial estab- lishments, and various forms of voluntary activity, such as the Y.M.C.A. work. Boy Scout work, and the like. 364 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati 6. The amount of attention given to instruction in science, more par- ticularly its practical applications, is such as to insure valuable results in this field — a thing which is rarely achieved in other school systems. 7. There is a substantial lengthening of the customary school day, 8. A considerable part of each day is given to supervised play and other forms of physical activity, directed by the schools. 9. School buildings are used to a substantial extent by others than pupils, thru evening schools, the use of gymnasium and plunges for adults, Saturday classes, summer schools, etc. II There can be no doubt that the general plan underljdng the so-called Gary System does contemplate all the modifications and extensions of the traditional school system suggested above, nearly all of which appeal to the public as being educationally useful and highly desirable. The writer does not purpose to analyze in detail the extent to which these aims are actually realized in practice, nor the character of the training and instruction resulting. A very exhaustive study would be necessary, at this early stage in the histor}"^ of the Gary System, to evaluate these results in any conclusive fashion. Such a study should and must eventually be made, but it would take much time, special service, and the use of careful statistical methods to produce satisfactory results. The important thing for us to realize, however, is that back of the Gary System there is, in the first place, a comprehensive theory of what the public school should do, and, in the second place, an extensive and detailed working out of at least tentative ways and means by which this theory shall be realized in practice. A visitor to the Gary schools is impressed with the large number of administrative and pedagogical devices which the superin- tendent and his coworkers have already invented, adapted, or borrowed, and put into practice with a view to extending the scope of the work of public schools, and to making them serve more effectively the needs of all educable persons in the community, young or old. But in two visits to the Gary schools and in contact with Superintendent Wirt, with whose name the so-called system is most frequently identified, I have been unable to discover that the workers in the Gary System are irrevocably committed to any particular hobby or theory of administration. The general scheme is characterized by flexibility. Superintendent Wirt and his associates are constantly experimenting with new devices, and seem to be seeking to ascertain and value the different ends to be kept in view and results obtained under the operation of any tentative plan. Superintendence] PROS AND CONS OF THE GARY SYSTEM 365 III To the educator the significant features of the Gary System in their order are these: 1. The system of education in its underlying theory, in its plans, and certainly, to a large extent, in its practice, more adequately meets the educa- tional needs of city children than any other system of which the writer has knowledge. It is everywhere recognized that children in the public schools should be taught the so-called "academic subjects." But, in addition, they should be given a large amount of opportunity for the acquisition of practical knowl- edge of science thru as direct contact with nature as possible. They should be given opportunity to practice, on the basis of standards suited to their youth and permanent interests, various forms of industrial or other prac- tical activities, with a view to exercising their instincts for constructive work, to "finding themselves" vocationally, and to gaining experience in the world of material activities. They are all entitled to abundant opportunity to play, under conditions which will make for wholesome moral develop- ment and insure the maximum of useful physical activity and growth. Finally, the voluntary or quasi-voluntary activities of young people should be encouraged, and this under some form of supervision by the school, to the end that good rather than bad results may follow and that the home, church, playground, club, and library shall be brought into co-operation. Many of us recognize all these as desirable objects, but nowhere before outside of boarding schools, so far as I know, have administrative agencies on a comprehensive scale been organized to provide the necessary means. 2. Under the Gary System, instruction in science in all grades becomes very much more real and effective than has been possible in schools giving only a few minutes a day to so-called "nature study" or elementary science. 3. Thru the extension of its manual- training system and the develop- ment of a wide range of industrial and other practical activities in connec- tion with the buildings, equipment, and activities of the school system as a whole, the Gary schools have placed so-called "practical" or "pre- vocational" instruction on a basis much more satisfactory than anything heretofore existing outside of individual schools. 4. Because of the large amount of time available for play under super- vision, the scope, thoroness, and efl&ciency of the physical education of the school children have been materially increased over those conditions as usually found. 5. The Gary System makes for the maximum use of school plant, or, as it might otherwise be expressed, it achieves a given educational result with a minimum of educational equipment. 6. It provides a relatively large incentive and opportunity for extension activities, both for young people and for adults. 366 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati 7. The system of departmental teaching, including the more recently developed feature of the use of the auditorium, permits of the development of definite tj^es of pedagogical approach which are of the utmost impor- tance for sound education, but which have hitherto received scant recog- nition. This is important because there is involved the possibility of a distinc- tion which is only now beginning to be made in conscious educational practice between that training and instruction, on the one hand, which should be of a definitely systematic character, such as reading, spelling, and arithmetic in the lower grades, and mathematics, foreign language, and Eng- lish in the upper grades; and, on the other, those other forms of learning with reference to which no such definite and precise approach is necessary, such as the results of the right kind of nature study in the lower grades, story-telling and general reading in all grades, lectures on various interesting topics in the upper grades and high school, practical arts in all grades, the use of moving pictures, the development of voluntary activities, play, etc. The writer is of the opinion that it is exceedingly difficult for any one teacher so to shift her point of view that she can at one time give the chil- dren definite drill toward specific powers, and at another put herself in an attitude favorable to giving the children opportunity fully to exercise their own powers of appreciation and reception. Under the Gary System, where one teacher confines herself to the specific academic or classroom work, the achievement of definite habits and organ- ized knowledge in these subjects becomes possible, while, on the other hand, the carrying on of other forms of activities in auditorium, science laboratory, or gymnasium permits of a quite different educational atmosphere and method of approach. It is certain, as the writer sees it, that during the next decade the most important development toward educational efficiency in training and instruction will be a progressively sharp series of distinctions between that kind of instruction which should terminate in definitely recog- nizable powers, and the other kind of instruction or activity which should result in appreciations but not in definite, tangible, and measurable powers. From the writer's point of view, the Gary System opens the way for an indefinite series of experimental developments in this direction. It will be the aim, necessarily, of the academic teacher to make her arithmetic, spelling, penmanship, English, foreign language, etc., as definitely fruitful as possible, in terms of specific powers sought in these studies. On the other hand, it will be the aim of those in charge of auditorium instruction, playground activities, and industrial activities respectively, to achieve in each of these departments the particular kind of results that seem best to interest the children and give the maximum of the kind of attainment desired under existing aims and conditions. In other words, each major division of the work of the Gary System will develop its own types of aims, and these will differ in marked degree Superintendence] PROS AND CONS OF THE GARY SYSTEM 367 from those of other major divisions. The teachers in each of these divisions will develop characteristic mental attitudes and will tend to assert more clearly the special demands required of their various departments. Because the Gary System opens, from the writer's point of view, an indefinite range of opportunities for developments of this character, he regards it as being of the utmost promise. IV Under what conditions and to what extent can other cities adopt or adapt the aims, forms of administrative organization, and methods of the Gary System ? To many of us, this is an important question, because the public has become interested in the reports coming from Gary, and if we do not lead, we are in danger of being pushed, into some form of movement for readjustments of our schools suggested by that city. It is unnecessary to observe that there can be no successful modifications or developments of local school systems along lines that seem to give good results at Gary if, on the one hand, an attempt is made baldly to copy or imitate that system, or if, on the other, the work is undertaken by local authorities who do not comprehend and sympathize with the general scheme of educational aims and purposes which, from the start, seems to have guided Superintendent Wirt and his coworkers. Better leave a local system alone than to attempt to make it over in the exact image of Gary or to attempt extensive readjustments without the guidance of a broad and modem phi- losophy of education. But to school authorities who have a fairly clear notion as to what they want, I do not see why the schools of Gary should not prove profoundly suggestive, provided such authorities are convinced that the educational mission of the public school is as far-reaching as has been asserted by almost all our educational thinkers and leaders during recent years. If we are really in earnest in our oft-reiterated contention that the modem school should aim to insure the education of the whole child; if we believe that the school should provide, not merely the means for drill in the academic branches, but should make possible intellectual nurture and growth as these result from abundant free play, from a wide range of interesting practical activities, and from ample opportunity to gain in comprehension of scien- tific knowledge as this is to be acquired from contact with nature and with man's works; if we are convinced that every school should definitely co- ordinate its educational efforts with those of the home, the church, the shop, the press, the stage, the library, the police, the club, and the playground; and if, finally, we hold that the city should make its expensive school plant render the fullest possible service to the community — then we can certainly study Gary to advantage. We can derive from it a hundred suggestions as to readjustments and extensions that may to advantage be made locally. 368 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincimiati Let us consider separately some of the possible adaptations. 1. The lengthening of the school day, the use of a given classroom or other working space by two or more independent groups of pupils, and the departmentalizing of teaching — these three features are, as I see it, mutually interdependent. To have one almost inevitably involves having the others. We need half of each longer school day — at least six, and preferably seven working hours — for academic studies, and the remaining half, outside of academic classrooms, for miscellaneous activities — play, physical training, practical work, science, and auditorium. We need departmentalized teach- ing at least to the extent that will insure to each group of children different teachers for the academic studies, the practical arts, and the physical education. But I see no good reason why the changes necessary to carry out this program should not be effected in almost any large school. True, if there are no gymnasium, no assembly hall, and no playground, the difficulties will be great — almost a matter of making bricks without straw. But I am persuaded that, given departmental teachers with some special training and the beginnings of enthusiasm for their special work, these teachers will be able to do much to make their work fruitful in ordinary schoolrooms, and in nooks, comers, and hallways — always provided they have caught the idea that their extra-academic teaching is to develop an approach and spirit of its own unlike that of the academic atmosphere. But I do not see why the new plan should be tried in all the schools of a city at once. It should be inaugurated in a building most suited to the new plan, and under teachers specially selected to give it a fair trial. Cer- tainly no wise superintendent will expect that new machinery of the kind required to make the Gary plan a success will run itself, or will work even passably under unsympathetic direction. Specific difficulties will be encountered. School children accustomed to shorter sessions will object, and so will the parents of some of them. Many teachers are opposed to a school day more than five hours long. But all of these are obstacles which the business-like superintendent is accus- tomed to meet and overcome, if he knows what he wants. The discontinu- ance of home study will win favor among pupils; the supervised play, among many parents; and the administration should always be flexible enough to accommodate itself to what are clearly the legitimate demands from parents for time for music lessons, dancing, etc. Teachers can readily be induced to see in the new system a means of making education more effective, and they will then render the desired co-operation. 2. Can we develop a program and opportunities for practical activities similar to those of Gary ? In many cities, certainly not at first. We have turned over all of this municipal housekeeping to special agencies, and it I Superintendence] PROS AND CONS OF THE GARY SYSTEM 369 will be hard to win it back. We are in the position of that household wher6 all cooking and sewing and nursing and cleansing have been delegated to servants who hold the children at arm's length and give them no chance to share in any of the work which is their rightful heritage. Superintendent Wirt is entirely right in his position that every bit of the practical work involved in carrying on the plant and operations of the school should be made the charge and educational opportunity of the learners in the school system as far as that can be done, under proper direction and with due economy. Is the school — the agency assuming final responsibility on the part of the state for the education of the young — to foUow the home and the workshop in shutting the door to practical endeavor and practical achievement in the faces of its children? Will it give its printing, its accounting, its plumbing, and its electrical work to outside service, and restrict its willing and promising youth to work on manual-training knick- knacks ? But we shall not achieve Gary's results in this department until we shall have evolved workable programs of our own and agitated them persistently before the public. The wise superintendent will be content with small beginnings and will insure competent direction by skilled workmen from the start. 3. The fullest development of playground, gymnasium, and swimming activities is, in large degree, a matter of equipment. Many educators see clearly the way forward here, if needed facilities are provided. 4. Evening schools, Saturday classes, and summer or vacation classes — these are not unique except as to their general integration into the Gary System. They can readily be developed elsewhere. 5. The co-ordination of the school with other educational activities, which is a unique thing in Gary only as to its scope and the variety of devices employed, should be begun and extended everywhere. Whether the Bible instruction under the charge of the churches will succeed is not yet clear, but the experiment is of great significance. In theory we all are committed to closer co-operation with the home, the public library, the local newspaper, the moving-picture show, the police, and the voluntary clubs which young people should and will form. Superintendent Wirt has been a little less fearful, and has, we like to flatter ourselves, been a little more favored by local conditions than the rest of us — that is all. 6. But I wonder if all of us school men can adapt the essential features of the Gary theory, and yet preserve a large degree of flexibility in its opera- tions ? We do so easily become victims of the machinery and routine which we set up. We feel that we must compel everybody, make everything obligatory, in order to succeed. We think chaos would result if we permitted some pupils to go home or come to school an hour earlier than others. If we establish manual training, all or none must take it. We complain of parents who want their children to take outside music or dancing or Ian- 370 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati guage lessons — ^perhaps of more importance than the work we are offering. At present we do not co-operate with newspaper, moving picture, and chil- dren's club, except sporadically. We compete with them, and the child is often the first victim of our competition. K we can assure flexibility and adaptation of means to the pupil as the center of our efforts, let us borrow many of the Gary devices, but if they must become part of a rigid system decreed by a spirit of autocracy and mechanical routine or regimentation, let us leave them where they are. 7. Can we carry over the Gary idea that it is educationally worth while for groups of younger children and of older children to visit each other's work and to co-operate at times? Perhaps not until we shall develop teachers who can see in learning a great deal more than the reciting of assigned lessons and drill on daily tasks. A high rather than a low order of teaching talent will be required to conduct this visiting and to make the "auditorium" period a success — a higher order, perhaps, than Superin- tendent Wirt yet realizes. Any duffer of a teacher can assign and hear lessons; it requires almost an artist to stand aside when children are learn- ing by themselves. VI I have said much about the "pros" of the Gary System — so much that perhaps you think I can find no "contras." I find it indeed difficult to criticize adversely, for the scheme is still in early stages of operation, and, in the main, I find little to dissent from, as to its intent and general plan. It is too early yet to test the plan by its results. There are, however, two phases of the Gary work which I think need critical examination, to one of which I think Superintendent Wirt is com- mitted, and as to the other of which, I think, he has very clear vision, the public only being in a degree misled by current reports. I refer, in the first place, to Superintendent Wirt's conviction that as far as practicable all grades — kindergarten, elementary, and high school — should be represented in each large school; and in the second, to a somewhat widespread belief that the Gary plan includes proposed solutions of the problems of vocational education. vn If it should prove to be possible to utilize on an extensive scale the co- operation of groups of young and of older learners in the totality of the learn- ing process as that obtains in schools, it might prove expedient to make sacrifices in other directions in order to bring together in single buildings two thousand or more children of all grades. To me this is a matter yet to be demonstrated, even in Gary. It is clear that if the varied industrial and other practical activities so largely characteristic of the Gary scheme are to be fully organized in schools for older pupils, these schools must be Superintendence] PROS AND CONS OF THE GARY SYSTEM 371 very large — too large, it seems to me, to render them easily accessible to children living in urban communities as ordinarily constituted. I still believe that the urban school organization of the future — one in which the best features of the Gary System will be extensively reproduced — will involve just two types of schools of general education: (a) local, small schools for all children under twelve years of age, staffed and supervised entirely by women; and (b) central schools, very large, and with very flexible programs, for all children over twelve, regardless of grades. Voca- tional schools we shall have in addition, but these will be located close to the seats of the industry, commerce, homemaking, and agriculture for which they will give preparation — often, indeed, in the buildings, or on the grounds, devoted to these occupations. My recommendation, then, is that we strive to realize the best results of the Gary System in the two types of schools, and so make possible easy access to school and playground on the part of children under twelve, while young persons from twelve to eighteen will be expected to walk or ride considerable distances to large central schools abundantly equipped with shops, grounds, and other facilities for broad and vital education. VIII In some quarters it is being said that the Gary plan has solved the prob- lem of vocational education. If I understand Superintendent Wirt, Gary has not attacked the problem of vocational education, except as regards trade extension education in evening schools, because it is held that voca- tional education belongs in the industry itself, the public school co-operating where it can. The varied practical activities carried on in the schools, in connection with which many thousands of dollars worth of work of a thoroly productive character is done, especially in the building trades, printing, furniture-making, food preparation, stenography, and bookkeeping, are not regarded as supplying the need for vocational education except for the small number of learners who are enabled to specialize as apprentices to the car- penters, plumbers, printers, machinists, painters, electricians, engineers, housekeepers, stenographers, and bookkeepers employed as regular teachers of the practical activities in the schools themselves. I think Superintend- ent Wirt believes that the field of the separate day vocational school is a limited one — perhaps being available for only a few occupations and perhaps only for a partial degree of vocational training in these. But he would have the school co-operate with industry, first by giving the pupil extensive opportunity for generous practical training in industrial arts, or homemaking, or commercial work, or agriculture, before entering indus- try, and thereafter, thru the provision of abundant opportunities for trade extension teaching in evening classes, of the "short unit" type. The Gary scheme, therefore, includes no provision for complete vocational training 372 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tCincinnati (outside of stenography) except as regards the few persons who can in effect "apprentice" themselves to the trade workers among the teachers. My own point of view is somewhat different from Superintendent Wirt's, if I understand him aright. Perhaps conditions in Gary are peculiar; but I believe we shall find that there is, in every city, place for a variety of separate vocational schools which shall, for an introductory period, claim the full time of the learner, after which these vocational day schools will arrange for a part-time service of their pupils in commercial shops imder the supervision of the school itself, the whole period for this arrangement to extend from fourteen to eighteen or nineteen years of age. After this, the learner, on his own responsibility, can, if he desires, continue in the trade extension evening school. These separate vocational schools will, I believe, be located as close as possible to the industries with which they are ultimately to connect, and will, at every stage, make, as the basis of their education, practical produc- tive work, either in school shop or in commercial shop. They wiU follow industry as to working hours, working weeks, and working year. Learners will be paid at least in part for the productive work which they do. Let us give credit to Gary and its school authorities for having conducted such an intelligent, comprehensive, and sustained an experiment in educa- tion, and let us, on behalf of American school children, profit from the results of that experiment to the fullest practicable extent. Superintendent Wirt is of the opinion that the Gary System offers greater opportunity for vocational education than is here indicated. He says in a letter: I have only one suggestion to offer You say, "except for the smaU number of learners who are able to specialize as apprentices"; and also,"The Gary scheme, therefore, includes no provision for complete vocational training (outside of stenography) except as regards the few persons who can in effect apprentice themselves to the trade workers among the teachers." I am inclosing a report for the past year on the shopwork for boys. Eliminating the 45,000 manual-training hours, there was an average of 600 hours' definite trade teaching given each day for an average of 190 days. The total average daily attendance during the year of boys foiuleen years of age and over was only 220. Also the school shops can accommodate twice the nimiber of boys that are now using them. Since the average of trade-teaching hours per day was nearly three hours for each boy fourteen years of age and over attending the school, I beUeve that you have placed undue emphasis upon the use of the words "small" and "few" in the above quotations. It is true that some of this instruction was given to students in co-operative courses. Much of the instruction was given to boj^s imder fourteen. Every boy over fourteen and every adult in the city, however, was given the opportimity. There are more adults attending evening classes than there are children in the day classes. There are many adults in day-school shop classes. Many more could be accommodated, with present shops and teachers, if we could secure the students. The students who go into industry as apprentices and journeymen are much greater in nimiber than the students who go as stenographers. Superintendence] A NATIONAL STANDARD OF EDUCATION 373 I believe that when any city is giving an average of two hours per day definite trade teaching in school shops to a number of adults and schoolboys equal to the total attend- ance of boys fourteen years of age and over in the day school, it is meeting fairly well the vocational training needs of the community. IS A NATIONAL STANDARD OF EDUCATION PRACTICAL? WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT, PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, I909-13; KENT PROFESSOR OF LAW, YALE UNIVERSITY, NEW HAVEN, CONN. It is your chairman who is to blame for this. He caught me when I thought I was in conceabnent in the city of New York. He knew my dates, and I could not get off by saying, "I will answer you when I get home." He said, "No. I know you are going to be in Cincinnati for three days, and those are the days that the National Education Association meets there, so there is no excuse, unless you can prove that every minute of every twenty-four hours that you are to be in Cincinnati, you will be occupied." I am something of a liar but I could not equal that, so he is to blame. I cannot come before you and give you any information — ^you who have been for so many years (all but the ladies) in the profession of teaching. It is a great profession. It is a noble profession, and I am honored to be even only a novitiate in the craft. It is growing and has grown to be more and more of a profession. Every man in the last generation began as a teacher. Now, what does that indicate ? It indicates that he intended to be something else, but in order to keep body and soul together while preparing for something else, he took it out on the boys and girls. Now, it has become as it ought to become — a regular profession. It has not ceased to be a self-sacrificing profession. That and the clergy are the two pro- fessions which cultivate as a necessity the spirit of self-restraint. It is better for us in the long run; we are better people because we have not had larger salaries. We understand the value of the dollar and we know the advantage we have in getting it when we get it. I am glad to note that some of the gentlemen with large fortunes realize that they will make the teaching profession, which is so important in the development of the community, better by making provision for its old age. They will make its members better teachers, by makmg it possible for teachers not to have to worry their lives out with what is going to happen to those who are dear to them when the breadwinner loses his faculty for teaching, or when he dies. I believe that there is no other profession in which a retired list with a suflBlcient sum to live on is so needed as the teaching profession. Now, I have said I am a novitiate in the profession. I am, but I have had some experience. I was one of those responsible for the establishment of edu- cation in the Philippines, a problem which presented difficulties that were quite new, certainly to anybody having to do with government in America. 374 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Cincinnati The question concerned what we should teach them in the way of a lan- guage. Should we teach them Spanish ? Only 7 per cent of them spoke Spanish. Should we teach them their native dialects? They were not, any of them, worthy to be taught to a people aspiring to modem civiliza- tion and wishing to keep up modem institutions, and especially the insti- tution of freedom. As the responsibilities were ours, as English was the business language of the Orient, and as the taos, so-called (those attached to the soil), were anxious that we should teach the English, we did so. Our advantage in doing so was that we could then appeal to our home country, and to the profession of teachers in our home country, to help us out, and so we sent for one thousand American teachers. I say one thousand; I think now the number is reduced to about six hundred or, perhaps, seven hundred. When you get teachers, male and female, out into that far- distant land, it is a little difficult to prevent making two into one! Those teachers went to work and taught in the primary schools and then in the normal schools, and today, as a result of twelve to fourteen years of teach- ing, there are now in service seven thousand to eight thousand Filipino teachers who are teaching English and the other branches of an ordinary useful education in the primary and secondary schools, and some four hundred thousand pupils are in attendance upon the schools. That is not near the school population of the Islands, but you have to cut your suit to the amount of cloth you have. We did not have the money to enlarge the schools in such a way as to teach the whole school population. Their interest in education, and desire for it, is the best evidence that those people are capable of being made into self-governing people. This will not be at once. It will take one and probably two generations in order to do it. We are now, under the present administration, experimenting on a different theory. We shall greatly regret this experiment. It will certainly cost us dearly. In the end, the lesson that will be taught may prove valuable. I speak of that with very great confidence, because four years' experience in the Islands, and eight years' further responsibility for that government, enable me to know something about that problem and a great deal more than those who know it all in advance without investigation. I would like to talk about that subject more, but you haven't time and I haven't. I am a trustee of the Jeanes Trust Fund. A dear little old lady, a Hicksite Quaker, one of four in a family, no one of whom married, finally found all of a large fortune in her hands as the survivor, and under the i influence of Hollis B. Frissell, of Hampton, and Booker T. Washington, of \ Tuskegee, she left $1,200,000, the income of which is to be expended in helping along in the best way practicable the rural colored schools of the South. Under the most efficient executive management of James H. Dillard, then of Tulane University, and now the agent of both the Slater Fund and the Jeanes Fund, we are helping along in an effective way, I hope, the colored rural schools of the South — and they need it. This has developed I Superintendence] A NATIONAL STANDARD OF EDUCATION 375 two things. One is that it is not only the colored rural schools of the South that need aid, but the white rural schools of the South as well. The other is the importance of proper superintendence in making a system effective and workable. The county superintendents are just as important in a school system as the non-conmiissioned officers are in an army. They are the ones that make the army and give it its discipline. The higher officers, of course, are those that lead, but the non-commissioned officers are the men whose experience and personal influence in the ranks and whose spirit give the esprit de corps to the army. That is the case with the county super- intendents thruout the South, and, I have no doubt, in every school system. For this reason I am glad to be here to talk to the men upon whose activity, earnestness, and skill the whole system of school education depends. It is the superintendents who must keep the teachers up, who must select the proper curriculum, and who must make the army go. Now, there is some laxity in the present generation. I am not a pessi- mist, nor am I a reactionary, altho I have been called that often. Sometimes I am glad to be a reactionary, because one of the healthiest things that can come, after we have been on a drunk, even in excesses in reform, is the reaction. Education that does not help to form character misses its chief object for citizenship, and I have a theory that you need a broad foundation of thoro primary education for everyone, whether he is going to be a farmer, a lawyer, a mechanic, or a minister. Now, I beg of you — well, I don't beg of you, because you know more and have more to do about it than I — ^but I want to suggest that you may overdo this dividing up your education clear down to the bottom. You may overdo this business of vocational edu- cation unless you have a foundation. One of the most humiliating things to me is to get a letter from a university student in which he misspells two or three words. That is only an indication that he was not thoroly trained in the primary schools, and that while his head was in the clouds, his feet were not on the ground. Among the youths in the common schools, in the private schools, in the secondary schools, and in the colleges, as every one of you knows (you may not admit it, but you know it), you find a lack of respect for authority, a lack of self-discipline, a lack of courtesy and polite- ness. What does a lack of courtesy and politeness mean ? Why, it means that the boy or girl has not been taught the democratic principle of respect- ing the rights of others. When a pupil is abrupt and rough, and does not give to the teacher the respect the teacher ought to have, he simply has failed to learn the proper principles of democratic citizenship. A man who is always dwelling on what somebody ought to render him and not on what he owes somebody else is started wrong. Discipline is what we need in this generation. It is in that we are lacking. Where does the lack come from ? Doubtless, some of it comes from the schools, but the chief cause is a great deal farther back than that — it is in the family. In these luxurious days, the parents delegate to somebody else the discipline of the family and do 376 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati not have the desire to see, I mean the strength of character to see, that the boys and girls have the proper respect, first, for their parents; second, for the opportunities they have in going to school, and for the necessity for improving them; and, third, they do not have the self-restraint that they should show in their bearing to the entire world. They get the impression that they are " the whole thing" and that the world circulates around them. That is due to the lack of discipline at home. I have a brother who is in your craft, and I may say, modestly, in mine. He is the head master of a school and he meets with head masters. At one of the head masters' meetings, one of them got up to illustrate the diflSculties he was laboring under, and read a letter that he had from a mother: Dear So and So: Here is our Willie. Willie is a noble boy. He has been a little lax in his studies. He is impetuous and sometimes breaks rules, but he is a noble boy. Do not be severe with him. Do not punish him. We have never been severe with him or punished him at home except in self-defense. Now, I suppose you are tired of the word "efficiency." (I have not got to my idea yet.) You are tired, as I am too, of the word "efficiency," and yet you can hardly find its exact equivalent. You can make it " effect- iveness" if you want to, but the word "efficiency" will come around and come back again. "Thoroness" is another word, and that is what I would like to suggest the means of promoting this morning. The American people are sound in their views of the fundamental importance of education as essential to the safety and success of popular government. It is with them, and always has been, a sacred cause. Taxes are paid ungrudgingly, there- fore, by the taxpaying public, when it is necessary for the promotion of education. Now what is the result of that willingness, that fervor, which is produced in the cause of education ? It is that the people are lax in their scrutiny of the character of the product of the system and in the amount of its cost. As a consequence, it is too often the case that the school authorities take advantage of that particular characteristic of the field in which they are operating and that the systems, in many instances, are not as thoro, are not bringing forth as good products as they might, if less attention were paid to publicity and attractive curricula and eloquent and soul-inspiring annual reports than to seeing that the curricula are practical rather than attractive, that the superintendence is close, that the discipline in the school is thoro, and that the work of the teachers is earnest and loyal to the cause. The people who pay the taxes have not the means of learning whether a particular school system in a city or a community or a state is really effective or not. They cannot judge as to whether their children are learn- ing what they ought to learn. They don't know enough, as a general rule. Some think they do, and generally those who think they do are nuisances in the system anyhow because they have not real, sound knowledge. Superintendence] A NATIONAL STANDARD OF EDUCATION 377 There ought to be some means of enabling the people of a community to know whether they are really getting their money's worth, whether they are getting the real cloth, or whether they are getting the fustian and the shoddy, and that is what I want to suggest to you this morning. This is Washington's Birthday week. He recommended to the Ameri- can people that they establish a national university at Washington. They have attempted to do so from time to time, but the attempt has always failed. The plan has never been carried out. It is the one recommenda- tion of Washington — well, there were two; the other of them was that we should not have any parties, these are the only instances in the forecast of that remarkable man in which he made an error. We have had parties and have been the better for it, because you cannot run a popular govern- ment without parties. Of course, you can be ideal, and suppose that every- body is going to agree with everybody else, that all the good people are going to unite and all bad people are going to be subdued, but it never works that way. You cannot have a popular government that really will interpret an affirmative policy of the people into action unless you have parties. People are constituted differently. Some are willing to sacrifice minor or less important principles to accomplish one that they deem most important. Others are so constituted that they look at everything from the standpoint of perfectionists and must have everything right or else they "won't play." Now, this latter class of people is most useful in a community. They make up what used to be called the Mugwumps. They control elections by going from one party to the other as they disagree or condemn the party in power. That is most useful and they play a useful part, but it is a self-sacrificing part if they have any political ambition. Washington's other suggestion was that of a national university. His idea doubtless was that it should be a teaching university, a university imder national auspices, like that which he then knew at Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Pennsylvania, and Columbia. But there are other than teaching universities. London University is not a teaching university. It has a great faculty and is organized for the purpose of testing those who have studied in various courses and desire a certificate. Why should we not have at Washington an examining university which shall have a large faculty of experts, who will go out at the request of the authorities of any community, examine the school system, and report to the people who are paying the money for it what kind of a school system it is ? In that way, by comparison, you will introduce a standard in the school systems thruout the country. The same university can establish examinations in fixed courses to give the men who have gone thru these school systems an oppor- tunity, if they choose, to get a certificate by passing the examination. Now, we have a Bureau of Education. We could easily enlarge that bureau and make it a national university. In that way, we would add greatly to the utility of that Bureau. 378 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cmcmnati A great many people have thought we were at a disadvantage in this country, because, unlike France, Germany, and the other European countries, where they have such thoro systems of education, we have no central power to carry on one system of education thruout the country. Well we haven't, but we have the means of doing something that will be almost the equivalent. Take the Department of Agriculture, which began as a bureau. The government has no authority to tell farmers what to do. It cannot act directly on the subject of agriculture. All it can do is to furnish informa- tion. Of course there are some bureaus in it which exercise the interstate commerce power with respect to pure food, and with respect to the exam- ination of meats, but generally, it is a bureau of advice, it is a bureau of research, and whatever comes from it is voluntary in the sense that it is forced on no one, and is accepted by the public because of the advantage that comes to it by acceptance. In the same way you can introduce a voluntary system enlarging your Bureau of Education into a national university. You can carry out Washington's idea in a practical way. Just as soon as it becomes known in the country that there is an impartial, wisely severe, and thoro method of testing the character of public-school education in any conmiunity or in any state, it will become compulsory, because the people who pay the taxes will demand the evidence that may be had thru such a university that they are getting their money's worth for the taxes they pay. It is said that it is not possible to do this because of the politics at Washington. Well, I agree, this is a difficulty. A long time ago I lived in Washington, and I had just a remote connection with politics. It grew very remote after a while. I believe that, if you clothe your Bureau of Education with the character of a university, while at first it may not work as smoothly and may not work impartially, ultimately it will grow into a scientific bureau, a scientific test, and all the efforts of congressmen, pulling and hauling, will not change the thoroness and the impartiality of the examination. The very remoteness of Washington from the place of examination will help along that blindness to persons and political influence that there ought to be in conducting such an examination. When you carry out this plan, it will stimulate everyone connected with the school systems to see to it, not that they are satisfying the general public with their own impressions of what they are doing, but that they are satisfying the general public by the work, the character of which is proven by the testimony of impartial experts who know. I suppose everyone who hears me has been an after-dinner speaker. Ours is a talking profession. This country is banquet-mad, and, of course, unless you are different from most after-dinner speakers, you occasionally make a speech and forget your point. I think it was James Russell Lowell Superintendence] EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS 379 who said that if he could only make, at the dinner, the after-dinner speech he made going home in the carriage, he would be a wonder. I want to add one statement. When United States Commissioner of Education Claxton here, who follows me, was appointed (and I claim the honor of appointing him), I went to the gentlemen who handled the money in Congress and asked that they enlarge the appropriations in order to begin, in a small way, these expert examinations. But even in those days, there were other things that caUed for expenditure besides those things that could not get into the headlines. So my plan did not work, but ultimately it is coming. When you get a reformer who is far away from results, he tells you that ultimately it is coming, and I am like the rest. THE INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS I. JAMES H. VAN SICKLE, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. Investigations of the efficiency of schools by persons not members of the teaching and supervisory force of the city surveyed are by no means new. Up to about 1840, periodical inspection of schools by laymen was the usual means employed by communities to make sure that schools rendered the service expected of them. The expert had not been developed, or at any rate had not been recognized, nor had any need been found for his services. In the early days here, as in ancient Greece and Rome, the ordinary citizen was thought competent to perform any public service whatever, without previous training or experience. Just now school surveys occupy so large a place in the public mind and on educational programs that one might assume that they represent some- thing new in education, whereas they are really of ancient date. The new feature is the reliance placed upon the trained worker. In President D wight's Travels in New England, published about 1800, we read that the schools of Boston were visited once in tliree months by a committee of twenty-one gentlemen, annually chosen and invested with ample powers. They examined the schools in the various branches which were taught and advised the masters with regard to methods of instruction and control. The examination conducted by this commission in 1795 included the thirteen hundred children then in the Boston schools. The event was one of considerable importance. There were present on this occasion, besides the committee, the lieutenant-governor, councilors, and senators belonging to the county, representatives, clergy, and justices of Boston, and the sheriff of the county, together with several other gentle- men of distinction. President Dwight does not comment at length upon the findings of the commission, but he pronounces the schools excellent and commends the goiDd sense with which the work of inspection was carried on. 380 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati The comments of some of the school committees of the early days gave evidence of a grasp of educational principles that must have disturbed the peace of the less efficient teachers. Here are some samples from the report published in 1840 by the school committee of Springfield, Mass. : There are prominent faults in the way in which spelling, English, grammar, arith- metic, and geography are taught in many of our schools. Spelling. — Discharging at a class whole colimms of words, with the meaning of which they are as familiar as they would be with so many terms selected from the Hebrew or Sanskrit, is certainly not a very fascinating mode of teaching pupils the orthography of our language. For an exercise in spelling, let the words be selected from some paragraph that has been read; let their meaning also be vmderstood; and then let them be written out by each scholar in the class. This will afford exercise for the mind. Not only will the ear be employed, but the eye; to which latter sense spelling is really addressed. Instead of one, two of the organs of sense will be engaged, of which that of sight is always more conducive to distinct and lasting impressions on the mind. Arithmetic and grammar. — ^Taxing their memories with the rules of grammar and arithmetic, whilst they know nothing of their true import or application, is condemned. Reading. — ^The most superficial inspection of our schools is sufficient to disclose in this particular, not only a multitude of faults, but a whole system of fundamental error. Indeed, it may be doubted whether its intrinsic importance has been in any due degree felt by the mass of those to whom the management of these schools has been sub- mitted. Had it been, our schools in this particular would be already undergoing a radical reform, and the equanimity of the committee or visitors would no longer be disturbed by the senseless jingle of sentences as a substitute for reading. It is not surprising to learn that during the year covered by this report a superintendent of schools was appointed, nor that two years later Horace Mann was able to say to the Springfield school committee: "I am sure that your schools have made more progress within the last eighteen months than during the three previous years." The first claim to be made for the surveys of the older type is that they led to the realization of the inadequacy of lay commissions for the edu- cational management of schools, and paved the way for the appointment of the educational specialist, the expert supervisor. By the middle of the century, laymen everywhere had given up the direct supervision of the schools and were represented in professional matters by the superintendent. This change had its drawbacks. Direct responsibility having been removed, the public gave less attention to the schools, which in the early days had been its most vital concern. Writing in 1892, after visiting schools in many cities, J. M. Rice was constrained to say of the public at large: "In the great majority of instances the people take absolutely no active interest in their schools," meaning an intelligent interest sufficiently deep to lead them to follow closely the action of the board of education and the super- intendent and teachers. The natural result sometimes was lack of sym- pathy and misunderstandings, leading occasionally to upheavals and threatened changes of policy. This was true of Cleveland as early as 1848, and a survey was undertaken by representative laymen. A few recent surveys have had their origin in situations of this kind. Superintendence] EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS 381 The frankness with which defects were set forth in school reports before the day of the superintendent is in strong contrast to the self-satisfaction which characterized many reports of a later day, if again we may refer to Dr. Rice. He stated that experience had taught him to place no reliance whatever on reports published by school officers, such reports being appar- ently no more than political documents and consequently as a rule entirely misleading. This was in 1892. Twenty-three years have passed since then and many changes have occurred. Not the least of these changes is a new attitude of reporting officers. Each year for three years past, I have had occasion to examine reports from about 250 school systems, and I am convinced that the charge of unreliability and deception made against them in 1892 could not be substantiated today. As a rule, the reports set forth defects as well as excellences, and their statement of merits is temperate and restrained. The critically judicial attitude now manifested by the majority of reporting officers which has replaced the attitude of self- complacency so conspicuous in school reports of a former decade is one of the most noticeable features of school reports of recent years; and in my opinion this changed attitude is in no small degree to be attributed to the wide attention which the surveys of the past few years have had, especially the later ones. The survey reports supplement the lecture and the text- book in normal schools and colleges. They have been discussed in meetings of grade teachers thruout the country, and the standards of judgment which were applied in the particular system surveyed have been tested by thous- ands of teachers elsewhere in their own schoolrooms. More than twenty surveys have been made since the survey movement began about five years ago. As many are now planned or actually in prog- ress as were made in all these years. I have taken pains to learn whether in ten typical cases the survey results have met expectations. I think it safe to say that, except in one case, where matters had reached a crisis before the report of the Survey Commission was made, results have on the whole justified the enterprise; and even in this one case, the stead)dng effect of the report of the Survey Commission was, as many believe, impor- tant. While it had no apparent effect as to persons, they think it safe- guarded certain progressive policies that were threatened. In this instance, those responsible for originating the survey were not in power at its completion. As a rule, however, those who were responsible for having a survey made have also been responsible for the use made of its findings and recommendations. Under such circumstances only can adequate results be expected. The greatest value claimed for one of these ten surveys is said to lie in the fact that it showed the people what excellent schools they had, rather than proving, as some hoped it would, the opposite state of affairs. In several instances, it is noted that changes suggested in the recom- mendations would have been made anyway; but that the survey helped 382 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati materially by securing ready aquiescence in changes supported by well- known educational authorities. I find greater confidence expressed in surveys made by a commission than in the two or three made by a single individual. This expression with regard to a one-man survey is typical: The same objection that is made to this survey could be made to any one-man sur- vey. That is to say, after it is all done, the opinion of another educator is equally valid. In this instance, the question of the financial support of the schools was not an issue. It is perhaps in matters pedagogic that the one-man survey is most open to objection. So far as opinion enters into survey findings, it is evident that greater weight will be attached to a report made by a commission of several trained men, each one investigating a depart- ment and all concurring in the general report. In the later surveys, mere opinion is a smaller factor than in the earlier ones. The later surveys had the advantage of the fruitful labors of many investigators who had developed tentative units of measurement and to the extent that investigators utilized these units and were able to make exact comparisons by appeal to definite standards, they secured greater respect for their findings than their professional standing alone would have com- manded. The most conspicuous immediate result of surveys, and one which seems to have been attained in nine of the ten about which I have made inquiry, is the very decided help given in securing adequate appropriations for the support of the schools. In some instances this has been true chiefly in the matter of school accommodations. One community was actually shamed into liberal provision for school buildings. Others have appropriated more money for teachers' salaries and supervision as a direct result of public interest in the survey. From a city far below the one hundred thousand class in population comes this testimony: Many things that we were looking for and imable to obtain we were able to secure by the interest created by the report. It has helped us to seciire more adequate appro- priations, both for the general expenses of the schools, and for new buildings. Nearly one and a quarter million dollars have been made available for new buildings since the report. Practically all of the recommendations have been carried into effect. The spirit of co-operation in which surveys were carried out is fre- quently mentioned. The following statement will serve as a sample: The surveyors undertook the work with the idea of being of assistance, of pointing out things that were good, and of calling attention in a spirit of co-operation to the things that needed remedying. The idea was to build up and not to tear down. In most cases, it appears that the recommendations served as topics for discussion in public meetings, at some of which the members of the Survey Commission were present to support their views. Great progress has been made in this movement, as can be readily seen by those who compare the earlier surveys with the later ones. The later Superintendence] EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS 383 ones are not only more convincing to the local community, because of their increasingly scientific procedure, but they are also more useful as contributions in the wider field of school administration and supervision. The last two to appear will serve to illustrate these points. Several editions of the report of the Springfield, 111., survey have had to be printed to meet the wide demand for the document for purposes of study. I understand that more than five thousand copies have already been called for in addition to the number needed for home consumption. The report of the survey of the Butte, Mont., school system is likewise the best sort of a textbook on school administration. Here we have theory expounded in direct relation to vital problems. No recommendation is made except on the basis of concrete illustration of need drawn from the local field. That it was convincing locally is shown by its inmiediate effects. The school board took action on two recommendations before the Survey Commission had left the city. They voted the organization of a four weeks' summer school for the teachers, and they ordered a radical change in the plans of a building drawn in atrocious disregard of the recog- nized standards of school lighting, which the commission advocated. They did this even tho it involved the dismissal of an architect who was too stubborn to make the change required by the board. The Trades and Labor Council of the city voted in support of a two years' preliminary training for teachers, as a prerequisite to appointment, thus reversing a former action of their body. Since this, the school board has put in two school nurses, and adopted the salary schedule for teachers recommended by the Survey Conunission, a schedule which involves increased professional training as a basis for reaching the maximum. The intermediate school is assured, as are classes for backward and defective children. In no instance where surveys have been undertaken under conditions corresponding to those deemed essential by your Council Comjnittee on Standards and Tests of Efficiency have they failed to be highly influ- ential. Not only have surveys served the local conmiunity, but they have also served a wider constituency. The survey by outside experts has suggested the desirability of peri- odical surveys within the school system itself, and, for every outside survey thus far made, from six to ten inside surveys, partial or complete, have been carried out, and many more are planned. Then, too, in many cities, bureaus of research are being established thru which surveys may be con- ducted within the system and progress be definitely determined by means of valid standards. Surely one of the aims adopted in the Detroit bureau must be of interest everywhere. Methods are to be found which will develop optimum degrees of the mechanical skills with the least expenditure of time and effort. Not the increase of mechanical drill work is desired, but its reduction to a safe minimum. The Boston bureau has undertaken 384 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati similar work. If thru the researches of these and other bureaus we learn how to economize time in mastering the tools of education, we shall be able to use it for work of great value. It may yet be possible to retain the best features of our enriched curriculimi by utilizing time saved from needless and fruitless drill. We need not fear that standardizing the work in the three R's, the tools of education, will affect adversely school work as a whole. On the contrary, it should set free a vast amount of energy that is now being misdirected which may be applied to really educative work. The outside survey has its limitations; it discloses only present con- ditions. Under certain circumstances, this service is valuable to the com- mimity in which the survey takes place, but it has a wider value, as has already been suggested, in contributing to common knowledge of methods of procedure, in helping to perfect measuring units or standards already worked out, and in adding perhaps to the list of units of measurement available. Workers in any school system now find at hand well-attested means of determining the efficiency of their work in at least a few lines and the reports of the current year furnish evidence that they are availing them- selves of those means. Even if we regard the net result of the survey movement only as a contribution likely to lead finally to more intelligent ways of conducting examinations in our own schools, we must assign to it a high value. A decade ago the self-complacency of the average school man stirred the unsympathetic among lay spokesmen to make sweeping statements condemnatory of public-school procedure in general. Then it became the fashion upon many an educational platform for the school man, especially when far from home, to outdo the layman in criticism of public-school work. Both lajonan and school man, however, dealt in generalities and one was as little helpful as the other. A more self-respecting attitude now character- izes the utterance of the average school man. He feels obliged neither to declare his work perfect nor to allow it to be underrated. He has means of comparison at his disposal by which he is able to show definitely in what respects his schools are good and in what lacking. In other words, the progress made in his field thru research and survey is enabling him to assume a scientific attitude toward his work. n. LEONARD p. AYRES; DIRECTOR, DIVISION OF EDUCATION, RUSSELL SAGE^ FOUNDATION, NEW YORK, N.Y. Four years ago, two university professors injected a new word into 01 educational vocabulary and introduced a new method into our educatioi procedure. In that year Professors Hanus of Harvard and Moore of Yale conducted studies of the school systems of Montclair and East Orange New Jersey and each used the word "survey" to designate a section of his report. Superintendence] EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS 385 These earliest of school surveys differed from former reports on school systems in their fundamental philosophy. Their object was to tell the people in simple terms all the salient facts about their public schools, and to rely on the common-sense, the common insight, and the common purpose of the people as the first great resource in working out their problem. The purpose of the survey was to educate the public. The two men who conducted these surveys were pioneers, but not inventors. They did not originate either the new term or the new method. They borrowed them both from the social survey movement which was at that time three years old. This movement had its inception in 1907 in the social survey of Pittsburgh, which borrowed its name from the land survey. In the years that have elapsed since these early beginnings, the survey movement has grown with great rapidity, but the social survey has multi- plied far faster than the school survey. The Sociological Library of New York City is now compiling a bibliography of the survey reports that have appeared in print, and it has shown that while the American social surveys now number more than three hundred, the educational ones are only thirty. The truth is that the school survey is the direct descendant of the social survey, that the two are contemporaries, and that the parent movement is twice as old and ten times as big as the offspring. Now surveys of this new sort are always expensive of both time and money, for when rightly conducted they are dependent on truth and simplicity, which are costly. On those that have been carried thru in the past few years, sums of money mounting high into the hundreds of thousands have been expended and to them thousands of men and women have devoted long periods of the most laborious sort of work and study. The source of the survey movement. — ^This means that these surveys are the product of some widespread and powerful influence, for nothing is pur- chased at so great a price except in response to an insistent demand. This influence is not far to seek. It is to be found in one simple idea which has been taking root in the mind of the American people during the past decade and a half and which is shaping the events of the time and determining their ultimate issue. That idea is that people are more important than property. Ever since this idea was borne in upon the American people, they have been restlessly turning upon themselves and their institutions the merciless eye of self-examination. They are asking what manner of people they really are. They are demanding to know whether justice is being done in America. The results of this searching self-examination are to be found in the veritable flood of books and reports that have appeared in the past ten years describing the illiterate, the immigrant, the industrious; the plutocrat, the prostitute, the prisoner; the teacher, the tenant, the tramp; and so on thru the alphabet. Every part of our life is being studied, written about, surveyed. 386 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincmnati This movement, of which the school survey is a part, is no silent, unconscious transition from one age into another. In no former period has the demand for change been so deliberate, so widespread, upon so great a scale. Education is following where the movement for social justice has led. The American nation is looking itself over from head to foot, critically questioning its very elements, challenging its oldest institutions as well as its newest, studying its every arrangement, analyzing its philosophy, and it stands ready to attempt as many and as radical reconstructions as may be necessary to attain its ends. As a nation we are seeking, and are deter- mined to find, not a place in the sun, but a more equal distribution of sun- shine in the lives of all the people. The school survey is a fraction of a fraction of this deliberate self- examination of the full-grown nation. It is here because the people want to know the facts about their schools and the school survey is the most efficient means yet discovered for finding them out and making them known. There are certain definite characteristics which set the school survey apart as a distinctive implement of education and of democracy. These characteristics are in large part inherent in its very name, which it indirectiy takes from the land survey. Always a local study. — The school survey, like the land survey, is always a local study. It is concerned with conditions within a given area. It can never be thought out at a far-away desk. It is not a general treatise on education. It recognizes that each commimity has its own distinctive prob- lems which must be solved by itself and are not susceptible of absent treatment. That is why the school survey can never be thoroly standard- ized. That is why we can never have what many people are insistently demanding — a standard set of forms and schedules, by which to gather for any or all cities figvures and answers which, when tabulated, will con- stitute school surveys. Surveyors must he competent. — Another cardinal characteristic common to the land survey and the school survey is that the surveyors must always be competent. In the former field, this has been guaranteed by legal enactment since the days of the ancient Egyptians. In making school surveys, it has frequently been forgotten. It is a fimdamental fact that in neither field can trustworthy results be obtained thru ready-made methods or untrained common-sense. That is why it is generally true that school surveys cannot be conducted by mothers' clubs, newspapers, chambers of commerce, citizens' committees, or local bureaus of mimicipal research. Surveys must he impartial. — ^A third common characteristic of the land survey and the school survey is that they are both imworthy of the name if they are partisan or prejudiced. To accuse or defend, exaggerate or minimize, is as fatal in the one case as in the other. Surveys must never Superintendence] EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS 387 be like those verbs in Latin that take the dative. They must never have as their purpose to "please or displease; command, obey; serve, resist; benefit, injure; believe, threaten, persuade, and the like." This is why the survey is not an investigation. By common usage the term "investigation" suggests the indictment of individuals or institutions. It stresses failure and non-performance. It looks backward. An investi- gation implies the existence of conditions known to the insider but unknown to the outsider, which are to be ferreted out and subjected to pitiless pub- licity. Whenever the land surveyor or the school surveyor conducts his study for the purpose of proving a preconceived case, the product is not a survey nor does it contribute to progress. Surveys must be co-operative. — On the social side, the school survey has two sets of characteristics which it owes to the fact that it is a social instrument and not to the fact that it is a surveying instrument. The first of these is that a school survey must always be co-operative. It cannot be successfully imposed from without. If the teachers and oflScers of a school system do not want a survey, they will not have one; at least they will not have a real one. They may have an investigation, an inquiry, an examina- tion, and a report, but they will not have a real school survey. In the light and in the open. — ^The second social essential of the school survey is its public character. A survey report can never be a confidential report. It is often possible to work out far-reaching reforms in a school system by getting a group of strong men and women together around a table and convincing them that a certain course is the right one to take. This is a legitimate and often a valuable method of reform, but it is not the method of the survey. The school survey is a new and distinctive implement of progress. It has come into being for the purpose of educating the public about their schools and its distinctive function should be preserved. It is a part of our national self-examination. It is the product of civic intelligence and community progress. Its object is to make the entire school system pass in review before the public eye. It makes the schools and the public pay attention to each other. It presents the past, the present, and the possible. It is a community stock-taking, inventory, and appraisal of its educational assets and opportunities. It aims to place before the citizens a picture of their schools; a picture so accurate that it cannot mislead, so simple that it cannot be misunderstood, and so significant that it cannot be dis- regarded. It does not always succeed in its aim but it cannot even take aim in secret or in the dark. Movement spreading rapidly. — What the future of the school survey may be no man knows, but two indications are significant. The first is the prob- ability that we shall have a great many of them in the near future. In the past four years two states, ten counties, and eighteen cities conducted 388 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati them. At the present time there are under way or definitely projected more school surveys than all those combined that have so far been com- pleted. That the movement is rapidly spreading is certain. / Surveys are improving in quality. — ^The other significant indication is' that they are steadily improving in quality. It is almost literally true that every survey report that has been published has in one or more con- spicuous respects been superior to all its predecessors. This results from the fact that we began to make surveys without knowing how and we have been learning as we went along. It is well for us to remember that while we are making these inventories the methods of making them are themselves in the making. What the ultimate results of the surveys will be we do not know, for sufficient time has not as yet elapsed for us to judge. We have at hand, however, dependable figures showing the results of one piece of educational measuring which has become a part of the survey movement altho it was not started by it. Progress thru measurement in education. — ^Just ten years ago the dis- tinguished superintendent of schools of New York called attention to the fact that 39 per cent of the children in the schools of that city were above the normal ages for their grades. This aroused widespread investigation which showed that similar conditions obtained in other cities thruout the country. Soon studies of this phase of educational efficiency showed that the same conditions which resulted in our schools being crowded with retarded children also prevented a large proportion of these children from ever completing the elementary grades. About seven years ago this became one of the most widely studied prob- lems of educational administration, and in the past four years it has been one of the prominent parts of the school surveys. During the entire period, himdreds of superintendents thruout the country have been readjusting their schools to better the conditions disclosed. In these seven years, the number of children graduating each year from the elementary schools of America has doubled. The number now is three-quarters of a million greater annually than it was then. The only great organized industry in America that has increased the output of its finished product as rapidly as the public schools during the past seven years is the automobile industry. It is probable that no other one thing so fundamentally important to the future of America as this accomplishment of our public schools has taken place in recent years. There is every evidence that this is the direct result of applying measurements to education. If the school survey movement now imder way can produce other results at all comparable with this one, i we need have no fear for the outcome. It is greatly to be hoped that the term "survey" will not change its meaning as the years go by. It has always meant a looking-over, and it is to be hoped that in its new educational application it will continue to mean Superintendence] EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS 389 the kind of looking-over of everything that does not overlook anything. Its future is secure if it can permanently stand for an impartial study of the schools of a community, competently conducted for the enlightenment of the public, and the welfare of the children. in. CALVIN N. KENDALL, STATE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, TRENTON, N.J. What shall be our attitude toward school surveys? Shall we search for the potential good in them, examine what they have accomplished, use the lessons of experience, try to eliminate their weaknesses, acknowledge their limitations, and endeavor to develop a proper method of conducting them? Are they productive of such positive results as to justify their encouragement ? That they have not justified in some cases the expecta- tions of their advocates may be admitted. That they are regarded in some quarters with suspicion may also be admitted. There is in the conduct of a survey an ethical or professional relation to the superintendent of schools. The work of the surveyor must not make the office of the superintendent of schools more hazardous than it is. A survey should not put a club into the hands of the enemies which every superintendent doing his duty must make. The school survey from a pro- fessional point of view should therefore recognize the relation of the makers of the survey to the head of the school system. It may be unfortunate to conduct a survey in a system where there is a tense situation in which the superintendent of schools, members of the board of education, and teachers are involved. At a time of acrimonious agi- tation, it may be better for surveyors to keep out. Whatever report they make is liable to be received with suspicion or antagonism, which neutralizes whatever good effect it otherwise might have. It is difficult for the exam- iners not to appear to be partisans of one faction or the other. If they attempt to compromise between the two, the survey may be colorless and without point. What have these surveys accomplished? I. They have resulted in making an inventory of the conditions which affect the efficiency of a system of schools. They have called attention to the necessity of analyzing or cataloging the activities involved in a system of schools, including courses of study, organization, administration, methods of teaching, general conditions under which teachers do their work, and the various subdivisions of these. The influence of surveys has by no means been confined to the cities or states in which they have been conducted. It is not far from the truth to say that cases are not unknown where their influence has been greater outside the municipality concerned than in the municipality itself. 390 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cindimati In consequence, they have brought about a keener analysis of our own activities. An increasing number of superintendents are investigating their own systems. In consequence, more superintendents are able to justify the increased cost of schools and answer questions concerning finances. In consequence, superintendents know more definitely what; is involved in making a system eflScient. In consequence, there is less mere personal opinion and there are more facts. Surveyors' reports are usually more comprehensive and of greater value than the ordinary city or state report. The day is past when we can write courses of study, hire teachers, provide seats, promote pupils, have graduating exercises, and, having done all this, say that we have a gocd school system. In a word, the number of wide-awake systems is today greater because of school surveys and the talk about them. 2. They have been a means of directing attention to certain scales for measuring the ability of pupils in arithmetic, handwriting, and English composition. Those who are devising such scales or standards of measure- ment deserve encouragement. This method of measurement is not perfect and therefore has a limited value, but it is a movement in the right direction. 3. Surveys have resulted in several notable docimients concerning schools which are of very substantial aid to a superintendent, a principal, a member of a board of education, a teacher, a layman, in answering the question: What is a good system of schools? For example, I do not see how one can read the Vermont survey or the Ohio survey and not realize, as never before, what must be worked for in improving nu"al schools; or how one can read the Portland, the Bridgeport, or the Butte survey and not see in a clearer way some of the needs of city systems. There is much about classroom instruction in these reports which is of very substantial value to teachers. I do not know how a teacher can read or study some of these reports concerning instruction and not have her views changed as to what is effective teaching. Among the reports of surveys which have come to my attention I do not know one in which an open-minded person cannot find something of value. To go further, I do not see how it is possible for superintendents to read these reports carefully and go on with precisely the same ideals and the same methods or plans for carrying out these ideals as before. 4. The surveys reveal the complexity, extent, and ramifications of modem school systems. How greatly the schools have expanded in the past twenty years, or even in ten years, perhaps we ourselves who are in the thick of it do not fully realize. As a result of these surveys, it is not too much to affirm that some college graduates in the commimity, some board members, some news- paper editors, have come to realize that a superintendent of schools is a social engineer. They have in consequence an added respect for his office. Superintendence] EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS 391 The surveys show that the work of the schools touches the community — its social, its industrial, its civic, its moral, and its physical life — in a way undreamed of when some of us began our work as administrators of schools. 5. Surveys have been the means of bringing outside indorsements to the recommendations of the superintendent and approval of his plans. Some- times these indorsements are needed. The superintendent may have urged these recommendations upon his board; the board may have confi- dence in him; but it has felt reluctant to carry out the recommendations in view either of the expense involved or of the departures from traditional educational policy. Says one superintendent of schools, whose schools have been surveyed twice, happily upon his own initiative: As an example of how the survey has helped I can give the following experience. When we cut down the elementary-school curriculimi and substituted high-school work for the eighth year, some of the parents objected. We called parent meetings in each of the schools and explained the plan, and read to them from the report of the survey on that point. They seemed satisfied with the explanation and occasioned no further trouble. I am sure this policy would not have been as readily accepted had I been its only sponsor. 6. Surveys have shown in numerous instances the inadequate financial support of the schools — the moderate cost of conducting the schools as compared with similar systems in the country. How effective such com- parisons are we all know. 7. They have revealed undesirable conditions of school buildings; the disgraceful, indecent, and even criminal conditions of outbuildings. When a survey shows that 46 per cent of the schoolrooms are defectively lighted; when it shows that one-fourth of the children in primary grades are sitting in seats too big for them; when it shows that rural teachers in a certain state are compelled to teach for salaries that are below the wages of house- hold servants in cities, and that many of these teachers are called upon to clean their schoolhouses before school opens, there may be some people in the city or the state who will sit up and take notice. Surveys have pointed out the overcrowding of schoolrooms. They have called attention to the intimate relation between school eflSiciency and the number of children the teacher is called upon to teach; to the unfor- tunate practice of boards of education taking the initiative in the appoint- ment and promotion of teachers; to the high temperature of schoolrooms; to the undue height of blackboards; to inadequate playgrounds; to the enormous waste due to irregular attendance; to the high percentage of retardation; to examinations as a sole basis for promotion; to the meager provision for children of differing types of ability; to the lack of suitable industrial training for children who are not bookish-minded; and to fire hazards. Quoting from one survey: "Conditions in this city make possible a duplication of the Collingwood tragedy in Ohio." 392 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati The newspapers, discriminating parents, the superintendent of schools, to say nothing of the board of education, have all gone to sleep in that city if these hazardous conditions still exist in February, 1915. The survey in that city was worth all that it cost, and a hundred times more, if by means of it the attention of the board of education was called for the first time to the dangerous chances it was taking on the lives of the children. 8. They have shown the imfortunate practices of boards of educa- tion in doing things which do not belong to boards of education to do, which take their time, and v/hich could be better done by the superintendent or a business manager. For example: a board requiring high-school principals to secure the permission of the board to invite distinguished men to speak to the pupils of their schools; a board spending entire sessions in hearing from principals of schools as to the efficiency of their teachers. We can all imagine how much real enlightenment a board could receive under such circumstances. 9. They have shown that the superintendent's office is crippled by a lack of adequate help, in view of the fact that he is steadily becoming, as before pointed out, a more important officer in the community, and that the demands upon his time are increasing accordingly. 10. They have revealed very clearly and with some detail the prevalence of poor teaching — and that kind of poor teaching which we aU agree is poor teaching. What are some of the lessons to be drawn from the conduct of surve)rs hitherto made, which may be of value in making them more acceptable to school people and more useful to the conduct of the schools ? The opinion is expressed that in a system of considerable size the survey should be conducted by at least three persons, and not by a single individual, whoever he may be. Especially is this desirable in passing upon classroom instruction or upon the quality of supervision. There is so much that is debatable in these fields that it is not always wise to accept one person's judgment. Moreover, so much is involved here, there is a chance of so much honest difference of opinion, standards may so differ among even the most capable, that I cannot believe any one person should have the final word in estimating the quality of instruction or supervision. I may agree with his views or statements, but the next man may not agree. If the judgment is in general adverse, the whole body of teachers and principals may attack it and its potential value may be diminished. An individual adverse report may be of very substantial value, but that value may be denied, and naturally so. The opinion is also expressed that among surveyors or investigators there should be at least one person of wide and generally recognized successful practical experience in conventional school work. There is likely to be undeserved criticism of a report which is made by persons who have not had what is called practical experience in dealing with school situations. \ Superintendence] EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS 393 In my judgment, therefore, the survey will have greater influence if at least one person with such experience is among the surveyors. One survey has lacked punch or point. Its failure to direct public attention to a political situation which operated to impair the efl&ciency of that particular school system has been criticized, and justly so. A survey should reveal in no uncertain terms the almost insurmountable difficulties under which that particular system or superintendent has worked. Surveys should clearly set forth the progress that has been made in the schools. The important questions is: Is the school system moving in the right direction ? And it is not to be forgotten that a school system cannot always travel a generation in advance of public opinion and of the tax- payers who support it. There appears to be some evidence that surveys have not always dwelt sufficiently upon the strong points of the schools. Adverse criticism is desirable; it is necessary; it is to be expected. But it is not always the sign of the expert. To be able to set forth the excellences of schools in a discriminating way is not an indication of incapacity on the part of the investigator. The survey should not condemn everything. If it does it is bound to rouse the antagonism of the teaching body, the principals, and their host of friends. Some things may be left unsaid, even by experts. The public should not lose faith in its schools. A school system is a tre- mendously complex affair. It is much more complex than the public realizes and perhaps it is more complex than even some surveyors realize. Some of the reports are too long, too voluminous, so much so that it is doubtful whether they are read. Some of the recent surveys are to be commended because of the pictures they contain. Say what we will, pictures convey an impression that cold print does not. A goodly proportion of the American public is more inter- ested in pictures than in detailed print, and a survey should reach the public. Some surveys have been partially ineffective because the results have not been used in the school system and apparently no serious attempt has been made to use them by school officials or by boards of education. It is highly questionable whether the survey should attempt to measure all that affects children in their school life. We all know that the sur- passingly important factor in determining the efficiency of schools is the quality of the work of the teachers. There is much in the work of teachers that does not lend itself to an unqualified judgment by any body of sur- veyors, whoever they may be and however expert they may be, but there is much in the work of the schools that does so lend itself. The enormous influence exerted upon children by the personality of teachers, the habits that children form, the ambitions that are created — in a word, the influ- ence of teachers upon the character of children — all this and much more is not capable pf being set out in courses of study or in reports of investiga- 394 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cmcinnati tors. Some things in schools cannot be standardized and some things can. These are considerations which you and I do not ignore in judging the value of the work of teachers of our own children. Nor can they be ignored in judging the value of the work of a great body of teachers. I believe that a body of surveyors should say something of this definitely in a report. The expert or examiner may be in danger of giving the impression that he is speaking the last word concerning the relation between children and teachers. No examiner or expert thinks this. It should frankly be stated, in my opinion, that we are modest in making claims that psychology has yet evolved a method of testing or evaluating all of the influences that affect the worth of the schools to children. Some surveys bear evidence that they have been too hastily done; that too little time was spent in the schools; too little time in conferences with teachers and principals and superintendents and boards of education and intelligent citizens. A survey should not be hurriedly made. The interests at stake are too important, the results too far-reaching. Making a real or acceptable survey of a system of schools is not inex- pensive. The number of competent surveyors should not be too limited. There is evidence that surveys have not in all cases affected the work of the schools to the degree that might be hoped. For a time, at the beginning of the survey, newspaper interviews may be attempted with the surveyors; teachers and principals are all on the qui vive as to what may happen; but after the survey is accomplished and the report printed perhaps nothing happens, and things go on as before. Is it not possible to issue the report in parts, at different times during the course of the survey, or at different times afterward, so that suitable newspaper publicity may be given it? It is too much to expect that a large part of a volume of two himdred pages, if all given out at once, will find a place in the columns of the newspapers. Adequate newspaper publicity is not obtained in that way. It is important that in some way the results of the survey be made a matter of discussion in the school board itself, in superintendents', teachers', and principals' meetings and conferences, in the commercial and civic organizations of the city, and in women's clubs. I recall that at Boise the surveyor, upon the conclusion of his work, was asked to make an address before the leading commercial organization of the city. Local publicity for surveys is of so much importance that it merits serious consideration. Again, the survey points out certain defects or weaknesses of a pro- fessional kind of which the board of education, the superintendent, the principals, or the teachers may not be aware — too much reciting by pupils, too little studying by pupils, too much home study. One survey points out that there is too much talking by teachers, too many questions by the teacher and too few by pupils. It was shown that in seven rooms out of ten the teacher was talking when the visitor entered the room. A survey Superintendence] EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS 395 points out that there is too little exercise of the initiative of the pupils, too little classroom discussion, too many leading questions by teachers. One report showed that the loss of 35 minutes a day because of poor teaching is equivalent to the loss of an entire school year. At least two surveys direct attention to the use of incorrect English by teachers; another to the prevalence of supervision of the inspectorial or reporting kind. Finally, there are four pertinent questions in regard to school surveys or investigations: 1. How may they be instituted, organized, and conducted so as to allay the natural suspicion of many superintendents of schools in regard to the whole question of surveys ? 2. Shall these surveys be conducted by school people, by professional people, or shall they be placed in the hands of outside agencies whose qualification for such important work is open to doubt ? 3. Shall school people recognize the potential value of school surveys and adopt a constructive, even a friendly critical attitude toward them, or shall they be opposed ? 4. By what means shall surveys actually influence the conduct of the board of education, the administration of the schools, and the quality of the teaching? How shall public sentiment be influenced to action by the constructive and valuable features of these reports ? IV. WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N.Y. There are some ways, sometimes used, in which the efl&ciency of a school or a school system cannot be determined. There are some ways in which the efficiency of a school may be determined with an approach to accuracy and without the assistance and without the retardation of time-wasting, energy-destroying statistical research. There may be ways in which so- called scientific surveys or investigations, when stripped of past and present absurdities, will help in determining efficiency. In what does the efficiency of a school consist ? We might take any of the classic definitions of education and say that that school is efficient which substantially fulfils the pmposes expressed in the definition. I choose Milton's: I call a complete and generous education that which fits a man to perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both public and private, of peace and war. Any school which trains its pupils, as far as a school may, to perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both public and private, of peace and war, as far as the natural endowment of each pupil will permit, is an efficient school. You will notice that I have inserted two conditions, "as far as a school may" and "as far as the natural endowment of each pupil will permit." The first condition, "as far as a school may," is inserted because the school 396 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati is only one of many educative influences. The home, the church, the press, social intercourse of all kinds from the gutter to the church parlor, all have, for weal or for woe, their educative influences. Who, for instance, has not seen the boy struggling against, and finally overcome by, the influence of a lazy, dissolute father ? Who has not seen the girl follow the lead of a weak, flighty, slave-to-fashion mother ? And who does not know of chil- dren who have been saved by one parent in spite of the other, or by a teacher in spite of both ? No, the school cannot assume, and should not be charged with, the entire responsibility of training men and women to perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously all the oflSces, public and private, of peace and war. Too often the home and environment are fighting against the school for nineteen out of the twenty-foiu: hours of the day. What the school may be held responsible for is the teaching, in a thoro manner, as far as the school goes, of the tools and rudiments of knowledge, the training of the eye to accuracy and the hand to skill, the implanting of ideas and ideals, and, in the process, the engendering of good habits of thought, action, and speech. For all these acquisitions and powers are necessary to render a man capable of performing justly, skilfully, and mag- nanimously the ofl&ces, public and private, of peace and war. When the school fails, it is often because the opposing forces are too strong. When the school succeeds, it is seldom entitled to all the credit; other forces in home, church, press, and society have been at work. The second condition of efliciency is "as far as the natural endowment of each pupil will permit." Poverty and its effects weaken the brains and bodies of some. Laziness, spnmg from wealth, or the foolish indulgence of parents, impairs the energy of others. Heredity endows some with small, some with large, brain power. It is not possible, therefore, to train all children to the same pitch of eflficiency. The school cannot be held responsible for teaching all children to spell equally well or to speak equally well, or to write prose and poetry equally well. The thing is not possible. K all children can perform the school arts to the best of their ability, it is all anyone has a right to expect. When I read that, in one of the older eastern cities, after shedding lakes of ink and using up imtold reams of paper and consuming the time of imnimibered teachers in administering and scoring the Courtis standard tests in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, the learned director reached the conclusion that " 29 per cent , of the pupils in the eighth grade could exchange places with a like number of pupils in the fourth grade, without changing, in the slightest, the arith- metical ability in the fimdamental operations of either class as a class," I am inclined to exclaim: My dear sir, what did you expect ? That all the children in a grade would show equal ability in adding, subtracting, multipljdng, and dividing ? Any teacher of experi- ence could have told you that they would not. You should have known it yourself. One flash of Horace Mann's insight would be worth a thousand miles of your statistics. Superintendence] EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS 397 From these two conditions — that it is extremely difficult to segregate the influence of the school, the home, the church, and society, and that children vary enormously in ability, it follows that there is no absolute test of teachers' work; at least, none has yet been discovered. It follows, too, that statistics that do not take account of the variations in children are misleading. It will not do, however, to press this argument too far. It may be made to palliate inefficiency. For instance: There are two myths that possess most people's minds about education, and, of course, teachers are not exempt from the delusions. One delusion is that pupils who come from poor homes or poor districts in a city cannot do as good school work or as much school work as pupils who come from rich homes or well-to-do dis- tricts. The other delusion is that children brought up in the coimtry have stronger bodies and better brains than those brought up in cities. Both myths are delusions and snares. They have often been offered by teachers as excuses for inferior work, and they have often led to impairing the efficiency of both country boys and city boys. The only conclusion we can reach is that efficiency is a relative term and that the degree of efficiency is often determined by conditions which it passes the art of man altogether to change or to remove. But even this is not all. The argument for the statistical measurement of children's attainments by standards and fixed tests is only an argiunent from analogy, which is never conclusive, and, in this case, the analogy is actually false. One of its most noted advocates states the argument in this way: Where the material that is acted upon by the labor processes passes thru a number of progressive stages on its way from the raw material to the ultimate product, definite qualitative and quantitative standards must be determined for the product at each of these stages. He illustrates this principle, doubtless true enough for inanimate things, from the processes of manufacturing a steel rail. "Education," he asserts, "is a shaping process as much as the manufacture of steel rails; the person- ality is to be shaped and fashioned into desirable forms." In biology he admits that a new factor enters — the factor of growth. "Man," he con- tinues, "must set up standards and arbitrarily control conditions even here, in order that, with the aid of the growth process, he may secure the full possible product." And then he triumphantly concludes: "In education it is the same." Those of you who are reading Sir Conan Doyle's new Sherlock Holmes story, now appearing in serial form, will recall that the two official detectives engaged on a mysterious murder case were thrown off the track by failing to take accoimt of the absence of one of a pair of dumbbells from a gentle- man's study. Just so our zealous friends, the statistical-standard-scale- test advocates, have been thrown off the track by failing to take account of 398 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati one little word in the major premise of their analogy — the little word "ultimate" in the phrase "the ultimate product." The child of fourteen, or sixteen, or eighteen, or even twenty-two, when he obtains the B.A. degree, is not an ultimate product. The man, the man in actual life, with all its temptations, cruelties, miseries, happinesses, is the ultimate product. And for him the supreme test is: Can he "perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices, both pubHc and private, of peace and war" ? And who, even of the most successful of men, can tell what parts of his character are due to the school, or to the mother who led him, or to the father who drove him, or to the pastor who preached at him, or to the teacher who guided him by still waters and thru green pastiures ? The word in season that started him in the right direction is often hard to trace. It never reveals itself to the statistician. The forces of cultiure are like the wind that "bloweth where it listeth and thou hearest the sound thereof but canst not tell whence it cometh and whither it goeth." The analogy has the fault of all weak analogies — it ignores the chief differences between the things compared. It loses sight of the fact that the steel rail is an ultimate product, while the child is not an ultimate product. The ultimate product in humanity is the resultant of a play of many and ever-changing forces. Our good friends, the statistical professors of education, would do well to try their theories on the work of their college and imiversity colleagues before applying them to the common schools. The college or university student is more nearly an ultimate product than is a sixth-year child. How woidd it do to determine the efficiency of college teaching by grading the Juniors according to their ability to solve six problems in the differential calculus in twelve minutes, or to, estimate the English compositions of Seniors on a scale graduated from the style of William H. Allen, of New York, up to the style of Charles W. Eliot, of Harvard ? Imagination pales before the attempt to picture the howls of horror raised by the ordinarily peaceful and placid professors. When the university professors "make good" in their own field, we shall welcome them into ours. There are still other ways in which the efficiency of a school or a school system cannot be determined. One of these is by the clamor of business men, merchants, engineers, department-store foremen, and the like, who never leave off the outcry that the children who now seek employment can- not or will not work — cannot do anything right. They forget that a differ- ence in environment almost invariably throws an adult, much more a child, out of his bearings and paralyzes his brain. They have never learned the lesson of Addison's failure in writing his first official letter as Secretary of State, the lesson of Frederick the Great's nmning away from his first battle, the lesson of Disraeli's being laughed down in his first House of Commons speech. They do not realize that the artificial motivation of the school- room is as different as day from night from the responsibility that weighs Superintendence! EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS 399 upon the boy who fears that a false move may lose him his first job. The inhumanity of foremen makes countless children mourn. The teacher is little to be envied who allows his efficiency to be measured by the criticisms conceived in selfishness and brought forth in ignorance. He should realize the everlasting truth of William James's profound words: Let no youth have any anxiety about the upshot of his education, whatever the line of it may be. If he keep faithfully busy each hour of the working day .... he can, with perfect certainty, count on waking up some fine morning to find himself one of the competent ones of his generation. Not quite so bad, but almost, is the criticism of the so-called expert who measures everything in a school by its accord with some pet theory of his own as to school or class management or some method of teaching which he is vain enough to imagine he invented. One expert tells us that the efficiency of a high school is to be rated in accordance with the extent to which students are permitted to select their own studies, as if the history of education and the history of men had nothing to teach us. Another so-called expert tells us that, unless each lesson reveals in the children motivation, initiative, organization, and choice, the instruction is poor. The argument, as recently stated by one of the foremost advocates of the theory, is this: The principal purposes for which instruction is given should form the viewpoint or basis from which instruction should be judged. The principal purposes for which instruction is given arc mental discipline and knowledge. A mind is well disciplined in any subject to the extent that it has secured control over the proper method of procedure in that subject. Hence, the best test of mental discipline is by testing control of method of study. Knowledge can likewise be tested by testing the method by which it is acquired. The argument is abbreviated, but it is substantially in the words of the expert. One or two familiar illustrations will reveal the weakness of the argu- ment. In the first place, no one of authority, except this expert, would accept his definition of mental discipline as the extent to which the mind has "secured control over the proper procedure" in any one subject. The philosopher and the man in the street would equally reject this definition and would assert that "mental discipline is the ability to transfer power from a field in which functioning has taken place, to a field more or less like it, in which functioning has not taken place." And I believe we shall con- tinue to estimate a person's knowledge of a subject, not by the way he acquired his knowledge, but by its amount and its acctu-acy. If a child, for instance, can find the interest upon a given amount of money for a given time, and at a given rate, we shall continue to believe that he offers incon- testable evidence of knowledge of the topic "interest" in arithmetic. Our belief will be quite unshaken by any amount of evidence that the method by which he acquired his knowledge was faulty. The military tacticians of 400 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati the eighteenth century, who went down like ninepins before Napoleon, con- soled themselves with the thought that they had made war by correct methods. The illustrious physician in Gil Bias, who killed all his patients by surfeiting them with hot water and bleeding them to death, never ceased to vaunt the validity of his methods. Experts may assure us that the proof of the pudding is the method of making. As plain, practical people, we shall continue to feel assured that the real test is the eating of it. Like all enthusiastic reformers, our expert claims too much for his plans. To follow approved methods of teaching or studying does not necessarily result either in mental discipline or in knowledge. It only raises the pre- sumption that knowledge and mental discipline will result. A sarcastic word, a harsh look, a cruel act may, in the case of a child, destroy the effects of the best methods of teaching ever invented. In like manner we must discount the criticisms of those who have some new-fangled idea to introduce into the schools. These new doctrines usually rim a regular course and that course involves three stages. In the first stage, everything hitherto done in the schools is wrong; in the second stage, if the new theory receives any popular support, everything will be well ; the new subject or the new method is a panacea that will cure all edu- cational ills; in the third stage, the practical teachers have divested the new theory of its superfluous trappings, have swept away the preposterous claims of its advocates, and have discovered and used whatever small kernel of truth it contains or conceals. So it was in the case of manual training. So it was with correlation. So it was with vocational training, tho the third stage is not yet quite reached. And so, doubtless, it will be with the standard-test-scale-statistical plan of determining school efficiency. Before attempting to foretell the final evolution of the standard-test- scale-statistical plan, I would point out that, without the aid of statistics, there are certain conditions of school work which, when present, raise a strong presumption of efficiency; and, when absent, raise an almost equally strong presimiption of inefficiency. Some of these conditions are: 1. The school authorities should control the use of school moneys and should not be ■ subject to the political oflBcers of city, coimty, or state. 2. The board of education should be the supreme authority in a school system, but \ it should not operate the system. Its function is to act as a brake on school officers who ' are too radical in their changes, to spur on those who are indolent, to get rid of those who do not "make good," and to pass judgment on educational policies. 3. There should be ample and efficient opportunities for training teachers, not only neophytes, but those in the service. 4. Teachers should be paid such salaries that they can live in a way befitting their j high calling and take advantage of opportimities for self-improvement. 5. Classes should not be inordinately large — never over fifty. 6. There should be prevalent among the teachers a high ideal of professional ethics. 7. In the schools all work of a routine nature should be done in a fixed order. 8. In work that admits of continuous progress, superintendents and principals shouldl contribute their share of enthusiasm, skill, and knowledge, and they should elicit the skill,^ the enthusiasm, and the initiative of teachers. 9. Teachers should be familiar with and shoiild practice the most approved methods of teaching. SuperintendenceJ EFFICIENCY OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS 401 10. Pupik not only should give attention to their teachers, but, if they are efficiently taught, will evince their interest by asking questions and seeking further information. 11. The physical health and strength of children should improve as they proceed thru the grades. 12. There should be definite standards of attainment for all subjects of study in all grades, but particularly in the highest grades, kept constantly before the minds of both teachers and pupils. 13. The leading motif oi the school should be hard, earnest work to conquer difficulties, and the atmosphere should be one of joy over difficulties conquered. 14. The subjects of study or the pursuits should never be so numerous as to dissipate energy instead of cultivating the habit of concentration. 15. There should be adequate means of testing results. What do the children know ? What can the children do ? Are they improving in physical vigor and endurance ? Are they acquiring the school habits? Are they improving in the power of concentrating attention ? Are they habituated to careful reflection on the day's work ? If these phenomena appear in a school, there is a strong presumption of efl5ciency. Our friends of the standard-test-scale-statistical theory believe that they can determine the results, at least of instruction, with an accuracy which, if we are to believe them, is practically infallible. They are still in the second stage of reform accomplishment — the stage in which they pro- claim their theory as a panacea for all educational ills. What says Professor Bobbitt, their most elaborate exponent ? I had intended to enimierate the list of benefits he claims would inevitably follow the adoption of the stand- ard-test-scale-statistical plan of testing efficiency, but I find it is so long as to be wearisome. Siiffice it to say in general terms that he claims it would eradicate inefficient teachers; it would grade efficient teachers; it would indicate to principals and superintendents just what they ought to do under every possible condition; it would eliminate favoritism in appointing and promoting teachers and principals; and it would enable a superintendent to convince his board of education that all his recommendations ought to be adopted forthwith. Of course, it would not do all these things, nor a tenth part of them. Not for that reason, however, should it be utterly rejected. In the course of a somewhat extended experience, I have learned that, however laden with abuses an old plan of school work or an old method of teaching may be, it contains beneath the surface something that is well worth while. I have also learned that it is never safe to reject a new theory, however dis- guised by absurdities it may be, without seeking for the grain of truth it may contain. In this case the kernel of good that may be discerned beneath all the trappings is the return, under a new name, of the old-time examina- tion. Thirty years ago, xmder the leadership of Emerson E. White, when he was superintendent of schools in Cincinnati, most of the superintendents of the country cast out stated examinations from the elementary schools. Mr. White preached a veritable crusade against stated examinations as the fetters of the teacher that destroyed spontaneity and prevented initiative. He forgot that, with all their faults, even as they then were, examinations constituted standards as well as tests. And what are the new-fangled 402 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Cincinnati scales and tests but old examinations under a new name ? Their sponsors claim that they are more scientific than the old examinations. It may be so. I trust it is. Of one thing, however, I feel certain: If their efifect should be to convert teachers into bookkeepers, to compel them to expend on statistics the energy they should expend on teaching, these tests will go the way of the old examination and be cast into outer darkness. If, how- ever, they should settle down to improved forms of examination and restore to us that thoroness of teaching and that accuracy of scholarship which, to no small extent, vanished with the old examinations, they will prove a blessing to each rising generation. Enthusiasm, correlation, and caprice can never take the place of thoroness. If there were two standards, a higher and a lower, set up for the eighth J or whatever may be the last year of the elementary course, two similar standards at the close of the high-school coiurse, and two similar standards at the close of the college course, and if the work to reach these standards were carefully tested by comprehensive examinations covering the impor- tant points of the preparatory courses, the scholarship of all our institutions of learning and the knowledge and mental training of their students would, I venture to hope, be materially improved. There is one test of the efficiency of a school which surpasses even a properly conducted examination. That is the kind of men and women the school's pupils tiurn out to be. Wherever you find worthy and successful men and women speaking kindly of the old school and the old teachers; when they tell with what sweetness and light their mistakes were corrected, with what a firm hand their moral weaknesses were held in check; when they look back on the school premises, however poor they may have been, as hallowed ground; when you find them attributing their success to their school training, you may rest assured the school they attended was an efficient school. That is the supreme test. ]P REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON ECONOMY OF TIME IN ELE- MENTARY EDUCATION— MINIMUM ESSENTIALS OF A COURSE OF STUDY* f THE OBJECTIVES AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF THE REPORT HARRY B. WILSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, TOPEKA, KANS., CHAIRMAN Four years ago at the meeting in Mobile, this department created a Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary Education. The resolution creating the committee was proposed by Henry Suzzallo in closing his « In the preparation of both this report and the introduction to the Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, in which appears in complete form the findings of the Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary Education, the chairman of your committee had the assistance particu- larly of F. E. Thompson and V. A. C. Henmon of your committee. The Fourteenth Yearbook may be ob- tained at a cost of seventy-five cents by writing G. M. Whipple, Department of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, ill.. Secretary. National Society for the Study of Education. Superintendence] ECONOMY OF TIME IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 403 address in which he was representing the Council Committee on Economy of Time. Said he: The main requirement at this point in our progress is to investigate the waste in the elementary schook and to make definite proposals for eliminating the archaic and least useful material from our course of study, and to propose more economical methods of teaching. This statement makes it perfectly evident that your committee was created to do a specific piece of work. The only modification which has been made in the task assigned your committee was made at St. Louis in extending the scope of the work of the committee to cover the work of secondary schools. You also ordered a modification in the number of members constituting the committee in your meeting one year ago at Richmond by adding two additional members, increasing the membership to seven. During the four years of our work, but two appropriations have been made for defraying the necessary expenses of the committee and of those co-operating. An appropriation of $250 was made following the meeting of the department at St. Louis and last year at St. Paul an appropriation of $200 was allowed. Out of these appropriations, a total of $449 . 55 has been expended to date. During this time, not only have the members of the committee been under expense of various sorts, but they have had associated with them, as will appear below, a large nmnber of co-operating investi- gators. In the development of our work, two meetings at Chicago — one in December, 191 2, and another in October, 1914 — were necessary. Inasmuch as you created this committee to further the work of the Council Committee on Economy of Time which was concerned with develop- ing programs for economy in all types of schools from the kindergarten thru the university, we found a large amount of work already done. The Council committee's efiforts extend back to 1903, and the evidences of its work are distributed thru the printed Proceedings of the National Education Association since that time. Your committee, of course, found it necessary in the first place to determine the meaning of the task assigned it and the scope of the responsibility involved. In this interest a logical outline was developed, the same appearing first in the Proceedings of this department for 191 2 and again, with some additions, in 1913. It became apparent early that because of the complicated and funda- mental character of the problems involved in our task it would be necessary to enlist the active co-operation of a niunber of expert investigators in the field of education. We have been very fortunate in having associated with us in counsel and in the study of practically all the problems which have been undertaken a niunber of "co-operating investigators" who are experts in the educational field and in the direction of educational research. Owing to their teaching positions, each of them is constantly directing research work with graduate students. Because of their interest in various phases 404 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati of the problem of economy of time, each of these men has been willing to become responsible for the study and investigation of one or more of the phases of the general problem of economy of time. It is they rather than the members of the committee created by this department who have formu- lated the addresses and reports which have been made before the meetings of this department and before other meetings of the National Education Association touching our problem. This is likewise true of the printed report which is before us for consideration at this time. As we have gone about our task, trying to vmderstand it and to make progress upon it, we have, in the first place, taken carefully into account all of the work of the Council Committee on Economy of Time which has been made available. In its report published in 1913, as Bulletin jp of the United States Bureau of Education, they brought forcibly to the attention of the country the desirability of shortening the period of formal education. The following proposals pertinent to the purposes of the department Committee on Economy of Time are quoted (see pp. 18 and 19) : The contemporary judgment is that the period of general education should be short- ened at least two years. In the elementary and secondary periods, economy thru selection, elimination, vital methods, relation to modem life, would yield much better results and little or nothing would be lost by the proposed change in time. To define the form oi discussion, the following divisions of the entire period of general and special education are prop>osed: AGE Elementary education 6-12 Secondary education (two divisions — 4 years and 2 years) . . 12-18 College 18-20 or 16-20 University (graduate school and professional schools) .... 20-24 Preceding their statement of conclusions, the committee said: When by economy — this does not mean more cramming, but less — as much can be accomplished in the elementary and secondary schools and in the first two years of college as is now done in the full sixteen years, the last two years of college can coimt toward graduate and professional degrees and two years of the whole period can be saved. That it was intended to place a heavy responsibility upon your com- mittee is evident in the following quotation from the report of the Coimcil committee (see p. 15): We approach now the question of saving time in the elementary period or of accom- plishing more within the time. The committee agrees that there is much waste in ele- mentary education and that the elementary period should be from six to twelve. Nearly all our correspondents are emphatic regarding waste and the importance of shortening the entire period of general education. Saving time can be made in the following ways: I. The principle of selection is: first choose the most important subjects and the most important topics; make a distinction between first-rate facts and principles and tenth-rate; prune thoroly, stick to the elements of a subject; do not try to teach every- thing that is good; confine the period of elementary education to mastering the tools of education. This does not prevent inspirational work, which is a demand on the skill of the teacher rather than on time. A great secret of education is to accomplish a maxi- mum of training with a minimum of material. This is especially true of formal subjects; Superintendence] ECONOMY OF TIME IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 405 it is true also of inspirational subjects, in that after a general survey of the field emphasis should be placed upon a few selected points. Under the conditions above enumerated the formal elementary period can end in six years. That there is a widespread feeling, perhaps a belief, that the period of formal education should be shortened is perfectly evident. Where and how this shortening is to take place is, however, not so generally agreed upon. The foregoing quotations make clear that the committee of the Council believes that the great waste in education is in the elementary schools. In harmony with this belief, it has reconmiended that the period of elementary education be reduced to six years, maintaining that the essential knowledge, habits, ideals, and attitudes for individual and social needs can and should be acquired in that time. Your committee is not yet committed to the thesis that it is necessary or desirable to shorten the period of elementary education. The reports in the Yearbook supply large ground in support of our open-minded position upon the matter. In his report on "Time Distribution" (p. 23), H. W. Holmes observes, "Our present effort to define minimum essentials by experimenta- tion and investigation is an essential step" in the determination of the time requisite to accomplish the results that are expected in the elementary schools. Says he: We cannot tell how much time ought to be given in arithmetic xmtil we know how much arithmetic is taught; nor indeed even then, for we must next determine how much time is necessary to reach a defined standard of achievement. In interpreting his survey of the experiments for economizing time, F. E. Thompson says (p. 29) : Not many have indicated very much interest in the shortening of the period of educa- tion, but almost everyone, explicitly or by implication, would have much more accom- plished within this period Educators are trying to save time, not to the end of having more time for something else than education, but to the end of having more in it of education; in general, "economy of time" is but a S3Tionym for "efficiency." In his discussion of handwriting, F. N. Freem.an makes rather definite suggestions in reference to the time which will be required in each grade to enable the children concerned to reach the standards of quality and speed which he proposes. In his closing paragraph, however, he makes it evident that further testing and experimentation are necessary before the time essential to attaining the standards set can be definitely stated. W. A. Jessup's extended study in the field of arithmetic does not enable him to say definitely just what amount of time is necessary to attain the results which are expected in arithmetic. He finds it necessary to content himself by recommending (p. 129) "the adoption of the median time in use thruout the country .... as an upper limit of time distribution." S. A. Courtis makes no effort in his statement of time requirements to do more than mdicate the time which should be allowed in making tests to determine the attainments of children. Even his extended investigations in the field 4o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati of arithmetic have not led him to venture a statement as to the total time which should be allowed in elementary education for securing the results in children which arithmetic teaching is expected to produce. It is becoming increasingly clear to your committee that its procedure upon this problem must be guided first, last, and all the time by what is in the interest of efficiency in education. It is vastly more important that we turn out, if possible, an efficient, well-equipped product than that we turn out merely a product in a given time. In all of our efforts, therefore, to consider how time may be economized in the elementary schools we have been driven back to the consideration of two fimdamental questions: First — What is the function of elementary education in our democracy? Second — What is the content in each subject of study which is essential if the elementary school, so far as any given subject of study is concerned, is to discharge its purpose in the education of children? In reference to the first question, the current view seems to be that the function of the elementary school is to provide those educational oppor- tunities necessary to insure, with the assistance of the other institutions of society, the acquisition on the part of elementary-school children of those habits, skills, knowledges, ideals, and prejudices which must be made the common property of all, that each may be an efficient member of an aggressive democratic society, possessing the necessary equipment to insure the right and profitable use of leisure time, the power of self-support and self-direction, the capacity and disposition for co-operative effort, and, if ' possible, the ability to direct others in positions of responsibility requiring administrative capacity. Under this conception of the function of the elementary school, a prob- lem of first importance is in reference to what can be done in the elementary schools of our democracy to secure that degree of attainment in knowledge, character, and skill essential to equip those who are subjected to its training with the accomplishments requisite to efficiency and with an intense desire and the training necessary to make the greatest possible additional personal growth. Society is still dependent primarily upon the elementary schools to fiu^nish not only the tools of knowledge but also those facts, concepts, and principles essential in a democracy to common discussion and to the correct consideration of common problems. The training of the elementary schools must supply the requisite basis for "mutual intercourse, mutual imder- standing, and mutual S3Tnpathy " which are absolutely essential to a success- ful democracy. In light of the accepted function of the elementary school, it is clear that the second question in reference to the content which is essential in each of the various subjects of study is of paramoimt significance. It is thru the content of the course of study that the schools supply the common basis for conference and intercourse. Of first concern, therefore, in realizing the purpose of the school is the determination of the absolute essentials of Superintendence] ECONOMY OF TIME IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 407 the course of study that we may be sure of equipping our citizenship so that it may discuss and confer on a sufficiently high level to insvire the progressive evolution of our democratic society. It is only by determining upon these absolute essentials and concentrating our teaching efforts upon them that their permanent fixation may be insured in the minimum of time. The major portion of attention in the reports is devoted to a con- sideration of the essential content of the subjects of the elementary schools which are treated. The aim has been to determine, so far as possible, the content which is essential to social efficiency and to suggest those standards of attainment in certain subjects from grade to grade which experimentation and current practice seem to justify. The attack thruout is positive rather than negative. The aim has been to determine what materials should enter into the curriculimi in the light of social needs rather than to attempt to decide what should be omitted from the curriculiun as it now stands. If the selection can be made from the positive standpoint, it follows, of course, that all of the material which is not thus retained will be omitted. The ideally constructed course of study for the elementary schools is clearly one stripped of all content not essential to the needs of modern life and organized so as to harmonize with the child's growth in capacity and experience. The dominant question which has been before each investigator in the formulation of his report is — What content comprehensible to children in the elementary schools in this subject is so valuable socially that its retention is essential in enabling the school to realize its purpose ade- quately ? The answer to this question was sought thru the application of various tests. It was assiuned by W. A. Jessup that the content which is reflected in a wide school use is of significant social value. W. C. Bagley made a similar assumption in his findings based upon an examination of textbooks in history and geography. The newspaper-magazine test which he applied sought to determine the facts in geography and history which are needed by people who would read current publications intelli- gently. The content which is of greatest importance in spelling has been determined by two or three studies of the vocabularies which are employed by children and other people in writing. Similarly, R. G. Jones determined the standard vocabulary which should be taught in the lower grades that the children's acquisition may be the most useful to them in the reading they do. A still different type of test was employed by F. N. Freeman when he measured the attainments in writing in quality and speed possessed by the children of all grades in fifty-six cities of the United States in his effort to determine the standard in quality and speed which should be required in the various grades of the elementary schools. He also supplemented this method of determining minimum requirements by taking the judgment of fourteen firms representing roughly four types of business and employing 4o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati 1,702 persons in reference to the attainments in writing which in their judgment should be evidenced by persons applying for positions. Before there can be any scientific basis for determining definitely the time necessary for the teaching of each subject in the elementary schools, the task of determining the minimum essentials, which has been so carefully begun in this report, must be carried to completion with infinite care. While this is being done, we must make as much progress as possible in the deter- mination of the standards which shall be set up for attainment from grade to grade on the part of the children. Even after the content has been care- fully determined in the light of social needs, and reasonable standards have been carefully established, we shall not be able to determine the time which is necessary in mastering the content to the degree of excellence proposed imtil we have refined and improved our methods of teaching to the extent that is possible with present knowledge and until we have likewise im- proved the organization within the system so as to enable each child to do the work assigned at the optimal time and with least loss by reason of the machinery of the school. It must be clear that our first objective cannot be merely time gain. If gain is accomplished, it must ensue because the efliciency desired can be secured in less time. Saving of time is undoubtedly desirable if it can be secured without sacrificing efliciency, for the saving of time will not only result in less cost to the taxpayers for the maintenance of the school system, but it will likewise resiilt in increasing the earning power of those who gradu- ate from these schools, owing to their earlier entrance into remunerative occupations. We must not forget, however, in our zeal to accomplish savings and to reap gains, that economy of time in education may mean either a shortening of the period of formal education or the more economical use of the time required, whatever it may be, in order that the maximmn accomplishment in knowledge and skill may result. While the burden of attention has been directed to the determination of the content of each subject of the course of study, we have thought it worth while, in the interest of enabling others to whom these reports may come to work in the light of all the results which are available with reference to any problem, to indicate rather fully the sources which supply material related to the topics under treatment. Carefully selected bibliographies have therefore been given space in the report, each following the study to which it pertains. Even a general study of the printed report will render it evident that the task of formulating completely the minimum essentials in the subjects treated has not been finished. Your committee believes, however, that a valuable handbook and guide in course-of-study-making has been pro- duced. Until improved methods are developed, we believe the guiding principles and the methods employed by the investigators making these reports are those which should become dominant in the development and Superintendence] ECONOMY OF TIME IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 409 organization of courses of study for the elementary schools in this country. As much has been accomplished, perhaps, as it was reasonable to expect in the time available to those making the reports. In the present state of our knowledge of social and educational values, it is not possible to complete the task with any mathematical certainty that the results offered would meet the educational needs even in a single community. The undertaking is increasingly difl&cult when the formulation offered is intended to serve as a guide in course-of-study-making for the elementary schools of the whole United States. Further time and more extended opportunity for conference and experimentation would render it possible to be more specific as to details. The reports on language and grammar, history and geography, call par- ticular attention to this. Nothing like the degree of completeness secured in these reports would have been possible but for the assistance of the investi- gators who co-operated with the conunittee, taking complete charge of the reports as they appear in the Yearbook. The omission from treatment in this report of the subjects of music, drawing, sewing, cooking, manual training, other forms of handwork, and nature study, or elementary science, must not be interpreted either to mean that their content is not in need of critical evaluation or that their importance in the curriculimi is undervalued. Rather, it was foimd impos- sible to add them to the subjects considered and to bring all the matter which this would render it necessary to treat within the limits it seemed reason- able to set for this report. Even if the problem attempted in this report had been more adequately done, only a fair beginning would have been made in the imdertaking to accomplish all of the economies which are both possible and desirable in elementary-school education. Further work in this field with the view of completing it for the time being may yet be secured, if it seems desirable. There will still remain, however, the problem of improving the organization of the system and the technique of classroom teaching, that the minimum essentials in the curriculum may exercise the maximum of educational effect with the greatest possible economy of time and effort. Three steps of considerable importance, as it seems to your committee, have been taken since the meeting of this department began. As a result of two meetings between representatives of the Commission on the Reorgani- zation of Secondary Education and the Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary Education, three important steps have been initiated. First — An effort will be made to secure such co-operation between those who are working upon the problem of minimum essentials in the elementary school and those who are working on corresponding subjects in the secondary field as will insure unity of aim and purpose in the formulation of the content in each of the subjects of study. Rather definite plans were made in reference to history, geography, science, civics, English, and mathematics. 4IO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION tCmcinnati Second — A Committee on Definition of Aims of Elementary and Secondary Education in Terms of Activities has been created, the seven members to be taken jointly from the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education and your Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary Education. Frank E. Thompson, professor of education, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo., was made chairman of this com- mittee. Third — A third step of great significance is that the International Kin- dergarten Union has authorized the appointment of a committee of nine to formulate a report on "The Mininiun Essentials in the Kindergarten and Primary Grades." Annie E. Moore, professor of elementary education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, N.Y., was made chair- man of this committee. The purpose indicated when the creation of this committee was proposed was to have a piece of work done for the grades covered corresponding to that which your committee has done for certain subjects in the elementary schools. We feel that it is particularly significant that these co-operative relations have been established between the kindergarten, elementary, and secondary conunittees that are at work upon problems concerning the course of study. NOTICE Papers were presented by members of the Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary Education as indicated in the minutes. These appear in the Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. DISCUSSION I Thomas M. Balliet, dean, School of Pedagogy, New York University, New York, N.Y. — ^This is in every way an interesting and admirable report as far as it goes. It is not radical, as one of the sp)eakers has called it; it is surely safely conservative, for it does not go as far in some respects in its recommendations as some of our most progressive schools now go in actual practice. Its value lies, not in helping progressive schools much, but in lifting the work of poor schools to a higher level. It furnishes a basis for criticism of poor schools. What is essential, or a minimum essential, in a curriculiun depends not wholly on the material taught but also on the pupil's aim. Essentials must differ obviously with such aim. If the pupil is fitting for college, then certain aspects of arithmetic which are basal for the study of algebra are essential which would be wholly imessential if the pupil were to learn a trade or "go to work" at the end of the elementary-school course. For the latter pupil the practical aspects, not essential for the college-fitting child, wovdd be altogether essential. Likewise in grammar, the formal, technical part is essential for the pupil who is to study a foreign language; for the majority who are not, such formal gram- mar is largely a waste of time. Geography and history should in like manner be treated differently in the case of these two classes of pupils. In fact, no study in the elementary schools, above the third or fourth year, should be treated in the same way with both classes mentioned. This fact is the strongest argimient for the differentiation of the elementary school. Superintendence] ECONOMY OF TIME IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 411 In determining essentials, we must also bear in mind the fact that the elementary school in all countries must be national in its curriculum, while the university is cos- mopolitan. Physics, chemistry, history, economics, and the rest may properly be taught in the same way in the universities in all countries; while arithmetic, geography, history, and language must be taught in the elementary school from the national point of view. What is essential in the elementary curriculum in one country is therefore largely unessential in that of another. The three topics of the report assigned me are reading, language, and grammar. Reading. — It is a distinct merit in the report that it emphasizes silent reading and speed as a test of efficiency. Speed in the mechanical processes of arithmetic and in pen- manship is still much emphasized in many schools, while in these days of adding ma- chines, typewriting machines, dictaphones, and stenographers, such speed is largely obsolete. On the contrary, in reading, where there never will be a machine to do the work, we are ignoring speed. When we know that persons of equal intellectual ability and of the same educational advantages may differ as much as 400 per cent in their speed in silent reading, it is time we recognized the fact in teaching children to read. You cannot train a child to read too fast silently so long as you hold him responsible for know- ing what he has read; and it is found, in the case of light reading, that the rapid reader generally grasps and remembers more of what he has read than the slow reader. Slow reading and thoughtful reading do not necessarily go together, just as there are people in the world who are slow but not sure. The chief fimction of oral reading is to interpret literature. What is real art in literature cannot be fully appreciated by silent reading. This is a point which the report should have pointed out. Every teacher of literature should be a good oral reader, and yet we never apply this test in the selection of such teachers. Language. — On this subject I wish to add only one or two footnotes to the report. Training in language, during the first four years at least, should be largely oral, and emphasis on written composition should be confined chiefly to the upper four grades. It has been found by actual experiment that the best way to secure fluency, freedom, and clearness in written composition in the upper grades is to develop these qualities in oral speech in the lower. A child who can talk fluently has already accomplished three- fourths of the work of learning to write fluently. The contrast between the talker and the writer among adults does not hold for children except in rare cases. The tendency to defer penmanship, and with it spelling, till the second or third year is a right one. In written composition, two aims are to be accomplished which are so different that they require two separate lines of language work. One of these aims is grammatical correctness, the other is freedom, fluency, clearness, and logical sequence in thought. The first includes the mechanical processes of penmanship, spelling, capi- talization, punctuation, quotation marks, abbreviations, and certain conventional forms. It includes correctness in the construction of sentences. Drill in these things should be given in the form of dictation exerckes in the main and mistakes should be rigidly corrected. The aim should be to establish habits by repetition. In the case of composition, which should be a separate line of work, the aim should be to secure fluency and freedom. This cannot be done if the child is made to feel that grammatical correctness is mainly criticized in the composition. A child will outgrow fully three-fourths of all his mistakes in spelling, punctuation, and the rest, if the few mistakes which he cannot correct are corrected. To correct all the mistakes of compo- sitions defeats its purpose. The corrections make him self-conscious when he writes and therefore make fluency impossible. The report might be more explicit on this point. It is a mistake, too, to begin paragraphing early. Paragraphing never becomes an unconscious process even with literary men. Few writers paragraph in the same way. Features of language, that are to be made unconscious habits must be taught early, else 412 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati there is later a wrong habit to be overcome. This does not apply to paragraphing. I should not care if children didn't paragraph their compositions imtil the last year of the elementary school. They can be taught it in a very short time when they are mature. Most schools class paragraphing with punctuation, capitalization, etc., and begin it in the third or fourth year. Grammar. — So long as we retain the imdifferentiated elementary school, the cur- riailum should adjust itself very largely to the needs of the large majority. Hence those features of technical grammar which are important only to the pupil who is to study a foreign language in the high school should be relegated to the high school. I agree heartily with the suggestions of the report as to what should be omitted, except that I should omit still more. I should teach the simple sentence, its subject, its predicate, and their modifiers, and omit entirely the teaching of the complex and the compoimd sentence. The last two are too difficult for all but the brightest children in the elementary schools and they have no practical value for them. I should omit the subjunc- tive mood. It is beyond elementary-school children and they have no need of it. I shoidd treat mood in a very elementary way. Infinitives and participles should probably be taught as suggested in the report. I should omit the teaching of the tenses of the sub- junctive. They are altogether too difficult, since their names do not indicate the actual time which they express as is the case in the other moods. Every teacher is aware of this difficulty. In teaching grammar in the elementary schools, we must discriminate clearly between what is arbitrary and rests on usage merely and what is based on logic, or the laws of thoiight. Everything that is arbitrary can be taught easily enough and should be taught in so far as it is practical. The part which rests on logic and constitutes scientific gram- mar should largely be relegated to the high school. This includes especially the analysis of sentences, some of the discussions of moods and tenses, and a host of classifications which the report suggests should be omitted. We must, however, remember that after all the usage of the recognized masters of the language is the final authority for correctness, and not logic. Logic has influenced usage and has changed it from age to age, but nevertheless the vdtimate authority is usage, logic or no logic. Many of our school grammars make logic the test of correctness where usage alone should be given. They want to make grammar "scientific." To give only a few examples to illustrate what I mean: Double negatives to express negation are not wrong because they are logically equivalent to an affirmative, as the grammars say; they are wrong in modem English solely because the best writers and speakers do not use them. Shakespeare is full of them. The Greeks used them. They still persist in English among the imeducated. "It is me" is not incorrect because logic requires the nominative after the verb to be. The French always say, " C'est moi," and the expression may have come into England at the time of the Norman Conquest from France. The same is true of double comparatives. Usage no longer sanctions them. Logic has nothing to do with it. Shakespeare used them frequently. " This was the most xmkindest cut of all" is a sentence found imder false syntax (I) in many grammars. I recall when as a boy of fourteen I corrected this very sentence for Shakespeare. The agreement of the verb with its subject in number rests likewise on usage and not on logic. The French say, "Ce sont," etc., in certain constructions, and the Greeks habitually used a singular verb with a neuter plural subject, as every schoolboy knows. By recognizing usage as the final authority all that has much practical value in grammar can be taught arbitrarily in elementary schools. The teaching of technical grammar maiidy for discipline, or training in logical analysis, I believe to be unprofitable in the elementary schools. J. M. GwiNN, superintendent of schools, New Orleans, La. — ^This discussion will be limited to that part of the report dealing with current practices and standards in arith- metic. Supermtendence] ECONOMY OF TIME IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 413 The method of investigation used by the committee, that of exhibiting oirrent prac- tices in city and coimty schools and the consensus of opinions of a large nimiber of super- intendents, while it is flattering to us superintendents in that it assimies that what most of us are doing and thinking is right, is not an altogether safe and adequate method for solving the problem of what arithmetic should be taught in the elementary schools. There are those, and not a few, who seem to believe that whatever the schools are doing and whatever opinions superintendents have are more likely to be wrong than right. These critics may not deserve a great deal of consideration, yet they merit some attention. In view of this situation, it is not wise to look at what is alone in order to find what ought to be. The real test of arithmetic is to be foimd in its use in the industrial, home, and busi- ness life of the commimity and not in what is being taught in the schools. In order adequately to present the situation, it will be necessary to look out as well as in. The opinions of some business men and women and the current practices in the use of arith- metic in business and the home might contribute enlightening information with respect to the content of arithmetic which should be included in the course of study. We are over-enamored with the democratic practice of settling questions by votes. A majority vote may settle some questions but hardly one so deeply involved by social, economic, psychological, and physiological factors as that of the teaching of modem arithmetic in our elementary schools. The voice of the people may be, as Hesiod said, the voice of God, but before I accept such doctrine, I beg the privilege to inquire. What people ? In deciding complex and complicated problems, the opinion of one man is often of more value than the concensus of opinions of an army of other men. One sometimes can chase a thousand and two put ten thousand to flight. I have no adverse criticism to make against the nine hundred and eighty-one superintendents whose courses of study and whose opinions make the foundation of the committee's findings and recommendations. It would be smcidal, in part at least, since I am numbered among them and my opinion was among those sent to the committee. I merely urge that no mass of men greatly lacking in uniformity of training, and, therefore, in habits of perception and thinking, who live in widely scattered commtmities with different demands, can represent by their votes what is good for all, tho such a consensus of opinions is, I grant, interesting, sug- gestive, and to an extent directive. The committee has pointed out its limitations and has clearly stated that the problems of vital method, relation of subject-matter to modem life, and the relation of the subject- matter to the interests and abilities of the child have not been attempted. In making its report on how economy of time may be secured thru elimination of nonessentials and by including only such additional significant material as is clearly vital to life in realizing the ends of elementary education, the committee further points out that the investiga- tion was made with a view to finding out the extent to which superintendents were interested in these problems, their attitudes toward certain proposals for eliminarion, and the current practices in schools. It further states that the present report might be considered a clearing-house of experience which will enable any superintendent to know what other superintendents are doing. The committee is to be commended for thus indicating the important problems it has not touched and for making but modest claims for the completeness of its findings in the limited field of investigation. It is well to keep these limitations in mind for there may be thousands of school men vmacquainted with all the facts who may be inclined to accept the report as final, not alone upon the seven topics studied by the committee, but on the whole question of the content of the course in arithmetic. The investigation which the committee has made has been done with care and its findings are valuable. I concur in the opinion that the time is ripe for a widespread distribution of the findings in arithmetic. To further this idea, I wovdd suggest that some committee from feach state measure the state course of study, where there is one, 414 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati by the standards of oirrent practice and the recommendations of the committee. In like manner, each city and county superintendent, thru his office directly or thru com- mittees of teachers, should measure his course of study. This would make all conscious in an intelligent way of the problems and findings, and would, doubtless, result in the correction of the more serious deviations from well-established norms. The cotmcil of the Louisiana State Teachers Association has already undertaken so to measure the Lo\iisiana course of study and will make its findings known at its meeting in April, when the state association holds it aimual session. Having adopted the voting method for deciding current practices and for the basis of their recommendations, those conducting the election are guilty of gross irregularities in the conduct of the election. Superintendents were asked to indicate the topics which they would eliminate and also those to which they woidd give less time. To me, there is a great difference between eliminating a topic entirely and giving it less time, yet these investigators boldly £idd these two kinds of votes together and when a majority is obtained by this method declare the election carried for the elimination of the topic. If an honest election had been conducted, eight instead of twenty-five topics would have been dropped. Just how gross these election frauds were may be seen in the trial of "Longitude and Time," where, with but 8 per cent voting to eliminate, the judges declare it banished by the votes of the superintendents. In the same illegal manner, the judges require a two- thirds majority vote to increase the time of a topic unconditionally and so name five topics for increase when eleven of the nineteen had a majority vote for more time. Topics with less than a two-thirds favorable vote were to get more time if it could be seoired thru elimination of other topics. The committee seems to be biased toward economy thru elimination and against economy thru giving more time to important topics. The com- mittee is hardly fair to its method and seems to let its opinion rather than its data shape its conclusions. The term "recitation time" has little definiteness of meaning as it is used by super- intendents, and classroom conditions vary greatly and thereby influence the so-called recitation time. In a classroom of but one grade, the recitation time is likely quite different from that of another room where there are two different grade groups under one teacher. Study periods and home study should also be taken into consideration. It is hard to believe that any school would require first-grade children to spend 90 minutes daily in reciting arithmetic. We need to know the total time spent by pupils in different grades on arithmetic, including recitation time, study periods, and home study. That there should be much time given to drill in the lower grades and especially in the second, third, and fourth grades, all wUl doubtless agree, but it is extremely doubtful whether increasing the time given to drill will secure the ends desired. Improved method will accomplish more than additional time for drill. The committee should avail itself of the studies and experiments which have been made or direct new researches into methods of drill. The tabulation of the opinions of superintendents and current practices foxmd in courses of study represents a necessary and valuable beginning, but scientific investi- gation must go much farther in order to find the nonessentials to eliminate, and the additional materials vital to the ends of elementary education which should be included in the course of study of arithmetic. A companion study to the one reported by the committee should be made to find current practices in the use of arithmetic in the home, industry, and business, and to secure the consensus of opinions of qualified business men and women. It is to be hoped that the committee will organize and conduct investigations of vital methods of teaching arithmetic, relation of subject-matter of arithmetic to modem life, and to the interests, abilities, and needs of the child, and, with the aid of theorists for corrections, submit a final and comprehensive report which might take the form of a recommended course of study of both matter and method. Superintendence] FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 41$ p. W. Horn, superintendent of schools, Houston, Tex. — It is evident from Mr. Thompson's paper that he does not consider that any of the experiments made thus far furnishes a complete solution to the problem. This is well. We may as well recognize the fact that no special form of educational work will meet the needs of every community. What may be a waste of time in one community may be a valuable use of time in another. The question of the elimination of nonessentials is one which must be worked out by each community for itself. Parenthetically, it may be asked whether we are quite sure that the elimination of nonessentials is the thing most needed for economy of time in school work. Certain it is that the mere elimination of the difl&cult parts of a subject will not insure the best use of time on the easier parts. It is not always those who do the least work that do that least in the best way. It is not always those who say the least who say that little in the best manner. Economy of time may perhaps be achieved even when doing some things that it is not absolutely necessary to do, provided we are doing them well. It is further evident from Mr. Thompson's paper that he recognizes the problem of economy of time to be one that is personal and spiritual. No merely mechanical device will solve it. No alteration of printed courses of study can ever make it certain that we are employing our time in the best manner possible. The teacher who can inspire his class to enthusiastic work is not likely to let his class lose much time. On the other hand, the class that is doing its work in a perfunctory fashion under a dull and listless teacher is likely to be wasting much of its time, no matter how closely the course of study may have been pruned. In any good school system cases are not lacking in which far more than the ordi- nary use of time has been made. We all know the boy of foreign parentage who comes to our school with very little to his credit, except an intense thirst for knowledge, yet who makes some three or four grades in the course of a year. He does so, not on account of any extraordinary ability on his part, or on the part of the teacher, but because the boy himself has an intense desire to learn, a clear-cut motive for learning. The teacher had the good sense not to stand in the boy's way and the course of study was sufficiently flexible to allow the boy to do the most he had it in him to do. Elimination may be an important element in the economy of our schoolroom time, but even more important are such elements as inspiration, motivation, and sjonpathy on the part of the teacher, concentration on the part of the child, and flexibility on the part of the course of study. ROUND TABLES ROUND TABLE OF STATE AND COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS TOPIC: STATE SCHOOL CODES A. FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS M. P. SHAWKEY, STATE SUPERINTEKDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHARLESTON, W. VA. That education for all the children of the state shoxdd be provided at public expense is no longer a question for debate. We are now concerned rather with how much money should be raised for the purpose, how it should be raised, and on what basis it should be distributed. It will be agreed that a substantial part of the public educational fund should be raised by local taxation. Any other plan would tend to rob the community of its right and power of initiative and its feeling of personal interest in the school because of its personal invest- 4i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati ment. The local obligation, moreover, is greatest because the local benefits are greatest. Sacrifice is not a pain but a privilege when it is made to win the thing we prize highly or cherish dearly. Any good citizen will count it a privilege to have the opportunity to make a sacrifice so that his child may have an education. While the will to contribute money for the support of public schools is all but universal among the commvmities of the country, the ability to do so varies greatly. When we leave one local vmit and pass over into the next, astonishing inequalities begin to appear. To maintain a good school in one vmit requires two or three times as much sacrifice as is required to maintain a like school in another. Should not the county undertake to level up these inequalities to some extent at least ? Does not the welfare of the coimty demand that it shall throw a protecting arm aroxmd the weaker units within its border ? Isn't it the correct business policy for it to do so? The same scripture which declares that every man must bear his own burden also exhorts the faithful to bear one another's burdens. By that gospel the local unit is to look out for its own school, but, at the same time, it is the duty of the strong tmit to help the weak one to the extent of a partial equalization of the educational burden at least. For this reason there should be a coimty school fvmd big enough to match doUar for dollar for the local fund, and, in some instances, the coimty fund should perhaps give two or three dollars for one contributed by the community. A proper state system of schools implies a liberal state school fund. No state, it seems, has ever doubted the propriety of spending public funds to build asylums, prisons, almshouses, and reformatories, tho we may assume a regret for the necessity for such insti- tutions. If the state does not like the business of building penal, charitable, and reforma- tory institutions, it ought then to engage more largely in building educational institutions, for the very patent reason that education tends to increase manual efficiency, to check criminal instincts, and to develop mental capacity. In the best-regulated school systems the state will bear a large part of the financial burden. It will do so for the very good reason that it is better able to do so than either the township or the county. The state has open to it important sources of revenue that are not open to the smaller political units. The county and the township must depend upon a property tax and a poll tax and upon fines and forfeitures for their funds. The state may avail itself of all of these sources, and, in addition to these, it may impose license taxes, income taxes, and excise taxes of various sorts. All these latter sources of revenue are becoming larger and more important every year. How important they have already become is indicated by the fact that Pennsylvania now appropriates seven or eight million dollars annually to her common schools, nearly all of which is derived from corpKjration taxes, mostiy of the three kinds I have mentioned. New York, Ohio, and other states are also collecting large sums from their public service corporations and sharing the money liberally with their public schools. With the rapid growth of our industrial life, these sources of revenue will continue to become more and more productive, and the states should accordingly make more and more liberal contributions to the sup- port of the public schools in the city and the country. Another argument in favor of the state school fund is found in the fact that state funds are better administered than local funds. Charges of graft in connection with the use of local school funds have been numerous and in many cases only too well founded. Charges of wastefulness and inefficiency in the use of such funds have been equally as numerous and well founded. So long as local funds are handled as a mere incidental duty by men whose principal energy is devoted to personal business affairs, so long there will be inefficiency in the management of such funds. On the other hand, state school funds are handled by men chosen because of their fitness for that particular service — men who devote their energy to that main business. Efficiency, therefore, has generally marked the administration of state school funds, and graft in connection with them is practically unknown. On the whole, experience in the Superintendence] FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 417 various states not only justifies the maintenance of state funds, but indicates that, for the most part, the states might properly and wisely increase their state school funds materially. Of the methods of creating the state school funds, the time limits of this paper will not permit a discussion. It is not out of place to say, however, that few of the states have availed themselves of all the means at their command. Had the wisdom which retained the public lands in Minnesota, the Dakotas, Texas, and some other states pre- vailed in all the other states, the latter would be in a much better condition than they are today. The colossal blunder of the age, the shame of our civilization, is the foolish way in which we have thrown away our birthright in the great natural resources given us by a bountiful Providence for a beneficent purpose but which we have sold for a mess of pottage. In my own state. West Virginia, the loss of natural gas from the leaks in the pipes transporting it to the great industrial centers amounts to enough to add a hundred dollars a year to the salary of every teacher in all the public schools of the state; yet the state sits idly by and allows such extravagance to continue year by year, blissfully con- scious of the fact that, at the present rate of destruction, this best and greatest of all natural fuels will be exhausted in less than three decades, and this too in the face of the fact that many rural schools are forced to suspend at the end of a six months' term for lack of funds. In my own state, ten million dollars worth of electric energy goes to waste in our moimtain streams every year for sheer lack of the machinery to harness it and bid it do the work that is so rapidly consuming the richest deposit of soft coal on the face of the earth. This too in face of the fact that the average rural schoolhouse is a wooden box and the average rural teacher is paid starvation wages. There are other means of creating an adequate school fund, among which may be mentioned the following: 1. The state should retain the lands now sold at sacrifice prices for delinquent taxes. 2. Corporations which are consuming our natural resources should pay into the state treasury for school purposes a slight assessment on their gross incomes. 3. The amount of state revenues could be increased in most states by proper reforms in the methods of assessing property and collecting taxes. Wickliffe Rose, in his excellent treatise on School Revenues in Ten Southern States, finds that "for the United States as a whole, real estate is assessed at 50 per cent of its value; tangible personal property at about 25 per cent; and intangible personal property at about 5 per cent." Is there any good reason why personal property should not contribute to the support of schools on the same basis as real estate ? 4. In most of the states of the Union the state school tax rate is very low and should be raised, thereby adding to the amount of the state school fund. Next in importance to creating an adequate state fund is the importance of making the proper and best use of such a fund. The most common method of determining the share of the state fund to go to each local unit is to divide the total amount of the fimd by the total number of school youths in the state and thus establish a uniform per capita quota. This plan is used by more than thirty states of the Union. Its wide use is doubtless due to two facts: first, its simplicity and ease of operation, and, second, its mathematical justness. The equality of any one man with every other man has long been a boast of our democracy. Theoreti- . cally, then, every child in the state has a right to an equal share of any common fund to be used for school purposes. This plan, however, has become more and more the subject of criticism and attack during recent years. Its weakness lies in the fact that it fails to recognize the wide diversity of conditions among the local units of the state and does not take into con- sideration the equally great diversity of needs among the local units. By that plan Eagle District in Harrison Coimty, West Virginia, with wealth enough to maintain its schools on a five-cent levy, receives just as much money per child as Washington District in Kanawha County, where a twenty-five-cent levy will not run the schools for the minimum 4i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cmcinnati term at the minimum rate of salary for teachers. The plan has another serious weakness in that it takes note of pupils only and not schools. Under it the schools may be never so bad and never so poorly attended and yet the local imit would draw from the state treasury its per capita share of the state fund. Another popular plan is to base the distribution upon school attendance. There are several variations of this plan such as (a) that making the school enrolment the basis; (6) that making the aggregate attendance the basis; and (c) that making the average attendance the basis. As a whole, this plan is subject to at least two criticisms. In the first place, com- pulsory-attendance laws are now in effect in forty-three states out of the forty-eight. If the laws are effective, as they generally are, then the higher attendance records are enforced virtues and not especially deserving of reward. In the second place, attendance bases discriminate in favor of the towns and cities as against the rural districts and are, there- fore, especially objectionable because of the uniformly greater needs of the rural districts and because of the long-standing discrimination against the rural districts that has been more or less general thruout the covmtry. Because of the bad roads, the poor methods of transfKjrtarion, and the poorer means of protection from the weather, the average rural child cannot attend school as many days in the year as the child in the city. Another method is to base the ratio of distribution upon the number of teachers employed. This plan has the one imjjortant virtue that it recognizes the relation between cost and support, for the big factor in the cost of a system of schools is the salaries of the teachers employed. This plan has also a very patent objection. The great effort in many rural sections at the present time is to persuade the people to give up the little, inefficient schools and bring the pupils together in larger units. If the state is going to contribute funds according to the number of teachers employed, it will be only natural for boards of education to yield to the rather common clamor for a school at every man's door no matter how small that school may be. Undoubtedly the best plan for the distribution of state fimds is a composite one embodying the four distinct elements of school census, the nimiber of teachers necessarily employed, the especial needs, and the especial deserts of the particular school or school unit. On the basis of justice, every child enimierated has a right to as large a share of the state fimd as any other child; on the basis of equity, the more needy should have the greater share; and on the basis of expediency, the especially deserving should have a special allowance. The effectiveness of the state subsidy for high schools, for consolida- tion of rural schools, for teaching such special subjects as agricultiure, domestic science, manual training, and the industrial arts stands out as a characteristic of the educational progress of the past two decades in the American states. We must not overlook the fact, however, that the principle of a subsidy as a theory is hard to justify. It may easily work wrongs. Every dollar of subsidy given to the high school takes its pence from the starving district that cannot maintain its own elementary grades. The subsidy plan tends to make "the rich richer and the poor poorer," to quote a popular phrase from the political stiunp speaker. How many dollars of subsidy is it wise to grant even to the most deserving under such conditions ? To repeat, let me say that the very best plan of apportionment of state fimds may be said to be the one based upon the four factors of enumeration, need, desert, and pos- sible good to be accomplished. The plan should have some flexibility, so that adjustments may be made from time to time to meet the varying conditions. It should be handled by professional experts, either the state board of education, the state superintendent of schools, or some agent selected by the state board or the state superintendent. It should vest the administering authority with reasonable discretionary p>ower so as to insure the best possible use of every doUar expended. Superintendence] APPOINTMENT, SALARY, AND TENURE OF TEACHERS 419 B. THE APPOINTMENT, SALARY, AND TENURE OF TEACHERS A. G. YAWBERG, SUPERINTENDENT OF CUYAHOGA COUNTY SCHOOLS, BEREA, OHIO This topic, "The Appointment, Salary, and Tenure of Teachers," will not down. Pick up almost any one of the old standard books on pedagogy and you will find this topic occupying an important place. Nor is this any less true of recent literature along this line. Few of our recent books on education fail to discuss it, all admit the impor- tance of the questions involved, and many boldly assert that upon the solution of these important problems depends future educational progress. These conditions, whatever the merits of the question may be, make it important that we should be informed as to what the more recent state provisions on the topic are. This paper does not pretend to be exhaustive either in the niunber of state codes consulted or in reference to any particular state code. Hence any correction or addition to the facts stated, by anyone present, will be welcomed as a contribution and not regarded as a criticism. Idaho. — Idaho, which, educationally speaking, is typical of many of the western states, has no legislation specifically limiting the appointment, salary, and tenure of teachers. In the larger cities, superintendents have the power of recommending, but in all other respects the boards of education have full power. Any salary is legal that the teacher will accept and the term of appointment is one year. Custom makes the action fairly uniform thruout the state, but the teacher usually must depend for her appointment upon a board of education or directors usually not fitted to judge such matters. Iowa. — Iowa, which is typical of most central states, has similar provisions. The power to employ teachers and fix salaries of teachers is vested exclusively in the local school boards. Under the present law, teachers and superintendents may be employed for a period not to exceed one year. An attempt is being made at present to secure a law making it permissible for school boards to extend this limit to a period of three years. Illinois. — In Illinois the code provisions are practically the same as for Iowa. The county superintendent may and often does exert much influence over the appointment and salary of teachers, but the code gives him no specific power in this direction. He has, however, the power of weeding out the really poor teachers thru the granting of certificates, three grades of which are issued. Third-grade certificates are good for one year; second-grade for two years; and first-grade for three years, with the provision that third-grade certificates may be issued only once to any one person. The chief criticism of this power is that it is negative rather than positive. Michigan. — I can best state the conditions in Michigan by quoting from a recent letter from State Superintendent of Public Instruction Fred L. Keeler. He says: "You will find in our laws that the district board or board of education employs the teacher, but there are no provisions in regard to salary or tenure of office. We have a Supreme Court decision to the effect that superintendents of schools may be employed for a reasonable period." Indiana. — In such a discussion as this, Indiana's code cannot be passed over lightly, containing as it does what seem to be such admirable provisions. In each township or rural-school district, a school trustee is elected on a political ticket. The various trustees of the county constitute the county board of education. The number on this board in the various counties is, therefore, a variable ranging from ten to forty. This board elects a county superintendent. The trustee in his own township has full power to appoint teachers and place them, appointment being for one year. This provision of having a politically elected oflScer appoint the teachers looks to those on the outside like the weak place in the law. In fairness, however, it should be stated that it seems to work better in practice than in theory, as our chairman imdoubtedly would say. The strong point in this law seems to lie in the minimum-wage and qualification provisions. Teachers are divided into four classes. Class A must have an average of 420 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cmcinnati at least 8$ per cent to get a certificate to teach. This is the lowest class possible. Qass B must have an average of 90 per cent, Class C an average of 93 per cent, and Class D an average of 95 per cent. Of course experience and training enter into the qualifications necessary to secure these averages, but the limits of this paper do not allow me to record them here. The minimum amount that may be paid a teacher in Class A is two and one-half times the average on her certificate in cents per day. Since the least average a teacher may have is 85 per cent, we find that her daily wage is 2^X85, or $2. i2f. For a month of twenty days, this amounts to $42.50, which is the minimum salary to any teacher. Teachers in Class B have their average multiplied by three to determine the minimum salary; in Class C, by three and one-half; and in Class D, by four. If a teacher in Class D should have an average of 100 per cent, it would be possible for her Tninimnni salary to be $4 per day, or $80 per month. The teacher's minimum salary is also directly affected by the judgment of the county superintendent in such a way as to give him a powerful leverage in raising the standard of teaching. The great majority of you imdoubtedly know what is meant by the " success grade"; nevertheless, in view of its relation to the teacher's salary, it may not be out of place to call attention to its chief characteristics. The county superintendent is required to visit each teacher in the coimty at least once each year, oftener if possible, to determine how good a teacher she is. As a guide to, and record for, his judgment he carries a blank form on which he grades the teacher on a basis of 100 per cent. This grade is made up of three parts as follows: (i) Teaching power — if the teacher be considered perfect in this, a grade of 45 per cent is given; (2) government — 35 per cent is considered a perfect grade; and (3) general characteristics — 20 per cent is considered perfect. The average grade on the certificate is the average of the examination grades and this "success grade." If, for instance, a teacher's "success grade" be 90 per cent and the average grade on her certificate be 85 per cent, the average upon which her salary is based is 87 J per cent. It can thus be seen that the 'success grade" which any teacher receives is of much concern to her. It is also of interest to note that a teacher who attends the annual Teachers' Institute will have 2 J per cent added to her average grade. Thus it is possible for a teacher to receive a minimum salary of $43 . 75 per month for the very first year. Teachers' meetings also are held each month in each township or combination of townships. The programs for these are made out each year in advance and every teacher is required to take part in at least a certain number of meetings. If teachers attend these monthly meetings they are allowed pay for an extra day. In other words, they are paid for twenty-one days in that month. If they fail to attend and have no good excuse for such failure, they not only lose the pay for this day but may be docked a day's pay from the regular month. While the whole plan has very much to commend it, and while the minimum salaries are higher than those provided in most states, it usually has the effect of keeping teachers' salaries very close to the minimum. North Carolina. — In North Carolina, teachers are appointed by local committeemen. No teacher can be appointed, however, who is not approved by the coimty superintendent. This represents a large step in advance over those mentioned above so far as appointment is concerned. Those who have a five-year state elementary certificate receive a minimum salary of $35 per month; those who have a five-year state high-school certificate receive a minimum salary of $40 per month; teachers who hold only a one-year coimty certificate can be hired only as assistants and cannot receive over $35 per month. The only other maximum limitation is that no more money can be spent for salaries than accrues to the district from the taxes. Superintendence] APPOINTMENT, SALARY, AND TENURE OF TEACHERS 421 So far as the tenure of teachers is concerned, they are usually hired for one year, tho they may be hired for two years provided the committeeman holds oflBce that long at the time of the appointment. The code provides that no teacher can be appointed for a term beyond the term of oflBce of the appointing officer. It also provides that no teacher can be dismissed except for cause. West Virginia. — I can best state the situation in West Virginia by quoting from a recent letter from State Superintendent M. P. Shawkey. In part he says: With reference to West Virginia, all our larger towns and cities have independent authority and regulate the matter of appointment, salary, and tenure of teachers as they choose. In all these cases the superintendents are elected for a series of years and the custom has been pretty well established that the teachers shall hold their positions con- tinuously so long as they are giving satisfactory service, tho the towns differ somewhat on the basis of promotion. I would also say that a bill is almost thru our legislature and has every prospect of becoming a law which will put the election of teachers in the rural districts in the hands of boards of education instead of the local trustees and will provide that the appointment shall be made upon the recommendation of the coimty superintendent. It will also be provided that the minimum salaries shall be $30, $40, and $50 instead of $30, $35, and $40 as at present. It should be said that these varying minimimi salaries are based upon the kind of certificates. The minimum of $30 per month applies to holders of third-grade or one- year certificates, which grade is issued only twice to any one person; the minimum of $35 to second-grade or three-year certificates; and the minimum of $40 to first-grade or five-year certificates. All high-school and primary teachers' certificates, the latter of which may be issued to teachers of two years' experience, are considered first grade. Ohio. — And last but not least in this brief survey comes Ohio. One year ago the least would have been a close approximation so far as our rural schools are concerned in organization. Today in this respect Ohio is not far from the top and we believe that in a few years the results will justify our confidence at present. So far as cities and the larger villages are concerned, practically the same conditions exist in Ohio as were described for West Virginia. Under Ohio's new school code every school in Ohio is required to have not only county supervision but district supervision as well. The district superintendents must supervise (except under special conditions) not fewer than twenty nor more than sixty teachers. In most cases this involves from two to six school districts. When there are three or fewer districts under one district superintendent, he is elected by the boards of education of these districts in joint session. When there are more than three boards involved, the presidents in joint session do the hiring. The same authority that does the hiring fixes the salary, which in no case can be less than $1 ,000. In every case the county superintendent recommends the district superintendent, tho the hiring boards may, by a majority vote of all their members, overrule this recommendation. The district superintendents are paid on vouchers by the county board of education in twelve monthly instalments. They cannot be hired for more than one year on first election, but thereafter may be hired for terms of three years. The coxmty superintendents are elected by the county boards of education and may be elected for a term not longer than three years at any election. In no case can the salary be less than $1,200. In no case have county superintendents been elected at the mini- mum salary, the average being $2,000. Teachers are recommended for positions by the district superintendents, tho the board of education may refuse to elect those recommended and may elect others by majority vote. A minimum salary of $40 per month is also provided for all teachers. In case the maximum levy for school purposes, three-fourths of which is to be used in the tuition fund, will not provide money enough to nm the schools eight months, the state will make up the deficit, provided that: (i) elementary teachers with at least six weeks' 422 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati professional txaining are receiving $45 per month; (2) elementary teachers who have completed the full two-year course in any normal school, teachers' college, college, or uni- versity approved by the superintendent of public instruction are receiving $55 per month; and (3) high-school teachers are receiving $70 per month. While these latter provisions do not now have very wide application in the state, they are a step in the right direction and, we feel, will, in a few years, grow into absolute minimimi requirements for all teachers. So far as tenure of office is concerned, the common practice is to hire for only olis, in a paper on " Feeble-Mindedness in the Public Schools," read before the Indiana Academy of Science, thus describes a group of children in the primary schools: Imagine one hvmdred ordinary first- or second-grade pupils. Here investigators find: one stutters; two or three lisp; one is seriously anemic; several are badly spoiled children; one is immature — a year or two retarded in mental and moral growth; one is morally weak; two are imbecile or feeble-minded. Then there is one inactive child; several oversensitive, nervous children; one superficially precocious child; several who are superior, eager, ardent, imaginative, social. Four suJBFer from defective hearing; twenty-six now or will very soon show eye strain or have defective vision; about a dozen have asymmetries or deformities; about thirty have nasal obstruction or diseased throats, and several others possess serious peculiarities of temperament. Only twenty-five of the hundred are physically and mentally without blemish. Every plan for the treatment of backward pupils shows the need of individual study and individual treatment for all pupils. This can never be accomplished imtil the num- Superintendence] THE MENTALLY DEFECTIVE PUPIL 447 ber of pupils in charge of one teacher shall be reduced from forty-five, fifty, and sixty to twenty-five or thirty — preferably the former. Another change must come in the course of study. Breadth, flexibility, wide latitude for adaptation to individual groups and types must be introduced in courses of study, that the interest of the pupil may be discovered, and his adjustment to the school made possible. New and elastic grade standards must be worked out with maximum and minimum requirements and innumerable stages between. Our present rigid promotion schemes that hold back pupils because they are not proficient in all lines must give place to promotion by subjects and advancement for the benefit of the individual. Intelligent and sympathetic supervision of school work is greatly needed, particularly in the new and special lines of work that are becoming more and more a part of the school curriculum. Each supervisor is too much inclined to magnify her own work, failing to see its relation to a general course of study and to individual pupils. Teachers must be secured for the schoolroom who are capable, quick to discover individual needs and interests, and trained to provide for them. Normal schools must place more stress upon how to study individual types than upon fixed methods for large classes without regard to individual differences. Such teachers having been found and the necessary punctures made in the system so that they may use their initiative and originality in giving instruction, we shall find that "backwardness" is a term with little place in our public schools. Under the present plan of special teachers, ungraded rooms, and schools, we are attempting to cure the results that follow upon the evils of a system, and hosts of back- ward pupils drop out of school before their cases can be diagnosed and treated. Superintendent Donald Du Shane, of Madison, Ind., who has been greatly interested in the problem of "backwardness" and deeper causes for retardation, made an investiga- tion last year of the cases of pupils withdrawing from the Madison schools to go to work, under the provisions of the Indiana compulsory attendance law. Thru this investigation, Superintendent Du Shane found that 81 per cent of all the withdrawals on working certifi- cates represented pupils who were behind in their school work. The Binet-Simon tests applied to 229 boys in the reform school at Plainfield, Ind., discovered the mental age of each one to be lower than the chronological age, the mental age of the majority ranging from three to five years below the chronological age. Our work in the public schools should be constructive, with the attention centered upon the normal rather than the abnormal. Our crjdng need in the public schools today is not so much for special devices that at the best can reach only a very small percentage of the pupils denominated "backward," but for a modification within the system that thru superior teachers with small numbers of pupils and a wide range of action will prevent the development of such cases. B. THE MENTALLY DEFECTIVE PUPIL FRANK B, COOPER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SEATTLE, WASH. I have assumed that it is expected that I should speak of the methods pursued in the treatment of the mentally deficient in the city in which I have the honor to live and work. We began some years ago with a single teacher selected from the regular corps on account of her personal and pedagogic qualifications, to which were added a summer of study under Dr, Goddard at Vineland, N.J,, and some weeks of visitation and observation at schools for the defective in other cities. We took for our first special school ten or twelve children, the most serious of our individual problems then in the schools, most of whom were of a very low grade of intelligence. These children furnished a basis for 448 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincii study and for development and this became the nucleus of our present system of special schools. The following year, two teachers were added and some classification was attempted according to order of intelligence and needs. At about this time, a psycho- logical clinic was established in connection with the special school imder the direction of the Department of Education of the University of Washington, which had received a benefaction for the purpose. At the same time, there was instituted a volunteer service for the school under our medical specialists of the city. We now have eight special schools, employing fifteen specially prepared teachers, and accommodating one hundred and sixty-five pupils. Our child laboratory is in a central location in a separate building which is ako the headquarters of the medical director and contains the medical and dental school clinic. At the child laboratory, an observation class is maintained. This laboratory is com- pletely provided with apparatus for making mental tests, and it is here that the process of diagnosis is carried on, a child remaining at the laboratory only long enough for his status and need to be determined. Sometimes he is there for only two or three days and some- times for as many weeks. The method of procedure by which a child may be admitted to the observation class is somewhat as follows: A child who is having difficulty in his grade work is reported by his teacher to the principal of his building. The principal in turn reports him to the auxiliary teacher in the building, who then gives him individual help. The school nurse also examines the child for physical handicaps. If, after this assistance, the child still fails to make progress, he may be recommended to the child-study laboratory, where family, p)ersonal, and school histories are obtained. After this he is sent to the medical clinic and given a thoro examination by four or more specialists. The medical director then makes a physical diagnosis and the child is returned to the child-study laboratory with this diagnosis. He is admitted to the observation class. Here every effort is made to win his confidence and to make him feel at home. As soon as this is accomplished, he is given the Binet-Simon test of intelligence and his mental level is foimd. In addition, he is given other tests for various mental traits, such as perception, judgment, association, memory, ability to comprehend, and to think in abstract terms. These are tests that must be given individually and the best results cannot be obtained imtil the child feels perfectly at home and in sjTnpathy with the examiner. In the observation class, all the activities of the child are observed. The extent of his ability to do academic work is foimd by various tests. His inventiveness, ingenuity, volition, interests, co-ordination, social adaptability are all observed and noted while he thinks he is having a good time. The observation class is not like the ordinary school- roorr, in that the chief object is the observation and study of children rather than that 6{ teaching tbem. The order of things is reversed. The children are there to be studied, not taught — they are the teachers and the teachers are the students. The period of observation varies with different children. When a child has beenj thoroly observed, studied, and tested, and medical relief obtained, the results of these' observations and tests are recorded and compared. A diagnosis is then made based upon the combined findings of the medical clinic and the child-study laboratory and from "J this diagnosis a recommendation is made as to future school work and methods for hia development are suggested. The child may be returned with this recommendation to his regular grade, or he may be placed in the special class nearest his home, or he may be debarred from school temporarily or permanently according to his physical and mental condition. This method of admission to the observation class is not the only one in practice- Many children are brought by their parents or by those in charge of them, for observation and study, independently of the schools. Of the 136 children who have passed thru the child-study laboratory since September, 16 already have been returned to their grades, 64 have been assigned to special classes, Superintendence] THE DELINQUENT PUPIL 449 7 have been temporarily and 15 permanently debarred from school work, and of the remaining 34, 16 are still in the observation class, and the other 18, who came for exam- ination only, are doing regular work in their respective schools. These latter are insti- tutional cases and have been sent to the state institution. For two or three years, we have been caring for a number of institutional cases for whom the state could not provide on account of insufficient room. Now that the state is prepared to care for them, all such are sent to the state institution for the feeble-minded. At the individual special schools, two or three teachers are employed and classification attempted. These schools are provided with suitable equipment, especial attention being given to the hand work. The older boys have manual training, and the older girls have household arts, the instruction being adapted in every case to individual power and needs. We have succeeded thru the agency of these schools in relieving the regular schools and saving them time and strain, in making the school life of these exceptional children much more enjoyable, and in contributing in a significant way to their power to help themselves and others. C. THE DELINQUENT PUPIL GEORGE I. ALDRICH, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BROOKLINE, MASS. Modem penology contends that there is no criminal class. There are individuals who, sometimes thru their own favdt but oftener because of circumstances beyond their control, must for a time be designated as criminals. In dealing with such individuals, the dominant note is not punishment but reformation. So we may believe that among children and youth there does not exist a delinquent class, unless possibly we admit that those who are delinquents because they are defectives constitute such a class. Indi- viduals, however, may be found everywhere to whom for the moment the term "delin- quent" must be applied. Practically none of these have become delinquents thru the exercise of their own volition. They are the victims of inheritance, environment, asso- ciates, one or all. In every system of schools some of these unfortunates — more sinned i^ainst than sinning — are to be found. In school systems which are well organized and efficiently conducted, the ntmiber will be relatively small and will steadily diminish. What shall we do, not with them but for them ? To begin with, we shall sympathize and not condemn. We shall put far from us the idea that once a delinquent always a delinquent. We shall regard them as unfortimates, temporarily in the slough, who need the utmost consideration. To deal with the majority of pupils who measure up to our expectations is easy. Success with them entitles us to no special credit. Each of the others presents a problem of greater or less difficulty. Few of these problems are insoluble. Success in tbeir solution carries with it an exceeding great reward. That great man. General Armstrong of Hampton, used to say that the first thing to do for a darky is to save him from himself. Very similar is our duty to the delinquent. He may have become a delinquent thru the force of extraneous circiun- stances, or he may have become one thru his own weakness, such as lack of self-respect, lack of will-power, or feebleness of purpose. Quite probably he needs to be rescued from himself. In this undertaking, our reliance must not be upon systems, devices, regula- tions, or any sort of machinery. If we succeed, it will be thru the abundant sympathy, the keen insight, the good sense, the persistent effort of human beings. In this great work, our first and chief reliance must be the classroom teacher. Hers is the finest opportunity; hers must be the heaviest responsibility. If, happily, she is given a reason- able number of pupils, say forty, if these pupils are left in her care for a reasonable time, at least a year, if instead of being hampered by higher powers she is given a fair chance to do the best that is in her, she will rejoice in her opportunity and not shirk the attend- ing responsibility. Brought into contact with her class at the begirming of a school year, 45© NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati conscious always that she is to teach boys and girls not subjects, she will make as speedily as possible a study of each individual. Certain wajrward ones she will speedUy find, but at the outset she will admit no presumption that any are to be classed as delinquent. Later she may be compelled to recognize the fact that one or more must for the time be so designated. She will make this admission in sorrow, not in anger, and with the silent determination that the few to whom the term "delinquent" must be applied shall be freed from the bondage of their delinquency. She knows that she must in some way get hold of each. She must win their confidence and good will. No treatise on pedagogy will tell her how to do this. Upheld by the belief that each is interested in something, that each would like to be or to do something, she looks out for the interest, or the desirci knowing which she may break thru the barrier which separates her from the heart of the pupil and makes her for the time impotent. Next to the classroom teacher in the possibility of useful service and consequently in point of responsibility comes the principal. He cannot, in fairness, be expected to know each of the hxmdreds who make up his school in the same intimate way that the classroom teacher may know every member of her class, but he can and ought to know the limited number of exceptional cases in each classroom. It is his privilege and duty, not to supersede the classroom teacher, but stanchly to support her in the exercise of her authority, to assist her by suggestion and ad\'ice, to sympathize with her in her difficul- ties and discouragements, and to commend warmly her efforts and successes. In the case of sharp differences between the teacher and the delinquent, the principal constitutes the first court of appeal. While he gives the teacher thorogoing support in the rightful exercise of her authority, he will impress the culprit with his absolute fairness. Inci- dentally, he will do his best to see that no appeal is taken to a higher authority. In school administration, it is desirable that most matters be decided by the persons who stand next and who have intimate and personal knowledge of all attending circumstances. Next among the human beings who are to minister to delinquents, I place the attend- ance officer — a designation to be preferred to truant officer. This official should be domi- nated by the same considerations that sway the teacher and principal, namely, that he is an agent for reformation, not for punishment. He must, of course, be keen and acquainted with the various satanic desires to which delinquency seems to be prone, because it is desirable that the young persons with whom he deals should have a wholesome respect for his position and authority. Coupled with this respect, should go a feeling that the attendance officer bears them no ill will — that he is in no sense their enemy, but rather a faithful friend who can meet the obligation of friendship only by doing now and again what is unpalatable to the other party concerned. I pass now to a word regarding the school board, the body from which, in very large degree, teacher, principal, and attendance officer derive their authority. In general, it is true that the well-being of any system of schools is vitally dependent on the wisdom, the independence, the disinterestedness, and the courage of the board or school committee. A cardinal principle in the policy of such board ought to be the ready and hearty support of all subordinates in the judicious exercise of their respective fimctions. No harm will result if, on occasion, it expresses hearty approval of the acts of its appointees. Occa- sionally it must sit as a court of appeal and should then be the embodiment of justice. As already suggested, these appeab will not be frequent if teachers and attendance officers are wise and efficient. A wise board, moreover, will discourage such appeals by impressing the community with the conviction that appeals are useless imless foimded on a genuine grievance, that the board stands like a rock behind its agents unless in the exercise of their various functions these agents have clearly erred. So simple a device as a requirement that all appeals shall be made in writing and shall state clearly the alleged grievance will serve a useful purpose. In a democratic society like our own, where members of school boards are commonly chosen by popular election, happy is the community which is vrise enough to select as members men and women who are superior Superintendence] THE DELINQUENT PUPIL 45 1 to the idle tittletattle of the street, who can withstand passing gusts of local sentiment, and who show themselves fearless in the discharge of official duty. Finally, among the humans who are concerned in the management of delinquents, I come to the judge, to whom, unfortunately, an appeal for assistance must sometimes be made. I use the expression "appeal for assistance" designedly, for be it constantly remembered that in all our dealings with the delinquent we are much in the position of a physician endeavoring to cure a patient. It is the purpose of the physician, not to punish the patient for his illness, but to make him well again. The number of delinquents finding their way to the court room should be relatively small. Only when teacher, principal, and attendance officer have tried, and tried, and tried again, should resort be had to the court room. In cases where such resort must be had, every precaution shoxild be taken against giving the delinquent anything in the nature of a criminal record. The results attending this final appeal will depend on no mysterious qualities attaching to a court, but upon the qualities of head and heart possessed by the man who presides in the court. Like the attendance officer, he must be too keen to be hoodwinked. Someone has said that a good executive is one who acts promptly and is sometimes right. So the judge while giving the young person before him every possible chance — admonition, caution, encouragement, probation, and all the rest — should proceed with all the speed and vigor and decision which circumstances permit. He should be the wise and sane ally of all those who before him have been doing their best to save the delinquent. However we may regret the fact, it is sometimes necessary to remove the delinquent from a place to which it is a travesty to apply the name "home," from an environment thoroly vicious, and from associates who may be neutralizing all influences for good which can be brought to bear. Under these hard circumstances, what the wise judge will do will depend chiefly upon the character of the special school or institution to which he may commit, and there again the human qualities of the superintendent and his associates will constitute the all-important consideration. All will agree that delinquents should not be sent to an institution in which misdemeanants are to be found. That home is poor indeed which is not a better place for a wa)rward boy or girl than are institutions of this character. The delinquent, however, may need to be for a time in a school of a special character — not in a prison, not even in a reformatory. Experience shows that he would better be placed in such special and desirable school for an indeterminate period, the length of his stay to depend on his conduct and progress, and on vigilant regard for the conditions to which he may revert on being discharged. When circiunstances indicate clearly that a discharge may be wisely considered, the release would better take the form of a parole, so that the delinquent may be easily and promptly returned to the school should his salvation call for such procedure. The foregoing constitutes a rapid sketch of the wisest procedure known to me in dealing with delinquent pupils. In most cases these pupils are not vicious and depraved, but they are unfortunate. Often their lives have been filled with hardness and what they need at school is sympathy — not softness — but sympathy, sane and salutary, which will manifest itself in many and varied ways. It may even eventuate in whipping. I hope we may agree that any system of schools is open to condemnation if corporal punishments are of frequent occurrence, but I hope we may also agree that it sometimes happens that a boy stands in distinct and unquestionable need of a spanking. A sharp distinction may be made between deserving a whipping and needing a whipping. If a boy merely deserves a whipping, we need not be greatly disturbed if he fails to get it. If, however, he is mani- festly in need of a whipping, if nothing else will serve as a substitute, I, for one, being a firm believer in children's rights, am unwilling that he be deprived of this particular right. I have thought it not amiss to say just this word because there may be seen here and there a sickly sort of sentimentality which frowns upon any imposition of corporal pimishment, however carefully safeguarded. 452 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati A word, also, I venture upon the subject of mid-year promotions, a practice which involves, as it seems to me, the sacrifice of great possibilities. At the beginning of a school year the teacher meets for the first time her new class. They are strangers. She has to learn individually the qualities, aptitudes, and weaknesses of each. Such knowledge she must have before she can serve them intelligently and effectually. The advocates of mid-year promotions would whisk away these pupils about the first of February, just as it is becoming possible for the teacher to begin to accomplish the great purpose for which she is employed. What is this purpose ? Not to lead them over prescribed por- tions of the course of study, but, as an older, wiser person of insight and vision far trans- cending the possible insight and vision of children, to put her stamp upon them, to awaken latent possibilities, to develop interests, to implant motives and ambitions, to curb imruly tempers, to strengthen feeble wills — this is her great work and for it a full school year is pitifully short. Delinquent children often have strong personal characteristics. In his very inter- esting memoirs. Lord Charles Beresford, speaking of the old days when flogging was so prevalent in the British navy, remarks, in speaking of men who had to be disciplined: In many cases they were the best men, the men who had the pluck to get into a row. High tempered, fiill of exuberance, they were flogged for offences against discipline, and, whereas a flogging was soon over and done with, the alternative proposed would break a man's heart in prison and deprive the Navy of valuable service. So our delinquents often get into trouble because they are courageous, thoughtiess, or reckless to a marked degree. Emphatically, they are worth saving. D. THE ANEMIC PUPIL JAMES E. BRYAN, StTPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CAMDEN, N.J. The motive for the establishment of classes for anemic children is different from the motives governing the establishment of all other classes in the schools. The primary purpose of these classes is to improve the pupil's physical health. He is assigned to this class, not because he has failed to make good progress in his school work, even tho this may be true in many instances, but rather in order that he may live in a school environ- ment that is designed to bring about a definite and immediate improvement in his physical condition. It is significant, therefore, that with the establishment of classes for anemic children, the school has begun to deal with the problems of physical welfare in a more direct and purposef\il way than ever before. School buildings are now being especially designed and curricula are being adopted to meet the hygienic needs of this class of children. If the children are well and strong, their school life must keep them well and help them to grow stronger; if they are weak, their school life must offer every opportunity and aid to grow strong; if they have unfortunate physical defects, their school life must lead the way either to their cure or to the means of minimizing the effect of the misfortime upon the life of the individual; if they are not capable of developing into responsible citizens, the school must make the diagnosis so that society may be protected. School and child life must be almost synonymous terms, and, in order that the school shall be in position to assume its burden of responsibility, it must be vastiy better equipped with respect to its facilities for ministering to the physical needs of childhood. Instead of adopting a curriculimi for mental training that almost completely fills the day's program and then squeezing out a few minutes during the day for the purpose of physical develop- ment, the school should be free, first to formiJate its program of physical welfare with as much care for the physiologictd age and development of each child as is now given to his grading, and then to build up a program for mental training as a direct and natural outgrowth of our knowledge of his physical status. Superintendence] THE ANEMIC PUPIL 453 In our classes for anemic children we have a start in this direction. Some of the open-air classes established have these features: Buildings or rooms especially designed to permit the outside air to enter directly and circulate freely in all parts of the room and to admit an abundance of simshine; adequate means of protection against bad weather and means of providing sufficient artificial heat to prevent the temperature's falling below a specified minimima; plenty of floor space to permit the children to move about with little restriction; movable furniture that may be located to the best advantage for each school exercise with especial reference to light and air; special clothing to insure comfort — sitting-out bags, blanket coats or sweaters, caps, and gloves; rest chairs or couches for the rest hour; lunches of suitable foods at regular periods, with cooking and serving facilities convenient; play periods with ample space and apparatus; a doctor to study each child's special needs and a nurse to administer the treatment; and a large degree of freedom as to method and material of instruction. This new type of school seems to have met imiversal favor wherever it has been inaugurated. The whole history of the movement for the establishment of classes for anemic and tuberculous children covers a period of only ten years in Europe and seven years in the United States, A report upon Provision for Exceptional Children in Public Schools issued by the United States Bureau of Education in 191 1 states that 25 cities were at that time conducting open-air classes. In the report to this department in 191 2, Superintendent Edson stated that of 100 of the leading cities of the United States, 14 were conducting classes for the anemic and 14 were conducting classes for the tuberculous children. In another report it is stated that 44 cities were conducting open-air classes in 191 2. Our inquiry justifies the belief that more than 60 cities are conducting such classes at this time. From the standpoint of physical equipment, these schools fall into two general classes: open-air schools and open-window schools. The open-air schools are those that are conducted in buildings or bungalows especially designed and constructed for the purpose. These buildings may be opened almost entirely on two or even three sides to give almost as free circulation to the air within the building as in the open. Provision is made for closing any or all sides for protection against severe weather. In some cases an additional room is provided, closed on all sides and equipped with heating apparatus, to be used as a warming room, as emergency requires. This type of school follows somewhat closely the idea upon which the "open-air-recovery" schools of Germany were established ten years ago, which were followed very shortly by similar schools in England and Switzerland. When the idea was brought to America, however, instead of building a school camp in the edge of the woods, as was the case with the European schools, tents or bungalows were set up in open spaces within the city. We do not know of any school of this kind in America that has been located in the edge of the forest, but the tents or bungalows of several of the American schools have been built to mdke possible as near an approach to open-air life as the limitations of location would permit. We understand that one or more open-air rooms following this type more or less closely have been conducted in Hartford, Boston, Cambridge, Montclair, Newark, Bryn Mawr, Indianapolis, Chicago, and St. Louis, and in a few other cities. Quite an extensive treatment of the architectural features that are considered to be desirable in buildings to be used for this purpose is foimd in Bulletin No. S59 oi the United States Bureau of Education. The open-window schools are conducted in school buildings of the usual t5T)e, the only distinction between these rooms and others in the same building being that the windows in these rooms are kept open so that fresh air is admitted freely from the outside and the temperature is kept low. In some cases the windows are constructed and himg with special reference to the use of the room for this purpose. The great majority of the classes established for anemic children are conducted in rooms of this type. 4S4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [CinciDnaU From the standpoint of the classification of the children who are assigned to rooms of these two types, there are many variations in the cities in which such classes are con- ducted. The use of the open-air school in America was first brought about by certain local societies for the relief of tuberculosis, with the object of providing schools in which tuberculous children might be cured of the disease and given such instruction as they could take at the same time. The character of some of the schools originally started in this way has been modified, but there are several such schools conducted as hospital schools for tubercidous children. In one notable instance, the open-air school is conducted as an experiment in the education of normally healthy children. This is the Phebe Anna Thome Open-Air Model School for Girls at Bryn Mawr conducted by the Department of Education of Bryn Mawr College. The other open-air classes of which we have informa- tion are meide up of children who are anemic, nervous, imdemourished, or otherwise in poor physical condition. The open-window rooms are not all conducted for physically subnormal children. In many instances, open-window or low-temperature rooms are conducted for normally healthy children and the results of these experiments are worth careful study as bearing directly upon our problem of heating and ventilating school- rooms. It is with respect to the use of the open-air and open-window room in the treatment of anemic children, however, that the practices current in schools of this type are under consideration here. The features that are of especial interest wiU be considered imder these eight heads: rooms, temperature, desks, clothing, lunch, organization of classes, procedure, and results. Rooms. — In drawing the distinction between the two tjqjes of schools, we have described the two general t)T>es of rooms used in ample detail and will not dwell further upon this point. Temperature. — ^At least one side of the room is kept open all the time, the windows being partly closed, at times, only sufficiently to afford protection against storm. Most of the rooms are provided with heating facilities so that the temperature may be prevented from falling below a fixed minimum, if desired. The practice with reference to a Tninimniri temperature varies widely. A few of the open-air schools use no artificial heat at all. In one case no heat is used except after baths. In most cases a minimnni temperature of 40 to 50 degrees is fixed. In some schools it is from 50 to 60 degrees. Desks. — Movable fumitiure of one kind or another is quite generally used. The chair-desk is in favor for this purpose. It enables the pupil to be seated advantageously with reference to simlight and air currents and makes it possible to dear a large floor space whenever it may be needed for games and exercises. Clothing. — Special clothing is used in practically all classes. The usual equipment comprises the sitting-out bag, either sweater or blanket coat, woolen toque or automobile cap, and gloves or mits. In some cases, felt shoes and soapstone foot-warmers are pro- vided. In the public-school classes, the whole outfit of clothing is provided by the school in some cases; in others, it is provided entirely by philanthropic agencies; and in still others, the sitting-out bag or blanket is the only part provided by the school, the other articles being fiimished by the pupils themselves. Lunch. — In most of the schools, limches are served. In a few instances no lunch is served. Practices with reference to the limch vary widely. In a few schools lunch is served three times a day; in some cases, once a day; and, in most cases, twice a day. In a few schools, the limch consists entirely of milk. In all schools, milk forms a large part of the food provided. The articles of food most commonly provided are milk, soup, cereals, cocoa, stew, fruit, and bread. In those schools in which the children do not go home for the midday meal, meat, stews, and vegetables are usually served at noon. In some cases, all of the food provided is furnished by the school; in other cases, it is fur- nished entirely by private philanthropy; in still others, it is furnished in part by the school (usually the milk) and additional material is purchased from a fund made up of such small Superintendence] THE ANEMIC PUPIL 455 sums as the children may contribute from week to week. In nearly all cases, cooking facilities are at hand for the preparation of the lunches. The cost of the feeding is a very difficult item to report because of the great variation in the quantity of food used per child and the variety of ways in which the food is provided. Several schools that furnish only part of what is served report a cost of five cents per meal per child; another school in which the food is provided by private philanthropy reports a cost of ten cents per day; another school, in which three meals are served each day, reports a cost of fifteen to twenty cents per day; another city reports a cost of eighteen cents per day for three meals. In the St. Louis report, it is estimated that the cost of food and preparation would be about twenty-four cents per day. It should be noted that the results of feeding are marked. The fresh air without the feeding falls far short of the desired result. Medical inspectors in charge of these classes seem to be unanimous in the opinion that the feeding is quite as essential in the treatment of anemia as is fresh air. Organization of classes. — ^The number of pupils assigned to one teacher varies from fifteen to thirty. In the greater number of cases, it seems to be about twenty-five. In most schools, all elementary grades are represented. In a few cases, the number of grades in one class is restricted to three or even two. The responsibility of examining the chil- dren and assigning them to these classes is practically uniformly in the hands of the medical inspector or other medical authority. In very few schools for anemic children is it per- missible to admit children with open tubercular lesions. The opinion seems to be gener- ally held that tuberculous children, even those in the incipient stages of the disease, should not be assigned to classes of anemic children, but should rather be assigned to hospital classes for the special treatment required in their cases. The discharge of the children from anemic classes is likewise determined by the medical inspector. Procedure. — In practically all schools, weight records are made at regular intervals — in some schools, once a month, in others, once in two weeks, and, in the greater number, weekly. These records are made by the school nurse in some schools, but, in the large majority of cases, by the teacher. The rest periods are observed regularly in almost all schools. The period is usually from 45 minutes to an hour long, following the lunch period. In many schools steamer chairs or cots are provided upon which the children are required to recline in quiet during this hour. Recreation periods are frequent, but caution against overexertion must be observed. The instruction of the children probably varies widely with respect to the amoimt of work required. In many instances where information is sought concerning this phase of the work the reply is made that the instruction is adapted to the needs of each child as far as possible. It is probable that in many cases the teacher feels that the success of her work is on trial, and that unless her pupils shall make at least as good progress as pupils of the same grade in other rooms, her work will fail to justify itself. The pressure of the traditional school standards is upon her, with the result that she is trying to keep every child abreast of his proper grade. Furthermore, this effort can be justified, in part, upon the ground that the pupil is in so much better physical condition than formerly and is con- sequently so much more alert mentally that he is eager to apply himself to his task and accomplishes much more with less expenditure of time than formerly. On the other hand, there is ample ground for the opinion that the work of these classes should be organized with reference entirely to their physical strength, and to do this necessitates its complete dissociation from the curriculiun prescribed for normally healthy children. The feeUng of pressure should be relieved almost entirely. There is much evidence that this is not the case in a large number of classes and that the adherence to the prescribed school curriculum is likely to be too close for the best physical results. Results. — I will consider first the results with respect to school progress, since this topic has already been begun in the paragraph immediately preceding this. In the great majority of cases, highly gratifying results in school progress are reported. One school reports that no marked improvement over former progress has been shown and that the 456 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati physical condition of the children is such that they should not be expected to keep up with a normal class. Another school has reported that but little change is apparent. Another school reports that not all of the children have made good school progress tho many have. Still another thinks that good progress has been made by practically all, but that they should not be expected to keep pace with normally healthy children. It hardly seems possible at this time to draw a conclusion of wide application with respect to this phase of the work, when there are so many varjdng circumstances and unknown conditions. Our enthusiasm in a new enterprise often blinds our judgment. It seems probable, however, that great caution should be used to avoid forcing the mental activity of chil- , dren during the first months, at least, of this treatment, or until it is evident that the physical recuperation has gotten a good start and signs of increased mental alertness and eagerness are clearly seen. It must be borne in mind that improvement in school progress is not the thing chiefly to be desired. Improvement in health is the primary object of this work and upon the results achieved from this point of view there is no division of opinion. Statistical data upon this point are not available from many schools, but in those instances in which detailed reports have been made, the improvement in physical condition is clearly shown. The report of the city of Newark for the year 1913-14 gives the following data for two classes: CLASS I CLASS 2 Average roll 29 28 Average attendance 23 23 Average time on roll 4 months 6 months Percentage of pupils subnormal in weight. ... 89 per cent 87 per cent Average weight gained by each pupil 3 lbs. 4.5 lbs. Total gain in haemoglobin 660 per cent 225 per cent Total loss in haemoglobin none none Average percentage of gain in haemoglobin. . 10 per cent 5 .66 per cent Percentage of the total enrolment cured 54 per cent 30 per cent Percentage of the total enrolment improved. . 4 per cent 14 per cent Percentage of the total enrolment not improved 42 per cent 55 per cent Percentage of the total enrolment that earned promotion 90 per cent 86 per cent Percentage of the total enrolment transferred back to regular class 44. 5 per cent 62 per cent The gain in weight reported here is representative of many schools. Where the children are kept in the class longer, the gain in weight is greater. The gain likewise increases with the feeding. A marked difference in the gain in weight was found between two classes in the same city, in one of which the children were served a definite quantity of milk daily and in the other of which they were encouraged to drink all they could. The weight of the latter class increased with much greater rapidity. Reports of increase in haemoglobin are available from very few schools as a whole, but a sufficient number of individual cases are recorded to justify the view that the open- air treatment afforded by these classes brings about improvement in the haemoglobin test quite universally. The report of the city of St. Louis for 1913 gives a history of each of fifty-eight ihildren enrolled in the open-air class for that year. Most of the pupils showed a history of incipient tuberculosis, and the school should probably be classed as a tuberculous school. Many of the children were retained in the class from twelve to fifteen months. The report shows that of the fifty-eight children enrolled, twenty-three were discharged cured, and twenty others improved. I will submit a brief statement concerning one open-window room that has been under my personal observation for a year and a half. The room has south exposure. The windows swing on horizontal rods located about midway of the length of the window. On most days, the whole window space may be open; when the wind is strong on that side, the sash may be set at such an angle as to admit large currents of air at a height much Superintendence] THE BRIGHT PUPIL 457 above the children's heads. Movable desk-chairs permit the children to sit much in the sun. The chair may be turned at such an angle that the child's work is shaded by her body from the direct sunlight. Sitting-out bags, woolen sweaters, gloves, and caps com- prise the equipment of clothing. Soapstone warmers have been used to warm the feet after the exposure of coming to school on cold days, but have not been found necessary in the schoolroom. The children have been comfortable with a minimum temperature of 38 degrees on bright, sunny days, and 45 degrees on cold, cloudy days. The steam was admitted to two radiators on six and a half days in a year. The children selected were anemic, nervous, subject to headache, earache, colds, and throat trouble, and in most cases were undernourished. In all cases, the parents' consent has been secured. Two lunches a day have been served. The children go home to their midday meal. The morn- ing lunch consists of a cereal and milk, or soup, and fruit, with sometimes a baked potato; the afternoon lunch of milk or cocoa. The milk is provided by the school and the other materials are purchased with funds contributed by the children — five or ten cents a week, in some cases nothing. Moderate physical exercises and games come at frequent intervals, with due caution as to overexertion. The class has had the constant attention of the medical inspector. During the first year, thirty-four girls were enrolled from Grades I to IV. The ages ranged from seven to twelve. The average attendance was twenty-five. Twenty girls were in the class all the year. The greatest gain in weight was 7 pounds, the least, i pound, and the average, 3 pounds. The percentage of promotion was 93. The second year for the class is now only half completed. The number of pupils enrolled is twenty-seven, taken from Grades II and III. Seven girls were retained from the year before. The greatest gain by any one pupil for the five months is 8f pounds, the least gain is 2 pounds, and the average is 4§ pounds. It will be noted that the average gain for the whole of the year before was 3 pounds, while for five months of this year the average gain is 4^ pounds. The number of open-air rooms needed is variously estimated by different authorities. The proportion of anemic children in the school population is not certainly determined, but it is conservative to estimate, upon several studies that have been made, that 5 per cent of the school population is in physical condition to be directly benefited by such treatment. It seems probable, indeed, that these experimental classes in physical welfare will lead to decided modifications in the construction of schoolrooms with reference to the admission of outside air and to the lowering of schoolroom temperature in schools of all classes. E. THE BRIGHT PUPIL J. G. COLLICOTT, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. To get a report of what is now being done to provide for the supernormal or excep- tionally bright children, a personal letter was sent to the superintendents of the cities in the United States having a population of fifty thousand and over asking the following questions: (i) What provisions does your city make for the exceptionally bright pupils? (a) Where in the grades do you make provisions for gaining a grade ? (3) What has been your observation of such pupils in their later school work ? Two groups of methods for training pupils who are especially bright are being used in these and other cities in this country and in Europe: (i) A group of methods which tries to solve the problem by making modifications in the methods of instruction, or grad- ing, and promotion machinery of the schools. (2) A group of methods which may be called the "special-class" or "special-school" method, where the supernormal pupils are placed in a special class or special school. The special promotion and individual or individual-class instruction method. — Certain cities make provisions for getting the brighter pupils promoted as rapidly as possible. 458 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [CincinnaU In such schools pupils are given an opportunity to finish the work of the regular school course as rapidly as they can and are promoted when they have finished the work of a given unit of the course, half-year, or grade. Such promotions may be made at the middle of the term, at the middle of the year, or at any other time the pupil is thought qualified to do the work of the advanced class. The promotions may be made either by years, half-years, short units of a fixed course, or by particular subjects. In most cases the pupils remain with the regular teachers and take the work of the regular course. They are merely given an opportxmity to complete the work of the regular course as rapidly as possible. Elizabeth, N. /., plan. — Each grade, I to VIII, is divided into three or four sections, according to abilities of pupils. Each section is allowed to do as much work and go forward as rapidly as possible. As soon as a pupil shows ability to do the work of the next section, he is advanced to that section. Progress is measured by the work in the essential studies — ^reading and number work in the lower grades, language and arithmetic in the upper grades. Twenty-four per cent of pupils in the grades gained from one-fo to two-fourths of a year's work,' Portland, Ore., plan. — ^The course of study is divided into fifty-four parts, coverii eighteen terms of five months each. Promotions take place at the end of each term, a limit composed of three terms forming a cycle. Each class is permitted to go as rapidly as it can, but the slower divisions cover, as a rule, three points per term, and the faster divisions four. At the beginning of a cycle those pupils who have reached the same point of progress in the course are classified into a bright class to advance four points per term and a slow class to advance three points per term. This takes place until fifty-four points are covered. The pupil who remains in the first division thruout the course will complete the work in seven years. The pupil who remains in the second division thruout the course will complete it in nine years. Other cities have emphasized the individual instruction feature. Extra ungraded room teachers are employed to help the backward or bright pupils; also complete indi- vidual instruction may be attempted as was done at Pueblo, Colo. The Santa Barbara concentric plan, the North Denver plan, the Batavia and Newton plan, the group system used in New York City, all emphasize this need for individual instruction. But in all these plans the teachers follow more or less closely the regular course of study. The stress seems to be placed on getting the pupils thru a given course as rapidly as possible. The idea in this group of methods seems to be more extensive and intensive work for the bright pupil along the lines of work regularly taken up in the school. The following examples are typical. The Santa Barbara concentric plan. — Each grade has A, B, and C sections. The sections do the work concentrically. The fundamentals are the same for each section. All do the necessary work for the grade. The A pupils do the most extensive work. The B section does less extensive work than the A pupUs. The C pupils take only such work under a certain topic as is required for the work of the next grade. The A pupils are transferred to the C section of the next grade when promoted. Under this plan in Santa Barbara, 34 per cent of the pupils make slow progress, 44 per cent make normal progress, and 22 per cent make rapid progress. The North Denver plan of instruction. — ^There is a certain minimum requirement in all studies to which all pupils are held. When pupils who require all the assigned time to complete a particular study are engaged in such study, the more capable pupils are, by process of natural selection, detaching themselves temporarily from the class in order to work in some study in which they are weak, or for a broader or deeper study of some topic by means of reference books, gathering illustrative material, or following out some interest approved by the teacher. An A pupil may find that all he can do in arithmetic 'See Shearer. "The Lock-Step of the Public Schools," Atlantic Monthly, Ixrix (1893). 749-57; «J«> Shearer, "The Grading of Schools." Superintendence] THE BRIGHT PUPIL 459 is the minimum, but in history he can do much outside work. This makes it possible for the school to foster the bent of the pupil. The brighter pupils are often called upon to give the results of their reading to the class; they are making themselves socially useful; their success awakens a desire in others to be able to make a creditable contribution of the same kind. Thus all are stimulated to do independent work in spare moments and to find spare moments for independent work. They learn how to work things out and how to find important material in books and elsewhere. The characteristics of the North Denver plan are that it does not hurry pupils over the course of study. Each lesson is developed with the class as a whole. One pupil does not travel faster than another, but may get more. It is not so much to the advantage of the pupil to go thru the grade rapidly as to get aU he is capable of getting while going thru. Four pupils completed the eight-year course in less than six years. Seven pupils completed the eight-year course in six and one-half years. Twenty-one pupils completed the eight-year course in seven years. Twenty-four pupils completed the eight-year course in seven and one-half years. In one of the buildings 57^ per cent of the pupils completed the course in eight years or less; in the other building 67^ per cent of the pupils completed the course in eight years or less; in the building pursuing the old plan only 37I per cent of the pupils completed the course in eight years. This indicates that the plan tends to conserve the interests of the individual pupils. The group system. — ^This is only a modification and extension of the North Denver plan (used with success in New York City). It provides for different rates of progress for pupils of different abilities. The essential aim is not to advance the bright pupils, tho they may go as fast as possible; the real merit lies in the fact that it enables the slow and backward pupil to keep up with his grade. The plan may be carried out in two ways: on the basis of a "constant group," or on the basis of a "shifting group." Under the "constant group" plan, pupils are divided into classes to be maintained for a certain definite period of time. The promotions from group to group occur only at stated times. The pupils are classified according to their ability to advance. There are usually two or three groups. This requires divisions in nearly all subjects. Under the "shifting group" plan, the pupils are divided according to their power to work. The membership of the group is not constant. The pupils may be grouped only in certain subjects. Pupils may be promoted from one group to another at any time. There may be two groups for reading, and three for arithmetic. The chief aim is to have the bright pupils do thoro, careful work and to bring the slow pupils up to the grade standard.' How the group system is carried out: New lessons are presented to the whole class. A short test following the lesson shows the pupils who have not mastered the new points and so need further instruction. The next recitation contains only the pupils in Class B. The pupils in Class A remain at their seats to do extensive study. Class B attacks the same lesson from a new point of view. At the close of the lesson another test is given, and those who have not yet mastered it form Class C, and will go over it again while Class B will be assigned study work similar to that assigned to Class A on the previous day, while Class A will be assigned new work. When Class C has mastered the work, the class is reassembled and another section of new material is presented to the class as a whole. The "special" class or school methods. — Certain cities have sought to solve the prob- lem presented by the backward and specially endowed pupils by grouping them in different sections or classes, the supernormal pupils being placed in one class, the normal in another, and the subnormal in a third. The tendency has been to have all pupils follow the same course, but to allow them to finish the course as rapidly as possible. Occasionally such ' For advantages and disadvantages of "constant" and "shifting" groups see Pedagogical Seminar , xviii, 490-91. 46o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincin special classes have been put in charge of a specially trained teacher who attempted tc discover the special interests of her pupils, but in most cases the chief aim of such special study has been to learn how better to administer a more or less fixed or traditional course of study to a class of individuals thus specially endowed rather than to determine the indi- vidual aptitudes of the pupils and then by special instruction try to ailtivate the special talents and interests found. The Cambridge, Mass., plan. — An attempt has been made to devise a system of grad- ing and promotion that shall be elastic, giving the bright pupils opportimity to do more than the required work of the grade, yet allowing the average pupil to maintain the standard of his grade. To this end two divisions have been formed in each of the grades — an A division doing intensified work, and a B division doing only the required or minimum work of the year. With this system a pupil ready for and desirous of promotion may be advanced from the B division to the A division of any grade, or from the A division of any grade to the B division of the next higher grade without omitting any of the fundamental work of either grade. This system is distinctly superior in two ways: it does away, to a great extent, with the worry and nervous strain which is always attendant on systems of rapid promo- tions, so called; and it allows the pupil a full year imder the uninterrupted influence of one teacher — an element of prime importance. Earnest efforts have been made in forming a new course of study and deciding upon a standard for each subject in each grade. Meet- ings have been held with the principals and teachers and a minimum amount of work that must be accomplished by each grade has been made out. The Miers, Iowa, plan. — ^This is the Cambridge plan applied to nine grades instead of the upper six. The course is made out covering the same ground, but one requires more time than the other. These courses run parallel, and are so made that they articulate with each other at different points along the line. Pupils may be transferred to either course at any time. The interval between equipment of classes is only twelve weeks. This gives opportimity to adapt the course to both the slow and the bright pupils. Pupils of superior abiUty are not forced to work too hard, slow pupils are not compelled to hurry over the work. The pupil is promoted on the estimate of the teacher, and as soon as the work at any point in the course becomes too easy for any pupil, such pupil is reclassified. The Mannheim plan. — This plan provides for special classes running parallel with the regular classes. In these special classes (furthering classes) are placed those pupils who for any reason show themselves unable to do the work of the regular classes. The special classes are organized on the same plan as the regular classes and do for the most part the same work but not so extensively. There is little or no change or promotion of pupils from the "furthering" class to the special class. The facts show that the "furthering" class is almost entirely for the slow pupils, those lacking in interest and native ability. Pupils are separated according to their individual endowments into three groups: (i) The mentally defective are assigned to the auxiliary schools, which represent in the organization the first four grades of school work. (2) The normally endowed pupils, who are expected each year to be capable of gaining a promotion, are assigned to the regular classes of the regular eighth-grade course. (3) Those pupils, who while not abnormal still are classed below the average, are placed in the "furthering" class. About 10 per cent of all pupils are put in this special class. Certain German educators have objected to this plan on the ground that the brighter pupils are needed in the other classes to spur on the duU and backward pupils. Preparatory schools. — ^Worcester, Mass., has five preparatory schools. The pupils who finish the sixth grade may, if good in scholarship, take the special high-school courses in French, Latin, or German, in one of these centers and so finish their high-school course in three years. Baltimore places capable pupils from the seventh grade in a preparatory school where, in addition to the r^ular eighth-grade work, they receive instruction in Superintendence] THE BRIGHT PUPIL 461 high-school subjects and are thus able to enter the high school with a corresponding amount of credit. Summer schools. — Certain cities have provided for special summer classes where bright pupils in certain grades may finish the work of a half-year or even a year. Seventh- grade pupils n-^y thus be prepared for high school in a short course, other pupils may be prepared to "skip" a grade or a half-year's work; others are permitted to make up work lost by sickness or failure; and still others are permitted to do supplementary work without special school credit. How selection of bright pupils is made. — The selection of bright pupils for special pro- motion or for the special class or school, either preparatory, summer, or special class for superior pupils, is made by the regular teacher or by the principal in co-operation with the teachers and parents. The criteria of judgment in every case, so far as can be made out, are the general observation of the teacher, the character of the school work done, the physical condition of the pupil, and the ability to do the work of the advanced class. The one great aim of the superintendents and teachers seems to be to allow such pupils to advance as rapidly as possible in certain traditional or standard courses. The great need for more accurate and complete tests of individual ability for this group of brighter pupils and the great need of giving the members of this group a chance to develop their special talents by furnishing them an opportunity to do the work in which they have a peculiar ability and on that account are most interested is certainly one of the important immediate public-school problems of our day. According to Steam, supernormal pupils may be divided into two classes: (i) The universally supernormal, including those who seem to be endowed with superior mental powers in many or all lines of mental activity. The methods now in use probably test this group somewhat accurately, as is shown by the fact that the pupils promoted by the various plans sketched above, or placed in special classes or schools, and given an oppor- tunity to do individual work, make a creditable record in nearly every case. The pupils thus promoted and cared for continue to do well in the upper grades and high school. All the superintendents and principals answering the question, What has been your observa- tion of such [bright] pupils in later school work ? report that the pupils who skipped a grade or who were given a chance to forge ahead in their work did good work in the advance grade, that they were among the best, no failures among them, etc . Only one city reported that the results had not been satisfactory. (2) Those who are specifically supernormal; that is, pupils who are exceptionally gifted in one particular line, such as music, mathe- matics, drawing, painting, the technical arts, learning of language, etc. This group is not nor cannot be adequately reached by any of the methods described above. Kerschensteiner carried on investigations on five thousand Mvmich school pupils to discover those who had marked artistic ability. The pupils were asked "to make freehand drawings of specific objects, both from memory and from nature." His results showed that many children even from the poorer homes had remarkable talent in this field. These pupils he assigned to art or arts-and-crafts schools, where they had the opportunity to develop these special powers under expert direction and under favorable environment. All these experiments with the problem are valuable and encouraging, but one important thing is lacking. They show that in dealing with this favored and important group we are still trying to fit the pupils into the traditional and set schemes of education nstead of fitting education to the needs and interests of these special individuals. To the specially endowed pupil opportunity should be given to develop his special powers by assigning him to a particular type of school suited to his needs, or at least providing in the regular school for the special work which will best train him in the right and best use of his special powers. In all high schools and colleges today, pupils with exceptional talent for scientific observation and investigations are found following the courses of study 462 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cmcinnatl more or less detrimental to their particular interests and abilities. This is wasteful, to say the least. The next step to be taken in dealing with the supernormal group is to devise more practical and scientific methods of determining what pupils are supernormal. We know, or may know, precisely how many and which of the pupils in our city system of schools are myopic or cripples, but we have little or no actual knowledge of those pupils who are exceptional draughtsmen, musicians, mechanics, artists, etc. The supernormal pupil should be as carefully studied and as specifically treated as the feeble-minded. Accurate scientific tests should be devised for determining not only the specially giffed or endowed, but such tests as will enable us to determine what particular abilities or special capacities each supernormal pupil possesses. Not only should such tests be devised and applied, but special work should be provided which will cultivate to the fullest extent their creative powers. Suitable teachers should be engaged for this work, men and women with genuine interest in the problem and specially qualified for the work. The specially endowed group should make more rapid progress by broadening and deepening the cultural material, by minimizing drill and mechanical aids to mem- orization and imderstanding, by cultivating especially the habit of independent and original thinking, and by free election within the subjects of instruction (particularly in the upper grades). The superior capacities of these pupils should be given the best possible opportunity for the highest development, and, because of the imiversal demands upon this class, self -discipline and the spirit of conscientious thoroness shoiild be developed in a manner totally impossible for them if left in the ordinary class or treated in the tradi- tional way. By this means we should be able to develop for society a group of worthy leaders equipped with deeper and broader training than we can possibly give them by our present methods. DISCUSSION Carey Boggess, superintendent of schools, Springfield, Ohio. — There are but few pupils of normal age in any ordinary room group who shoiild be treated as bright pupils in the sense of the topic here discussed. These are entitled, however, to some special treatment, tho they should not be segregated. This will not preclude irregular promotions or even double promotions in exceptional cases. Neither does it imply a rigid system of promotions. But the pupil of age suitable for his grade should be with his fellows. Tho he may have the grasp and the capacity for more work than they, yet his feelings and his social needs and aspirations are like theirs. There is no argument for a separate grouping in the fact that the bright pupil can accomplish more than the average of his class. The variability of achievement among different members of the same class is well known, even among those all of whom will without question be passed to the next grade. In the same room and subject to the same conditions, it is probable that the absolute acquisition of one pupil may be at times twice or thrice that of certain others. Minds, like bodies, may at some early period develop with great rapidity. We frequently see strong or quick intellects in little childish bodies and we see as often the average mind possessed by children of large bulk or frame grown quickly. In neither case is it desirable to regroup children on the basis of what mind or body could do imder special treatment. The bright pupil should remain with his grade and with children of his years because, with the greater maturity he wovdd attain by awaiting the usual time and his normal development, he will gain more from a given grade when he thus reaches it, than he could have done earlier, when hurried into it by reason of his precocity. Superintendence] THE BRIGHT PUPIL 463 Doubtless the best method to secure rapid progress thru the grades of a course of study is that of individual teaching, an Aristotle for an Alexander, but along with gain in time is loss at some point. Let the boy be a boy, the girl be a girl, for once, and grow and live with those whose hearts are tuned together. Let them work side by side as they play together. The argument for efficiency is carried too far in the claim that each child, as a member of society, should have the way cleared for him to push into what is called productive activity at the earliest possible moment. Life is too long now, when it is all work. The nation may be distanced in the struggle for the markets of the world by another which aims at efficiency in all things, but there is a rational living which does not always measure time in imits of productivity. Another argument against segregation of bright pupils is that of expense. With the vast development in the present period of education and its ramifications and inclusions, with its specializations and with no suggestion usually that any good thing should be withheld by the state, the absolute limit of school taxation must be found presently, even r^ardless of supposed or real needs. There may be some good phases of education that should be left to family or private initiative. At any rate its diversification and its rapidly growing cost should impel us to begin to discriminate and to hesitate over the addition of new elements of expense, especially when an alternative method might avoid them. The separate instruction of the very small nimiber of bright pupils would entail a disproportionately large per capita cost in any city of small or medium size. What special treatment, then, may be given this class ? One practicable plan will readily be called to mind, as the different grouping systems are considered, under which a number of subjects are taught to the undivided class and others are taught to sections or groups. This will often be feasible where the abler group is of sufficient size. Where this is not deemed desirable, the bright pupils may be given more work or larger tasks of the same kind given to the whole class by means of a flexible assignment of lessons. This is really the key to a rational provision for the unusually strong pupil. What he needs is not a more rapid passing to new and advanced subjects but a growth in power by the accomplishment of more work of a given kind and the attainment of accu- racy and facility thereby. This is his sort of good fortune, to know and to do the same field of knowledge and achievement, but to know it and to do it better than his mates. This general scheme of flexible assignments should be amplified by a secondary plan of side readings or studies for the surplus study time of the stronger ones. The school should be supplied with sufficient supplementary texts and books of general reading, so that time gained from the proper preparation of lesson tasks may be agreeably and profitably employed by such pupils. By a little oversight and planning for sequence and sjrstem on the part of the teacher, this will easily afford, not only a suitable use of the time of bright pupils, but a real means of their rational development while they continue with those of their age and general class. Richard O. Stoops, superintendent of schools, Joliet, HI. — I agree with Superintend- ent Aldrich's definition of the delinquent pupil — that he is the product of inheritance and environment, and not primarily responsible for the fact that he is a source of trouble to the school authorities. I further agree that the detection of incipient delinquency is within the province of the regular teacher, her principal, and the attendance officer, and that a broad sympathy and keen insight should enable them to find the dominant interests of such boys and to restore very many of them to the proper relationship to the school and to the community. I am convinced, however, that, in actual practice, most school systems as large as those represented in this round table have a few scattered misfits in the elementary grades who are not reached by the teacher and principal, and who become too great a strain for the regular teacher to carry in justice to her other pupils. In most cases, these boys have 464 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ICindnnat! no home life and no sympathetic or intelligent guidance from parents. Without this vital touch, and frequently living amid surroundings which are positively degrading, they pick up the vices of the streets and alleys and rapidly drift into petty crime. These boys are behind grade, uninterested in the regular school work, they are motor- minded as a rule, they possess initiative, and delight in "starting something." They are skilful in dodging the police and have a general contempt for authority. They frequently attain a certain cheap neighborhood notoriety in which they take keen delight. A transfer to other surroundings is usually necessary to bring such boys to the proper point of view. Let me illustrate by a brief statement of Joliet's experience along this line. A year and a half ago, I foimd that we had a dozen delinquent boys scattered among ten different schools. In no instance could I justly charge the delinquency to the incapa- city of the teachers concerned. In every case, the delinquent caused as much nerve strain and worry on the part of the teacher as all her other pupils combined. It seemed therefore, a problem of conservation to gather these boys into one special group and thus to relieve the regular teachers from an unjust tax upon their resourcefulness and vitality. A centrally located room was equipped with fifteen ordinary school desks and as many benches for woodwork. I then secured the services of a young man of twenty-one, well trained in manual arts, and with one year's experience in teaching eighth-grade woodwork. But this was the minor point. He was chosen because he had shown ability in high- school athletics, in directing student activities, and in managing boys. He possessed leadership; he could get boys together to do things. I was hopeful that he might become the big brother of those boys and he did not disappoint me. The story is brief. Twelve boys between the ages of twelve and fifteen were brought in from the different school neighborhoods. All of them were impetuous and wilful, many were openly defiant, and most of them had police records. The young man was told to manage these boys and to discipline them as he saw fit. He was to devote about half their time to the fundamentals of reading, language, arithmetic, and mechanical draw- ing, and the rest to swimming, games, and manual training. The boys were helped to make of wood the things within their comprehension which they most desired. There was a constant effort to seize upon some interest and develop it toward self-control. The first month was tr3dng, but the atmosphere soon cleared and they seemed to understand one another. Within a short time, those boys became as regular in attendance as the average room, and their attitude toward authority and toward work was greatly improved. The visible residts attained have won the commendation of the board of education and the unqualified indorsement of the attendance officer and the chief of police. There is nothing new in this experiment, as other cities have tried similar plans with success. In my opinion, the city of Cincinnati is doing most excellent work along this line imder the immediate direction of Principal Wiley of the School for Delinquents, Such a room as I have described cannot overcome in one-seventh of a boy's time the vicious tendencies that are operative during the other six-sevenths of his time. The fact that Cincinnati furnishes dormitory facilities and is authorized by the Juvenile Court to control the entire time of the boys who have no moral support at home furnishes the final provision for reclaiming at least 90 per cent of the pupils who give serious trouble to the teachers or to the police. The expense of thus isolating the most troublesome cases will be more than offset by the increased efficiency of the regular teachers relieved of this strain. Best of all, it will pay in terms of future citizenship, for the school's effort to reclaim is bovmd to have a more humane and personal touch than any interest asserted by a state reformatory no matter how intelligently it may be conducted. Joseph M. Frost, superintendent of schools, Muskegon, Mich. — ^There are many causes for the delinquency of children. They may perhaps be arranged in the following Supcrintendencel THE BRIGHT PUPIL 465 order: First and foremost, home conditions; second, heredity; third, school conditions; fourth, neighborhood environment; and fifth, the use of leisure time. The question naturally arises, then. How are we to go about this problem of reducing delinquency so that we may secure better results ? I believe that one of the greatest factors in securing good results is the organization of a strong attendance department. If the system has a good attendance officer, faithful, earnest, sincere, sympathetic, endowed with good judgment and ably assisted, he can do much to reduce delinquency. Of course, all delinquents are not truants. Some of the most difficult cases are those who come to school regularly, behave themselves, but refuse to do their work. In the next place, the schools should be organized with small classes so that the primary teachers especially can give proper attention to the delinquent. In the inter- mediate and grammar grades, the classes should be so organized that work may be given to the delinquent in which he will be interested. We have become so accustomed to trying to fit all children into the same square hole that it is difficult for us to realize that many of these children do not receive the attention they should receive, nor are they given sub- jects in which they are vitally interested. One of the most vicious boys that we have had in our school became a good and faithful pupil after he had been made the captain of a basket-ball team. It is not necessary for me to state at length the reasons for arranging our courses to meet the needs of the children. That school conditions in many cases cause delinquency is a well-known fact. We all know teachers who are so overbearing and such martinets in their attitude toward children, that they cause them to be delinquent, especially in the matter of attendance. There are other teachers who, by an entirely different attitude, are able to reduce or to remove delinquency. One of the important things for us to do, therefore, is to get the teachers as a body thoroly in sympathy with the delinquent child if we are to make any sure progress in the way of removing delinquency. Another great help in removing delinquency is brought about by the visits of the teachers to the homes. In many cases, after the teachers have seen the home conditions, their attitude toward the children is entirely changed. Another positive aid in reducing delinquency is the organization of playgrounds and social centers. These are especially helpful in enabling the child profitably to use his leisure time. Many a child has been saved from bad influences by merely getting him to occupy his time with organized play. The work that has been done in the large cities along this line is so extensive and also so expensive that in many cities it cannot be undertaken. We should not, however, shy from our responsibility, since at a small expense, some of the regular teachers can be trained along the line of playgrovmd work and be retained for a small compensation for an hour or so at the close of school to direct the playground work. The playground is one of the best institutions that has ever been organized for all of the boys and all of the girls, and we should see to it that something is done along this line if we hope to measure up to our responsibility. The social center is a splendid place for those boys and girls who really have no attractive home surroundings, but, at the same time, I have that old-fashioned feeling that too many things in general are being provided for outside the home. The club becomes so attractive to the fathers that they immediately leave the home after their dinners are eaten and seek the club. The mothers find recreation in card parties and it is left to the children to go outside of the home to find amusement. I am inclined to believe that the tendency today is to relieve the home of too much responsibility. There are some parents that seem satisfied to have anybody take care of their children rather than that they should assume this responsibility themselves. Some parents want their boys to become Boy Scouts so that they can be properly handled and then are inclined to find fault with the Scout Master because of the way in which he handles them. I wonder 466 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [CincL whether, in providing all the things that are being provided today for attracting the children outside of the home, we are not contributing to the disruption of the home itself ? In our city, the number enrolled in the seventh grade is 96 per cent and in the eighth grade 74 per cent of those entering the first grade. This shows what may be done in the small city if all forces work together to keep the children in school. Of all of the things that I have mentioned, I believe the greatest credit is due the attend- ance department of our city for the removal or reduction of delinquency. I believe that this whole question is a matter of habit formation, and that a little attention at the right time will bring about wonderful results. I feel that any inherited tendencies may, in great measure, be overcome by training the children along right lines. I agree with Superintendent Aldrich in all respects except that of semiannual pro- motions. I do not believe that we should sacrifice the interests of the children as a class in order that we may give more attention to the few. If semiannual promotions are good for a majority of the children, as they must be or they would not be in such general practice, then they should not be eliminated in order that the teacher may give a year's time to a few children. Semiannual promotions do not necessarily mean that all children change teachers every half-year. In fact, only a few of the children do. In many cases it is a good thing for these children to have this change. I do not believe, therefore, that we should give up the great advance that we have made in looking after the individual child and his interests by doing away with these frequent promotions. ROUND TABLE OF SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITIES WITH A POPULATION UNDER 25,000 CURRENT PRACTICES IN THE APPOINTMENT OP TEACHERS WILLIAM C. GRIGGS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, GADSDEN, ALA. The time in which this paper had to be prepared was too short to permit of a com- plete investigation of current practices in the appointment of teachers. A report based on the study of school laws and of annual reports of superintendents of most of the cities of the cliiss assigned for study, together with answers to certain inquiries that could be made, would be more acceptable than a report on the replies to a few questions as in this case. Perhaps the subject is of suflScient importance to warrant the appointment of a committee to work thru a year's time and report its findings. I present this report with the consciousness that it does not go far into the subject assigned me. As I had time to do nothing more than ask for replies to certain questions, I sent a drcidar letter to about 35 per cent of the superintendents in cities of less than 25,000 p>opulation. No particular plan governed in the selection of cities. I wrote as follows: I shall very greatly appreciate it if you will write me fully at once as to how the following points govern in the appointment of teachers under your supervision: 1. Qu£ilification: (a) Academic for elementary and high school. (6) Professional for elementary and high school. 2. Preferences as to resident or non-resident. 3. The nominating power. 4. When nominating power declines to renominate. 5. Forces that influence the nomination. 6. State and local laws governing. 7. Minimum age. 8. Married (female) teachers. 9. Kindred of nominating power (if superintendent nominates). 10. Dismissing from service. 11. Conditions on which teachers may resign. Superintendence] PRACTICES IN APPOINTMENT OF TEACHERS 467 12. Leaves of absence (sickness, etc.) with or vdthout pay. 13. Professional and health certificates. 14. Appointment when one or more qualifications are wanting. 15. Any other conditions governing in the appointment. 16. Salary schedule. Over 150 letters were sent and 73 replies were received before tabulation began. Several have been received since then, but were not taken into account. The following states are not represented in the references: Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Kentucky* Maine, Maryland, Nebraska, Nevada, and New Mexico. Some of the replies evidenced candor and cordiality. The greater portion of them showed that the writers gave the questions a reasonable amoimt of thought before answer- ing. It is evident from the reading of some of the rules and regulations sent with replies to the questions that some things are practiced that might not be inferred from a reading of the rules and regulations. One report read was printed in 1909. Since then many changes have been made in the rules, including a change in the superin tendency. The rules do not state that the superintendent has the power to nominate teachers, but the answer to the question stated that the superintendent does nominate. In that particular case, I happen to know that the superintendent is given a free hand in the appointment of teachers. This observation may be of some worth to those who draw conclusions from printed reports. From the responses to the questionnaire the following data were obtained (the mini- mum in every case is the basis of this summary) : 1. Qualification: a) Elementary school: Requiring graduation from a standard normal school 16 State certificate 14 High-school graduation plus two years' normal training 12 High-school graduation plus one year's normal training 9 High-school graduation plus some normal training S High-school graduation S Normal-school graduation plus one year's experience 3 High-school graduation plus normal-school graduation with two years' ^ experience 1 b) High school: College graduation 36 Same plus experience 6 Full high-school course plus college graduation S Normal-school graduation 5 College graduation plus normal training 4 Nothing more than state license 4 College graduation plus two years' experience 3 Normal training 3 State license plus some experience 2 High-school graduation plus experience 2 Three years in college plus experience i Two years in college plus experience i High-school training plus normal training i It will be noted that, from the 73 responses, only 13 require normal training in high- school work. 2. Resident or non-resident teachers: No preference 31 Resident preferred 24 Non-resident 5 Resident for elementary grades, non-resident for high school S Desiring equal mmibers of each 3 Residents who have had experience away from home 3 Desiring a majority non-resident i Desiring a majority resident i 468 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati In nearly every case the expression "all things being equal" is used. One superin- tendent stated that non-residents were preferred for the reason that they could be elimi- nated more easily if it became necessary. 3. Nominating power: Superintendent 53 Superintendent with committee of the board 12 Anyone 4 Superintendent for high school, board for elementary i Board of education , 2 Principals i In some states, the laws of the state require the superintendent to nominate, as in Ohio. In one instance, replies came from a superintendent who had recently changed work, and from his successor. It is noted from both reports that the new superintendent is accorded greater latitude in his work than was accorded his predecessor, judging from the replies from each one. In some cases where the superintendent has incurred the displeasure of a portion, if not all, of his board, it is noted that his prerogatives are not so great as in cases where harmony exists. One superintendent reported that he was entirely disregarded in matters of this kind. In that partiodar town, it was found on investigation that the board had not had a professionally trained superintendent for the last eighteen years, ^h The investigations bring out the fact that committees of the boards on nominatiad^| of teachers depend on the superintendent to the extent that he is the power that actually makes the selection. No doubt these superintendents find it an advantage to have a committee of the board to share the responsibility. It gives him an opportimity to inform his board for this and other duties; and their knowledge of school problems obtained in this way makes them more useful school workers. A superintendent will surely suffer ultimately if he permits his board members to remain iminformed on the^- problems they need to have knowledge of, S In answer to the question. What forces influence the nomination of teachers? the^^ answer in 53 cases is that merit of the teacher is the only force. It is not known that there is any standard of merit that governs in any case. Some plan that would enable a superintendent to evaluate teachers would serve a great purpose. Lotus D. Coffman say^: "I have asked many superintendents this question: *If fifty people appeared before you as candidates for five positions all qualified in the eyes of the law, what qualities would you take into consideration in selecting those you chose?'" He says that the replies are blanket expressions that really cover a multitude of undefined qualities. Local politics, favoritism, church relations are given in 8 cases as influences. Thirty-six state that married female teachers whose husbands are living are permitted to teach. Thirty-seven of the replies state that none but single females aire employed. A difference in conclusions obtained from direct answers and reports or literature used may be noted again in a reply that stated that married female teachers are not employed. The correspondent inclosed a teachers' implication form which had this question: "If married, give age of yoimgest child. Does husband support you ? " One suf>erintendent stated that married women made better teachers than single ones if they were good teachers before they were married. The investigation shows that in 30 cases third-degree relatives of the superintendent or a member of the board are not employed. It is inferred in the 43 cases in which answers were given that nepotism may obtain. In most cases teachers are permitted to resign during the life of the contract. Some of the replies state that the authorities cordially release a teacher if her interest is materially advanced thereby. One reports that one-half of a month's salary is held by the board after the second month and that resignation during the session forfeits this amount. la y Superintendence] TESTING THE EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS 469 one or two cases certificates are canceled. It is not stated whether state or local. In most cases, teachers are not released without their having given due notice to the board. This ranges from two to four weeks. A few report that resignation offered for the pur- pose of taking other work is not accepted. Absences with pay are as follows: Five days full pay for illness or death in immediate family 10 Part pay 8 Ten days during each term or half-year, full pay 10 Four days' consecutive illness, full pay 2 Two days a month, full pay 2 Continued illness one month, half -pay (contract ceases) S Funerals in immediate family, three days full pay 3 Ten half-days each semester, half -pay allowed 2 If school conditions cause teacher's illness, full pay 2 Teacher receives regular salary and pays substitute 9 Those receiving no pay for any absence 20 Replies to the other questions are so varied that they are not considered of sufficient importance to be incorporated here. To some extent, however, they had weight in the making of general statements in this report. One of the imperative needs of our smaller school systems is a plan by which superin- tendents may learn of qualified, available teachers. The best a superintendent can do under present conditions is to make inquiry of the normal schools of his section of coxintry, spend a large portion of his time at educational gatherings in getting acquainted with teachers, and visit schools where teachers are at work. The latter is not a pleasant task for the reason that the superintendent feels that he is disturbing another's plans. If a vacancy occurs during the year, he is almost helpless. To find a desirable teacher fco' the vacancy, is more than he expects. While he has the vacancy, it is often the case that a good teacher is available for the position, but it is an accident if the two are brought together. The managers of our teachers' agencies offer to solve the problem, but super- intendents are, as a rule, not inclined to depend upon them. An organization in each state whose purpose shall be to aid school boards in finding good teachers for their vacancies and good places for worthy teachers is an imperative need and, no doubt, will be realized in nearly all the states in the very near future. HOW SHALL THE EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS BE TESTED AND RECORDED? EDWARD C. ELLIOTT, DIRECTOR, COURSE FOR THE TRAINING OP TEACHERS, XmiVERSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS. When a man cannot measure, and a great many others, who" cannot Imeasure, declare that he is four cubits high, can he help believing what they say ? — The Republic of Plato, Book IV. I. Certain casual observations. — It will be well to hold in mind several of the existing anomalies of that educational situation upon which my present argimaents are focused. Of all the factors and influences entering into educational processes and results, none is subjected to the scale of the measuring rod more frequently than the teacher. With elaborate systems of licenses and certificates, states and communities have established legal hair-line distinctions between varying degrees of teaching fitness. With much mechanical ingenuity, the officers of many school systems have contrived graded schemes of preferment and compensation for teachers, the presimiptive bases of which are a reliable ability on the part of someone to classify positive, neutral, and minus teaching, and a Sherlockholmesian accuracy for the detection of the several professional clues that respectively lead to the competent, the mediocre, and the unfit. The teacher who is not, in his own estimation, in possession of a complete set of dependable standards for the self-determination of his worth to education is of a rare 47© NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati species, and, by the way, not much sought after by discriminating collectors of the super- competent. Such self-imposed standards, made up tho they are of rough-and-ready, indefinitely formulated units, serve the very admirable purpose of enabling all of us, in the modest privacy of our own thoughts, to be placed among those of superior merit. Generally speaking, no teacher voluntarily submits his professional attainments for val- uation to other than his friends. And between friends, what's the use of standards of professional attainment ? Again, generally speaking, the supervisor of schools who is able, with any degree of objective accuracy, to evaluate the total working efficiency of a teacher, according to a method, and with a result that will pass unchallenged by other supervisors, has not yet revealed his identity. Again, generally speaking, the great majority of those immediately within education, as well as those immediately without, are permanently vmder the influence of what Gelett Burgess has, with brilliant and sensible wit, called bromidioms. Even a superficial scrutiny of our educational population would show how very widespread is the intem- perate use of such typical bromidioms as the following: "I know good teaching when I see it," or "The best part of teaching, that which arouses the will, awakens the feelings, stimulates the ambitions, inspires the sense of something to be achieved, and gives purpose and ideals to life, belongs to the immeasurable in education." To be more or less bromidic, is, however, a part of our common heritage. A concluding observation is pertinent. Significant of the difficulty and intricacy of the problem of educational efficiency, as this centers specifically in the individual teacher, one interesting fact may be noted. Concerning this question, practically alone among the great moot questions of education, those "arrogant" judges of our educational destinii the school surveys — have not attempted in any direct way to declare a final verdict, 2. The limits of the presentation. — Obviously, the present circumstances do not per- mit of any intensive elaboration of even the larger and the more important issues included within the natural boimdauies of the questions imder discussion. On the other hand, the partioilar problems arising from these issues are of most practical concern for Ameri- can teachers, and for those charged today with the professional and technical direction of public-school systems. My opportimity, however, will probably be best capitalized by first centering attention upon certain predetermining conditions in education which are serving to modify the professional status of the teacher and also of the supervisor. A very brief consideration of the foimdations of teaching merit, and an abbreviated dis- cussion of the natiure of the major measures of teaching efficiency will bring me to m^P chief conclusions: namely, that the development of usable efficiency standards for teach- ers depends primarily upon a much more complete objective analysis of the real work of teaching than has yet been made. In its practical application, this analysis shovdd be the means for stimulating growth and improvement of the teaching staff rather than for classifying individuals, impersonally and more or less arbitrarily, according to their pro- fessional fitness. For may not an index of the productivity of a school system be found in the demonstrable merit of its supervision fully as much as in the observed performances of its teachers ? 3. The changing basis of selection for work. — ^The drama of our most daily forward- moving Ufe contains no more intense scene than that in which the manipulators of human energy seek to identify and to isolate the economically usable and socially needful qualities of men. The general status of an individual, his preferment, and his premiums of com- pensation in the working world are, to an increasing degree, limited and fixed by the extent to which he possesses selected groups of qualities and energies. All varieties of work are being analyzed into constituent elements of action and reaction. From these elements, there is to be built up synthetically, according to the formulas of a sort of human social chemistry, the man of skills — The Efficient One. Vocations tend more consciously and directiy to select men, instead of men selecting vocations. . Superintendence] TESTING THE EFFICIENCY OF TEACHERS 471 This scientific engineering of human material by the Taylors and Gilbreths is now a familiar and exploited phenomenon in industry and commerce — the worid of controlled and controllable movements and products. Our contemporary life reveals many tragedies resulting from this analysis of work and the relentless selection of the fittest workers. Notwithstanding, there is an ethical logic for the attitude that only thru such a process of analysis and synthetic selection of hiunan qualities will there be a sound basis for the economic and social discovery of the individual. Only as the real individual is discovered will this be a world of real opportunity for all. 4. The changing status of the American teacher. — The conspicuous result of the great educational revival of three-quarters of a century ago was the rediscovery of the school by democratic society; that the ideals of democracy become realities of life only thru the agency of the public-school system. The motives of the epochal educational endeavor of the past decade are to be foimd in the rediscovery of democratic society by the school; that the life of the school is maintained by the transfusion of vitality from a living society. A new set of professional interests is developing today from the rediscovery of the teacher by the school; that the school system, as an educational machine, requires for its proper operation teachers who are skilful men and women, not merely skilful machine tenders. The educational promise of the years now approaching depends upon the rediscovery of teacher by society; that there shall be a positive relation between quality and worth of service and quality and quantity of rewards. Organized industry and trade, thru minute analysis of the work to be done, has foimd ways for testing the complex values of men and for the economical selection of indi- viduals for work. Organized education, somewhat less consciously perhaps than industry and trade, is also striving to analyze its processes and ends into elemental imits. An imderstanding of the nature of these units, alone and in combination, is a prerequisite for the selection of educational workers, and for the most serviceable utilization of the capacities of the individual teacher. There are many who view, with no uncertain apprehension, the present-day move- ment for the so-called standardization of education in any of its numerous particulars. In so far as such standardization represents not a means, but an end in itself, there is ample basis for imeasiness among those who have the discernment to realize that among the essential foundations of the teachership are individual freedom and the counterplay of subtle emotional reactions. Withal, it seems inevitable that education will not escape the influence of those same forces that aim to bring a standardized order into the making and exchanging of material things. Nor should there be attempt to escape, if, thru scientific analysis of the requisites for successful teaching, there is any likelihood of a larger emancipation of the teacher from the feudalism and the mechanical mastery of the existing educational order. The testing and recording of teaching efficiency has this as a clearly defined objective: the analysis of the work of teaching into its basic components; and the analysis of the workers in teaching as to their possession of basic qualities and capacities. The changing economic, social, and professional status of teaching is to be conditioned by the character and accuracy of the analysis we make of the work and the worker. 5. The changing responsibility of the American city school superintendent. — It is inappropriate here to review, even as to its chief stages, the professional evolution of the city school superintendency. That there has been a fairly rapid evolution during the past twenty years is all too patent. This evolution has been more rapid in the demand for those qualifications and abilities necessary for successful supervision than it has in the supply. The preacher-prothonotary-politician types of superintendents are becoming extinct. Their places are gradually being filled by men who have an abiding faith, a detached, impersonal attitude toward the problems of education, and a personal skill in adjusting the school machine to the emerging needs of child and commvmity. The problem of teaching efficiency is in the hands of the new type of school superintendent. 472 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cindimatr Among the multitude of official and non-official responsibilities of your school super- intendent in your modem city, none approximates in importance that of evaluating, conserving, and improving the quality of performance of the teachers who properly look to him for leadership and pre-eminent skill. The degree to which this responsibility to the teaching staff is fulfilled is indicated by the devices employed, the methods used, and the records preserved of the improvement of the performance of each teacher employed at any time in those schools. The one great end of teaching is the prevention of the waste of child energies and capacities. The one great justification for educational supervision is the prevention of the waste of teacher interest, skill, and products. The prevention of teacher waste precedes the prevention of child waste. 6. The foundations of teaching merits. — ^The motions of teaching are not comparable to the motions of bricklajong. The bricklayer, with an identical series of motions, is able to produce immediately the same material results. The teacher, with such an identical series, is confronted with pupil results, extremely variable and extremely remote. At the outset, we should realize that in teaching efficiency we are dealing with at least three sets of variables — the teacher, the pupil, and the supervisor. Any product of their com- bination is bound to be a variable. Here The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table gives us a better insight into our problem than the statistician. Holmes, it will be recalled, calculated that at least six personahties were to be distinctly recognized in the relations of John and Thomas. There were, in the first place, three Johns: (i) the real John — ^known only to his Maker; (2) John's ideal John — never the real one, and often very imlike him; (3) Thomas' ideal John — ^never the real John, nor John's John, but often very unlike either. Similarly there were three Thomases. Because of these complicated relations and counter-relations, the problem of a sat- isfactory foimdation for a plan of determining teacher merit is difficult and deUcate. The literature of education is rich with a poetic analy^s of the ideal teacher. This same literature is sadly lacking in records of the scientific weighing of the real teacher. At this stage of our progress certain working principles seem to me to be entitled to our consideration. Seven of these may be briefly and crudely formulated somewhat as follows: 1. The chief purpose of any teaching efficiency scheme is to serve as the means of promoting development and improvement of the individual teacher. 2. The content-basis of any teaching efficiency scheme should be the result of co- operative determination between the members of a teaching staff and the supervisors. 3. This content-basis should attach primary imp>ortance to objective items repre- senting those results of teaching capable of objective valuation rather than to contributory personal factors. 4. Clear and definite meanings should be attached to each item that enters into any final estimate of the value of the teacher's performance. 5. The original estimate of fitness, calculated according to the accepted plan, should be made by the teacher, and not by the supervisor. 6. This original estimate should be subject to correction, only after conference between teacher and supervisor. The burden of proof for the verification, as well as any modification of the teacher's estimate, rests squarely upon the supervisor. 7. At least once each year, the verified and modified estimates should be made a matter of definite record. 7. The nature of the measures of teaching efficiency. — ^It is a far cry from the position taken by a city superintendent who recently said to me with emphasis: "This talk about the measvurement of teaching efficiency is all ' bosh.' All I want to know about a teacher is — 'Can she teach ? ' I don't need any efficiency curves to enable me to answer that ques- tion. What I need is to see her teaching." Now there is a kind of sense in this comment, we must admit, even tho it is nonsense. As a class, city superintendents are less sophisti- cated than formerly, less cocksure of their possession of a gift of second sight enabling them to pass with offhand certainty upon the processes and products of the teachers' work. Superintendence! MERIT AND EFFICIENCY IN PROMOTING TEACHERS 473 The particular plan or device employed seems to me to be relatively unimportant (a) providing there is clear recognition of the foundation principles above defined; and (ft) providing there is no attempt at overelaboration of minor details, and (c) providing the main value stress is placed upon clearly defined results of teaching, rather than upon formal procedure or upon personal factors of presumptive educational worth. In these several respects, however, practically all of the systematic efforts to analyze teaching ability put forth in recent years have left much to be desired. In this connection might be mentioned the analytical scheme which I proposed and published five years ago; that of E. C. Witham, of Southington, Conn.; that of A. C. Boyce, recently described in the Year- book of the Society of College Teachers of Education; as well as the rating schemes adopted in many cities, typical of which are those of Houghton, Kansas City, and New Orleans. My judgment of five years ago, relative to the major constituents of effective teach- ing performance, remains unchanged as to essentials. Experience and observation bul- warks my contention that the teacher is an octo-personality; that there is a physical teacher, a moral teacher, an executive teacher, a professional-technical teacher, a pro- jecting teacher, a social teacher, a supervisory teacher (arising from the relations that exist with supervisors and other superiors of the school system), and, finally, an achieve- ■ ment teacher. This last is, in reality, a product of the cumulative converging of the other seven personalities. Before we are able to understand its real nature and worth, we shall be obliged to analyze far more carefully than hitherto the professional composition of each of the preceding seven major factors. It is possible to analyze them and thereby to rid the profession of teaching of that state of delightful and harmonious disagreement as to what are the fundamentals of teaching performance that make for genuine educational economy and achievement. It must be comprehended that proper measures of teachers' efficiency must reward variety of ideas instead of uniformity of ideas, flexibihty of pro- cedure rather than rigidity, the play of individuality in place of readiness of adaptation to the machine. 8. The need of experiments, experience, and evidence. — ^The solution of the practical problem of teaching merit may not be talked out on the platform. It must be worked out in the schoolroom, by teachers and supervisors, with that intelligence, detachment, and painstaking care that hallmarks all work of a truly scientific character. There is need of more such detailed study of the measures of merit of teachers as that of Ruediger and Strayer* and that of A. C. Boyce.* More than this we need co-operative experimental work over a wide area and under various conditions. The results of the experience of different individuals with different plans must be scrutinized and compared. Efficiency is not a problem to be met and solved by the individual teacher and supervisor. It must be met and solved by the pro- fession of education working together. I doubt not that a group of a dozen competent superintendents of relatively small school systems, working together upon this problem, could do more in a single year in the production of a workable method for the determi- nation of the merit of teachers than could a hundred superintendents and non- superintendents working alone for a generation. THE PROMOTION OF TEACHERS ON THE BASIS OF MERIT AND EFFICIENCY CLYDE C. GREEN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BEAVER FALLS, PA. As a mere matter of sound business policy, the commercial world has adopted the method of basing salaries and promotions upon the ability and usefulness of the employee. No employer pays level salaries in a given department and no employer makes salary and promotion depend chiefly upon years of service. 'Journal 0/ Educational Psychology, I (igio), 972 £f. 'Ibid., TH (igia), 144 ff. 474 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati The desire to apply sound business principles has prompted the administrative authorities of most large cities and many small ones to adopt some form of the merit system of promoting teachers and fixing their salaries. But the application of business principles to the employment of teachers was not as simple as many expected. We have the assurance of many competent school authorities that their schedules based upon merit have stood the test. We also know of many notable failures, and fully realize that the operation of this plan has meant serious trouble for more than one superintendent. It would be folly for us to ignore the fact that the introduction of the merit system involves really great diOBctdties and it would be stupidity on the part of those who have had some measure of success in this phase of their work if they failed to recognize the martyrdom suffered by the pioneers in this movement in at least three of the great cities of this coimtry. While it is beside our purpose to enter into a minute analysis of the causes of the diffioilties which arose in these and other school systems, careful investigation has con- vinced us that, in most cases, opposition was due to a failure in its execution rather than to any f avdt of the essential features of the plan itself. Under any ciraimstances, however, there are two classes of opponents which are usually present: First, the fossilized teacher who is incapable of professional growth and whose chief distinction is the number of years she has occupied space. I say this with due regard for the veteran teacher who has never ceased to grow and whose services have become invaluable to the school system of which she is a part. Secondly, the petty politician who desires to exploit the public-school system for his personal aggrandizement, j There is no single method of dealing with either of these classes, but we must simply place them in the same category with other barnacles on the school system and treat them in such manner as the exigencies of the case require. At all events the deleterious influence of both must be mdlified; and it follows that the administrative authorities who lack the courage to meet such diffiadties or the power to co|>e with them are in a sorry m^ i plight. f I There are two important considerations which are siifficient to convince us that the teacher's promotion and increase in salary should depend solely upon her increase in efl&ciency. First, it is simple justice. Secondly, with rare exceptions teachers will not definitely prepare themselves for greater efficiency without hope of adequate reward. The first reason does not seem to admit of argimient, and in our own experience has been accepted without question by all teachers and all others interested. The second reason is not self-evident; and, involving as it does the great question of increasing efficiency of teachers in the service, is opposed by those who are prone to deny that me and women in the teaching profession are influenced by the instincts and impulses commo to the race. There may be teachers who are wUling to sacrifice themselves without hop of earthly reward and this spirit is commendable wherever it is found. It woxUd pleasant to conceive of an entire corps of teachers or an entire body of public offic actuated by such high motives; but experience teaches us that a salary of fifty doll does not usually purchase seventy-five dollars worth of service, and it is not reasoo to expect it. After all has been said about the higher motives which should actuate a teacher in ' the performance of her duties, there are two influences which are mightily effective in - bringing forth her best efforts. These influences are the assiu^ance that her increase : in efficiency will be properly recognized in her promotion and the fixing of her salary, and the knowledge that she cannot hold her position if she is incompetent. As already suggested, probably the most frequent cause of failure is a defective method of determining the teacher's qualifications. Who shall pass upon the teacher's fitness for promotion or increase in salary ? How shall her increase in efficiency be deter- mined ? What shall be the basis for determining her increase in efficiency ? Superintendence] MERIT AND EFFICIENCY IN PROMOTING TEACHERS 475 Technically, in most cities, the board of education has the sole power to fix teachers' salaries and assign them to their positions, but the fine question of a teacher's increase in efficiency is one for the expert; and the chief factor should be an efficiency record kept by the principal or other supervisory officer and approved by the superintendent. While we realize very keenly the vidnerable points of this method, we are satisfied that any honest and intelligent effort to measure a teacher's service in terms of well-defined and commonly accepted standards is preferable to conclusions determined by the extravagant praise or bitter condemnation of a few parents, pupils, or even school-board members who have had personal relations with her. While the much overworked term "efficiency" is still obscured by a h£ize of mystery and uncertainty, we use it here in a relative sense, and we make no claim that anyone is able to determine on an absolute basis that a teacher is 95 per cent efficient. In the absence of objective standards for measuring educational products and achievements, we must be satisfied with standards which are essentially qualitative rather than quantitative. For example: If, in the matter of classroom instruction, we accept Frank McMurry's principles of the motivation of pupils' efforts thru the providing of specific purposes for study, attention to relative values in subject-matter, organization of ideas, and de- velopment of initiative on the part of the pupil, the supervisor will look for these quali- ties in a teacher's classroom work. We merely refer to these qualities for the sake of illustration, realizing that emphasis on specific qualities of instruction will vary with the policies of the authorities in different school systems. Regardless of the academic discussions of impractical theorists, we are convinced that it is folly at this stage in the development of the science of education to attempt to specify an elaborate schedule of standards for judging a teacher's work with the hope that such a schedule will be accepted generally by those authorities who are actually operating the merit system of promotion. On the other hand, an essential element in any form of the merit system is the designation of a few specific quEdities which are in harmony with the policies of the institution. These will be varied from time to time as the conditions justify. A record of a teacher's classroom efficiency should be satisfactory to the teacher as well as to the supervisor if it is to have the desired effect upon that teacher, i.e., the retention of the teacher's service and her professional growth. Is this condition possible ? Again we must take issue with the theorists who assert that only those teachers who receive a high rating are satisfied with the supervisor's analysis of their work, and that in order to preserve peace he will give practically all of his teachers a high grade in schoolroom efficiency. There are two important factors which must be given due consideration if the super- visor's analysis of a teacher's work is to be satisfactory to both parties concerned. First, the supervisor must maintain an attitude of entire frankness toward a teacher regarding his estimate of her work. Positive criticism, favorable or unfavorable, is always pre- ferred by honest people, and teachers belong to that class. Negative criticism savors of incompetency or chicanery. The teacher is on trial, and she is entitled to a bill of par- ticulars. If she does not receive the coveted promotion or increase in salary she is entitled to a definite statement showing wherein she failed to meet the requirements. The super- visor's record of a teacher's efficiency should be fully discussed with her before it passes to higher authorities. Here is where the supervisor's best constructive work is made possible. At least one gigantic failure of the merit system within recent years was due to the neglect or wilful ignoring of this factor. Secondly, the supervisory authorities who do not have the confidence of those whom they are supervising are not in a position to operate any system. This may seem rather harsh, but after all it is about time that we awake from our pedagogical dreams and face the stubborn facts of a practical world. A second element of vital importance in determining a teacher's fitness for promotion, tho one not so commonly recognized as the record of schoolroom efficiency, is the pro- 1 inati ■ 476 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Cincinnai motional examination or other means used to determine her growth in the knowledge of the theory of teaching, in scholarship, and in matters of general culture. The exact form which this promotional examination shall take will be determined by local conditions and policies, but where possible it seems expedient that it should be coincident with the examinations required by state law for the different grades of teachers' licenses. Inas- much as the superintendent grants the lower grade certificates and has the recommending power with certificates of the higher grades, the department of supervision has a very practical opportunity to encourage growth both in a knowledge of educational processes and the philosophy of teaching and in a knowledge of the academic branches required for the several grades of teachers' certificates. The question of the actual correlation between length of service and merit has not been and probably never will be definitely settled. The investigations of Ruediger and Strayer concerning this question are interesting if not entirely satisfactory. Referring to the table of correlations which they prepared they close their report with these words: "From the figures as a whole, one may infer that a teacher in the grades reaches first- dass eflSdency in about five years; that she maintains this ejEciency for about twenty years; and that after twenty-five years of service she begins to decline." Administra- tive authorities will find conclusions such as the above of little use to them when they are confronted by actual conditions, and those who attempt to apply the merit system will sooner or later discover that, beyond a reasonable period of apprenticeship, length of service should be a factor only in so far as it can be shown that it has been conducive to greater efficiency. After a limited period of years, teachers caimot rely upon the information and inspiration received from schoolroom experience for their increase in efficiency. They must show evidence that they have definitely studied and prepared for better work. This principle holds in the case of superintendents as well as teachers, and a wide-awake commimity will not be tardy in making the application. The practice in many school systems of making a distinction in salary between certain grades may have some advantages, but there are two inevitable results of the practice which seem to weaken any arguments in its favor. First, the best teachers will gravitate to the grades paying the highest salaries. Secondly, it creates a difficult admin- istrative problem when it becomes expedient to transfer a teacher from one grade to another. We will close this discussion with a brief statement of the cardinal features of tlw merit system as it is used in Beaver Falls: i^k I. Teachers are classified as follows: Class i: Teachers holding a permanent state certificate, state normal-school diploma, or a permanent college certificate, and showing evidence of at least three years' successful experience in schook approved by the board. Class 2: Teachers holding a professional certificate, state normal-school certificate, or provisional college certificate, and showing evidence of at least two years' successful experience in schools approved by the board. Class 3: Teachers holding a provisional certificate, state normal-school certificate, or provisional college certificate, without two years' successful experience in schools approved by the board. This classification is made on the following basis: (1) The grade of certificate, involv- ing promotional examinations to determine evidence of growth in scholarship and a knowledge of educational processes and the philosophy of teaching; and (2) successful experience, involving an efficiency record to determine evidence of growth in schoolroom efficiency with special reference to the following items: o) Instruction b) Management of children c) Attention to details of school work d) Professional zeal e) Personal qualities II Superintendence] SATISFACTORY BASIS FOR PROMOTING PUPILS 477 2. Minimum and maximima salaries are fixed for classes 2 and 3, a minimum and a maximum for automatic increase are fixed for class i. Teachers belonging to class i who possess special qualifications may receive a salary beyond the maximum for auto- matic increase. 3. Provision is made for an automatic increase in salary according to a definite increment for a teacher having a satisfactory efficiency record until she reaches the maxi- mum salary for the class to which she belongs or acquires the qualifications which place her in another class. 4. The efficiency record is posted twice each year and teachers are given an oppor- tunity to see their rating before it is reported to the board of education. A SATISFACTORY BASIS FOR THE PROMOTION OF PUPILS JOSEPH ROSIER, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, FAIRMONT, W.VA. With the development of modem school organization came the necessity for arranging diildren in groups of homogeneous abilities so that each individual might be able to respond to the instruction given to the group as a whole. In the graded school system, each group is supposed to be composed of children of about the same age and of about the same mental capacity. The graded school system, on the one hand, has developed the spirit of social co-operation among the members of the group in the mastery of the course of study, and, on the other hand, it has tended to the submersion of the individual pupil and his peculiar needs and interests. The point of conflict therefore in all plans for the grading and pro- motion of pupils in our schools is found in the needs of the individual pupil for specific instruction and the mechanization of class teaching. Not only is flexibility of grading necessary for the welfare of children of limited mental capacity, but, in recent years, the necessity of making provisions for the children of more than average mental capacity has been recognized. This brings out the desir- ability of minimum and maximtmi requirements in the course of study so that pupils of exceptional ability may have a wider range of studies. Provisions for shortening the time of the completion of the course of study such as the Cambridge plan and other similar plans, aside from the administrative difficulties, are of doubtful value, because bright pupils will be benefited more by an intensive study of subject-matter in the different grades than they will by a premature and hasty advance into higher classes. With these preliminary statements concerning the problems of grading and promo- tion, we are prepared to consider the basis for the promotion of pupils from grade to grade in our schools. A view shotdd first be taken of the methods which were developed along with the growth of the graded school system. During the period from 1870 to 1895, scholastic ability and intellectual training were the factors that determined the promotion of pupils, and examinations were made the chief test. Lists of examination questions were prepared by external authorities for testing the different grades of the schools, and the papers containing the answers were collected and passed upon by the superintendent and his assistants. The marks on the examination papers when properly added and averaged indicated the fortunate children who were to be advanced to the next higher grade. These scholastic tests with some slight attention to the chronological age of the child made the promoting of pupils a comparatively simple and easy problem. Modem investigation of the many phases of education has in recent years given us an entirely different outlook. The examination as a means of determining the fitness of pupils for promotion is no longer considered reliable or adequate. An examination pre- pared by a central authority and scattered broadcast as a test of general fitness is a violation of every known biological and psychological law. Such tests mechanize the school system, hamper and restrict the teaching, overstimidate some children, and fail absolutely to stimulate others. The examination as a basis for promotion is an instm- ment of torture, and cannot be justified in the light of our present-day knowledge of the 478 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cmcinnati child. The progressive superintendent realizes that he must know the needs and the pos- sibilities of the children, and that he cannot find out these things by any system of external tests. The primary basis for the promotion of the child from grade to grade in ova schools is biological. The child is a product of evolutionary processes, and his elemental biological eqvdpment is not imlike that of all other kinds of animal life. The biological outlook is absolutely essential to an intelligent imderstanding of childhood in its natural instincts, its primitive manifestations of thought, and in its developmental influences of evolutionary origin. Our organized systems of education have never given intelligent consideration to the lengthened period of infancy, and its biological significance in the physical and mental growth of man. We are too prone to regard the child as a separate instead of an integral part of organic creation, and to overlook the fact that there are certain physical and mental determinants in the normal imfolding of its possibilities. Our teacher-training courses have dealt too much in psychological hair-splitting, and not enough with the simple laws of biological growth. An observance of the order of the physiological maturing of children will solve many of our educational problems by adjusting our demands and requirements to the stage of development. The child's powers of resistance to disease and fatigue have a great bearing upon the sort of education it ought to have. We have scarcely recognized in practice the intimate relation that exists between physical and mental conditions. The neurological basis of feeling, knowing, and willing is so deep and fundamental that no system of instruction can safely disregard it. When we recognize the basic importance of the nervous system in the development of the child we will not expect normal instincts, emotions, and intelligence in children that are morbid and imhealthy. Recent investigations also show that the training of the mind is closely related to the activity of the muscles, and that motor activity of some sort is essential to all edu- cational development. Termon holds that the motor element is present in all our think- ing, and that thinking, biologically speaking, is never its own end, but a means toward adaptation, which is essentially motor. The traditional school with its memorizing processes and its examinations for the test of mental contents rather than mental capacity left out of account that large element of children whose thinking is based largely upon motor processes and muscular activities, with the result that such children were branded as laggards, misfits, and incompetents. Traditional education is subject to criticism in that it measures the educational progress of the child solely by intellectual attainments and scholastic standards. More importance has been attached to knowing than to doing. With the application of biological laws in education less time will be given to book instruc- tion, and more to those things that demand physical activity. In the formulation of soimd theories of grading and promoting children, we must also give an important place to the consideration of the psychologic basis of education. The application of the laws of mental life to educational processes is an obligation resting upon every modem school system. In the training of teachers much of the theoretical and experimental psychology now given in normal schools and departments of education ought to be discarded, and a study of the simple mental processes in relation to learning substituted in their place. In the general practice of education, we need a wider study and vinderstanding of the methods of adjustment and of adaptation. The greatest world waste of human energy grows out of the inability of the individual to land in the place in which he can render the most valuable service to himself and society. The mechanical standards set up in too many of our schools tend to destroy the ability of the child to stand on his own feet, and undoubtedly make him weak and vacillating in the presence of the varying situations of life. Primitive education was more efficient in training the individual to confront the situations of primitive life than is modem education in its preparation of the child to find its bearings in the more complex life of today. Our schools need teaching that is based upon the simple, well-tested principles of psychology, that views in broad Superintendence] SATISFACTORY BASIS FOR PROMOTING PUPILS 479 outline the natural mental development from childhood to manhood, that recognizes individual differences among children and perceives their significance in educational training, and that clearly grasps the conditions and the factors that imderlie the learning process. In adding to the traditional scholastic standards the biological and psychological elements which have been considered, the grading and promotion of pupils become a question of child welfare rather than of the manipulation of a scholastic yardstick. In any conflict between the school system and preconceived educational standards and the welfare of the child, the needs and interests of the child must be supreme. We preach no soft pedagogy when we say that our school systems must be so flexible in their adjust- ments and requirements that they may provide the child with the amplest opportunity for serving his needs. Slowly but surely, with our broader knowledge of physiology and hygiene and the psychology of childhood, the pupils in our schools are being emancipated from the schoolroom repressions and scholastic tortures that prevailed everywhere in former generations. We no longer chain children to their desks and to their books, and thus make learning a process to be dreaded and hated and the school a prison-house from which children escape with joy. With a more liberalized spirit in our schools, the school system has ceased to be a machine in which children are bent and compressed into purely intellectual and scholastic molds. In spite of the dismal forebodings of those who attempt to attribute to the leniency and latitude of present-day school discipline the lack of respect for law, order, and authority, there are substantial grounds for believing that reverence for the individuality of the child is the most vital element in modern pedagogy. In the teaching of today the discipline of physical force and muscle must give way to the dominant influence and leadership of the spirit in the control and direction of children. The problem of determining the fitness of a pupil for promotion is one which must be solved primarily by the teacher. The purpose of grading and promotion in our schools is not that of punishment or reward, but an intelligent, sensible assignment of a pupil to the place where he can do the best work. The teacher, after having had a pupil in her class for a half-year or a year, with opportunities for the daily inspection of his recitations and his written work in the different subjects, and for the observation of his physical characteristics and mental attitudes, ought to be better qualified than anyone else to decide what is best for the child. The teacher's judgment should, of course, be based upon a reasonable system of records and not upon mere temporary or spasmodic opinion. Any plan of promotion, however, that makes the teacher a slave to classbooks, markings, and percentages is distinctly bad. The determination of the promotion of a child is not a matter of adding and averaging percentages. The teacher should be permitted to recommend for promotion all pupils in her class about whose ability to do the work of the next grade there is no question. There will remain a certain number in each class whose cases should be considered by the teacher and the principal together. There will be an occasional pupil about whom the superintendent will be called into consultation. In all instances, the question to be decided is what is best for the child. Any plan which provides for an examination of the doubtful minority as a final test of what shall be done with them is an inexcusable dodging of professional responsibility. In the light of modem knowledge of the relation of physical to mental conditions, it would be far better to call in the doctor and the specialist. Due consideration should also be given to the physiological as well as the chrono- logical age of the child, to its general health conditions and vital power to resist disease and fatigue, to the degree of its mental maturity, and to its habits in school attendance, study, and performance of assigned work. With our highly intellectualized notions of school work, and mechanical standards of measuring the progress of children, too much fuss has been made about scholastic marks and promotions. Reclassifications and pro- motions should be brought about by normal and quiet methods without any upsetting or serious disturbance of the individual pupil and without any noticeable agitation of the 48o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Cincinnati school as a whole. The supreme aim in assigning a pupil to his place in a school system is to provide him with a maximum of opportimity. This assignment is a matter of judgment to be exercised by those best acquainted with the capabilities of the child. The teacher in consultation with the principal can most accurately and wisely determine when the pupil is prepared to advance to a higher grade. DISCUSSION A. C. Payne, superintendent of schools, Mooresville, Ind. — Superintendent Green's contention is that eflBiciency should be the sole basis for the promotion of teachers in any system of schools. In this contention, all of us agree with him. The spirit of the twen- tieth century is that advancement in any line of hmnan endeavor is conditioned by the degree in which a man or an institution "makes good." It seems strange that two of the greatest institutions of society, the church and the school, should have been content so long to ignore, in large degree, the principles whidi underlie all successful business endeavor and practice. The spirit of inquiry and research, that divine spirit of discontent which asserts itself when the work of today is not better than the work of yesterday, is begiiming to make its influence felt among the school administrators of the country. A few taxpayers every- where (and the nimiber is rapidly increasing every day) have begun to inquire whether the school is giving value received for its expenditure of time and money. These taxpayers are asking why the schools of their city should cost more per pupil than the schools of a neighboring city. They are insisting that the disproportionate cost of the maintenance of two schools in the same city is due largely to the lack of scientific management. This inquiry of the taxpayer, this exercise of sovereignty in our Republic, has caused us school men to turn our attention to a phase of public-school administration which has not yet received due consideration. The increasing nvunber of school superintendents everywhere who have volimtarily asked their boards of education to employ experts to examine courses of study, methods of instruction, and administrative ejBEorts in their own school systems — these men have done much to beget confidence in the schools of the present and to inspire larger hope for the schools of the future. Superintendent Green names two classes of individuals who oppose the promotion of teachers on merit, the fossilized teacher and the politician who would exploit the school for personal gain. The niunber of classes should be increased by the addition of that class of superintendents who find it more pleasant to remain in their oflices, to keep records, and to entertain visitors, than to go out among their teachers in their daily work and actually share with them its problems and perplexities. These superintendents are content to view this question of efficiency from the range of a forty-two centimeter gun. They declare that this measuring of efficiency is another "new one" brought to light by Colxmibia or some other university and that it will soon be consigned to the p>edagogical scrapheap where all the other educational fads of the centuries peacefully repose. We have, therefore, an addition to the classes of opponents of merit and efficiency — the fossilized superintendent who finds himself imable to make adjustment to the changes by which the race has kept its face toward the light. "Progress, man's distinctive mark alone, not God's, not the beast's," has neither poetical nor practical appeal to him. The author of the paper has made the necessity of keeping an efficiency record so plain that a wajrfaring man need not go astray. The difficulty, as the author well says, is the difficulty of determining the factors that shall constitute this record and the emphasis that some of these should receive in using them as an efficiency test. At the risk of being dogmatic, it would seem safe to say that one element, or factor, in an efficiency record anywhere is the teacher's ability to bring the subject-matter taught Superintendence] SATISFACTORY BASIS FOR PROMOTING PUPILS 481 into vital relationship with the life the pupil now lives. In teaching the government of ancient Greece, the teacher should lead her pupils to see that the Greek spirit of freedom and independence reappeared in the Constitutional Convention. Still further, if the pupils of this teacher see that the attempt of a member of the legislature of their own state to make the county rather than the state the unit in the administration of a law is an exemplification of the Greek spirit of local independence, she has done a splendid piece of work. This teacher is an artist. On one point of her efficiency record she should have "A+." Another characteristic that should have place in any efficiency record anywhere is that resourcefulness or originality which enables the teacher to stand before her class, not as a trained craftsman, working at the direction and plan of another, but as the student in his laboratory, becoming more conscious every day of the growing significance of his subject as a developing power in the lives of his pupils. Such a teacher is afire with zeal for truth. Her pupils have gotten live coals from the same altar. In the heat of the spirit, even as two bars of iron under pressure become one, so does the thinking of pupil and teacher fuse into one product which transforms the world. Mark this teacher " A+ " in one quality of her teaching record. No one has ever described this better than the Sage of Concord when he said: The spirit only can teach. Not any sensual, not any liar, not any slave can teach, but only he can give who has; he only can create, who is. The man on whom the sovd descends, thru whom the soul speaks, alone can teach. Courage, purity, love, wisdom can teach; and every man can open his door to these angels, and they shall bring him the gift of tongues. But the man who aims to speak as books enable, as synods use, as the fashion guides, and as interest commands, babbles. Let him hush ! Another element of any efficiency record anjrwhere is that of a definite aim or pur- pose in every recitation which the teacher conducts. The teacher who sees the goal from the beginning and makes all his questioning, all the illustrative material used, help move toward this goal deserves high efficiency rating. It is said that far back in the misty morning of the past the Great American Auk and other animals now extinct left the impress of their feet so distinctly upon rock then plastic that to this day the geologist may trace their wandering feet. Even so may the influence of the teacher who leads his pupils to right habits of thinking day by day and year by year be seen long after his work is done in the minds of those whom he has taught. Such a teacher deserves high ranking in any efficiency record. There are many more elements in an efficiency record which are so general in their application as would make their employment satisfactory in measuring the efficiency of teachers in any school system anywhere. Lack of time forbids even the mention of these, not to say anything about the large number of elements in an efficiency record which will be peculiar to any system because of the emphasis placed upon certain objectives in education as seen by the superintendent and board of education. James T. Begg, superintendent of schools, Sandusky, Ohio. — It is with some hesi- tation that I imdertake what I am about to do, namely: take the opposite side on this question after having heard two excellent papers on the subject on the affirmative side. In listening to the arguments favoring fixing the teacher's salary according to her efficiency, I wondered how long the speaker had been superintendent in his particular city, how far he was responsible for his present corps of teachers, how many he would grade low had been graded high by his predecessor, how difficult it is to judge results immediately. If we only realized that he whom we may hold to be mediocre in ability may, in the day of judgment, be found sitting on the right hand of God's throne, while we who feel so superior because of our accidental position may find ourselves in a very humble position among God's elect! Efficiency! Efficiency! Who art thou anyway? So much is done in thy name that one might think thou wert a magician. Efficiency in factories has been referred to 482 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnaiil by both papers, but so far as my limited observation has allowed me to go, efficiency in all manufacturing and mercantile establishments means only one thing and that thing is speed. All factories demand a certain standard or quality of workmanship from every workman in that department. If a workman cannot do that kind of work, he is fired. If he can, he is kept on the pay-roll and rewarded for just what he does. Now why can't we as superintendents demand a certain standard of teaching, stipu- lating that all who cannot do that kind be dismissed, and that those who can be paid the same salary according to experience? I do not object to classification of work with graded salary, but I do think that it is next to impossible to pay a beginner $90.00 per month and a teacher of five or ten years' experience $70 . 00 per month for teaching the same grade and do it on the sole groimd that the new teacher is the more efficient. I can very easily picture the school cyclone that will strike your town when you undertake it, if the present squalls in various cities over smaller matters are any sample. Statistics in our school journals say the life of the school superintendents of the United States aver- ages three years in a place. In view of all the foregoing, gentlemen, I am very frank to say to you I do not think there are two men in the room big enough to put such an arrangement across. The govern- ment does not pay that way, the railroads do not, the telegraphers do not, the contractor does not — in fact, no business does imless it is a merciless piece-pay manufacturing game. Then let us be sane, let us try continually to raise the standard of the teacher's efficiency as a class, let us do anything and everything that wiU react to the betterment of the boys and girls. Let us be slow to judge the work of one co-worker as compared with another, especially when both are doing acceptable work, lest we betray oiu: own narrowness, our own inefficiency, our susceptibility to being swayed by our personal feelings, our likes and dislikes, eta, ad infinitum. Henhy M. Maxson, superintendent of schools, Plainfield, N.J. — ^It seems to me that the first essential in establishing a system of promotion is to answer this question: What is the aim of a promotion system ? Before answering the question, it may be wise to sweep away various misconceptions: (i) There is the erroneous idea prevalent among the teachers that it is an instrument of discipline. Many teachers hold up before the children the non-promotion bogie to frighten them into doing their work. (2) There is the misconception of the parents, many of whom seem to think that it is a system for bestowing merits or demerits on the pupils at the end of the year, and who rise in arms if their particular child has not received pro- motion, assuming at once that it is the result of unfairness on the part of the teacher. (3) Misconceptions exist also on the part of the school boards, who seem to think it is a method of roUing red tape, as shown by a case that appeared in the papers not long since, where a child had passed the county examination for admission to the high school, but the board of education would not receive her. There was no question of ability to do the work, but the child had not passed thru the eighth grade. And (4) even the super- visory officers sometimes get astray on the matter, conceiving that it is simply a device for producing classes of even ability. Now all these are misconceptions of the real basis of promotion. The real aim is simply this: To provide a method for putting each child in the place where he will get the biggest returns for the time he spends in school. If this be so, then the main thing in determining the system of promotion is the invention of some means that will enable us to determine what a child can do, in order to know what to give him to do; i.e., the cornerstone of the system is the determining of individual ability, individual power of accomplishment, individual needs. How shall this be determined? In these days, there is much talk of efficiency tests, of educational standards, but it win be many a day before these matters are in such shape that they can be used to deter- mine a child's advancement in the course. That question must be settled mainly by the Superintendence] SATISFACTORY BASIS FOR PROMOTING PUPILS 483 one who knows him best, his classroom teacher, who works with him day by day, who sees not only what he accomplishes but the way his mind works, who becomes familiar with his capacities and his deficiencies. The teacher's judgment, supplemented by that of the principal, the next one who knows most about the child, must ever be the main reliance in systems of promotion for smaller cities. In difficult cases, the judgment of the superintendent may be brought in as a referee. If parents were satisfied to accept the dictum of a teacher unsupported, these per- sonal judgments would be sufficient. Parents are not so satisfied, and ofttimes the good teacher needs data as wa3miarks, in order to help her in determining the final judgment; hence arise systems of daily marking and examination. They are all right, if viewed correctly. But they have their dangers. The teacher must not feel that she is to give an exact ntmierical value of the abihty of each child. In fact, for purposes of promotion, two marks are sufficient: "Satisfactory" and "Unsatisfactory." Of course, conduct should never enter into the matter at all. Since we are trying to determine where the child's power of accomplishment should put him, deportment must for the time being be forgotten. Again, from this viewpoint, the pupil must be advanced by subjects. If he is deficient in arithmetic, there is no sense in making him take over again the geography which he has done well. Finally, the system must never become so hardened and ironclad as to prevent the authorities from putting each child where he ought to be, regardless of what the records show. As a summary, I am inclined to accept this dictum: (i) Each pupil should be given, each day, something that he can do; (2) he should do it; and (3) if he does not do it, there is something the matter with the system. If a child does not, each day, find some- thing that he can do and wants to do, then, as far as that child is concerned, the pro- motion system is a failure. J. T. Giles, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Ind. — ^My contribution to this discussion is a report of a co-operative effort by the Richmond city teachers and super- visors to construct a mutually satisfactory scale for judging the merits of a recitation. The request for the scale came originally from the teachers themselves. The following method was used: Each teacher and supervisor was asked to submit to the superintendent a list of ten qualities of a good recitation. The replies were then tabulated as follows, the figures indicating the number of times each quality was mentioned: interest, 71; preparation, 70; initiative, 69; weighing values, 56; organization of ideas, 41 ; assignment, 40; motive, 37; co-operation, 35; purpose (aim), 35; attention, 32; well-adapted subject-matter, 32; questioning, 30; sympathetic attitude, 30; criticism, 23; apperception, 21; knowledge, 20; participation by all, 19; application, 18; presentation, 17; spirit, 17; English, 15; expression, 14; self-activity, 14; generalization, 13; effort, 12; skill of teacher, 12; self- reliance, 12; concentration, 10; review, 8; order, 7; surroundings, 7; imified action, 6; responsibility, 6; originality, 6. Five or less mentioned accuracy, assimilation, appeal to all the senses, balance, brevity, correlation, class activity dominant, courtesy, co-ordination, clearness, con- centration, cheer, conservation, discussion, definiteness, direction not domination by teacher, dignity, drill, enthusiasm, exactness, equipment, friendly feeling, imagination, inspiration, induction, judgment, knowledge of pupil, logical content and memory, neat- ness, observation, poise, politeness, power, problem, promptness, position, response, respect, reason, suggestion, simplicity, spontaneity, self-control, study habits, standards, thinking, tact, time, thoroness, understanding, variety. The significance of the above classification is clear. It means that, theoretically at least, we have passed in teaching method from the logical doctrine of the five formal steps 484 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cmdnnati in the development of subject-matter, thru the psychological doctrine of interest in the development of the child, to the sociological doctrine of the child's adjustment to socirty. The qualities most frequently mentioned were then arranged in the form given below and resubmitted to the teachers for evaluation. The replies were again tabulated and the averages are as indicated in the scale. The reason why the total of points in the recitation schedule is 120, professional and commxmity interest being 30, making 150 points all together, is because in Indiana a teacher's success is graded practically on a scale of 15, no teacher being able to secure a license if her success grade falls below 85. Of these possible 15 points (150 on the scale), 3 (30 on the scale) are assigned by the department to jjersonality and professional and community interest and the remainder to the teaching process. The value of this scale lies in its construction rather than in its final form. It states educational values as one group of teachers sees them today. It is mutual, not super- imposed. It is offered to this body as a suggestion of method, not as a finality. The scale itself is as follows: Recitation Tests I. Conditions determined (as far as possible) by the teacher: 1. Favorable surroundings, order, industry, temperature, ventilation, light, seating, books, apparatus, etc. [12] 2. Attitude [18] o) Self, group, teacher control b) Sjrmpathy v. force c) Reasons v. authority d) Freedom v. prescription 3. The problem (assignment) [24] o) Furnishing a definite aim (goal) of skill, knowledge, appreciation, ideal b) Interesting (motivated), identified with a felt need c) Adapted to pupil's experience (Q Applicable to life adjustment n. Activities of the pupils: 1. Attention (participation) undivided, imanimous [16] 2. Co-operation [18] c) Group responsibility b) Pupil initiative, absence of teacher domination c) Conformity to social usage out of school, courtesy, etc. 3. Criticism [12] o) Self and group v. teacher 4. Use of ideas [20] a) Expression, good English, design, harmony, accuracy, neatness, etc b) Evaluation (choice) c) Organization or Habit formation i) Conformity to James's Laws Total [120] m. Professional attitude and commimity interest [30J II Superintendence] ADMINISTERING COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE LAWS 485 ROUND TABLE OF CHILD RELATIONS THE ADMINISTRATION OF COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE LAWS S. O. HARTWELL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, KALAMAZOO, MICH. The present situation as to compulsory education in the United States is practically the same as the situation on other items of educational theory and procedure. Legally, we have no national system of education, but as many different plans as there are states. Practically there has been notable progress in recent years toward unity of plan and a common method of procedure among the different states. From the point of view of desirable conditions, compulsory education has not yet gone very far in the United States. If we are to consider it historically, however, with an eye to the gains in recent decades, the advances are encouraging. Prior to 1870, but two states had enactments of this kind on their statute books. Con- gress had also acted for the District of Colimibia. The first effective law, which gathered tip some vagrant provisions as to truancy and regular attendance previously enacted, was passed in Massachusetts in 1852; Vermont passed its first law in 1867; while the District of Colimibia enactment was in 1864. In the next decade, twelve states passed similar laws. In the twenty years between 1880 and 1900, fifteen more were added to the list, and ten others made similar provisions during the first decade of this century. Thus the list of states at present without any provision for compulsory education is brought down to a half-dozen southern states, with three or four in the same section whose enact- ments are not state-wide but drawn to meet special local conditions. The vital provisions as to length of the compulsory term, the maximum age of pupils coming under the law, and the penalties for enforcement differ amazingly. Apparently the best laws and the best enforcement are found at present in the New England states. New York, and a few of the North Central states. According to the 1910 census (quoted in W. S. Deffenbaugh's article on "Compulsory School Attendance" in a recent bulletin of the Bureau of Educa- tion), only eight of the states have secured the school attendance of 90 per cent of the diildren between six and fourteen years of age. Four of these are in New England, the others being Iowa, Nebraska, Michigan, and New York. Ohio has advanced legislation on compulsory education and child labor passed in 1913 and the Wisconsin law for con- tinuation schools in industrial training has imdoubtedly done much to help the situation m that state. But however much we may say as to progress in the last two or three decades, statis- tical comparison of the proportion of the children in school and of the facts of iUiteracy, which dearly bear a direct relation to compulsory school attendance, shows that both the laws and their enforcement are, in actual terms of the best procedure, incomplete and ragged. In the different states, the compulsory age limit ranges from twelve in three States to sixteen years of age, which is the accepted limit in fifteen states. Idaho is the only state going above the limit of sixteen, having named eighteen years, but evidently conditions of enforcement, probably because of scattered population, are uncertain, as the percentage of children imder fourteen who are enrolled in school is 82. i. The period of reqiured attendance varies from twelve weeks per year — six of which must be consecutive — in one of the southern states, to the full year, the legal requirement in twenty-five states. But here, again, legal enforcement as to the complete school year varies so that the French- man's dictum on a general statement is correct: "No general statement is true, not even this one." Further, the causes of exemption are so varied that the percentage of efl&ciency of enforcement up to the age of fourteen shows a descending scale from 92.9 in Massa- chusetts, to 54.6 in Louisiana. It should be said, however, that the Louisiana statistics are really prior to the adoption of their compulsory law in 1910. Therefore, in a general •discussion of the enforcement of compulsory education laws, it is necessary to assume a law 1 486 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati with strong provisions and sufficient penalties, such as the Ohio law of 1913 above mentioned, the Michigan law, or the Massachusetts law. Given such provisions on the statute books, what are the essentials that must be secured in order to gain a reasonably satisfactory enforcement? The point that seems to me of first importance is one on which I have foimd it difficult to secure clear data. The provisions are as varied as the different laws and in most of the states much is left to local initiative. I refer to the method of enrolment and registration by which the facts as to the nvunber of children of school age are ascertained. Here the German habit and example of thoroness and its results in the matter of compulsory education are certainly suggestive even if we cannot exactly follow them. Their method of careful and complete registration of all families and the prompt recording of families that move have given them probably the closest estimate to be foimd in any country as to the actual nvunber of school children. With this as a first step, careful legal enforcement of attendance has followed, and the curve of illiteracy has steadily fallen until the ratio of 3/100 of I per cent has been reached. It is further stated in the same pamphlet from the Bureau of Education just quoted, that in Prussia in 1901 out of 5,754,728 children of school age 5,754,180 were in school. Clearly no state in this coimtry could approach that. Probably under the present registration systems, no state would know if it had done so. This point of registration is essential and can, with reasonable care, be fairly met. In the first place, all the respectable laws require a school census which forms the basis for such registration; in the second place, provisions for making this effective seem easily possible in a locality of any size. I may briefly describe a plan used with some success in a city of moderate size: Care has been taken for several years to check the school census from previous records with such success that this year less than a score of the names presented to the state department were rejected as in error. Next, a card record of the actual attendance in the public schools has been kept. These two lists have been prepared for pupils of school age. Of course, there is considerable discrepancy as there are several parochial schools in the town. In the fall, the list of names found on the school census and not in the attendance register has been sent to each of the private and parochial schools, which have co-operated in checking the names of those in attendance at such schools. The remainder of the list has been checked by postal-card notice and by visits of the truant officers. A further list of those in attendance in the public schools last year who have not enrolled thig year has been checked in the same way and the result shows that the actual number of pupils failing to enrol is very small. The keeping of the two lists has also been quite effective in checking the curious habit among appli- cants for school permits of aging suddenly at fourteen, whereby they skip a year or two in order quickly to get to work. The weakness of this list is one that is, I fancy, constant. It does not account, except thru volunteer information, for the pupils who come into town during the year. In a small dty, neighborhood information will take care of the major fraction of these people. In the country, neighborhood information may perhaps be a little more reluctant. But some method of providing for a continuous register of this sort must, in my judgment, be foimd in order to get thoro enforcement of the compulsory attendance. I presume that such methods are used in the large cities where there are well-organized attendance departments. The second point in enforcement is a sufficient number of attendance officers. Even the best of the localities that I know of — and they are situated in states with a high per- centage of enforcement — are weak in this regard. I presume, therefore, that the weakness is practically universal. This is natural enough since parents, as a rule, are rather resent- ful of legal compulsion, and since there is a hazy notion in the public mind that non- attendance is sporadic and individual. The school man looks upon it as a steady factor of interruption. With a little planning, much more can be secured in this line in almost Superintendence] ADMINISTERING COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE LAWS 487 any city. While the truant officers, so called, must have certain police powers, the separation of the attendance department so far as possible from the police point of view seems necessary. Men and women should be secured as attendance officers, who, in addition to sympathy and tact, have some knowledge of the problems of education and understand the value of school attendance and regularity therein. I have known a few cities in which the principal attendance officer was a teacher in the ungraded school. This has been valuable both to the school and in the enforcement of the law. It has given a wider knowledge of the conditions affecting the truancy and it has added to the force of volunteer officers a number of pupils who knew the haunts of the derelicts. The method cannot be fully carried out in a large city but it can be made useful in the smaller city. In the smaller villages and rural districts, enforcement of the attendance law is likely to be placed, if placed at all, in the hands of a deputy sheriff. Here, again, the principle of removing enforcement from police control and connecting it with the positive side of school administration needs emphasis. The failure to send children to school is, of course, disobedience to compulsory laws, and the ordinary machinery for checking disobedience lies either in the local police force or in coimty and state jurisdiction. Division of respon- sibihty, in matters of this sort, is in general to be avoided; but, in spite of all this, condi- tions of enforcement in school attendance differ so entirely from the ordinary conditions of law enforcement that the establishment of separate machinery for this purpose seems justifiable and in fact necessary. First of all, while the actual culprit in question is likely to be the parent, the person who, in childhood phrase, "gets took up," is the small boy, and the visit or escort of the police officers is not for him a desirable thing. Secondly, the attention of the sheriff's office is bound to center on larger game; infractions of the attendance law are likely to be considered as almost of no practical importance, or, further, in the sense in which "practical" is frequently used, the important practical point is to forget them. Thirdly, the attitude of police and deputy sheriffs toward law infraction tends rapidly to become cynical, and cynicism has no value in securing school attendance. Lastly, and in many ways most important of all, is the fact that better school attendance must, in the end, be secured by positive rather than negative means. In other words, the only people who can make a good job of it are those who will have some interest and influence not only in catching the boy but in doing something worth while to keep him after he is caught. Some plan for local truant officers under the direction of state inspec- tors who are assistants in the department of education, these people to do the required investigating and prodding where prodding is necessary, and reporting to the prosecuting attorney and the sheriff's department only the incorrigible boys, would be a distinct step in advance. It is along this path that the best chance for enforcement lies. The child-labor situation in the United States, with the demands of industry for cheap labor and the incessant cry of some parents for financial returns from their children, is usually considered one of the most serious stumbling-blocks in the way of enforcement of compulsory attendance. This is still too true, but personally I doubt whether it is often a more serious difficulty than some of the lacks within the school system itself. Unless I thoroly mistake industrial signs, the demand of organized industry for child labor in the North Central states, at least, is steadily decreasing. Manufacturers are finding not only that it leads nowhere but that its immediate use is expensive rather than economical. Unorganized and unskilled occupations still depend, for much of their low-grade work, on child labor. Sometime and somehow I believe the school will meet this situation thru changes in its curriculum and by a different attitude toward certain lines of labor as training. Meanwhile, the problem of making attendance laws and enact- ments regarding child labor harmonize for the interest of the children themselves is puzzling. The emphasis of difficulty lies at one point in one state and at another point in another state. Out of the confusion one or two leading facts arise, viz., the plan of 1 488 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincianati having the registration for school permits and labor permits, so called, center at the same place — that is, in the educational departments of the schools — is necessary in order to secure even reasonable results in school attendance. Some sort of working agreement, at least, should also be secured and if necessary provided by law between the department of factory inspection and the attendance department of any system of city schools. So far we have dealt with the legal and mechanical means needed to secure effective enforcement of the compulsory education. If school men were to stop here, they might fairly be charged with taking motes out of other people's eyes without attending to beams in their own. No one, I think, who has kept in touch with the history of public schoob in this coimtry or whose work has made him familiar with their growing problems will fail to maintain the proposition that our school system has made wonderful progress in equipment, in method, and in realization of its true purposes within recent years. But the need more carefully to weigh present public demands and to make public education in its scope and best attainments literally inclusive of all classes of children and youth is today more urgent than ever before. Facing these facts we may as well admit that an essential element in securing maximum attendance is the readjustment of arrangements within the school itself; put in another way the truest solution of enforcing laws for compulsory education is to abolish their necessity. Of course, I admit that until human nature reaches a higher plane, there will be the irreducible TniniTnnm of people who must be comp)elled to become decent citizens. But the intent of democracy is not only to make possible but to arouse individual initiative — self-direction, that is, in thought, in action, in service. Educational workers will agree that the best time to start this multiphcation of individual initiative is in the earlier days of a child's training, and, further, that the public schools will fail of their mission unless they tie themselves so close to the varied interests of life that they will contain something intellectual for everyone possessing an intellect, and some kind of training for each boy who needs to be trained. The school as an institution has hitherto held largely to the doctrine of the necessity and blessedness of mental work. Sometime it will accept the cognate doctrine of the need of physical work and pay attention to methods of training therein. There will then result a curriculimi based on the essential unity of the human demand which includes both kinds of work. When this residt shall have been attained and even when it shall begin to appear, the problems of compulsory education will be greatly reduced. The immediate view of our subject would seem to seek to discover effective ways of securing the maximum of attendance within the present range and limits of educational work. A fairer view will show that an extension of the range and limits of organized education in the training of children will be one of the best steps toward seeming maximum attendance. With restricted curricula, long vacations, short hours, and lack of organization, the present system is after all a matter of shreds and patches. Personally, I should not ask a larger proportion of the individual pupil's time or attention imder present conditions. But thru special schools for specific lines of work and interest, thru the groping and rather puerile method of credits for outside work, and thru the occasional experiments in uniting the demands of toil and of education in its narrower sense, like those now under way at Gary and at Ogden, Utah, plans for bringing under a school r6gime the different lines of childish activities are beginning to formulate. At present, organized education is often needlessly fearful of the effects on its higher centers of the so-called practical demands. If education is to be a training for life, we ought to view these opportunities as new and fertile fields for cultivation, with an increased scope of interest, happiness, and balanced power. For what are we training people if not toward activity? How shall we secure that in its best form if we continue to separate the training of intelligence from the daDy activities? When we combine them can we fail to secure the interest and attendance of every healthy little animal growing ? The stunted and repressed may still baffle, and compulsory laws may still be needed to reach the irresponsible parent who has escaped the training of this generation; but reduced to its lowest terms the problem is as much Superintendence] WORK PERMITS AND OTHER SCHOOL PROBLEMS 489 one of reaching thru the school the universal interests as it is of compelling attendance. This may seem a far cry from our present situation with the need for compelling machinery. To me it seems to denote not only the ultimate goal, but the quickest way of reaching it. DISCUSSION Homer O. Sluss, superintendent of schools, Covington, Ky. — ^In general, the chief difficulty in the way of the regular school attendance of children is an unfavorable home environment. The factors in this unfavorable home environment may be the indifference of parents, poverty, insanitary and frequently immoral conditions. To meet these conditions and to change them so that children under the shadow of such an environ- ment will attend school regularly is a task as difficult as it is important. It is obvious that for such a task attendance officers of a high type are needed. We need individuals who are armed not merely with the majesty of the law — they should have intelligence, high ideals, sympathy, tact, firmness, and something of the spirit of social service. To secure such officers, higher salaries must be paid. Other things being equal, that attendance officer is the best who finds it necessary least often to appeal to the court. Whenever a case must be taken to court, it is the parent, rather than the child, who should be prosecuted. It is the parents, not the children who are responsible for the unfavorable home environment which promotes irregular attendance. For this reason, it is believed that the parent, rather than the child, should be placed on probation. Where the attitude of the parents toward school attendance is proper, there will be comparatively few cases of truancy. In cases of indigent parents, a system of relief should be established so that children may attend school regularly. Such aid is given, sometimes by the associated charities, sometimes by parent-teacher associations, sometimes by private philanthropy, and some- times by the board of education. In case the authorities are convinced that the child is beyond the control of the parents, or that the home is an improper one for children, the child should be removed 1 from the home and assigned to a parental school or other suitable institution. It is important that the attendance officer should make prompt investigation of absentees. To this end, it is necessary that he receive daily reports from principals, that he make daily investigation, and that he make daily reports to the principals. It is important, too, that a policy of co-operation be established among school authori- jties so that a formal notice may be given when a family with children of school age moves from one city, town, or community to another. This notice should give the names of parent or parents, the children and their ages, and their anticipated street address if that 3e known. THE ISSUANCE OF WORK PERMITS AND ITS BEARING ON OTHER SCHOOL PROBLEMS [ELEN T. WOOLLEY, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE, CINCINNATI, OHIO Working permits may have a very direct bearing on school problems or none at all, epending on how they are issued and what use is made of the information obtainable am issuing them. Statistics of working permits are vital statistics of the school. They ^rrespond to the death-rate of the community. The usefulness of statistics of the eath-rate depends on how accurately the records are taken and how carefully they are nalyzed. Most communities plan their campaigns of health and sanitation on the basis ■ their vital statistics. The statistics regarding working permits should have just as irect a bearing on school problems. 49© NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cincinnati Every school system ought to have a central oflBce which issues all permits, and which makes out each year a statistical report of the total number issued, the number issued to each sex, the ages of the applicants, the school grade completed, and the kind of industry entered. The Children's Bureau began its work for child welfare by trying to improve methods of keeping vital statistics of birth. It is continuing its efforts by taking up the problem of methods of issuing working permits and the use of statistics based on them. In many states, the child-labor laws are at present such that the office which issues permits comes in contact with the child only when the permit is issued. But even with this limitation, information of great value to the school can be obtained. Consider, for instance, the significance of the accompanying table (Table I) showing merely the total number of permits issued each year since the Cincinnati school system has kept records. TABLE I The Total Number op Working Pekiots Issued Each Year m Cincinnati Year Number Year Number a.SSo a,6a3 4,ai8 2,oS3 2,856 3,348 1905-6 1910-11 2,800 J, 366 1907-^ 2,450 1908-9 1,207 The first effort made by the school to secure the enforcement of the child-labor law was in the year 1906-7, when F. B. Dyer, who was then superintendent, asked the department of factory insf>ection to assign to the city some extra inspectors for the purpose of gather- ing in the children who were working without permits. The result was to increase the number of permits issued that year by nearly 100 per cent. During the following year, the special inspectors were withdrawn, and there was a financial depression, with the result that the number of permits dropf>ed even below where it had been before. In the year 1908-9, the Child Labor Committee began its work for better enforcement and the industrial conditions improved. Accordingly the number of permits increased during that year and the next. From 1910 down to the present time, the law has been well enforced. In 19 10 a new child-labor law added the educational requirement of the fifth grade in school and made more rigid regulations about birth records. As a result the number of permits issued decreased again. In 191 1, the establishment of day continu- ation schools, which were compulsory for all children who had not completed the eighth grade, put a premium on remaining in school which reduced still further the number ot working permits. The following year an adjustment to the new conditions seems tt^ have been reached. At the beginning of the year 1913-14, another law went into effect; which raised the age limit one year for boys and two years for girls. That had the effect of reducing the number of permits to half what it had been before, the smallest niunbei ever issued. But far more significant than these totals is the analysis of the statistics for eacl' year. In Cincinnati, we have made such an analysis for each of the last five years. Thi details of it you will find in the annual reports of our superintendent of schools. Soms of the facts discovered which have an obvious bearing on school problems are the following The amount of retardation among children who leave school to go to work is more thai twice as great as it is in the school system at large. In the pubhc school, the largest grou. leaving was from the fifth grade, the lowest one possible, while only 13 per cent of thes fourteen- and fifteen-year-old children had completed the eighth grade. The establisli ment of the continuation school brought up the proportion of those who had complete' the eighth grade to over 20 per cent in two years. We foimd that the children were leavir! in greatest numbers very soon after the fourteenth birthday and very largely at their ow desire. For conditions under the new law, which raises the age limit to fifteen years ft Supcrintendencel WORK PERMITS AND OTHER SCHOOL PROBLEMS 491 bo)rs and to sixteen years for girls, we have but the first year's records on file. During this first year, the additional two years in school for girls has not meant two additional school grades. The percentage of retardation among girls has been increased from about 65 to over Qo per cent. However, it may not be fair to judge the effects by the records of the first year. But statistics of working permits have one great advantage over statistics of the death-rate. Death closes the account of a man so far as this world is concerned, but leaving school does not necessarily close a child's account so far as the school is concerned, tho it has done so only too frequently in the past. The schools are now beginning to feel that it is a matter of interest and importance to them to know what happens to children who leave — where they succeed and where they fail, and how accordingly the school might perhaps have done better for them than it has. We are beginning to pass laws which give the schools some contact with, and some supervision over, the beginners in business and industry. Probably the most efficient type of law will prove to be one which provides a part-time system of education up to eighteen years, such that the first steps in industrial life will be taken in close co-operation with the school. Short of such a law, a mere system of working permits which must be reissued by a central office belonging to the school each time there is a change of position up to eighteen years of age will serve to give the school a small measure of supervision over, and a large measure of information about, young workers. Under such a law, tho it had a sixteen-year age limit, we were able to enforce the child-labor law and to collect a great deal of valuable information about the types of occupation into which the children of Cincinnati go, the wages paid them in various industries, and the frequency of changes of position, for details of which I must refer you to the reports of our superintendent of schools. Ultimately, when a sufficient amount of information of this kind has been collected, each school system should open a placement . office where both the interests of children leaving school and of employers who need young |. workers can be intelligently studied and the necessary adjustments made. Our Bureau, ' after four years of preUminary investigation, has just opened such an office, and is now finding positions for children who must leave school. But the possibilities of the office which issues working permits under the type of law which I have sketched extend far beyond the uses thus far described. Such an office can become the medium thru which the adjustment between the educational system and the community at large is made. It can have as one of its departments a bureau of investi- Igation and research which can make valuable contributions toward the solution of the troublesome problem as to how education in the schools can be modified to meet the legitimate demands of business and industry, and how the conditions in business and industry can be made more advantageous from the educational standpoint. We have a department of research in our Bureau in Cincinnati, and the best method of illustrating its function is to take up a few cases in which we have been able to throw some light on iese borderland questions of the school and society. The first incident illustrates how results may be obtained by spreading information md educating the community at large. In common with other workers in the field, we lave thought the messenger service undesirable work for boys, in spite of the fact that it s better paid than any other occupation for beginners. We had explained to teachers, 0 parents, and to children when we had the opportunity what the dangers of the messenger ervice were. About two years after the office was first opened, three officials of the Vestem Union came to see me to inquire why I was refusing to issue permits to boys to v^ork for them. I had some difficulty in convincing them that I had done nothing of the ort, and that their difficulty in obtaining boys enough to run their messages was purely question of public opinion as to the desirability of the messenger service as an ccupation for boys. We had a long talk on the subject in which they argued that the lessenger service had been much maligned, that it was not a blind-alley occupation ecause boys could progress from it either into telegraphy or into electrical work, and 492 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [CincinStt that many of the men high up in the company had risen from the rank of messenger boy. They offered to refrain from sending any more young boys into the segregated district even in the daytime. Finally they wished to know what sort of an arrjingement they could make with the public schools to secure enough messengers. I offered to refer the matter to Superintendent Condon. The final outcome has been a part-time school for messenger boys planned by Miss Conway, director of the continuation schools. Miss Conway arranged with the company to take two boys for each vacancy, allowing each boy to work half a day. She selects for the service boys of fifteen who would leave school entirely if they were not given an opportunity to earn money. The company has devel- oped further its school of telegraphy, in which the public school does some of the teaching, and each boy has a chance to advance if he wishes. Messenger work which is done for half time under the supervision of the school, and for the purpose of keeping a boy in school the rest of the time, loses its worst features. Furthermore, the blind alley has been opened. The second problem which I wish to discuss has to do with the shifters in industry. Every employer complains of the instability of labor and the expense of hiring and firing each year an endless succession of beginners. One big commercial plant wrote to ask my advice as to methods of handling the problem. I could give none at the time because I did not even know what class of workers it was that did most shifting. My socialist friends were assuring me that it was probably the most brilliant and enterprising of the the young workers who were shifting most. They had sense enough to know that under our present organization of education and of industry the only chance a beginner had to find out for what sort of work he was best fitted was to wander about from one thing to another until he stumbled uf>on his proper niche. It is a crime, they urge, to advise children to stick to their jobs. They should rather be urged to shift about as much as possible at the start. On the other hand, employers were inclined to regard the shifters as the incompetent. The office has now made a classification of changes of position for a series of seven hundred children whose emplojTnent records have been carefully verified during a period of two years. We found that the children who had completed only the fifth or sixth grades changed positions more frequently and were idle more of the time than were the children who had completed the eighth grade. We have also made a classi- fication of the number of changes of position in a group of twenty-four hundred children during the entire period of the work permit. Among them were twenty- seven children who changed positions eight or more times during the two years. Of this twenty-seven, there were fourteen who had completed only the fifth grade, eight who had completed the sixth grade, four who had completed the seventh grade, and only one who had completed the eighth grade. If the distribution within this group had been proportionate to the total numbers leaving each grade, it would have been about five from the eighth grade and seven or eight from each of the others. Measured in school standards, then, the worst shifters were the inferior children. The first step the employer should take in guardint.' against this evil is to give a preference to children who have done well for their age iv school. At this point I am, of course, greeted with the criticism that school standards are noi fair measiu'es of ability. Some of my friends whose views on education are a bit radica go so far as to insist that it is probably the children of superior quality — those who are to independent to endvu-e the deadening and stultifying effect of the average schoolroom- who get retarded and leave school as early as possible. This brings me to the thir problem on which we can throw some light — the comparison of children who go to wor; early with those who remain in school. When our department of research was fin organized this very question was uppermost. In the first place, it was sought to detei mine whether the group of children who drop out of school to go to work at fourteen ar of the same grade as those who remain in school, except for poorer economic condition: or are children of a different tjrpe, tho perhaps of equal ability, or are children of inferio / Superintendence] WORK PERMITS AND OTHER SCHOOL PROBLEMS 493 ability; and further, how their rate of progress, mental and physical, compares with that of children who remain in school. Accordingly we began to take mental and physical measurements of two groups of fourteen-year-old children, one which was just dropping out of school to begin work, and one which was intending to remain in school. Each group, consisting of almost eight hundred children, is being retested each year for a period of five years. Tho we are now taking the fourth yearly tests of working children and the third yearly tests of school children, the only comparative series which are all evaluated and summed up are the two fourteen-year-old series. Both these groups were school children who had had equal educational opportunities in the sense that all were bom in this country and had had our schools at their disposal up to the time they were tested; but while one group was just leaving school to begin work, the other was intending to remain in school. The following table of results (Table II) selected from our total series as illustrations gives the comparison in a group of mental tests in terms of the lo, 50, and TABLE n Ten, so, and 90 Percentiles or Fourteen- Year-Old Children in Mental Tests a = Children who were leaving school to begin work 6= Children who were remaining in school Boys Girls Percentiles 10 SO 90 10 SO 90 Index of Cancellation a 342.0 230.2 162.4 304.0 X9S.a 143.7 (Letter "a") b 317. 1 218.7 160.6 306.4 209.0 144.0 Accuracy of Cancellation a S4.8 833 07. S 56.4 81.6 9S 4 (Letter "a") b 74.1 90.2 98.8 72.8 89.7 98.6 Memory a 495 74-8 96. s SO. I 78.6 97.2 8 Place Digits b S6.a 81.9 98.1 53-9 82.4 97.9 Substitution Index a 227.5 172.7 129.4 217.1 162.6 125.0 Page I b 199 S 3IS4-7 II9-3 209. s IS4.0 118.7 Substitution Index a 226.0 III. 2 7S.I 217.2 112. 6 73 S Page 4 b 204.9 roo.7 69.4 212.4 106.4 69.1 Opposites (Easy) a 49-4 78.4 93. S S7.8 79.6 94.1 Accuracy b 70.3 88.1 98.2 69.3 87.4 97.6 Sentence Test a 12.0 17.0 25.0 13. 0 17.0 26.0 Number of Ideas b ISO 24.0 35. 0 16.0 25.0 36.0 Sentence Test a 20. S II. I 7.2 18.0 10.7 7.0 Index of Ideas b 15-8 9.8 6.6 17.8 9 9 6.0 (For a detailed description of these tests see "Mental and Physical Measurements of Working Children" by Helen T. WooUey and Charlotte R. Fischer. Hon. Sup. Psy. Rev., No. 77, 1914.) 190 percentiles of the two series of children. The 10 percentile in every case marks off the poorest tenth of the series, the 90 percentile the best tenth, and the 50 percentile gives the median. In some cases, such as the index of cancellation and the index of substi- tution which are estimated times for a perfect performance, a high number means a poor Kcord, while in others, such as the accuracy of cancellation, memory, the accuracy of association by opposites, and the number of ideas in the sentence test, a high num- ber indicates a good record. In every case but one, the school series ranks above the working series. In that case — the index of cancellation for the girls — the superiority of 494 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cmciniutti figuring an index is not exactly fair because it gives an undue advantage to a child who emphasizes speed at the expense of accuracy. According to the tests, then, the group of children which drops out of school at fourteen is mentally inferior to the group which remains in school. The judgment of the school, expressed in the great retardation of the working group, is confirmed by the tests, and tests form a method of measurement sufiB- ciently different from school work to make their results an important piece of additional evidence. But tho the group of working children as a whole is less able than the group of school children, there may be individuals among them of a merit far superior to the average of those who remain in school. To be able to detect these exceptional individuals and pro- vide means of further education for them will be, we hope, one important outcome of the work. No less important will be the detection of the children who are lacking in sufficient ability to give them a chance of success in industry. Just how great the deficiency must be to forecast industrial failure, our series of results when complete will help to determine. Meanwhile the fact that the children who drop out of school early are on the whole an inferior group mentally is an important element in fixing both an educational and an industrial policy toward them. The fourth and last problem which I wish to discuss is that of the wage-earning capacity of children who leave school at fourteen, and the bearing on it of the school grade completed on going to work. Our fourteen-year-old children had completed grades varying from the fifth to the eighth. Table III gives the median weekly wage for each TABLE in Mediak Weekly Wages of Children Who Began Work at Fourteen Years eor the First Two Years in Industry (The table reports on 625 children at fourteen years and 600 children at fifteen years.) School Boys Girls Public Parochial Public Parochial Age.. 14 IS 14 IS 14 IS 14 IS II v.... VI... VII.. VIU. 3.80 4-33 3 83 4. IS S.60 S" S.20 3.70 3.87 3-79 3-75 4.71 S.oo 4-7S SS4 a. 96 346 3.1a a. 80 4- as 475 4.00 4.17 3.06 3.2J 3 20 3.20 41S 4-39 4.46 4.as of the first two years of employment. The table gives an unusually reliable set of wage statistics, since each of these children was interviewed every time he changed his posi- tion and also at the end of each year. There are several interesting points about the table. As usual, girls earn about one dollar a week less than boys of the same age. For both girls and boys, wages increase a little more than a dollar a week in the second year of emplojTnent. Boys with a public-school training earn a little more during both years than boys with a parochial-school training (a fact which may perhaps be explained by the manual training and gymnastics of the public school which constitutes the most marked difference in the two types of school), while there is no difference as a whole between the two groups of girls. Finally, and this is the point of chief interest, there is no correlation either negative or positive between earning capacity and school grade. Only medians appear in this table, but the complete table of distribution from which the medians are taken shows the same lack of relationship to school grade except that there are fewer eighth-grade children in the very low range of wages. For both sexes the highest paid group is that from the sixth grade. During the first two years in industry, then, there is no financial advantage for children in having completed a higher grade in school. But i Superintendence] WORK PERMITS AND OTHER SCHOOL PROBLEMS 49S measured either by school standards or by the mental and physical tests, the children in the upper grades are superior to those in the lower grades. There are two possible explanations. Either the kind of ability which counts in school work and in the laboratory tests is quite diflferent from that demanded by industry, or else employers take little pains to discriminate between the more and the less able of these beginners. It is true that the superiority of the upper-grade children in height, weight, strength, rapidity, and manual dexterity is much less than their superiority in general intelligence. Perhaps intelligence is a negligible factor in the kind of work assigned to beginners, the most employers insist that it is important. Moreover, the upper-grade children show one element of industrial superiority which tends to indicate that according to the employers' own standards they are the more valuable employees. They are steadier workers. They hold their positions longer and are employed a larger part of each year than the lower-grade children. A table made out on the basis of yearly earnings would show a positive correlation with school grade, not because the upper-grade children are paid at a higher rate per week, but because they work a greater number of weeks out of the year. This series of facts sug- gests that industry pays little attention to the quality of its young employees. Any child who can do the work at all is paid a fixed sum and receives very little further attention unless he fails. The hiring and firing of young workers is often left in the hands of unin- telligent foremen. If children were more wisely selected and rewarded a bit more con- sistently according to merit, there might be less complaint on the part of employers about their instability. Tho the problems which I have discussed are somewhat disconnected, I hope they have served to illustrate some ways in which the office which issues working permits might be developed into an agency of real service in bringing about a better adjustment between school training and subsequent careers in business and industry. DISCUSSION Frances E. Walker, chief attendance officer, Rockford, 111. — ^The new school popu- lation, with more than 50 per cent of foreign-bom parentage, suggests a changed curricu- lum if our cherished ideal of universal education is to prevail. Normal progress is often hindered by the handicap of language, but manual training, domestic science, agriculture, and studies in citizenship taken up in age groups or in early grades would give better preparation for future usefulness to boys and girls of fourteen who are obliged to leave school to go to work. Vocational training saves "wasted years." A more rigid enforcement of compulsory education laws and the use of vacation cer- tificates limited to September i would result in keeping hundreds of children in school beyond the age of fourteen and beyond the eighth grade. Industries would not suffer, and parents would manage to get on without the children's earnings. Vocational guidance bureaus are invaluable in aiding children to find suitable situa- tions and to remain in them, and encouragement from "big brothers" among staunch business men proves beneficial to both the men and the boys. An examination by the school physician would result in children who are physically unfit being restrained from industry until the physical ailment could be bettered or removed. If children are to be allowed to go out into the field of labor, we must see that they have been given the fundamental training necessary for the establishment of better homes, better morals, better health, greater social efficiency, and broader hiunanity. F. A. Verplanck, superintendent of schools, South Manchester, Conn. — ^The Con- necticut law in regard tP labor certificates has several excellent features. 496 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Cindimati All children must attend school until fourteen years old. Children between the ages of fourteen and sixteen must attend school or be regularly employed. All leaving certifi- cates are issued by the agents of the state board of education with the consent of the parent. The pupil must satisfy the agent that he is fourteen years old, that he has employment waiting for him, that he is physically able to do the work, and that he can read, write, and perform the fundamental operations of arithmetic including both decimal and common fractions. The employer is compelled to notify the state board of education when the child enters his employ and also when he leaves. Pupils no longer obtain a certificate and then roam the streets. The pupil who is discharged from labor is obliged at once to re-enter school. The pupil who is approaching his fourteenth birthday keeps up his interest in school work, for an examination faces him. The standard of the work in the lower grades has been raised to prepare pupils for the examination. The attention of school authorities has been called to the fact that many pupils are leaving school with only meager academic training and with nothing that can in reality be called trade training. TEE TAKING OF THE SCHOOL CENSUS JOHN W. DAVIS, DtRECTOR, BUREAU OF ATTENDANCE, NEW YORK, N.Y. The necessity for a permanent and continuing census as required by the school census law has been fully demonstrated in the city of New York. Even before this law was enacted the need for it was felt. Edward B. Shallow, associate city superintendent of schools, was for a nvunber of years assigned to the supervision of the enforcement of the compulsory education law. In his annual report to the city superintendent of schools for the school year 1907, the following recommendation is made: Permanent School Census Much non-attendance and truancy are caused by the migration or shifting of a large part of the population of the city of New York. Many people move from place to place, often two or more times within a school year. Some move out of the city, and return to the city soon after. Such people may detach their children from school, then pur- posely neglect to place them in school again on their return to the city. The presence and residence of these children in the city is often discovered only by accident. A permanent school census bureau should be established where the name, age, residence, and parental name of every child of school age might be recorded; dso all changes of residence within the city, arrivals in the city or departures therefrom and returns thereto, as well as the coming of school age of any child. Parents, house owners, and agents might be compelled by law to report to a central bureau the presence of a child of school age at any place, and the records could be corrected accordingly. No parent of honest intentions would hesitate to make known his place of residence; and the dty should demand to know the residence of all other. In accordance with Mr. Shallow's recommendation, there was passed by the legis- lation in 19 14 what is known as Chapter 479 of the laws of the state of New York: The people of the state of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows: Section i. The greater New York charter, as re-enacted by chapter four hundred and sixty-six of the laws of nineteen himdred and one, is hereby amended by adding to section ten hundred and sixty-nine, a new subdivision, to be known as subdivision eight, to read as follows: 8. The board of education shall have power to establish a bureau of compulsory education, school census, and child welfare, and, subject to the provisions of law and of this act, the said board shall have power to make by-laws, niles, regiilations, and prescribe forms for the proper performance of the duties of all persons employed in and under the Superintendence] T'HE TAKING OF THE SCHOOL CENSUS 497 direction of said bureau. On the nomination of the board of superintendents, the board of education shall have power to appoint a director and an assistant director of the said bureau for a term of six years each, and such attendance oflScers, eniunerators, clerks, and other employees as may be necessary, and to fix their salaries within the proper appro- priation; to assign a chief attendance ofl&cer, and one or more attendance oflScers as super- vising attendance officers for such periods as may be prescribed in the by-laws of the board of education. No persons shall be eligible for the position of director or of assist- ant director of the said bureau who has not one of the following qualifications; (a) gradu- ation from a college or university recognized by the University of the State of New York, together with five years' experience in teaching or supervision since graduation; (b) a principal's license for any of the boroughs of the city of New York obtained as the result of an examination, together with ten years' experience in teaching or supervision. The director and assistant director shall be participants in the teachers' retirement fund imder section ten hundred and ninety-two of the charter of the city of New York and be subject to its provisions. Attendance officers employed under the direction of the said bureau shaU perform duties in connection with the enforcement of the compulsory education law, in the taking of a school census, and in connection with the emplojonent of children under the labor law, and such other duties, not inconsistent with this act, as the director of the bureau or the board of education may prescribe. It shall be the duty of persons in parental relation to any child between the ages of four and eighteen years residing in the city of New York to give to the educational authorities of the district within which they severally reside all the information prescribed in section six hundred and fifty of article twenty-four of the education law of the state relating to such child, and such pther infor- mation as may be required. Persons in parental relation who withhold such information shall be liable to the penalty prescribed in section six hundred and fifty-three of article twenty-four of the education law of the state. It shall be the duty of attendance officers, acting as census emmierators, to collect the information prescribed in section six hundred and fifty of article twenty-four of the education law and such other information as the state commissioner of education or the board of education may require. The director of the bureau of compulsory education, school census, and child welfare, herein established, shall, subject to the by-laws of the board of education and in its name, enforce the compulsory education law, direct attendance officers in their duty, commit and parole truant and delinquent children, and proceed against those in parental relation in the manner provided in section six himdred and thirty-five of chapter one hundred and forty of the laws of nineteen hundred and ten' as amended, any provision of the said law or of section ten hundred and seventy-eight of the charter of the city of New York to the contrary notwithstanding. The assistant director shall perform such duties in connection with the supervision of the school census, or otherwise, as the director, subject to the by-laws of the board of education, may prescribe. Under the direction of the board of education, the city superintendent of schools Shall have a general supervision of the bureau of compvilsory education, school census, and child welfare. On or about May first, nineteen hundred and fourteen, the board of education shall ascertain the information required by section six hundred and fifty of article twenty-four of the education law of the state relating to a census of all persons within the city of New York between the ages of four and eighteen years of age. Thereafter such census shall be amended from day to day by attendance officers, clerks, and other employees under the supervision of the director, as changes of residence occur among children of such city within the ages prescribed in this article, and as other persons come within the ages prescribed, and as other persons within such ages shall become residents of such city, so that said board of education in its census bureau shall aways have on file a complete census of the names and residences of the children between such ages and of the persons in parental relation thereto. The expense of carrying out the provisions of this act, except the salaries of directors and attendance officers, shall be paid out of the special school fimd as created by section ten hundred and sixty of the charter of the city of New York. Sec. 2. This act shall take effect on the first day of May, nineteen himdred and fourteen. State of New York "1 Ofhce of the Secretary of State J I have compared the preceding with the original law on file in this office, and do lereby certify that the same is a correct transcript therefrom and of the whole of said original law. Mitchell May Secretary of State ■So in original. 4 498 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [CincinnaU The conditions which Mr. Shallow described have not become less complex since that time, but, on the contrary, have increased in complexity while the number of indi- viduals involved becomes daily more numerous. The population of the city of New York is in a constant state of flux. It is being added to each year in large numbers. All these changes are reflected with more or less accuracy in the registers of the schools. Trans- fers are issued at the rate of 300,000 a year; approximately so,ocx> children a year receive employment certificates; in normal times from 13,000 to 20,o A.M. ^ The following addresses were delivered: ,^!^ " Community Center Work " — Elizabeth C. Sterling, county school superintendent, Clarke County, Vancouver, Wash. "Supervision in the South" — M. L. Brittain, state superintendent of schools, Atlanta, Ga. "School Supervision in New England" — ^Payson Smith, state superintendent of public schools, Augusta, Me. "School Surveys in Europe" — ^James Mahoney, head of Department of English, South Boston High School, Boston, Mass. o Mr. Mahoney gave a synopsis of his monograph on "Some Foreign Educational Sufi veys" prepared for the United States Bureau of Education and printed by them as BuUetin No. 37, 1915. i SECOND SESSION— Tuesday ArrERNOON, August 24, 1915 The meeting was called to order at 2:30 p.m. with Reed B. Teitrick, deputy state superintendent of public instruction, Harrisburg, Pa., in the chair. ^^^ The following program was given: '^P "The State Department and Educational Statesmanship" — Edward 0. Sisson, commissioner of education, Boise, Idaho. "Personality in Supervision" — J. W. Crabtree, president. State Normal School, River Falls, Wis. "Progress of Elementary Agricultural Education in Nova Scotia" — L. A. DeWolfe, supervisor of Agricultural Education, Truro, N.S. "Review and Discussion of the Program on Professional Supervision" — Henry Suzzallo, president, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash. " The Administration of the American University " — David Starr Jordan, Chancellor, Leland Stanford Jimior University, Stanford University, Cal. , M. P. Shawkey, President 4 Superintendence] COMMUNITY CENTER WORK 503 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS COMMUNITY CENTER WORK ELIZABETH C. STERLING, COUNTY SCHOOL SUPERINTENDENT, CLARKE COUNTY, VANCOUVER, WASH. The county-school superintendent should furnish help and inspiration to the children, to the teachers, and to the patrons of the schools of the county. Such is my county-school superintendent's creed. I believe that all supervision should consist of about nine-tenths inspiration and one-tenth direction. This creed was neither convenient nor easy to hold when I found myself in charge of the educational work of a county of eighty school districts, ninety schools, and over two hundred teachers; a territory about the size of Rhode Island; roads that had not been materially improved from their original state; one deputy, who would be more than busy with the details of office work, and no other help. Thus I faced the problem that many county-school superintendents have faced — how to get into personal touch with these teachers, pupils, and patrons. An occasional visit of inspection is to my mind about as unsatisfactory as anything ever called supervision could possibly be. So I sought for something else that might better open the way to the real needs of the situation. My attention was attracted to the community-center plan of our state superintendent of public instruction, Josephine Corliss Preston. You know the conditions of our rural life in very many cases. Hard work and the struggle for existence crowd out social life; the young people have few recreations, and the few they do have are not so uplifting as we would wish. When the people meet infrequently, the lack of acquaint- ance means lack of sympathy and love, and jealousy and bitterness creep in. The young people find such life unattractive and leave the home and country and seek the city with its unsafe attractions. The schools are neglected, and the teacher finds an uphill road to travel when she seeks the help and support of the patrons. The community-center plan has for its purpose the overcoming of just these conditions. Following this plan, I organized my eighty districts into twelve community centers, appointing the principal of the central school supervising principal of the community center. I prepared a circular letter of invitation to the patrons to meet on a certain specified day at the schoolhouse at the center. The supervising principal prepared a short program of music and exercises and the rest of the program was given over to the state field organizer and myself. We talked with the people and found them cordial and free in their response to the plan for social work. They said that they felt the need of more social life and communication with their neighbors; they told us of the good times they had when they were boys and girls at huskings, loggings, quilting bees, singing schools, debates, 504 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Oakland sleighing parties, etc. They acknowledged readily that their boys and girls had not these nowadays and that there was a reason for the young people wanting to leave the country and go to the city. After this most important heart-to-heart talk, the people were more than ready to organize and promise to help the work in every way possible. We asked the supervising principal to appoint one of the teachers of his group of schools as his assistant and another as secretary, and we limited the organization to these few officers; the simpler such an organization, the more the rest of the people feel the responsibility of the work. All were urged to hold themselves in readiness to serve on committees appointed by the supervising principal. Many committees are very essential to the prosper- ous working of a community center. When people drive from five to ten miles over the most dreadful roads, and often in a storm, they are ready to appreciate all that has been pre- pared for their entertainment. And they are not in a hurry to get started for home. They will wait for a long program, and then for a real visit, and refreshments besides. In planning the dates for the meetings, we unconsciously followed Cora Wilson Stewart's moonlight-school plan; we examined the almanac and selected the Friday nights when the moon would be most gracious in her light-giving, and appointed the meetings for those nights. Such was the organization of the work; now let me tell you how it worked. The interest and co-operation were greater than we had dared to expect. Everybody was called on from the oldest to the youngest who could sing, speak, spell, figure, act, or "perform" in any way for the enter- tainment of the gathering, for singing, recitations, declamations, orations, debates, spelling, computation matches, and plays all formed the various parts of the programs and no one was or asked to be excused. I need not tell you that when father and mother, and big brother and sister, and the boy and girl, all take part in the affair of the evening, everybody is inter- ested, and everybody enjoys the affair. This seems a very simple plan and one not widely differing from the usual variety of entertainment. Let me tell you it does differ in many ways from the usual conduct of such entertainments. In the first place, very rarely in late years do all the family go together to any entertainment You will find father at his club; mother at the parent- teacher association; big brother at the fraternity, and big sister at the sorority, and the boy and girl at the movies. Very rarely do we find all the family at any one place together. This is not as it should be; the family ties are not to be thus thoughtlessly loosened, if we would preserve the unity of the home that characterized the homes of our grandparents. Then this plan differs from much of the modem entertainment in the kind of exercises composing the program. I have mentioned the literary and musical parts in which the people, young and old, took part. In Superintendence] COMMUNITY CENTER WORK $0$ addition we were often able to send them speakers of note and interest and various demonstrations from college and club workers. These are uplift- ing and educational to a greater degree than much of the purely entertaining features of the ordinary moving-picture show and the dance. We hope soon, however, to make it possible to have the instructive and pleasing moving pictures as a part of the equipment of our community centers. Some of the results summed up in terms of the teachers, the pupils, the patrons, and the county superintendent, were these: People living in the same neighborhood who had not known each other became acquainted and were friends working together with a common interest and for the com- mon good; people who had known each other but who had quarreled, forgot their quarrel and worked in harmony; people who had not seemed to be aware of the existence of the teacher as a real person got acquainted with her and proved her strong allies later when need for better schoolroom appliances were made known; the parents talked with the teacher about Johnny's lack of love for study, and Mary's too great tendency to pore over her books, and her need for a stronger body, and they advised together on ways and means to overcome the failings of both Mary and Johnny; the older boys and girls who had left school became acquainted with the teacher so that she could reach them in securing their assistance in getting up the programs; latent talent came to light, orchestras and glee clubs were formed, and time will tell whether or not some future statesman was not developed from the lively debates that were engaged in. Around the firesides people talked about the last spelling match, or the ciphering match in which James Smith beat the grocer in adding; thus they occupied their thoughts with something that left them no time or inclina- tion for faultfinding and jealousy. The little children thought it just wonderful to see their fathers and mothers take active part in these programs and became more serious in their own efforts to study and learn. The material results that were soon apparent in the communities were that the people wanted larger meeting-places, as the schoolrooms had proved too small. In two communities the demand for a community hall resulted in the donation of labor for building one, and ladies held socials to buy lumber, and soon large community halls capable of seating everyone who would come to any meeting were completed. To these I took speakers from our state college with pride. The second year many districts of their own accord said: "Why cannot we have our own community work in our own district without going so far away from home ?" I always answered that this was what I had been hoping for, and that I should be very proud of them if they would maintain a commimity center all their own. And the work went on earnestly and substantially making better communities and better neighbors, better schools and better .teachers. 5o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Oakland Of what incalculable value this work has been to the teachers who took hold of it enthusiastically, I cannot tell you. They were so well liked when the patrons came to know them, that they had their salaries raised in several cases, and that is a result that always appeals to a teacher. But best of all, the teachers in many cases found that they could be the leaders that their position needed. Often they were exceedingly diffident about going ahead and preparing a program or addressing the people on any subject; but when they saw the necessity for it, and that I felt confident that they could do these things, they forgot themselves and became strong and enthusiastic leaders, in many cases developing talent for leadership that wiU be invaluable to them all their lives. One young teacher who was a good "mixer," but inexperienced, seized these opportunities to help in all programs that were held in his center, and was so capable and well Uked that he was offered five different schools in the county for the next year. I know of no other way for a teacher to gain confidence and power so soon as to get right into this social-center work. She finds herseK working with older people of the district, which is of itself a very good thing, for we all know that to deal exclusively with children tends to make us teachers somewhat dictatorial and seK-sufficient. Here also came the opportunity for the superintendent to show her confidence in the teacher, and say : " Why of course you can do it! I know you can if you just try; you will surprise yourself if you try." Naturally the teacher would feel the inspiration of being trusted, and wovdd indeed surprise herself with the results of her efforts. Yes, I visited the schools; looked after the office routine; gave hearings about neighborhood and school difficulties; created new school districts and consolidated old districts; saw some new schoolhouses erected and others enlarged and repaired; urged a raise of salaries and better school equipment; but the work that I have done that will make me happiest in future years as I look back is the conmiunity-center work; in this I most earnestly believe that we truly uplift and elevate and inspire all who will in the least degree respond. ■s SUPERVISION IN THE SOUTH M. L. BRITTAIN, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ATLANTA, GA. There are at least two reasons, whether unfortunate or not, which any well-informed student of the subject would find justifiable for considering supervision in the South apart from the other sections of the Union. The first of these is due to the fact that the difficulties are more than doubled in Dixie by reason of the necessity of having to provide separate schools for two races. In some parts of this coimtry, far from securing sympathy on this accoimt, we would receive abuse for our failure to welcome % 'I Superintendence] SUPERVISION IN THE SOUTH 507 the negro to school and home upon terms of equality. This, however, is not a matter for argument in those states that extend from Maryland to Texas. It is what the lawyers term res adjudicata. No matter how diffi- cult it may make the problem of educating our own children, it is forever settled, so far as the South is concerned, that the whites and negroes will use separate schools. And while not comporting with the ideas of some of our brethren, I imagine the people of this state of California, at least, will com- prehend in part, thru facing a situation much less trying than our own. Secondly, from the earliest years of this Republic, it has been the case that the South seems to have pinned its faith to the principle of a highly educated minority of her people. I am not speaking in defense of this practice but merely state what I think the records show as to the fact. The democratic idea of public-school education for all was received in much of the South with some difficulty and long after it was accepted by the rest of the land. It is only within very recent years that it is acknowledged without question among the older people, and there still lingers the idea here and there that, while a man ought and should provide for his own children, it is a monstrous thing and utterly contravening the Bill of Rights, the Declara- tion of Independence, and even the Magna Charta to be taxed for the edu- cation of the children of others. Individualism perhaps unduly developed in some directions is largely responsible for this feeling and this is ac- centuated by the fact that so large a percentage of this region is rural and therefore inexperienced and untrained as to the wonderful virtues and ben- efits of co-operation. The three broad divisions of supervisory work are naturally grouped into state, municipal, and county. In some respects, each of these is afifected by the conditions mentioned. These are found more marked in the last of the three as a matter of course since the country is ever the most conserva- tive element in our life and the last to change the inherited forms. State. — More than in the other parts of the country, the state superin- tendents of the South are elected by popular vote. The educational experts are almost unanimous in pronouncing this method unfortunate. It leads, of course, to frequent changes and a settled policy can hardly be adopted for any length of time. It is certainly true that it leads to changes. Altho I have been state superintendent for only five years, there are only three states from Maryland to Texas that have the same chief supervising officer as when I entered the work in 19 lo. While it is generally unwise that we do not have the long tenure of office found in other commonwealths, it is true that it keeps the state departments closely in touch with popular thought and less inclined to dictatorial assumption. Altogether, tho, it is undoubtedly a weakness and there may be seen evidences that this is recognized. Within the last few weeks the state of Tennessee, for instance, has undertaken to change the method previously followed and henceforth the state superintejident will be appointed by the state board of education. 5o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Oakland Municipal. — Practically everywhere our city and town superintendents are chosen by boards of education. Here and there some little disposition to change this method of selection to one by popular vote is discernible, but fortimately with little or no effect thus far. Naturally the assumption is that this supervising officer is a scholar and a gentleman and I am glad to say that the demand that he be a skilled specialist in education is con- stantly growing. The progress made in municipal education has, as a rule, been more satisfactory than anywhere else. With the centralization of population and wealth, it is, of course, to be expected that less difficulty should be experienced in urban than in rural-school work. For the most part, the expectation has materialized and while southern cities — in a less degree, of course, than the rural sections — suffer from the necessity for two separate systems, the march of progress and the influx of population from other places have almost completely supplanted the old individualistic idea which preferred private to public-school training. County. — Tho there is some variation, for the most part the county superintendent in the South, like the state officer, is subject to the disadvan- tages of politics. The terms range from two to four years. There is, there- fore, not only the lack of continuity as to purpose and progress, but, as a rule, there is the still greater handicap of being compelled to select the super- intendent from the limits of the county and from among those only who offer themselves for the position. As elsewhere the difficulties in the way of good schools are most pronounced in rural sections. Yet here, if anywhere, is needed the greatest degree of professional skill, tact, and ability. And yet sadly is it true that we have in this position less professional qualifications than anjrwhere else tho it must be said that they are greater than we have a right to expect in view of the small salaries paid. Bourbonism and the race question give more trouble in the rural regions than in urban and yet we are found with less competency and leadership in these needy localities. In some states, and perhaps in some places in all, there is antagonism and hostility even to the underpaid officials who act as county superintendents. The openly expressed feeling is that this official does nothing worthy of the name and is a drain upon the resources. The cure for this condition is, of course, to be found in effective work, and fortunately instances are multi- pljring where progress made under skilled leadership is popularizing and strengthening the work of the county superintendent who holds the key to the situation. Rural supervisors. — Perhaps the greatest help to our rural-school work in the South in recent years has been that given by the supervisors. These are teachers trained in domestic science and in manual arts who go from school to school giving aid to teacher and pupils and sometimes to the patrons as well. Many counties in the South are now giving their superin- tendents the advantage of these assistants to the great help of the schools and with the most beneficial results to the communities in which they are Superintendence] SCHOOL SUPERVISION IN NEW ENGLAND 509 employed. Difficult as the work of the country superintendent necessarily is, even when he is not overcrowded by the large number of schools and the wide area over which they are scattered, these assistants are peculiarly needed and helpful. Perhaps there is no one thing we could introduce in rural-school work so invested with uplifting possibilities if these supervisors could be specialists, at least to a moderate degree, in domestic science, art, and the simple laws of hygiene. We of the South sometimes feel that we are accorded the stepchild's treatment in Uncle Sam's American family. Notwithstanding the fact that the great Civil — tho I think it more properly should have been termed the uncivil — War left us stripped of all property, save the soil, no other section has had such a burden to carry. Too poor for at least two decades to even educate properly our own children, we have assumed in addition the train- ing of the negro race, nine-tenths illiterate at the start. The Union should have aided in this task, even if the South has been too proud to ask it. We are progressing, however, nearly as fast as any fair-minded critic would expect. The figures of the census bureau give evidence of the rapid strides made during recent years by the "Land of Cotton," and we face the future with confidence and hope. SCHOOL SUPERVISION IN NEW ENGLAND PAYSON SMITH, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, AUGUSTA, ME. In any discussion of school administration in the New England States, it should be borne in mind that the county as an educational factor is practically nonexistent there. The town is the unit for the support and for the administration of schools. It is well also to take note of the peculiar soUdarity of interests of the New England States. This unity of interests has not been without its effect on education and to a considerable extent it will be found that the states of this group have adopted the same edu- cational policies. Massachusetts, always influential in molding educational policies, has especially acted the pioneer for New England. This is true in what may be called the New England supervisory plan, which, to be sure, is no longer limited to the New England States, but has been adopted in other eastern states. The purpose of the first Massachusetts law bearing upon school super- vision was to bring to the smaller towns of that state the advantages that had already been demonstrated to lie in the close professional oversight of the school. To accompUsh this end, the superintending school committees of the several towns were authorized to form unions and to employ super- intendents of schools, the salary of the persons thus employed to be paid in part by the towns and in part by the state. SlO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION In the beginning the law was a permissive one but later in Massa- chusetts it was made obUgatory upon towns. While there are minor points of difference among the several New England States in the manner of administering state laws on supervision, the main points are the same. The supervisory imit is a small one includ- ing from twenty to fifty schools, in this case a school being defined as a class in charge of a teacher. While the superintendent of schools serving under the several imion supervisory acts of the New England States is employed by a group of towns, he discharges his duties for each of the towns imder the separate direction of each superintending school committee. No state has under- taken to force upon towns a uniformity of school procedure, and where such imiformity has resulted it has come thru the professional influence of the superintendent and not by legislative enactment. Thruout the New England States the superintendent of schools, whether serving a city or a group of towns, is now recognized as an edu- cational director and not as a town officer. In no case is a superintendent, state or local, elected directly by the people and in no instance is the office of a superintendent regarded primarily as a political office. The principle is established that the superintendent is an agent of the school committee having only those separate powers that are regarded as pro- fessional. For example, in several of the New England States the superin- tendent of schools by law appoints teachers subject to the approval of the superintending school conmiittee and where the legal requirement has not been made custom has usually fixed this appointive power of the superintendent. It is accepted that the superintendent of schools is the professional adviser of the committee and of the people on matters that relate to public education. With this strictly professional function, there are frequently combined various business responsibilities which may even in some instances tend to an unfortunate emphasis. In New England as elsewhere, a large part of the duty of the super- intendent of schools has been that of directing the work of teachers. In New England, perhaps even more than elsewhere, there has been a tendency to carry this function of the superintendent somewhat to an extreme. Happily there appears now to be a reaction from this extreme of school direction and a more natural and wholesome relationship of the super- intendent to the teaching force is in process of creation. The superin- tendent of schools is addressing himself more to the less minute points of schoolroom practice and method and is leaving the teacher a larger freedom in the conduct of her work. School supervision in New England as elsewhere is a relatively recent development in the educational program. There, as elsewhere, we find the problems that relate to the training of an efficient corps of superintendents. Superintendence] THE STATE AND EDUCATIONAL STATESMANSHIP 511 We find the same necessity of defining and redefining the functions of the superintendent that his proper place in the school system may be estab- lished, and we find the same necessity for establishing those codes of pro- fessional conduct and procedure that shall serve to guide those who are themselves in turn to have so large an influence in directing the educational policies of communities. THE STATE DEPARTMENT AND EDUCATIONAL STATESMANSHIP EDWARD O. SISSON, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, BOISE, IDAHO To the state, education is the supreme concern; slowly but irresistibly this great truth, long familiar to the prophets and sages, is penetrating and dominating the thought of all civilized peoples. Already the expendi- tures for schools far exceed those for any other governmental activity and in some of the most progressive communities they already surpass the total of all other expenditures for public purposes. But the money outlay on education is the most trifling part of the state's investment in the process. The raw material is the real stake — the children, who are sent to the schools to undergo the processes of instruction and discipline; whose waking hours for years are largely spent within the schoolhouse walls under the guiding and molding hands of the state's educational agent called the teacher. This is the real investment, the very soul and fiber of the state. Nay, they are the state's future self, the very stuff out of which the state is yearly and hourly recreating its own tissues, organs, and substance! What wonder that all the wisest of man- kind have echoed Plato's utterance: "Education is the supreme concern of the state"! Let us think of the true relation of the state to these children — in other words, to its own future. Let us remember that the state's educational passion and action spring from the profound impulse to preserve and enhance its own being thru the care and nurture of these its children; thru them to make its future greater, richer, happier than its past. It is this idea which more or less consciously leads the best men and women in all our communities to feel and exercise so living and vigorous an interest in education and to be ready to make so many sacrifices in its behalf. To the state, education is a process, dealing with the most priceless and beloved of all its possessions. It is a process designed to work changes in the children who are submitted to it. All this is utterly commonplace, yet it is the central point in the relation of the state to education. What changes does the state desire to work in these children ? How is education to make them different ? In what way is nature to be modified ? What kind of citizens does the state need ? This is the question of the aim of education.. How is the state trying to meet this need? This is 512 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Oakland the question of the methods of education. What success is crowning the state's efforts and sacrifices in this greatest of all its undertakings ? This is the question of the results of education. These are the problems of educational statesmanship, and educational statesmanship is the supreme need of the world. History, or at least legend, tells us how Lycurgus thought educationally for Sparta, and how that thought, embodied in a scheme of education, generated the Spartan type. Fichte, and Stein, and von Humboldt thought educationally for Prussia. Prussian educational ideas spread to all the German states, and molded the German character of today — for weal or woe. Let us look at the signs of the times: First, the race of man is at a crisis. Our country occupies a position of immeasurable vantage; but that means that we may either succeed gloriously or be guilty of a failure that would be the catastrophe of aU the ages. We who are enrolled in the profession of education dare not doubt that the solution of this world-enigma is at last to be found in education. Secondly, what we need is ultimate direction of human forces toward the good of mankind. Let us take, for example, the one that thrusts its horrid shape into our hearts today — war. Shall the race hold to its course in this respect, or change it ? Shall we keep on forging cannon to shatter bodies and agonize hearts or shall we put our iron into engines and machin- ery and tools to mitigate labor and enrich life ? Shall we build battleships to destroy and be destroyed, or irrigation systems to turn the wilderness into a garden and the desert into happy homes where children may multiply and rejoice in the more abundant life ? Certainly imiversal peace is an irridescent dream; but when the vast composite of the mind of man is changed, possibilities and impossibiUties change places. It is an absolute fact that the nations of Europe have been training their children to believe in war — in its glory, in its necessity, in its righteousness. When mankind wants peace, violently, intensely, fiercely — as it has hitherto in its subhmnan, prehistoric, stone-age heart, wanted war — then it will have peace. Nor will those who hasten that day be mollycoddles. I have just read a European news dispatch headed: "War to change boys' training," the change prophesied being to fit the boys more effect- ively for the next war. I beUeve too that the present super-diabolical orgy should lead us to change boys' training, certainly to prepare them better for whatever may come, even if that must be war, but also and chiefly to train them into the kind of men who will trample the folly and idiocy and bestiality of war under the feet of intelligence, self-control, and broader hmnanity. The supreme educational questions is not "What does he know?" nor even that better question, "What can he do ?" but "What does he want?" What a man really wants for himself and for his fellow-man is the supreme and final criterion. Superintendence] THE STATE AND EDUCATIONAL STATESMANSHIP 513 To the solution of these problems the state must bring its utmost wis- dom and resolution. This brings us to the central question of our discus- sion: Who is appointed to think and act educationally for the state in our Republic? Thus far we have used the word state in its general sense; note now that in our own land the supreme educational imit for all practical purposes is not the federal Union, but each one of the forty-eight states. The federal government has subsidized the schools of all grades, it lends encouragement, it makes investigations, collects data, and publishes reports; but all initiative, and practically all power and responsibility, rests with the state. It is not so with health, or commerce, or war, or diplomacy, nor, so far as I can think, of any other paramoimt natural issue except education. This places upon state departments of education an immense responsi- bility, no less than that of breeding and rearing and training the citizenship, not only of the state, but also of the federated nation. No other depart- ment of state government has such ultimate authority and final responsi- bility in a matter of paramoimt national interest as the state department of education. The conclusion of all this is momentous: The immediate, positive, ofiicial direction of the character and quality of American citizen- ship is in the hands of nearly half a himdred state departments of education. What powers and agencies does the state department command with which to deal with this, its supreme task ? First, it has certain great limi- tations chief among which is perhaps lack of actual power. The central fact in American school administration is the multiplicity of authorities with independent and final jurisdiction. First the local school board has complete control over the great majority of all the questions that arise in the actual operation of the school. Next the county superintendent, usually elected by popular vote, has his powers, which are for the most part final. But the county superintendent has little power to review actions of the local board. With one or two isolated exceptions, the state department of education has no power to remove any local school officer or teacher from office. Usually it has no power to punish in any way whatsoever. One accustomed to the typical situation respecting the authority of state school officials is greatly impressed by the announcement that the commissioner of education of New York has reversed the decision of the New York City Board of Education concerning the dismissal of a teacher and later has confirmed the decision of the same Board in another case of dismissal. The natural propensity of American school administration is the predominance of local control. In Prussia, and to a great extent else- where in Europe, the will to have schools and education has been the will of the king and the statesmen; in America it has been the will of the people. This is the stupendous fact! The sources of power for any imdertaking are to be studied most earnestly: any plan or method which threatens to cut them off or hinder their free flow threatens the very continuance of the operation. In view of this great fact: (i) we cannot expect and should not 514 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ^ wish for any such degree of centralized authority as most European systems' possess, for this would either fail of enforcement or would stifle and enfeeble the great fountain head of American educational action, universal interest in the schools of the local community, and a sense of ownership of them; (2) we must search for the dangers of this situation and seek special means to avert and correct them; (3) we should discover the lines of advance along which the people are ripe to move and endeavor to guide and stimulate along these lines; (4) public sentiment must be gradually convinced that the state is more truly representative than any locality; that the education of every child is a matter of concern to the whole state; and hence that a reasonable amount of state control is justified and indeed indispensable. The second great limitation is the utter inadequacy of the working force in state departments of education. The state of Illinois had, in 1910, 102 coimties, 11,795 districts, 987,379 enrolled pupils, and over a million and a half children of school age. This is the field or territory for state super- vision. The workers were the state superintendent and two rural inspectors; there were also two statisticians, a legal adviser, and a publicity man. This puts the plan of direct visitation of any considerable part of the schools out of the question. Here is one of the great contrasts between our school system and that of Prussia. This does not necessarily mean that the German plan is better than ours, but only that it is different. Every Prussian secondary school is not merely visited, but is really " exam- ined," the government inspector being the chief authority in determining whether the candidates for graduation shall pass or not. From the case of Illinois, and that of nearly any other state, it is clear that the actual first-hand supervision must be done in the main by the county superintendent. New York is almost the only state which has anything like an adequate force and equipment in its department of edu- cation. It is in this respect in a class by itself. The inadequacy of working staff is rendered more serious by the exist- ing state of change and unrest in educational work. If things were static, if it were necessary only to maintain things as they are, to keep practice up to fixed and well-understood standards, the task would be far easier. How utterly simple, for example, to check up the organization and operation of a high school of the old type, with one course, the same as every well- educated man and woman had taken; any well-trained teacher can act as inspector and judge with fair accuracy of the competency and success of almost any member of the high-school staff. But now all this is changed; for the old simplicity we have complexity, for uniformity we have diversity, instead of one high-school inspector we really need a staff of experts, each prepared to advise and pass judgment in a special field of the broad field of the high-school curriculum. Yet every one of these limitations is but the obverse side of a great potential or actual force. Burke said: "No man is ruined except on the Superintendence! THE STATE AND EDUCATIONAL STATESMANSHIP 515 side of his natural propensity." In order to get the whole truth, one must add that no man succeeds greatly except on the side of his natural propensity. Localized power in America is due largely to the vital interest felt by people in general in the schools, and that vital interest aroused and enlight- ened is the greatest of all forces for this progress; among such a people influence is more potent than power itself. The lack of sufficient working force would seem to be solvable by a more effective co-operation between state departments and county superintendents: of this we can only say in passing that it is one of the chief administrative problems in the American system and is so recognized by many state educational officers. On the other hand, state departments have great powers in the two paramount educational issues. The first of these is the course of study: what the children shall do in school, in what we shall invest their time, their energies, their potential lives. This is the supreme question; and happily in this matter state departments have their largest powers, in most cases reaching to any action that could be justified by wisdom and discretion. The second great issue is the character and quality of the teaching force. It is true that state departments have practically no direct control over the appointment of teachers. But they have usually almost complete control over the issue of certificates, subject only to laws which they can usually have modified in any reasonable direction. Further than this, at least five states have already undertaken to con- duct teachers' bureaus, and in this way render a great service to teachers and schools by getting competent teachers into places where they may count the most. All other things are subsidiary, instrumental, mere means to the great end: building, grounds, equipment, apparatus, textbooks, and so on. But over these the state departments have large and growing powers. Altho the states number forty-eight with the District of Columbia and Alaska making fifty, altho we have thus fifty sovereign educational units, and altho we have not, and God grant never shall have, any domi- nating state or any separate dominating unit, nevertheless the past and present encourage us abundantly to expect and to cultivate national edu- cational unity. There may be, must be, an American educational ideal — a great supreme pattern of American citizenship and humanity which shall pervade all sections and unify all endeavors. Only this can save the RepubHc and guarantee its destiny, but this can, and we believe will! 5l6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Oakland PERSONALITY IN SUPERVISION J. W. CRABTREE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, RIVER FALLS, WIS. Much has been written on the value of the teaching personaUty. Not so much has been said about the need of a supervising personality. Does personahty bear the same essential relation to success in supervision that it does in teaching ? Do the same factors enter into the supervising person- ality that enter into the teaching personality? To what extent may the personality of the teacher or superintendent be cultivated and improved ? Some of these questions will be briefly answered in this paper. Superintendents try to fill vacancies in their schools with men and women of cheerful, happy dispositions, who love children, and who are filled with the true teaching spirit. They attach much greater importance to personahty than to scholarship and professional attainment. They want teachers who have smiles for even the most repulsive children. They insist on finding teachers who can bring sunshine and good cheer into their rooms on the darkest and gloomiest days. Does anyone question the wisdom of this effort on the part of superintendents to find teachers of wholesome personality ? I was a pupil in a school one winter where the teacher always kept the shutters closed on the south side of the room. I left school to work on the farm during the spring months. I did not, at that time, know exactly why I left school. I know now. Even yet a sensation of chilliness comes over me when I think of that teacher or that term of school. I do not need to tell you whether her influence led to high ideals and noble resolves in that school, or whether any inspiration came from her to the pupils which in later years led them to continue their education in higher institutions. The next year we had a teacher who had the shutters taken off and allowed patches of sunshine to remain in the room, making place for them if necessary by shifting the pupils about in the room. Her smile was also sunshine, and a blessing and benediction to all the pupils of that school. During that year the boys and girls were all anxious to be in school every day to the end of the year. Then is when noble resolves were formed and that year was the origin of an inspiration so great in the hves of the pupils that it remains even yet as a positive force with others as well as with myself. I have taught imder superintendents of the self-centered, buttoned-up type and I have taught imder big, whole-souled, broad-minded, optimistic men. I have felt, as a teacher, the depressing effects of the closed-shutter type of superintendent and also the wholesome uplifting influence of the open-shutter type. I fear I was more or less pessimistic and narrow under the former type. I am certain that I was optimistic and more successful under the latter. Or to borrow a figure from W. R. Siders: At one time of year we seek the siinny side of the street; at another time the shady side. The person who has the proper personality puts himself in such an attitude with Superintendence] PERSONALITY IN SUPERVISION 517 regard to people and events that there is a grateful warmth about him when warmth is needed, and we find him a refreshing retreat when we need shelter, sympathy, consolation. Doubtless your experience has been no less striking than my own. All pupils do their best work and have their best growth in the sunshine of a pleasing personality. All teachers in a like manner respond in an amazing degree to an inspiring personality and reach their highest eflSciency under the big-hearted superintendent. If it is important for the teacher to show a cheerful pleasing personality, it is infinitely more important for the superin- tendent to show a personality of such charm as further to develop desirable qualities in the minds and hearts of the teachers under his direction. Sarah Louise Arnold, of Simmons College, believes that the supervisor should have "a deep human interest in both teachers and children and should realize fully that human beings grow and are not manufactured." Soils vary even when the seed is the same. The supervisor who is big- hearted, intelligent, and gifted with common-sense is likely to foster con- ditions which will stimulate growth both in teacher and in pupil. The more a supervisor can cultivate an attractive personality, the more easily and the more successfully does he accomplish his work. He becomes a leader instead of a driver. Enthusiasm replaces dogmatism and red tape. People work with him and not for him. He leads teachers to feel that he is a coworker and not the superintendent. How often does the young supervisor or superintendent make the mis- take of trying to force society and conditions to bend to his will rather than to make himself agreeable and as far as possible adapt himself to the people about him. J. W. Searson gives the following example of the young man who greatly intproved his personality by finally grasping the social idea. He says: A young man fresh from college had a most obtrusive, egotistic personality. He insisted that every teacher do just as he said whether they liked it or not. His teachers, the board, and the conamunity were soon opposed to him. Pupils began to hate him. He was square, and began to study the situation. He finally took counsel of leaders among his pupils, teachers, and board members. He became convinced that he must be a guide instead of a tyrant. He began to let the teachers help him plan policies; he invited help and suggestions from the board; he even consulted strong conununity leaders; he called leading pupils into council. He learned that others like to help and that all together were far better than one unaided. He began at a salary of $60 . 00 ten years ago. After ten years he receives $2,500 and is soon to be called to a place paying $3,000. His whole attitude has changed and he is a wholly different man in strength and effectiveness. He thinks it is all because he grasped the social idea. I know of other examples just as striking and so do each of you. This subject being entirely new — that is, there being no literature on personality in supervision in educational magazines or elsewhere — the writer made a successful effort to get the views, "hot off the bat," of a number of the leading supervisors and educational thinkers of the country. He takes pride in presenting some of these views as the feature of this paper. 1 5i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Oakland It certainly gives pleasure to give somewhat in detail the views of Paul H. Hanus, of Harvard University: So far as I know there is no literature at all on "Personality in Supervision." Here are some things that occur to me and I give them to you "hot off the bat" in accordance with your request: 1. Personality won't count for much as a permanent asset unless the superintendent is well equipped for his work by training and experience. 2. Given the professional resources that training and experience supply, that is, given a clearly defined educational policy, and an equally well-thought-out administrative policy, personality is the chief element in successfid supervision. Some of the elements of this personality that coimt most and that every supervising officer can cidtivate are: tireless industry in all the activities of his office; an even temper, and the ability to see the point of view of any teacher or parent no matter how mistaken it may be; the spirit of helpfulness, that is, the fixed determination to see things as they are and to take well- considered steps to remedy defects of all sorts. The approval of merits is no less a part of this spirit than the disapproval of defects, but too frequent expression of approval cheapens it and may cause deterioration of effort in both teacher and supervisor; tact* fulness — the ability to say and do the right thing at the right time in the right way, whether praise or blame is involved. Also to refrain from comment by word or act when either is imtimely. This last should never degenerate into evasiveness — one of the worst sins of inefficient supervisors. Hence courage is one of the f\mdamental elements of help- fulness; the intention to lead in co-operation, not to dominate by authority, both within and without the school system. Of coturse, the list of these things is endless, and com- monplace enough they seem after they are written down. I am sure that you agree that Dr. Hanus has given us something which may stand as Uterature on this subject. Another great thinker has given us his views "hot off the bat" also. L. D. Harvey, of Stout Institute, gives us a touch of philosophy and an analysis of the subject which should by all means become a part of the educational literature of the next volume of Proceedings. He says: The thing that has always impressed me most in the people who have taught me in school and in the teachers working imder my supervision is, first, the sympathetic qualities of the individual's nature, his ability to see things from the standpoint of the indi\'idual being taught, and his sympathy with the attitude of the student, sjmipathy for him because of conditions which produced the wrong attitude. Another quality which has always appealed to me is not strictly an element of person- ality but of knowledge. I mean the fact of knowing thoroly the subject he was to teach and the individuals he was teaching and the ability to adapt his teaching to the needs of his pupils. These are elements which affect the teacher's influence on the pupils and I suspect the pupil in some way allies them pretty closely with the personality of the teacher. A third element is absolute honesty — honesty not only with himself but in his relations with others. Allied closely with this is the fairness of the teacher, in which he treats the pupil as tho he were an equal, at any rate believes that he is entitled to as fair dealing as an equal would be entitled to. I suspect too many of us in the teaching profession sometimes deal with pupils in a way that we would not attempt with our peers. Another element in the personality of the supervisor is that of candor. He must be able to see the good qualities of the teacher and the bad qualities. He must not hesitate to tell the teachers frankly and clearly just what he thinks is lacking and what ought to be modified. The qualities of honesty, candor, and sympathy that I have suggested as desirable for the teacher are just as desirable for the supervisor, because in so far as his Superintendence] PERSONALITY IN SUPERVISION SIQ work is constructive, it is the work of the teacher. A supervisor must have a personality broad enough not to be rufHed by little displays of temper on the part of the person criticized, and well balanced enough not to be affected by the attitude of the teacher who has been complimented for his work. A supervisor must have an enthusiasm bom of knowledge and a consciousness of ability in the use of that knowledge in the performance of his duties as supervisor. He must have a consciousness of the fact that his duty is not to detect and get rid of a poor teacher so much as it is to help poor teachers to become good teachers, and if that is impossible to get rid of them as easily as possible. The supervisor must have the char- acteristics and bearing of a gentleman or lady as the case may be. Jesse F. Millspaugh, of Los Angeles, mentions kindness as one of the most important elements of personality. C. P. Gary, of Wisconsin, insists on the personality which reacts on those inspected or supervised in such a way as to make them frank and hopeful. R. J. Aley, of the University of Maine, says that "a man who succeeds well must be able to meet people easily and agreeably." Here is another brief, pointed analysis of personality in supervision. It is the one given on the spur of the moment by W. O. Thompson, of the University of Ohio: From my point of view, the first quality is genuineness. This eliminates affectation, assumption of fancied authority, and any effort at patronizing. A second quality is quick appreciation of merit. This involves discernment, intelli- gence, sympathy, and lays a foundation for constructive helpfulness. A third quality is a teachable spirit. Perhaps this might be humility, but I am thinking more particularly of the fundamental conception of being a disciple or learner. I thuik a supervisor above all should be a humble disciple and student of people and methods. He should, therefore, lack dogmatism, too offensive aggressiveness, but at the same time be characterized by a firm and modest allegiance to principle. This type of person always goes to the front and rarely needs a justification or defense. We all appreciate the agreeable forceful personality. We know of instances where by effort the teacher or superintendent greatly improved his teaching personaHty. Why not urge that every teacher and superin- tendent give time and attention to a purposeful effort to cultivate a happy disposition, earnestness, agreeable manners, sympathy, and interest in children, and a deep genuine interest in the welfare of teachers ? The purposes of this paper have been: 1. To show that there is need of a desirable supervising personality, just as there is need of a desirable teaching personality. 2. To make clear that cheerfulness, kindness, S5anpathy, agreeable manners, the true teaching spirit, and genuine interest in the welfare of teachers are necessary elements of the successful supervising personality. 3. To give authority for the position that these and other elements of personality may be greatly improved by effort on the part of the superintendents. 4. To suggest the wisdom of giving time and attention to the matter of cultivat- ing in our professional and training schools the teaching and supervising personalities of those to be sent out as teachers and superintendents. 5. To advise especially that we strive to improve personality while in the service. 520 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Oakland PROGRESS OF ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN NOVA SCOTIA L. A. DEWOLFE, SUPERVISOR OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, TRURO, NOVA SCOTIA JL Nova Scotia is not so far behind the times as some of you western Americans may think. Neither are our climatic conditions so mifavorable as the term "Canada" suggests to the average American. Our springs are somewhat later than those of Massachusetts; but we can grow practically everything you can find in the Empire State. School gardening and nature study are making about the same progress with us as with you. We have copied some good things from the United States; and we have originated a few ourselves. Our agricultural and technical colleges have done much for the adult population. But only recently has anything tending toward vocational training been offered our children. At present, however, we have a band of enthusiastic teachers, who are leading their children to take an interest in nature, gardening, agriculture, domestic science, and manual training. Each autumn school exhibitions are a prominent feature of the work. Last autumn about 70 schools exhibited the product of their handiwork. This year about 130 schools will do so. Besides the garden products, the children exhibit sewing, cooking, preserving, woodwork, etc., the result - preciated) the most wonderful and helpful things for the uplifting of the teaching force, and, incidentally, the youth of the country. Had an educational curiosity shop been established by the National Education Association since 1895, it would contain more real specimens of great wants come to a prematiu-e end than any other intellectual museum in the world. There has been afforded an excellent opportunity to observe certain minds wandering among stars guided by one lightning-bug flash. While many of these sought to do things seldom wise and never important, yet there have been others whose pro- posals contained far-reaching ideas, and whose investigations have been real contributions to the cause of education. On the morning of August i, 1914, this powerful man took his place at his desk to prosecute his work. A few moments later, a lifeless body sat where he had been. Never again shall his great spirit thrill us thru the strong grip of his hand nor shall it look out at us from the bright win- dows of his eyes. What other consolation have we in this loss than in the beUef that tho this body we touched shall dissolve our friend continues with us? As I have recalled my associations with him, I have thought of him as Superintendent Greenwood, Dr. Greenwood, Jim Greenwood — the admin- 1 istrator, scholar, man — and have realized it was Jim Greenwood whom I respected and loved because his great soul made administrative powers and scholastic attainments but means of expressing more effectively his human sympathies. We hesitate to open the sacred portals of his home for fear of trespass, but we have had permission to see him there as he seemed to her who for many years was his co-worker in the schools and who was his dear wife in the declining years: I look upon thy face and think what thou Hast been to me: My coimselor, my guide, My champion, my star. Of high ideals Thou wert the noiuisher. I had but thee On earth, and thou wert all the world to me. And not insensible was I that thou Couldst liberate my thoughts to wing a flight In altitudes beyond their wonted reach. Thy spirit sweet of duty, beauty, truth. Of himian worthiness, of faithfulness, So high a standard set that common ken Like mine could rarely apprehend or climb The space between. I could not keep thy height. That brow, those steady eyes, those mobile lips. Those features calm that questioning I scan. Trust absolute reveal, nor register A shadow of misgiving or a doubt That love and faith live on forever more. I CouncU] THE NORMAL-SCHOOL POINT OF VIEW 539 Eternal is all good. Ephemeral Is mortal blight of whatsoever kind. Then well I know that thou tho all unseen Art ever near and nearer than we think, Building us up, bidding us e'er be brave For service here, nor care for bafflement, Nor fiinch when disappointment stings full sore. Help us to face with resolution new The days to come, with courage never crushed The gleam of thy example to pursue. TOPIC: THE STUDY OF EDUCATION IN THE NORMAL SCHOOL AND THE UNIVERSITY A. THE NORMAL-SCHOOL POINT OF VIEW HOMER H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT, IOWA STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA The normal school. — The scope of this paper is limited to a discussion of this theme from the standpoint of the normal schools that have been estab- lished by the general assemblies of the several states of the United States. The functions of this class of state-governed educational institutions are variable because the founding acts defined their purpose as specifically vocational, that of preparing students for the service of teaching public schools in the said several states. The courses of study that have been adopted in these vocational institutions have been determined, therefore, by the specific character of their founding acts, by the statutes that have been adopted concerning the licensing of teachers, and by the expanding enterprises of the public schools in their endeavor to comply with the ever- changing and advancing public demands. As a consequence of these numerous conditions and variations, the national standardization of state normal schools has been impossible, and even a satisfactory comparison of the alleged merits of the dififerent systems adopted has not been successfully formulated. What the state normal schools were a decade ago or even what they are today is no criterion of what they will be required to be in the imme- diate future, since new laws made by legislatures, new reorganizations of school systems by public administrators, and even new developments of educational needs among the masses will each of them so reflect upon their undertakings and purposes that modifications the most progressive and the most noteworthy must follow. Such public educational institutions have rightly recognized their province when they respond without delay to the new requirements of the great movements in education originating in a democracy, because their initiative and their procedure are determined in large part by persons who are not directly connected with the boards of 540 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Nation management appointed by the states or the facuhies of instruction appointed by these boards. The uniqueness of this particular situation produced by state ideals and conditions as to practical and vocational tendencies must be recognized, as the problems involved modify continually the essentials, the standards, and the conceptions of what constitutes a teacher's educa- tion and training. These facts and results are of a character that is easily overlooked and unappreciated by so-called experts in educational organiza- tion, administration, and endeavor, because the very strength, popularity, success, and efficiency of this class of schools depend upon their absolute recognition of state needs, because such schools must be readily adaptable to such revolutions in state demands, and because they are independent of tradition and are incomplete in their development toward absolute stand- ardization. It is for this reason that inimical or destructive criticism from any quarter whatsoever is always answered by constructive efforts on the part of these schools, that the rejection or repudiation of them as higher institutions of learning because they cannot be arbitrarily classified on some ideal or imiform basis strengthens them in their acceptability to the masses, that attempts to discredit them by making the transfer of their graduates to the higher courses of so-called standard institutions very difficult or imcertain compel them to advance their courses from year to year for self- protection until they become actual competitors as to patrcmage and output with the very institutions that desired to secure their limitation and sup- pression. All attempts that have been made to restrict, to proscribe, to condemn, or to reject the normal schools have had the effect of making them equivalents to other forms and styles of higher education rather than inferiors or subordinates. Whenever any institutional undertaking is sufficiently supported by a public sentiment, such as that enjoyed by the majority of state normal schools, its future growth, development, efficiency, and service are limited only by the public need and its adaptability to meet that need. The teaching atmosphere. — The compulsory vocational attitude found in normal-school education gives it a notably inspiring atmosphere that must be thoroly known to be fully appreciated. The benefits that have come from working under the influence of such a strong professional spirit have given special emphasis to the endeavors of the students in such institutions so that the teaching career has been enlarged and improved in their con- ceptions by the spirit of sacrifice and service. To have the privilege of studying and of developing in an enviroimient where selfish and mercantile ideals have no place gives a trend of effectiveness to personal motives and to standards of life that from the standpoint of civilization's benefit has the greatest value. The single end of leadership amid such surroundings becomes, therefore, that of the uplift of the masses thru the help of educa- tion and training and develops a pure and noble idealism that is grounded in the highest and best in manhood and womanhood. Power, wealth, I I Ganndll THE NORMAL-SCHOOL POINT OF VIEW 541 prominence, and distinction become temporary and incomplete motives which cannot satisfy the consecration to duty and to service that develops the true teacher — a condition of heart and of soul that is essential to those who decide to give their talents and their lives for the weKare of the children of the state and the nation. Amid such surroundings, educational culture and training become technical and primary rather than liberal and second- ary, positive rather than negative, constructive rather than preparative, and genuine rather than historical. Such a situation gives educational organization, endeavor, and management a large purpose and insures such a definite end that everything prevents instruction and training assuming the aspect of doubt or of experiment. The students and teachers of a normal school are seeking the solution of specific definite problems in civili- zation rather than investigating an interpretation of a philosophy of living and thinking. The instruction and training are prized and "emphasized as to thoroness, comprehensiveness, and distinctiveness because scholarship in any notable direction signifies an increase of individual usefulness and a positive definiteness of design. The faculty in such an institution has the privilege of teaching the best students in the world because of this notable attitude. Such learners cannot be indififerent as to progress made, character developed, and capability reached, and hence they respond with a heartiness that is very decided. Their need for supreme accuracy is not forgotten, their demand for full mastery is not minimized, and hence those who instruct them can require superior standards, expect cheerful responses, and secure ultimate conditions without fear of being regarded as unreasonable, over- exacting, or technical. These vocational influences, united with an earnest spirit of co-operation, are of assistance to a marvelous degree in the making of personalities into teachers. The major study. — Education as a branch of study, instruction, and investigation in a well-regulated and properly conducted state normal school becomes the major study of major studies in the entire curriculum of the student. Every department feels and honors this condition, grants it a place in every chapter of academic instruction, and accepts such a condi- tion as a means to an end by requiring without hesitation properly organized and systematic preparation in every line of training. This adaptation becomes necessary on account of the domination of the vocational- professional spirit. Education in all the various kinds of knowledge found n civilization becomes, therefore, a unit, not a lot of separate combinations )f information and development, and as a result capability and eflBiciency ire realized in all their concreteness and fulness, and the teacher-to-be is )orn by rational adjustment to a determined service, not made by the ibsorption of mechanical regulations and devices. When students have nade a choice of a life-work, they have solved the most important problem >f their preliminary experience as to training, and hence are then prepared 0 devote themselves, with full energy, abundant satisfaction, and faithful I 542 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National continuousness that determinedly aim at thoroness, masterfidness, and genuineness, important factors in contributing to the certainty of an efficient and successful career. Education as a philosophy, as a science, as a con- crete expression in practice, as an organized aim in civilization, as a means to an end in expanding and improving personality, is accepted then as a vital undertaking involving the solution of real problems which will be continually present in the chosen public service. It is a decided advantage to have this attitude of spirit in the students of a class in science, language, history, mathematics, psychology, or school management, because by it purpose is emphasized, appUcation is willingly given, and co-operation of the greatest types is realized. With this maximum of advantage there must come the maximum of returns. With this combination of talent and spirit, the outcome is certain, the uplift is positive, and the conditions are practicable. The efficiency of the training. — From these causes the standard of accom- pUshment in training can easily be maintauied at the highest grade of endeavor, while the perfection of attainment in the excellence of prepara- tion, in the thoroness of understanding, and in the comprehensiveness of self-mastery can be fully realized in every phase of the work. The knowl- edge and the training necessary to be acquired by teachers are such that the mastery of the principles, the appUcation of the facts, and the utiliza- tion of the opportunities become imperative, while the investigation of the technique employed and of the method adopted arouses such interest and compels such attention that efficiency and clearness of an intelHgible and invaluable quaUty are natural consequences. Hence such students as would-be teachers study to know, not to recite; they prepare illustrations to use, not to comply with requirements of the instructor; they master details to assist judgment and reason, not to gain a credit mark; and they recite to test their power of apprehension and comprehension, not to gain the commendation of instructors. Such a student attitude has an unusual influence upon investigation of problems and upon the definiteness of con- clusions; such a conception of purpose gives remarkable results; such an identification of possibility makes technical instruction in education an appUed science of the most attractive and practicable sort. In this exhi- bition of endeavor and capabiUty, every teacher of such students becomes an exemplar, every lesson a type of a model of style, every plan of work an interpretation of the philosophy and the art of teaching, and every assign- ment of a task a privilege to be accepted as having a genuine object and an actual purpose. The place of theoretical instruction. — With this imderstanding of the true central aim of the genuine normal school, the giving of systematic instruc- tion in psychology, school management, methods of instruction, general administration of schools, history of education, principles of instruction, and philosophy of education, occupies a notably attractive field for both student I Council] THE NORMAL-SCHOOL POINT OF VIEW 543 and teacher. Here are the interpretation of causes and results, here are the analyses of motives of conduct, here is the determination of the practical means to meet emergencies that continually arise, here are the adjustments of individualities in the problems of management and instruction, and here are the studies of life from infancy to maturity with the inventions of nature and art to fit abundant civilization. It is the concreteness of the illustra- tions, interpretations, experiences, and decisions that appeals with such weight of authority to the student of education. Outlines, characteriza- tions, plans of procedure, the true order of presentation of knowledge to minds of different development, the ultimate benefits of self-mastery and self - direction, are all wonderful discoveries of a kind that never lose the strength of appeal. By these means, a constant evolution as to what is sensible, reasonable, adaptable, and serviceable continually appears in the teacher- development of the student since he faces the realities in his study, in his recitation, and in his practice. In the solution of problems of this profes- sional nature, the student grows in stature and in solidity professionally, in strength and breadth scholastically, and in character and efficiency person- ally. It is impossible to escape the real situation, to avoid the reaching of conclusions, to refuse to attain the essential ends, or to reject the obtaining of the right conclusion, as thereby the student in training for his vocation must satisfy the active spirit of his inquiry, must have the consciousness of his positive adjustment to practical needs, and the satisfaction of appre- ciating the realities of success. The place of applied instruction. — Thru the observation of expert teach- ing of others, thru direct personal efforts in the laboratory of actual teaching in attempting to prove their competency, thru criticism of supervisors who are humane and constructive, everything to be done occupies a concrete and an appropriate situation. The study of education now becomes a constructive process, its endeavors applied psychology, and its ends the. attainment of freedom and capability as a teacher of children and youth. School management becomes the solving of the problems of the adaptabiUty of self to the controlling and directing of others, while the methods of instruction assume the place of tools in the business of helping human minds to perfect their own activities. Observation lessons, demonstration lessons, critic lessons, practice lessons, are accepted as essential ways in the training of efficiency, while the exemplification of real educational undertakings con- sists of the most valuable preparation for meeting the normal exigencies and emergencies that are to be expected in the difficulties and perplexities of the young teacher. Such practical training develops the faculties of judgment, enlarges the capacities of reason, increases the capabilities of discrimination, and demands the employment of the initiative in a multitude of instances so that personal serviceableness expands and adjustment of adaptabiUty is secured. By the humaneness of this combination of science and practice, by the absolute quality of the transactions conducted, by the realization of i 544 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National teaching as the divine plan for perfecting human nature, human character is enthroned on the pedestal of superiority and results are obtained for civilization that are permanent and all-sufficient. B. THE COMPELLING OF EFFICIENCY THRU TEACHER TRAINING A. DUNCAN YOCUM, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH AND PRACTICE, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA, PA. I. A new analysis of the factors involved in teacher training is made necessary by the fact that education is changing from the study of academic branches as wholes and the mental training incidental to it to the develop- ment of definite forms of efficiency usefvd enough and strong enough to con- trol experience. The question that teacher and learner must now ask of each branch is not. Does it train the mind ? but What definitely useful forms of mental training does it contribute, how useful are its contributions as compared with those made by other subjects, what parts and how much of its subject-matter are essential to their development, and by what method can they be made permanent and controUing ? Such education means com- pulsion. It compels children to learn and compels teachers to be efficient. The schoolmaster of tradition compelled children to figure and to spell. His too scientific successor, thru fear of a figuring begun in the wrong culture epoch or a spelling contrary to natural tendencies, compels nothing at all. The expert familiar with educational values must compel efficiency in the ordinary learner as surely as learning was drilled into Helen Keller. Teachers who compel what is essential to the individual and to the state will more certainly control the course of civilization than captains of industry or rulers of warring continents. II. The teacher training that is to result in this sort of efficiency must compel in the teacher the forms of training which control or compel the learner: the cumulative impression which definitely centers permanent and controlling interests, ideals, and points of view; the vocabulary, which determines what experience shall be held in mind and the specific relation- ships which shall retain it; the varying interconnection or variation whose many-sidedness and variabihty make possible all forms of originality thru the discovery of new relationships; the habit and system which compel the invariable repetition of essential things in their most useful relationships; and the transfer which insures for essential things as general application as is useful by carr)dng them over to situations or fields of experience other than those in which they have been developed. III. As factors in teacher training, these five controls or forms of formal activity or educational efficiency must be considered from two points of view: (i) the pupil controls which must be so taught by the teacher as to Council] EFFICIENCY THRU TEACHER TRAINING 545 compel efficiency in the learner; (2) and the teacher controls which must compel the necessary professional efficiency in the teacher. As, obviously, the teacher must master both, the selection of the kind and amount of subject- matter essential to teachers in each branch of knowledge is determined by its relative contribution to one or more of these teacher or pupil controls. IV. As the contribution of the various branches to each of the five con- trols is examined, three points will stand conspicuously revealed: (i) the fact that teacher training and general education should parallel each other thruout the entire professional course; (2) that definite and permanent knowledge of relative educational aims and values is essential to teachers of all subjects which form a part of teacher training and of the general education which should parallel it; (3) that what is essential to efficiency in academic specialization is largely hostile to efficiency in both teacher training and general education. V. In teacher training as in general education, cumulative impression, as a means to permanent and controlling interests, ideals, and points of view, is largely based upon forgotten experience, and, in place of the aca- demic system or exhaustive detail dear to the specialist, requires persistent repetition of impressive material or experience which may itself be forgotten. Interest in scientific research is better gained thru a glimpse at the more impressive investigations of a variety of sciences than thru the detailed study of only one, and becomes permanent less thru what is remembered than thru growing impressions of pleasure and satisfaction which linger long after particular methods of investigation or the results of particular experi- ments have been forgotten. The ideal which compels a tired brain to per- sist in the face of a complex difficulty may result from the systematic study of mathematics or Sanskrit possible to a favored few, but it is just as cer- tain and far more generally acquired if every learner is compelled to solve enough complex problems in every branch of knowledge to gain confidence in the face of complexity, as surely as he forgets the complexities themselves because they are complex. I. Altho, in similar fashion, relatively non-emotional points of view, as distinct from feelings, interests, and ideals, are incidentally developed in the teaching of academic subjects, the specialist is little likely to give them the definiteness of direction to professional ends, and modification by non- academic ideals, essential to their usefulness. To be educationally effective, they must be centered upon educational ends and limited by other educa- tional aims and facts. For example, the "scientific attitude of mind," which accustoms the specialist to readjust his old belief under the compul- sion of some new fact of natural science, has often failed to prepare him to accept the educational fact that only a little of his science is essential to the mental training thru which he has always justified the science as a whole. Even experimental pedagogy and the history of education them- selves may fail to direct definitely the scientific point of view to educational i 546 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National ends, unless they consciously teach the necessity for continual educational readjustment and reform as the result of scientific determination and social or political change. On the other hand, altho the "genetic" attitude of mind, with its emphasis of adaptation to childhood and periods of develop- ment, cannot but be given educational bearing thru the study of psychology, it is educationally misleading in the form of Montessorianism itself, unless it is modified by the fundamental educational viewpoint which insists on developing activities when they are educationally most useful regardless of the more natural interest and readier development of some later period. If the genetic viewpoint is to be educationally safe and useful, even the "educational" psychologist must be dominated by fundamental educational aims and values, as well as by his educational applications of psychological facts and principles. 2. Altho history, thru its dramatic content, and literature, thru its emotional form, are the branches most effective for emotionalizing ideas into ideals that can control, the method of the academic specialist in each of these subjects tends to lessen or check emotion by turning the attention of the learner from the emotional passage as a whole to petty details of information or the means by which the emotion is produced. In place of definitely centering about fundamental ideas and activities what is most impressive in the spiritual inheritance of the race, specialization sacrifices the emotional appeal of historical fiction and even of literary form, for the sake of eliminating anachronisms that the general student never perceives or soon forgets, or the fictitious heroes and incidents that make larger truths real. Playing "the Yankee at King Arthur's Court," it substitutes filthy anchorites and ridiculous knights — the petty by-product of a heroic age — for the "Idyls of a King" and the larger tendencies to reverence, romance, and chivalry that feudahsm not only produced but handed down. In place of using the emotional appeal of the literature read in the high schools and normal schools to create a love for the beautiful and to idealize what is finest in human experience, specialization asks whether the king in "Humpty Dumpty" could have been Henry the Eighth and insists on an ornithological description of the sea fowl in the "Ancient Mariner." No branch of human knowledge rich in the stuff from which dreams are made should be torn into the shreds and tatters of information that any dictionary or encyclopedia can more economically supply. Nor is it the academic specialist alone who squanders his richer substance. The same sacrifice of ideals may result from a non-emotional teaching of the history and philoso- phy of education, which, in place of breathing the breath of life into men that can teach us how to feel, classifies them into hiunanists, naturalists, and realists, like so many moth flies pinned on their several bits of cork. VI. Vocabulary, the second form of pupil and teacher controls, deter- mines the things that are to be held in mind and the relationships in which they are to be associated. It is not too much to say that the number and Council] EFFICIENCY THRU TEACHER TRAINING 547 kind of words in a teacher's vocabulary largely determine his thinking, by limiting or increasing the amount of experience which he will retain and the possibility of its being related to other experience. 1. The kind of words and ideas by which a teacher recalls his daily experience determines whether it shall make him think of narrow school routine, of facts from psychology and other sciences, or of fundamental educational values and relationships. For example, if he recalls the diffi- culty which young children have with finger movements as compared with full-arm movements thru the word "difficult," he does not think at all. He either persists in the drill that involves the movement or complains that it is too hard. If he has "culture epoch" associated with it, he insists that the finger movement must not be required because the race used full-arm movements at the period reproduced in the early life of the child. If the word that comes to mind is "ganglion-cell," he will refuse to force a growth that will come more readily when protoplasmic processes have developed. It is only when he has difficulty associated with immediacy of usefulness that he will think and judge from the standpoint of educational efficiency, and either reject the finger movement as useless, or develop it, because its educational usefulness is relatively high and immediate, however difficult or "unnatural" it may be. 2. It follows that the development of the professional vocabulary of the teacher cannot be left to academic specialists or even to the psychologist, biologist, or sociologist, ignorant of definite educational aims and values, because the words that preserve and interpret the teacher's experience must be subordinated to what is basal for educational efficiency. 3. Now, the educational efficiency of a word depends upon a definition which controls — a definition which, in place of merely identifying, reaches out after what is new, because it certainly associates with the name a few ideas which suggest different kinds of knowledge and fields of thought or investigation for each new thing to which it is applied. For example, the word "river" physiographically defined makes each new river mean the same thing. Each river is a river and nothing more — like the "primrose by the river's brim" or "the flower in the crannied wall." But river, cer- tainly associated with scenery, fertilization, navigation, and power, becomes a vocabulary control by suggesting a variety of things for each new river different from what is known of those that have been encountered before. There is a difference between resting satisfied with knowing that the Nile is a river, and of surely associating with it, because it is a river, the thought of scenery that compels the learner to discover its pyramids, cataracts, and Arab boatmen, the thought of fertilization, with the whole history of Egypt in its train, the thought of navigation with its conquest of the cataracts and the dream of Cape to Cairo, and the thought of water power with the pro- phetic glimpse of the cotton mills that may clothe a continent. From this point of view. Dr. Thorndike's valuable inquiry into the extent to which 548 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National children's textbooks contain a vocabulary related to the experience of child- hood should be carried farther. For in every branch, in proportion to its contribution to vocabulary, the teacher must learn to associate with each fundamentally useful word the few definite ideas that will most surely and usefully compel him to think and thru which he can compel his pupils to think and to search after new knowledge. 4. To words thus suggestive for general information must be added tech- nical terms suggestive for professional knowledge and experience, by sub- stituting for logical or philosophical definition the two or three associations which will compel teachers to think, apply, and adapt. For example, every teacher should be drilled into mechanically associating with "mental train- ing" or "efficiency" the five controls: "impression, vocabulary, variation, habit, and transfer." If he is a specialist in mathematics, mental training will then suggest, not merely logical system and habit, but the system of habits that control everyday experiences. Impression will make him think not merely of the few ideals that mathematics can develop, but of the mul- titudes of ideals, interests, tastes, and points of view which must be gained from other subjects. The thought of vocabulary will bring to mind the contribution of mathematics to the words that hold ideas in mind, in com- parison with that made by other subjects. The term variation will bring the definite and unvarying system of mathematics into contrast with the constantly varying associations that are possible thru more suggestive terms in other branches of knowledge, while the word transfer will quickly sug- gest the distinction between habits that are confined to particular parts of mathematics and those that not only can carry over, but are made to carry over, to other fields of experience. 5. It is clear, not only that the academic specialist, even if he defines his terms effectively, will make them effective for specialization rather than for teaching, but that professional definiteness should find range for appUcation in academic work that parallels professional training. 6. On the other hand, the task that the Society of College Teachers of Education has imposed upon Professor Bagley must include, in addition to an agreement upon a uniform pedagogical terminology, agreement upon the few definite ideas that must be certainly called to mind by each uniform term, if it is to compel useful educational thinking. VII. The third form of pupU and teacher controls is variation, or vary- ing interconnection, exercised thru the growing many-sidedness of ideas that makes possible all kinds of new and unexpected associations. It involves two forms of control — the Herbartian "many-sidedness" and "concentra- tion"— that is, quantitative control thru increasing the possibihty of any idea being related to any other idea, and quaUtative control thru increasing the likelihood of varied association and compulsion for the most useful ideas. I. The same effective definition, or memorizing of effective associations, which makes a useful general term bring more ideas to mind, will put any i CouncU] EFFICIENCY THRU TEACHER TRAINING 549 one of the resulting ideas into relationship with others that the effective association which recalled it has similarly recalled in other instances or fields of application. For example, when an investigator tests the efficiency of the phonetic method in reading, if the idea of efficiency always brings to mind vocabulary as well as habit, he will not limit his test to the habits involved in mechanical reading or thought-getting, but the term vocabulary will make him think of testing for the contributions made by phonetic ability to vocabulary expansion and of comparing the words it has added with those contributed by etymology, history, mathematics, or science, because they, like it, have been associated in his mind with vocabulary expansion. 2. To this increase and control of varying mental interconnection thru effective definition must be added the varied interconnection that comes from association with many-sided periods and localities. Effective defini- tion determines the two or three associations in which the most useful things are to be memorized. Many-sidedness of location and periods determines what the effectively defined words should be associated with. 3. The unique service to mental training performed by history and geography is that an idea is associated with any historical or geographical location or sequence within which the ordinarily intelligent learner will gather many other ideas, which, otherwise, might be so remote that their similarity would remain undetected. Think of good old Richard Mulcaster, Roger Ascham, John Sturm, Michel de Montaigne, and the Ratio Studiorum of the Jesuit Fathers as belonging to the Elizabethan Age, and you will not only associate them with a hundred things Elizabethan — royal progresses, Shakespearian drama. Westward Ho, and religious controversies — but you are more likely to see the common effort of most of them to build up formal methods and systems of instruction, and to understand the swing of the pendulum which carries Montaigne from a system which taught him the correct pronunciation of Greek and Latin in his cradle to the extreme of the incidental and the informal. Think of Dr. Kerchensteiner's system of vocational training in Munich as German, and the chances are stronger that you will associate it with military system and segregation into social classes and question its adaptation to democracy. 4. If this historical sequence, partly acquired in the elementary grades, adequately taught in the high school, and kept alive thru systematic review in college, is followed by specialization and intensive study, why should not a more partial concentration upon all of the periods that have contributed most to the world's culture, with an emphasis of educational relationships and developments, be as cultural and contribute as directly to the fundamental aims of the historical specialist as exhaustive specialization in one or two ? 5. This does not mean intensive work in the history of education. Variation in the sense of seeing educational ideas which belong to the past related to others in new, individual, and varying associations, is not 5SO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National furthered by emphasis of local and temporary institutions or isolated facts. The interconnection of educational ideas thru a knowledge of the past requires a chronological framework built up from all periods that contain enough educational material for association to be many-sided. Vni. Specific discipline, or definite memorizing and retention, the fourth means to pupil and teacher controls, is exercised thru habits and systems of habits. 1. Sharp contrast must be made between the academic system dear to the specialist, and the efficiency system, which must become dear to the teacher. The logical system pecuHar to certain academic subjects, such as mathematics or a foreign language, is temporarily mastered by the ordinary learner on account of a thoroness and completeness of detail which can be retained only by the speciaHst. Efficiency system must be cumulatively built up thru the selection, memorizing, and never-ending review of the most useful ideas and activities selected from all subjects in the definite relationships that will make their usefulness most recurring and compelling in everyday life. The specialist insists on a system that only the specialist can remember; the teacher must develop in the ordinary learner a system that remains permanent and controls. 2. Even in the strictly professional subjects which are supposed to have a special virtue for teacher training, system, in the sense of exhaustive detail, must be displaced by system which results from definite usefulness. The worth of psychology and of the history, philosophy, and science of education as means to professional efficiency is not inherent in their subject- matter, but dependent upon the definite relationships in which what is educationally most useful is memorized and retained. 3. If the system that controls is to be compelled, two fundamental conditions must be insured. Relative educational values must determine the definite relationships which are so essential to the five forms of efficiency that they must be certainly memorized, and every moment of the little time effective for mechanical memorizing and review must be economically put to use. The reaction against mechanical memorizing should be checked; memory drill should be limited to the proportionate time and particular periods for which it is effective; the relative native retentiveness of every learner should be determined; the most effective conditions and methods for memorizing and review should be compelled; drill should not fall short of what is necessary for adequate memorizing or be continued beyond the point where gain is in proportion to the time expended; nothing should be temporarily memorized that is not to be permanently kept in mind; and no academic specialist must waste time in the memorizing of the details of one subject at the expense of what is most useful in it and in other subjects in the definite relationships that compel both teacher and pupil controls. If it is essential to the definiteness which compels efficiency, the slavery of mechanical memorizing is the price of intellectual freedom. Council] EFFICIENCY THRU TEACHER TRAINING 55 1 IX. The fifth and last of the pupil and teacher controls is exercised thru general application in the sense of the transfer of useful things to instances or fields of experience other than those in which they are developed. 1. While transfer as a factor in teacher training includes the idea of practice, it differs from the ordinary practice work of normal school and college in two essentials: first, it involves a practice which is not limited to the actual repetition of certain details of instruction until they become habits, but which compels the carrying over of habits to new situations; and secondly, it involves the application and carrying over, not merely of methods of instruction, but of every form of teacher training that is general in its usefulness. It must discover and insure for each individual the con- ditions favorable to the most general and original application, not only of habits, but of ideals, and the memory or interconnection centers essential to effective definition. Once determined, they must themselves become a part of the efficiency system whose usefulness they can multiply a hundred fold thru insuring the initiative, which, in place of resulting from quick reaction time and the natural temperament of the rusher-in, consists of realization of personal efficiency in the sense of ability to meet a novel situation. 2. When practice means application in this broader sense of transfer, studies of the kinds of usefulness and relative values exemplified in text- books, courses of study, theoretical methods of instruction, and model classes should precede and accompany what is commonly called "practice teaching." The dominance of right ideals and points of view, the use of effectively defined professional vocabulary, the interconnection of profes- sional ideas thru reading, reflection, and practice, should be as certainly developed as effective habits of instruction. To insure them, practice and transfer work, in place of being concentrated into a few weeks of actual teaching at the close of the professional course, must continue thruout the whole period of teacher training and be related to every phase of work. X. If professional efficiency is to be compelled, nothing must be per- mitted to interfere with the cumulative development of these five controls which I have called impression, vocabulary, variation, habit, and transfer. Since they can be developed in all kinds of training schools, the form of institution in which the training of teachers is carried on is rather a favor- able or unfavorable condition to efficiency than one of its essential factors. 1. To be sure, for the sake of general education itself, the high-school course must become more directly preparatory to teacher training thru its emphasis of material essential to pupil controls, its refusal to substitute specialization in some one science or phase of a school subject for a general knowledge of what is most essential in all, and the employment of profes- sionally trained teachers in the place of academic specialists. 2. The normal school must meet these same conditions within the aca- demic or content phase of its course, in the entrance requirements it imposes i 552 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National on the high school, and in limiting its college-preparatory work to the entrance requirements of colleges that are not sacrificing general culture and social education to academic specialization. 3. But in the higher training of teachers, the one thing fundamentally essential to efficiency is that thruout the college course academic and pro- fessional training shall parallel each other and be wholly committed to teachers who have been so professionally trained in educational aims and values that education means to them the development of definite forms of efficiency, rather than the false thoroness of exhaustive detail and the use- less discipline of temporarily remembered system. This whole discussion constitutes an argument against an ordinary col- lege course superimposed upon a normal-school course but still calling itself professional training, or against teacher training thru a graduate school of education superimposed upon a four-year arts and science course. The negative argument against either is that four years of academic teaching of the prevailing type unfits men for effective teaching, thru creating habits, ideals, and points of view that are antagonistic to professional efficiency. On the side of the graduate school, this is less true of law, medicine, or theology, owing to the fact that their professional subject-matter is almost wholly different from that of the academic branches and their training has little or no relationship to the methods by which the academic branches have been taught. With them, at the worst, such superimposition means arrested development for a culture that should be continuing. The positive argument against the superimposed graduate-school course is that a far longer period than two or three years of graduate work is necessary to the building up of the cumulative and complex system of knowledge, ideals, habits, and practice which constitutes professional training. In the case of professions other than teaching, the only remedy seems to be the displacing of academic training and general culture by a gradual working down of professional specialization into the college, or as is now the case in medicine, a lengthening of the professional training to five or six years of theory and practice beyond a four-year college course. In teacher training alone is it possible to insure continuity to both general culture and professional training in both normal school and college thru the paralleling and interrelating of one with the other. The teacher, while he is being trained, requires the subject-matter which he is to teach in the relationships that make it most efficient for the general student with whom he is being taught. The college instructor who serves as the most helpful model for the teacher is the one who thru his professional training and consciousness of educational aims and values compels the highest efficiency in both teacher and general student. The general student requires definite familiarity with educational aims and values to second intelligently the methods of his efficiently trained teacher, to continue to teach himself k Council] EFFICIENCY THRU TEACHER TRAINING SSS after his college course is ended, and to perform intelligently the duties of citizenship in so far as they are related to public education. But no theoretical discussion will determine the form of institution in which this paralleling of teacher training and general education will be actually brought about. As has been already said, even the superimposed college or professional course is an unfavorable condition to efficiency rather than an insuperable obstacle. It is one of the advantages of democracy that in the educational field, as in all others, institutions performing the same general service have grown up in a variety of forms thru adaptation to local conditions and varying stages of social progress. This in itself is an indispensable condition to efficiency, not only because in its absence the great mass of American teachers must remain untrained, but because it affords almost limitless opportunity for comparing the efficiency of one institutional form with another from the standpoint of continually changing local needs. Educational research has performed its proper service for teacher train- ing when it suggests and determines the factors essential to efficiency, re- gardless of the institution thru which they must be applied. In each of the institutional forms thru which the higher training of teachers is locally brought about, the factors in efficiency which this paper has endeavored to discover must be determining for instruction. Their verification or dis- proval should be the most immediate aim of any educational investigation truly scientific in its procedure, because it is preliminary to the definition of educational ends and the measurement of educational values, in the great branches of human knowledge, in preparation for each specific phase of social life, and in the method by which anything is to be taught. But whatever the final analysis, one thing is sure — education is coming to mean compulsion thru definite forms of control, the development of which becomes the sole measure of the efficiency of teacher training. For teachers must be compelled to teach efficiently in order that pupils shall be compelled to learn. DISCUSSION J. W. Crabtree, president, State Normal School, River Falls, Wis. — Professor Yociim does not say exactly when professional training should begin in the university, but it seems safe to infer that he would have it begin in the Freshman year, or even lower down, and that he would have it continue thruout the four-year course. I believe also that he would segregate these teacher-training classes from other college classes in most of their studies and that he would make the course of study purposeful by including some of the actual studies which these teachers will teach in the public and high schools. At least his reasoning leads to these inferences. And why should not both normal school and university begin developing the teaching spirit and high teaching ideals as soon as the students are received from the high school ? Why not make the work pointed and pur- poseful by laying emphasis on that knowledge which is later to be imparted to pupils and students? Why not compel Professor Yocum's teaching efficiency from the Freshman year on thru to Commencement day? 554 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National It is most encouraging to see the same general policies advocated by the leaders of educational thought who have just addressed us. Both college and normal school have for many years given entirely too much time and attention to each other's shortcomings and far too little time and attention to an honest effort in getting at truth and fundamental facts. The normal school has been hampered by tradition and by outside influence due in part to the old college notion that professional training is of no special value to the teacher. The teachers' college in the university has not had half the chance that the normal school has had. At every step in its development it has been forced to meet the strongest kind of opposition from the institution of which it is a part. It is gratifying that this opposition is disappearing. It means not only that the normal school and teach- ers' college will from this time on be able to work more harmoniously with each other, but that they will aid each other greatly in reaching better policies for efficiency. Members of the Council have doubtless observed that the views of A. E. Winship against the standardization of state normal schools have been further sustained by these addresses. President Seerley mentions definitely that the standardization of normal schools is impossible. It might mean less stagnation even in colleges if those distributing pension fimds and making liberal donations were to do their giving without making stand- ardization demands. Institutions can hardly be proud of standards forced upon them by the use of pension and survey clubs. The normal school may well take pride in the fact that the foundations have not considered it worthy of pension consideration. Still there is evidence of a desire to improve the normal school by means of a foxmdation survey. In closing, permit me to emphasize the following statement made by Professor Yocum which I consider fundamental. In discussing the value of professional study, he says: "Even in the strictly professional subjects which are to have a special virtue for the teacher training, system, in the sense of exhaustive detail, must be displaced by system which results from definite usefulness." W. P. BuRRis, dean, College for Teachers, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. — The question to which this Council is here seeking an answer, as I inferred from the statement of the topic under discussion, is essentially this: In what important respects shoidd the study of education in the normal school and the study of education in the vmiversity differ from each other? I was disappointed, therefore, in finding that Pro- fessor Yocum had limited himself to a discussion of the work of educational research. This work of research is indeed important, and work for which the university should be well prepared, but in certain imjjortant directions, including that of "determining the factors essential to efficiency," many normal schools have an equally good opportunity. Perhaps on accoimt of the facilities for practical and experimental work, most normal schoob have a better opportunity for such work than is usually afforded to the uni-i versity, if we except the mvmicipal university. The question, therefore, if I have stated it correctly, finds only a partial answer in Professor Yocum's paper. He merely calls atten- tion to an important work in education which can and ought to be done in the xmiversity, but which can and ought to be done also in the normal school. This being true, we here find an important respect in which the study of education in the normal school and in the university should be alike instead of different. If, however, Professor Yoctun means that it is an important part of the work in education in the imiversity to train research workers for positions in the normal schools, we do then get an important difference. Ic my judgment the normal schools do need more of such workers, and I think it is the busi- ness of the university rather than of the normal school to train them. But there are other important respects in which the study of education in the twc types of institutions should differ. In general this difference can be characterized by tht- term comprehensiveness. This applies to the study of the history and theory of education, the theory and practice of teaching, and the organization and administration of educa- Council] EFFICIENCY THRU TEACHER TRAINING 555 tion, as well as to the study of those subjects which should be prerequisite or parallel to the study of education proper, such as psychology, ethics, logic, social science, etc. In a two-year normal-school course, the work in such subjects must be much more narrowly limited. For example, on account of the immaturity of the student and his insufficient scholarship, as well as on account of the time demanded by new studies, including agriculture, domestic science, and all the rest, the study of the history of educa- tion should be limited to the historical development of education since the time of Rous- seau, with emphasis upon the common school. The university student, assuming that the study of education is begun not earlier than the third year of the university course, should have a general survey of educational tendencies and institutions since the beginning of civilization. In corresponding fashion, for the reasons named, the other subjects should be less comprehensively treated in the normal school than in the university. On the other hand, the practice teaching should have greater emphasis in the former. The university should also have a wider range of purposes in mind in the provision which it makes for the study of education than should be the case with the normal school. Besides the work of educational research and the training of research workers, there should be professional programs for teachers of all types of educational institutions including the university itself. The work should be directed by a special faculty having exclusive jurisdiction over students engaged in such work and adequate provision should be made for practice teaching. Otherwise there will be divided allegiance on the part of such students, and what President Seerley calls "the teaching atmosphere" will not be so good as that of the normal school. These are some of the important differences. There is time merely to envunerate them without the support of argument. To a large extent, the reasons for such differ- ences are quite obvious. I shall not attempt to give a complete catalog of such differ- ences, but wish to name one more. The normal school, as President Seerley concedes in his paper, must respond promptly to popular demands. On the other hand, on account of the freer atmosphere of the uni- versity, particularly of the university not dependent upon legislative appropriations, the educational problem is that of finding out the needs of our democracy, rather than that of conforming to its demands. The university is in a better position to engage in free and critical discussion of current educational opinion and practice, to point out their short- comings, and to become a center of propaganda in the interest of educational reform. The university, therefore, differs from the normal school in the measure of responsibility which conditions impose upon it in training men and women for educational leadership, a responsibility of which the universities are rapidly becoming more fully conscious. In thus seeking to give at least a partial answer to what I have conceived to be the question before the Council, there is little time left for that extended critical discussion called for by Professor Yocum's paper. Needless to say I do not wholly disagree with him. On some points I am not sure that I understand him. I confine myself to a few of the more important respects in which I dissent, if I understand his positions correctly. In the first place, I do not agree that the demand for that which is immediately useful for social efficiency, teaching efficiency, or any other kind, warrants the proposal that we abandon the practice of mastering academic branches as wholes. In the earliest stages of one's education, we may be guided by such a principle, but just in proportion as we become able to take the future into account, the possible future as well as the probable future, this principle must yield to another. Any attempt to make a rigid application of this principle all along the line in an attempt to escape an educational dualism would lead to educational chaos. There is no way whereby we can obtain and maintain control of the different branches of learning so that they may become perennially useful, as circvunstances may demand, except thru the mastery of them as systems. What branches of learning and what applica- tions of these branches are important depends, of course, upon present and future purposes. i SS6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National and, so far as mental training is concerned, those studies and activities which are most useful in view of such purposes may also be the most disciplinary, depending upon the manner in which they are taught. In teaching and teacher training, I prefer what appears to me a simpler and more practicable series of controls. On account of variation in circiraistances and individuali- ties, I prefer as far as possible to state these controls in the form of questions or problems even to be solved. The first problem is one of educational values the importance of which the paper duly recognizes. As a constructive idealist, I believe in a hierarchy of ideal or absolute values as controls in accordance with which scales of relative values become possible. The control questions or problems, therefore, in teaching and teacher training are: (i) What Are These Values? (2) What Values Are within the Appreciation of the Pupil at Any Given Stage, and to What Extent ? (3) What Situations Can I Point to or Create Which Will Progressively Reveal These Values to My Pupils as Motives for Learning and Behavior ? (4) What, Specifically, at Any Given Stage, Is to Be Learned or Done because of the Values Thus Revealed ? (s) What Is the Method by Which My Pupils May Master the Valuable Things to Be Learned or Done ? These, in my judgment, are the large questions to which the study of education, whether in the normal school or in the \miversity, so far as teacher training is concerned, should be devoted. The answers to these questions furnish us conscious controls in teaching. We pursue various courses, academic and professional, we engage in practice teaching, we experiment, all for the purpose of finding the correct answers to them. In one way or another, the controls submitted by Professor Yocum are involved, but our teaching controls must themselves be brought imder control and I submit the foregoing as a means of doing this. In one other important respect I find myself disposed to dissent. I refer to the apparent disparagement of academic specialization on the part of one who expects to be a teacher. By itself specialization in some academic subject will not make a successful teacher, but it is not yet proven that such specialization, when accompanied by sound professional training, is a barrier to professional success. The recent study of Professor Clapp, of the University of Colorado, published among the papers submitted for discussion at the meeting of the Society of College Teachers of Education at this meeting of the Department of Superintendence, shows that there is a relation between scholarship and teaching efficiency. I think that this must be the case and that, other things being equal, scholarship in the long nm must lead to the highest efficiency. Moreover, there cannot be the highest scholarship without specialization, hence, in this respect also, the university should provide a superior opportunity for the study of education to that possible in the normal school, for, as we well know from many examples, scholarship itself is one of the controls which compels efficiency in teaching. W. T. Carrington, president. State Normal School, Springfield, Mo. — We are not much in sympathy with the impossible standardization sentiments often expressed by normal-school men. When everything conspires to break sectional lines in social and economic affairs, there is little need to emphasize differences in educational situations which are largely more imaginary than real. There seems to be an inadequate idea of what is meant by the expression "standard normal school." Any standard must have definite imits of measurement agreed upon. These are called units in secondary-school work and semester hours in college-rank work. The accepted minimimi limit to secondary work is sixteen imits. All above that is college work. No institution should be called a college that issues a degree on less than one hundred and twenty hours. An institution may be standard, however, that issues a cer- tificate or diploma stating the amoimt of preparation made by students who have com- pleted only partial college courses. I CouncUl EFFICIENCY THRU TEACHER TRAINING 557 An institution with acceptable equipment, with a teaching corps of high character, with the necessary time elements, usually is designated as of standard type, since all standards are largely based upon the quantitative element. The qualitative element is even more important, but not so easily determined. All agree that every educational institution must have large freedom in meeting social and economic differences in com- munities. There need be little trouble, however, in determining the vitality of the quali- tative element in the attitudes and activities of both instructors and pupils. While we insist that the quantitative element should largely determine the question of standardization, no institution should be classified as meeting acceptable standards until the qualitative element is passed upon and accepted by some competent authority. In this, however, we must not confuse the quality of the work with the subject-matter of the courses of study. It must be kept constantly in mind that the instruction to be standard must be given to students with a sixfficient degree of maturity of mind and with a determined amount of previous preparation. There are very great differences in ideals and opportunities in the urban and rural sections of southwestern Missouri calling for more differentiation in teacher training than is necessary in preparing teachers for widely separated sections. The normal school with which I am connected is, by law, charged with the responsibility of suppljdng teachers, both grade and high-school, for several cities and largely varying types of rural com- munities. It must supply teachers to one city almost wholly a jobbing center with a rich and cultured population; for another city largely a mining center with a cosmopolitan popu- lation varying greatly in social conceptions and tendencies; for still another city a great raUroad center filled with people having advanced industrial ideas. It must supply teachers for rural populations varying from the dweller on alluvial soil, the raiser of blooded stock, the farmer who farms by scientific methods, to the log-cabin mountaineer. It is thought that this normal school is of standard type and that it successfully pre- pares teachers for all kinds and grades of public schools, and, what is more to the point, those who come to it as students from the least fortunate localities go back to their homes to reorganize their schools and redirect and remotivate the life of the community. Later by gradual steps some of them move up in the scale of usefulness and influence to the supervision of city systems of schools and to the state inspectorship of high schools. The most important eqmpment of this normal school is a large training school of ten grades arranged for a maximum of observation and practice, containing classes of pupils fully representative of all the various types mentioned above, with a course of study plastic and varied enough to make its content work apply to the activities of different occupations. Such a training school illustrates the best things in the public schools in city and country. The formal work is so varied in application as to furnish opportunity to try out new theories and adapt them to new situations. In the first six years, the formal elementary work is practically completed. In the next four, the grammar school and the junior high school, five-eighths of the time is given to constants to give unity to, and to form a basis for, general culture. These are not lacking in local coloring and present-day tendencies however. The other three-eighths are alternate electives, giving opportunity for adjust- ment to the tendencies and to the environment of the students. It is the purpose of those in charge of this training school to make it a model of what is best in the school system and to work out in the first ten grades as complete a prepara- tion for the life-work of the students as possible, at the same time meeting entrance requirements to the junior year of first-class high schools. This training school is a pedagogical laboratory in which the study of education is made concrete and theories are illustrated and tested. The supervisor of the grade has one-third of each day to work with the children, to keep that pedagogical laboratory in the best condition. She has this time for the 5S8 ■ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National purpose of gathering up any loose ends and keeping the work well rounded out. The director of observation controls one- third of the time of each grade in the training school, which is used for demonstrations of model teaching by heads of the departments in the normal school, by the supervising critic, and by the director of observation. The director of practice teaching controls the other third of the time of each grade, which is devoted to practice teaching by students who have prepared for it in the study of general method and plan-making by a study of special methods under the head of some department, and by a term's work in observation and illustrative teaching. This practice teaching is done under the direction of the supervising critic of the grade in co-operation with the head of a department. A normal school with so large and varied demands made upon it may properly consist of two parts — the jimior normal school and the senior normal school. The junior normal school has three years of work superimposed on what is called in Missouri a third-class, two-year high school; or it is two years of normal-school work superimposed upon a second-class, three-year high school, or it is one year of normal school work superimposed upon a first-class, four-year high school. This junior normal" school curriculiun includes eight imits of standard secondary work corresponding to the last half of the first-class four-year high school and thirty semester hours of professional preparation so arranged as to supply the needs of teachers in the different kinds and types of schools to which they will be called to begin their teaching work. These thirty hours of professional work are superimposed on a full high-school course or they parallel from four to eight imits of high-school work as the case may be. In the latter there is opportimity to give continuity of instruction so necessary to the cumulative development of teaching efiBciency and cultural growth. Such opportunity is not offered when all academic studies precede the professional. Those who complete this course are granted limited certificates legally qualifjdng them to teach in any public school. Altho the preparation is considered only partial, it fairly well qualifies for beginning work in localities where salaries are necessarily low and it is of standard type. This school does not accept students of public- school age until they have completed the high-school work of their home districts. The senior normal school has three years of work superimposed on the jimior normal school. The subjects and the amoimt of work of the complete senior normal school consist of sixty hours of academic work and thirty hours of professional work, so arranged as to parallel each other thruout the three years. Note that the full normal-school course here mentioned consists of six years superimposed on two years of high-school work. These six years may be designated as two years given to complete college-entrance requirements, two years to college academic work, and two years to the study of education. This plan of organization gives opportimity to fuse the professional work with the last two years of a high-school course and the first two years of a college academic course. This fusing or paralleling of courses is the chief merit of the Missouri normal school. The academic work paralleling the professional puts a cultural substance into the study of theory and practice, into the study of method and management, into the applications of principles, and into the study of history and philosophy of education. The professional paralleling the academic colors it, vitalizes it, gives it dominant influence in determining purposeful values. Every subject, both academic and professional, lends itself to the fixing of good habits in thinking and doing, to the most careful adaptation of means to ends, to the devel- opment of initiative in making practical application. The thirty hours of professional work in the junior normal school are devoted to a thoro study of the subject-matter of the elementary course of study and to the organ- ization of this matter for its use in teaching, to general psychology and chUd study, to plan-making and observation, to the social and economic aspects of commimity life, and to classroom management. The thirty hours of senior professional work are devoted in part to the study and organization of the subject-matter of the constants in the grammar school and junior high Council] EFFICIENCY THRU TEACHER TRAINING 559 school, to a thoro preparation in one or two lines of electives some of them leading to prep- aration to teach vocational or industrial subjects. The senior professional work is devoted in a larger part, however, to practice teaching under ejqjert guidance and criticism, to the study of the principles of teaching and educational psychology, to the history and philosophy of education, and, last but not least, to various phases of supervisory and administrative work. Of the sixty hours of professional work about half are constants in the course of study and required of every candidate for a diploma. The other half is largely alternate elective offering opportunity for concentration on some one phase of school work, such as rural teaching and supervising, primary teaching and supervising, the teaching and supervising of manual, domestic, or fine arts, the teaching of some vocational subjects such as agri- culture and homemaking arts and sciences. The aim is a maximum of the general to give a broad view of the whole field of teach- ing and of general education, and a minimum of the specific to develop skill in handling something definite. The main purpose of the sixty hours of college academic work is general cxilture, the same as that assigned to the first two years of a college course when it is required for entrance to other professional schools. In general the element of pre-professional prepa- ration is a consideration. Both general culture and professional ideals and efliciency are kept constantly in mind by both instructors and students in these studies. There is a minimiun of constants and a maximum of alternate elective of academic subjects. A system of majoring and minoring is adopted. In grouping majors and minors, there is no intention to specialize for investigation. The grouping is made rather for purposes of broad cvdture and provision for specific knowledge to be applied in meeting certain situations and in filling certjun positions in the schools. One observation directly in line of this discussion on the study of education is perti- nent. The time is past when the normal school can be content to have its graduates teach under the direction and supervision of college graduates having possibly a high degree of academic scholarship, but having littie sympathy with, or conception of, the problems of the trained teacher. For the protection of its students in service as well as to supply competent superintendents, and because most institutions devoted to higher education refuse to recognize the culture value in the study of education, the normal school must give good academic scholarship, broad general culture as distinguished from specialization now so emphasized in college and university and which unfits for teaching. The normal school must also make the study of education include a preparation for teaching any subject in any grade of public school. As the demands of the public school increase, so must the function of the normal school expand. There can be no other limitations set to the study of education than the demand for well-prepared teachers. When these demands are so varied in both kind and degree, the organization of the normal-school work must grow out of a full conception of the whole school problem and adapt itself to supplying teachers who may without a complete preparation render service for which there is demand and for which such teachers are reasonably well fitted. This is neither a novel nor an isolated situation to be met. It is not a temporary situation. It is not a condition of pioneer life. It is life as we find it everywhere. The problem of the normal school is to meet conditions as they now exist, to adapt its work to the needs of teachers now in service, and to prepare teachers for such service as present conditions demand. 1 S6o ■ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National TOPIC: REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY IN SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS A. THE AIMS OF EDUCATION m BEN BLEWETT, SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, ST. LOUIS, MO. Within the last century the etymological meaning of the word "educa- tion" has come to be much more generally accepted as an accurate definition of the process. An individual or a social group is educated by being led out or developed into a full realization of its natural powers. All things, all conditions, all actions and the laws that govern them, all contact with human influences and with the world outside of man — all these are means or instrumentaUties aiding or hindering the process of education. Education in this comprehensive sense goes on in many phases without the control of conscious human planning or direction. The education whose aim we try to define is the education planned and directed by the state. It necessarily differs with the differing conceptions of the relation of the individual to the state. In a form of government "of the people, by the people, and for the people," it must have regard for the fact that the prosperity and happiness of the social whole depend directly upon the competence of the intelligence, integrity, and forcefulness of the individual citizens whose collective will is the state. The aim of education in such a state is the development of a citizenship whose Ufe realizes in the highest p)ossible degree the satisfaction of its needs, desires, and ideals. The public school is the social institution organized and maintained by the state for the specific purpose of accomplishing this aim, and it is charged with the responsibility of selecting and directing the means and instru- mentaUties thru which the aim may be most economically attained. Its organization shoidd be such as to offer the opportunity and stimulus for the development of the powers, habits, sympathies, and ideals, and the acquisition of the knowledges that are the common needs in the life of the community. It should be so flexible that the school might take over as a temporary expedient the work of other institutions whose inefficiency is hindering the work of the school and might withdraw from such work when these institutions whose business it naturally is have been stimulated into efficiency. The test of the efficiency of this pubUc education, which is also the measure of its approach to the accomplishment of its aim, is the behavior of the pupils who have been under its full influence. The state expects this life to manifest its character in two reciprocating energies: first, it expects that the individual shall by his efficiency minister to the satisfaction of the needs of his fellows; secondly, it expects that the desires of the individual shall be stimulated and controlled by such high Council] COMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY 561 ideals that the demands for satisfaction which these desires make upon his fellow-men shall evoke from them a skill and a spirit on a correspondingly high plane. If public education fails in either of these results, it falls short oi its aim. B. READING TESTS CHARLES H. JUDD, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. , The most gratifying result of a year's work on reading tests is the fact that a variety of different kinds of work along this line has been undertaken by a number of school superintendents and special students of education. I Some of this work was reported directly to the Committee on Tests and Standards of Efl&ciency in Schools and School Systems, and a part has been published thru independent channels. The following list of papers may be mentioned as evidence of the widespread interest in this subject. S. A. Courtis reports under the title "Standard Tests in English" in ;he April, 1914, number of the Elementary School Teacher. H. A. Brown reports under the title "The Measurement of Efl&ciency )f Instruction in Reading" in the Elementary School Teacher for June, 1914. Clara Schmitt reports under the title "School Subjects as Material or Tests of Mental Ability" in the November, 1914, number of the Ele- lentary School Journal. K. D. Waldo reports in the January, 1915, number of the Elementary chool Journal under the title "Tests in Reading in Sycamore Schools." 'his paper also presents a brief bibliography of earlier work. E. E. Oberholtzer reports in the Elementary School Journal of February, 515, under the title "Testing the Efl5ciency in Reading in the Grades." 1 addition to the results reported, this paper gives a full outline of the aterial that was employed in the tests. Unpublished manuscripts have been put into the hands of the committee am various sources. Miriam A. Besley, principal of the elementary school, ate Normal School, San Diego, Cal., carried out a series of the Courtis sts and reports results. W. A. Schmidt, University of Oklahoma, has made an elaborate investi- tion by photographic methods of the eye movements involved in oral d silent reading. A part of his manuscript is in hand; the remainder 11 be ready for publication shortly. William S. Gray is carrying on a series of tests in the elementary school ' the University of Chicago. Mr. Gray's publications in the Teachers 'lege Record and his publication in the Yearbook of the National Society ^ the Study of Education indicate the general type of work which he is ^ lertaking. He has made accessible all of his material now in hand for 1 3 report and some reference will be made to his results. 562 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Nat John N. Adee carried out a series of tests with reference to the powers of retention exhibited in the different grades. This manuscript is also in hand. Since completing the work of the survey which was reported in his last superintendent's report, Leslie J. Montgomery has been carrying on with some of his teachers a series of tests in reading. In addition to these investigations which are more or less completed, the committee may report that it has had correspondence with a large num- ber of superintendents and supervisors who are interested in carrying on work of this kind. If this type of investigation can be somewhat more fully organized and directions for work can be made more explicit, there h no doubt at all that a large number of schools would participate in work of this type. It may be well also to indicate at the outset that those schools whicli have tried any of these investigations have profited not only in the results which they have secured, but also in the keener attention which the teachers of the schools have given to the whole problem of instruction in reading The unanimous verdict of those who have attempted work of this kind i: that it is valuable in itseK quite apart from the scientific results which ar( produced. There are two fundamental different points of view from which investr gations in reading may be carried on. In the first place, it is undoubted!; desirable that the reading ability of students in one system of schools shoul( be compared with the reading ability of children in other centers. For th purposes of such a general comparison, it is probably desirable that a serie of standard tests be developed. A nimiber of workers are preparin material of this standardized type. The Courtis tests have already bee referred to and the material prepared by Mr. Gray is also being used by number of superintendents in general tests. There is, however, an entirely different t}^ of investigation which very productive and which is somewhat easier to set up. If teachers wi use some of the familiar material which is constantly being employed in tl routine work of the schools, they can make comparisons within a smg grade and can make comparisons within a single school system which will I productive as comparative tests and will facilitate very greatly the caret analysis of individual methods of reading. | These careful analyses of the reading process are among the most imn; diate and important results of any scientific investigation of school wor This report will therefore deal briefly with three results of this analytic ty^e which have been secured up to this time. T First, it can be shown that there are the widest divergences withii* J* given grade. Some readers are very slow, while others are rapid. It appeJ also that rapid reading is accompanied by a larger retention than slow rail- ing. We may draw from these facts the general conclusion that the chi Council] COMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY 563 who reads rapidly is in possession of a habit or groups of habits which it is highly desirable for every member of the class to cultivate. The teachers of any grade realize something of the divergences which exist among chil- dren. But if they will carefully tabulate the whole class in such a way that they can distinguish between the different grades of efficiency, they will be able to concentrate attention on two problems: first, the problem of studying the more efficient children and discovering the methods which they employ in their rapid and economical work; and secondly, the problem of discovering the point at which the slow children are deficient. All of the tests which have been made in different fields exhibit, as do these reading tests, the wide differences between children in the grades. A chart will be exhibited showing these differences in certain typical cases. The second general result on which we may comment emphasizes the distinction between the powers of recognition and retention, on the one hand, and the powers, on the other hand, of mechanical repetition of words. The rate at which a developing child roasters the mechanical side of reading differs greatly from the rate at which he reproduces words. At first the mechanical side is ahead; afterward the power of retention grows more rapidly. Apparently children have to get out of the way some of the pre- liminary mechanical stages of the reading process before they can concen- trate attention on the matter which has been read. A chart will make this clear. This fact is of great importance when one considers the methods that are to be employed in dealing with children at different stages of intel- lectual maturity. If a child is at the stage where he needs to improve on the mechanical side of the reading process, attention will have to be given to those devices which will improve his mechanical abilities. On the other hand, when the child reaches the stage where he can retain the material which he has read and can learn to interpret this material, more emphasis ought to be laid on the methods which will cultivate in him the power of interpretation. The third and most significant result which comes out of these studies is the distinction between oral and silent reading. It is much easier to test silent reading than to test oral reading. Indeed, oral reading is a very complicated process, for the simple reason that the child does not read at a maximum rate at any time. He can articulate words very much more 'apidly than he does articulate them in ordinary reading. There is also a complication which arises when we try to discover in any exact way how ■apidly a child can read to himself. Silent reading has not been cultivated n the schools as an independent art and the methods which are employed n the ordinary classroom tend to establish as a norm that rate of reading vhich is commonly adopted in the oral exercise. We are driven, therefore, in explaining this distinction between oral and ilent reading to draw a figure which is in part hypothetical, but which is ustified in its details by known facts. This figure can be described briefly i 564 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National by saying that a child in the first grade has a power of articulation which is fairly comparable to that which he will have in the eighth grade or in adult life. The increase in efl&ciency in articulation is relatively slight. If we represent it in a chart, we must represent it by a gently sloping horizontal line which starts at a high level in the first grade and reaches only a slightly higher level in the later stages of development. The power of recognizing words, on the other hand, begins in the first grade at a very low level and passes rapidly in the course of individual development to a point where reading is very much more rapid without pronunciation than it is with actual articulation of the words. The line representing improvement in the recognition of words is, therefore, a rapidly rising line and it crosses early in the individual's development the line which represents improvement in articulation. The relation between articulation and recognition of words on the printed page undergoes, therefore, a radical reversal. In the lower grades the power of articulation is well developed, while the power of recognition is very low. In adult life the power of recognition is very high as compared with the power of articulation. Putting the matter in terms of the methods of school work, we may say that in the first grade when a child is called upon to read aloud he is utiliz- ing a power which is very much better than his power of recognition. In the eighth grade, on the other hand, when he is called on to read aloud the power of articulation is so much less highly developed than the power of recognition that the act of oral reading tends to retard the natural progress of his reading abilities. Since the school emphasizes oral reading as much as it does, we shall be unable to get any general averages which will show the true limits of ability among children in silent reading. They are constantly held back by school exercises so that the average child never develops the maximum power which he might develop if he were not hampered by school methods. This consideration undoubtedly explains some of the individual differences which were commented on above. Some children break away from the oral methods employed in the schools in spite of the devices employed in the school, while others are unable to show this degree of independence. A number of charts can now be drawn from the results exhibited in the various investigations. These charts all show that the development ol reading at the outset is very rapid and that it very soon reaches a point where the results, so far as rate is concerned, seem to be fairly stable. A.< shown in an earlier paragraph, this period during which the mechanical side of reading does not show any great improvement is indeed a period during which the power of interpretation and retention is developed. It might bt a period during which the rate of silent reading would improve greatly. I These three sets of results are variously expressed in the different invest! gations to which reference was made in the first paragraph. It is to b( CooncU] COMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY 565 hoped that other practical school people will join in these investigations and will derive the advantages for their schools of a careful, analytical examination of the work done by the children in different grades and in the same grade under the different individual conditions. The results now at hand justify, I believe, an organized effort on the part of the National Council of Education to promote a series of investigations of this type, not only in reading but in each of the subjects with which the elementary school deals. C. ENGLISH GRAMMAR WILLIAM H. MAXWELL, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, NEW YORK, N.Y. In this report the discussion of standards and tests in English grammar I is pursued imder four heads. I. WHAT CONSIDERATIONS SHOULD DETERMINE STANDARDS AND TESTS? In order to determine standards of accomplishment in a subject, we must know the objects it subserves. The first problems, therefore, confront- I ing the inquirer are the aims of grammatical study. These I venture to I catalog as follows: I. To cultivate the habit of orderly and logical thinking. — One of the {highest forms of mental activity is that which deals with abstractions. Mathematics and logic are examples of abstract thinking. For the great mass of elementary-school pupils, mathematics is available in a single phase, arithmetic, and this again affords but a single phase of abstract thinking, the quantitative. Grammar is the gateway to abstract qualita- tive thinking for the young. As Professor Laurie says: "It stands midway between language as a real subject, i.e., language conveying the substance of thought, and pure logic; it is logic in its concrete form and language in its abstract form." This may easily be exemplified by many illustrations. When, for example, we study a word that functions concretely as in ex- plicating the subject, the examination of its precise function is an exami- I nation of the concrete; when we classify it in general terms as a verb, we •have an example of abstract thinking. I am aware that any affirmation of the value of grammatical study for orderly thinking may seem to commit one to a belief in the conception of nnal discipline. Without either proclaiming or denying such a belief, I y be allowed to claim that grammar properly taught does require clear, orderly thinking, and does give a definite notion of classification thru sifying the things we most frequently use — words, phrases, clauses, ohn Stuart Mill thus states the reasons for studying grammar: Consider for a moment what grammar is. It is the most elementary part of logic. t is the beginning of the analysis of the thinking process. The principles and rules of ammar are the means by which the forms of language are made to correspond with the 566 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National universal forms of thought. The distinctions between the various parts of speech, between the cases of nouns, the moods and tenses of verbs, the fimctions of particles, are dis- tinctions in thought, not merely in words. Single nouns and verbs express objects and events which can be cognized by the senses; but the modes of putting nouns and verbs together express the relations of objects and events which can be cognized only by the intellect; and each different mode corresponds to a different relation. The structure of every sentence is a lesson in logic. The various rules of syntax oblige us to distinguish between the subject and predicate of a proposition, between the agent, the action, and the thing acted upon; to mark when an idea is intended to modify or qualify, or merely to unite with, some other idea; what assertions are categorical, what only conditional; whether the intention is to express similarity or contrast, to make a plurality of assertions conjunctively or disjunctively; what portions of a sentence, tho grammatically complete within themselves, are mere members or subordinate parts of the assertion made by the entire sentence. Such things form the subject-matter of universal grammar. Even the psychologists most radically opposed to the theory of formal discipline are inclined to admit that when good habits are formed in one field of human thought they are likely to afifect favorably similar mental activities in another field. Standards, therefore, should be established by which we may measure in our pupils the power of independent judgment and correct inference as to the relations existing between the things denoted or connoted by words, the ability to give answers that are clear, pertinent, and well organized, and the capacity to summarize the details of linguistic knowledge. 2. To cultivate the power to interpret the meaning of language and to appreciate its significance. — In the first place, the exercises of parsing and analysis by determining the classification of words, phrases, and clauses, thru a consideration of their fimctions, constrain the mind to seek out their meanings. The most prevalent lack in the education of our high- school and college graduates which I have discovered in recent years thru examining candidates for Ucense as teachers is the inability to understand and interpret the meanings of words. This lamentable deficiency has steadily increased as the teaching of grammar has been deferred to a later period in the elementary schools and as it has generally become less general and less intensive in the higher schools. In the second place, a ready knowledge of the classification of the elements of the sentence and of typical sentence structures, and the power to analyze them into their component parts, enables the mind to grasp and appreciate more readily the significance of what is read or heard. It may be that the necessity for such power and appreciation is limited to exceptional constructions and that one may understand and feel the usual passages of both prose and poetry without preceding grammatical knowledge. Yet, aside from such exceptional constructions, I am of the opinion that a consciousness of the sentence elements, of their primary and their subordinate parts, of the varying meanings of time and mode, of the significance of conjunctions, in fine, of all that is included in this study, Council] COMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY 567 does lead to a readier and a sincerer appreciation whether of the clearness or of the beauty of what we read. Difficulty in reading may be caused not merely by a vocabulary that is unfamiliar, or a style that is unpleasing; reading may be difl&cult because the reader lacks the key of grammatical study by which to unlock such difficulties as obscure relations, ill-placed modifications, or rambUng phrases. Grammatical analysis is the percep- tion of thought-relations. Quick and accurate reading is but the speedy and automatic application of the method of analysis. A standard of the successful study of grammar, therefore, is the ability of the pupil to master meanings and to perceive relations directly, and, as correct habits are formed, without hesitation. Standards should be estab- lished to determine ability to classify words, phrases, clauses, and sentences in accordance with function as determined by meaning, to create an appreciation of their pleasing arrangement, and to teach a recognition of such arrangement in reading. 3. To establish habits of correctness in oral and written expression.— If the claim here implied be not sustained, then we may well question the value of the study of grammar. I know that the claim is questioned. We are frequently told that the pupil of good breeding may speak correctly, yet know little of grammar; we are reminded that a pupil living under less favorable conditions may excel in his knowledge of the textbook, and yet combine the use of his home or street idioms with a large disregard of his school knowledge. But these are but affirmations of the law of the influ- ence of environment and it is our business as teachers to overcome it by another law. We may modify certain bad habits; we can surely establish in the pupil's own mind a consciousness of the norms of correct speech to which, in moments of hesitation and reflection, he may independently appeal. As far as we fail in teaching habits of correct speaking, it should be a warning to us to discover a better arrangement of our courses of study, and a better method of instruction. Who will withhold grammatical explanation or grammatical guidance from the one who says, "he don't," or "those kind of people," or "you was" ? What form of explanation, other than gram- matical rule, shall we offer to correct such locutions unless we are to depend on mere iteration of individual forms ? Ability to think and speak correctly is a standard of the mastery of grammar even tho it may be difficult of application. There are, however, two criteria of universal application: (i) Does the study of grammar improve the pupil's habit of speech ? (2) In case a pupil is reminded of an error, or in case he is uncertain as to the propriety of his own expression, has he the power of appeal to a court that will yield right judgment and correct guidance ? Correlative standards, therefore, are the ability to justify the use of an expression, to detect errors in spoken or written speech, and to refer to a textbook when in 4oubt. S68 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National 4. To impart a knowledge of conventional grammatical facts or rides.-^ Society has fixed its own conventions of what it expects from the well-i instructed and the educated person. A man might not know the capital of Japan or the place where Lee surrendered in 1865; he might, too, be imablb to spell some simple words like "separate," or be imfamiliar with the expres- sion, "relative pronoun"; withal, he might be a man of extended knowledge and great power. But such facts as I have mentioned, and hundreds more, are types of conventionalized knowledge that society demands, and no schoolmaster, as the paid agent of society, has a right to refuse such knowl- edge to his pupik. These conventions vary with time and place, but for a given time and place they are fairly constant. Whatever our personal theories of their worth in the scale of things, it is our duty to impart them. Notwithstanding the disagreement of the grammatical textbooks in minor matters, we can establish what these facts are, not merely as word definitions, but as guides to usage. A knowledge of them should, therefore, be one of the standards of attainment. 5. To organize a basis for, and to give facility in, the study of other lan- guages.— The importance of this aim is very great. English is not a gram- marless tongue. Its parent idiom was one of the most inflected of languages. No language with a literature but must have its grammar, its rules, and standards of usage. Whatever may be the idioms of particular tongues, all languages must have certain things in common. Tho I make no plea that a foreign language be learned thru its granmaar, I take it that the most strenuous supporters of the natural or direct method will admit that some time, sooner or later, the grammar of a language must be studied. And when the grammatical elements that are constant in all languages have been learned — the facts of subject and predicate, of the parts of speech, and of sjmtax — ^we may begin our comparative study. Comparison implies at least two elanents, the known element and the element to be learned. The boy who studies the intricacies of German gender, of French tenses and subjunctives, has a basis for comparison in a knowledge of the gram- mar of his own tongue. He is poorly prepared for the study of the more complex grammar of a foreign language who knows nothing of the gram- mar of his own. I suggest no standards for knowledge in this relation, however, because, if the standards mentioned under other preceding heads be appUed, they will, in the beginning at least, serve here. . (*. I would, however, include one final general standard that is fimda- mental: curiosity as to the meanings of words, taste in the selection of words, an inquisitiveness as to the facts of language, and an attitude of interest and enthusiasm toward the study of language and literature. These are, I believe, unfailing marks of increasing power and progress in grammar. 1 Omm COMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY 569 n. THE POSSIBILITY OF ESTABLISHING SOME EXACT STANDARDS Having considered the aims of grammar, and some, at least, of the standards that these suggest, we may now examine more closely how these standards may be applied. The word "standard" itself has at least two meaniags: the one, general, suggesting that proper tests be appUed to determine whether the aims in teaching the subject have been realized without any specific direction as to the precise questions that should be asked; the other, prescribing the form of test, even for individual years or grades. In the latter case, set questions or exercises are laid down as determinants of successful study. Thus, in a fifth year, it might be required that pupils should detect the verb in a series of sentences, or select the proper word to show agreement between subject and predicate. Naturally enough, such a method would involve quantitative determination. To this I shall later refer. It is unnecessary to trace the genesis of the demand for quantitative determinants in education — a demand full of promise because of its clear- ness, and not free from danger, because of a certain inherent tendency toward formalism. I wish to point out here, however, that standards of this type, whether we are content to lay down classes of questions, or whether we would more definitely insist on an agreement in the wording of the ques- tions themselves, become tests. In this sense, every test, so far as it expresses a teacher's opinion of what a pupil ought to know at a given time, is a criterion for judging the progress of the members of a single class. If, now, all teachers or a considerable number of teachers agree that such a test may be extended to a group of classes, under assumed uniform con- ditions, or if teachers will accept the opinion even of a single person, such a test becomes a general standard. I shall myself venture, under the first four heads I have mentioned, to suggest typical exercises which I think might apply. I have not, however, arranged specific questions or even specific topics by grades. I do not believe that, as a committee, we have the right to lay down such specific standards or to use the weight of authority or prestige to impose them. Aside from the fact that even our curricula do not agree, that our text- books show considerable differences in terminology — a not unimportant matter for young learners — there is yet another reason which I beUeve to be fundamental. We have not yet capitalized our own experience, that is, we have not ourselves determined what a sixth-year child ought to know, or, for that matter, what such pupils do actually know. Our courses of study represent only what school authorities believe children ought to know, year by year; they are an expression of opinion rather than of ascertained facts. I would not be understood to discourage any attempt to standardize knowledge and reduce it to some common basis of quantitative measure- ment. As a matter of fact, we teachers for generations have assumed 570 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National that we could reduce attainment to rates per cent, altho we have admitted that tests of the sort necessary to such a working system have required a type of question and particularly a type of answer that have burdened both the spirit and the matter of instruction. Especially is this true in that field of knowledge which Herbartians have called the culture core. The artificially condensed question and answer is itself an offspring of the passion to reduce knowledge to conditions that make for easy testing and ready marking. I do not beUeve that thoughtful investigators of the future will repeat this error. But even a well-graded test arranged for years or grades may, at best, express an opinion that represents no con- scious agreement. If, therefore, a series of questions or tests or stand- ards in detail should be offered by individuals or committees whose study and effort will command respect, we should, as superintendents or prin- cipals or teachers, accept them for trial and investigation. We should use them, however, not to try or test merely the worth of our instruc- tion, but also the worth of the standards themselves. When these shall have been fully tested in this fashion, by classes and schools under those modifying conditions that are pertinent, we may reach conclusions as to their vaUdity. ni, SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR PRESENT EXPERIMENTS I. For orderly and logical habits of thinking. — a) To determine a rule: Submit a series of words or phrases in sen- tences with variant connotations yet having a common agreement in some grammatical quality. Require the pupil to detect the common grammatical function. Modify this test by introducing one exception and challenge the discovery of the exception by pupils. b) To make a summary of individual cases: After any one construc- tion has been learned in its various applications, require the pupil to summarize these by giving a definition or rule, or by referring to one in the textbook. c) To apply a rule or a definition: (i) Submit the rule, then present constructions and require pupils to state to which one the rule appUes. (2) Submit under a rule or a definition sentences using words spelled the same way but different in use. Have pupils show which sentences illustrate the rule, or have them state the function of the word in every case in which the rule does not apply. (This exercise is especially valuable in estabhshing a habit of determining the character of words according to their functions only.) These are merely suggestions for many other possible standard forms that teachers may establish. Even with these few, however, there is oppor- tunity for apphcation in all phases of grammatical instruction and in all the grades in which grammar is taught. Council] COMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY 571 2. For correct interpretation and increased appreciation. — a) Present a series of brief selections carefully chosen because of inverted or complex arrangement. Each pupil will rewrite each sentence, placing the subject as near the beginning of the sentence as possible. b) Present longer and more difficult selections. Require the pupils to write each subject as before, and to complete the sentence, giving the meaning, but as briefly as possible, (This exercise should not be one in paraphrasing.) c) Present more or less awkward arrangements of words, and require their rearrangement in the form most economical of the reader's or auditor's attention. d) Present words to be inserted in a suggested sentence and require pupils to place them according to the arrangement most economical of attention. 3. Standards for correct oral and written expression. — a) Present to pupils a series of sentences with right of selection from two or more given forms in each sentence; accompanying this exercise should be a given set of rules, either on the blackboard or in the textbook, each numbered. The pupil should select the correct form and refer by number to the appropriate rule or reason. Illustration: Assign a Ust of sentences with indicated possible use of two or more forms: for example, present an alternative use of the indica- tive or subjunctive, and direct the pupil to refer by page, section, or number to the textbook rule that applies. h) Follow the same procedure but do not suggest a form. Let the pupil supply it. c) Submit a list of imperfect forms not drawn from a textbook but taken from the habitually imperfect locutions of the neighborhood. Let the pupils be told that each form is an improper one. Ask for the correct form. Refer to section and number in the textbook for the reason. (When the object is to insure immediate recognition of correct expression, the demand for a reason may be omitted.) d) Assign for written composition or recitation an interesting subject; make no reference to grammatical forms. Note the total number of gram- matical errors in a given nimiber of words as a basis for comparison. When the pupils are facile, a similar test may be employed in oral composition. e) Require the pupils to compose a sentence when necessary conditions are presented. Example: (The test or standard is abiUty to use the pluperfect tense.) The following conditions are given : I agreed to meet a friend yesterday. He came an hour after my arrival. Write a sentence showing these facts, beginning it in the following manner: When my friend arrived at our meeting-place yesterday, I waiting for an hour. 572 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Nattood 4. Knowledge of conventional facts and rules. — All the devices I have suggested are a standard for detennining a knowledge of grammatical facts. In addition, however, I suggest the following: a) From a page of text pick out the verbs, or the nouns, or the preposi- tions, etc., and make a list of them. b) Limit this operation to some particular application in syntax. c) Extend the exercises to the important sentence elements, with such special applications as noun subject clauses, adjective clauses, and the like. d) Ask for the statement of rules that will apply to familiar and frequent cases. At the risk of repetition, I shall state that these standard forms I have given are only types of others that the ingenious teacher will readily suggest. Furthermore, they are blank forms inasmuch as they do not contain precise questions or references. For the reasons I have stated, I have thought it unwise to present exact questions or suggestions for particular grades. There is no reason, however, why a principal or a teacher should not pro- ceed to do this for his own school, provided always that the questions be framed so that the teaching will not degenerate into a coaching system for drilling answers to certain specific questions. In arithmetic there are certain numerical facts that are at once standard and specific, as the number combinations. In grammar there may be comparable facts, definitions, or rules that are guides to practice. Whatever there is in grammar of rule or law, the possession of which gives power, that should be included among the things a child should know. It will doubtless occur to my readers that I have omitted many of the usual types of questions. There are none requiring the analysis of sentences, nor is there any requirement of the insertion of special grammatical forms; for example, the addition of relative clauses to the subject of a given sen- tence. Such exercises in analysis and synthesis are excellent. I have omitted them, however, not for the reason that they should not be employed, but because I desire that the suggestions that I have made should emphasize the ultimate function or purpose of the teaching of grammar, rather than the grammatical exercises per se. We should ask direct questions such as would require analysis, synthesis, parsing, and we should employ other usual types of questions such as are foimd in our textbooks; but we should do this always with the consciousness that the knowledge acquired is valu- able as it is applied to the correct expression and appreciation of ideas. For these reasons I have aimed in these illustrative exercises to lay especial emphasis on that relation. IV. HOW FAR THE ELEMENT OF SPEED SHOULD ENTER INTO TESTS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR In the standard tests that have been applied to the subject of arith- metic and penmanship, the element of time has entered. Speed, or quick- ness in judgment and expression, is an element of successful mastery, and II Council] COMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY 573 in this truth lies a mistaken and perilous assumption. What is done speedily is done habitually. The genesis of a habit, however, and the mastery of a habit are different things. What is unfamiliar must be slowly learned, and if we force the issue, the pupil either fails to learn, or he learns the wrong thing. A child might, for example, learn a definition very rapidly merely as a sequence of words. Many young people have a marvelous aptitude for quick, or shall I say hasty, mastery of forms. But for actual grammatical guidance such a definition may not have been learned at all. It may not function as a guide to proper interpretation or proper usage. When, however, we assume that a form has been properly learned, we have a right to expect a ready command of knowledge. One should not hesitate in stating a law of correct agreement in a single case. We must not dawdle in our thinking; that is a vicious fault. Yet even after a definition or a rule has been learned, rapid application must not always be required. Hesitation may not be dawdling; it may indicate a high type of thinking — deliberation. We must not introduce speed, therefore, as an element when we require a deliberating judgment. Considerations of this character should lead us to examine, carefully and dispassionately, the value of standards that may be offered and to note to what degree the requirement of speed is of value. Before concluding, I desire to call attention to the important general consideration that standards, when adopted as a test of correct speech, should be circulated among all the teachers of a pupil, especially among departmental teachers. Nothing is more mischievous than the isolation of grammatical teaching to one teacher or to one period of the day only. Every error of language should be noted at all times; correct grammatical expres- sion should characterize all recitations without reference to the subject under discussion. My last word, however, is one of welcome to any attempt that aims to render more definite the character of the demands that society is making of us as teachers. Whether it be in grammar or in any other subject, we ought to co-operate with those who, by means of proposed standards or tests, seek to discover what a pupil should know at the various stages of his school progress. We should listen to their suggestions and co-operate with them in testing the validity of their methods. We need a clearing-house such as this convention to pass on standards and tests. Finally, we should endeavor to inspire among our fellow-workers a genuine interest in the possibilities of standardization of accomplishment, not for our pupils only, but for our- selves as well; we must have the courage of denial, but we must have, as well, the courage of acceptance. All these things we must do earnestly and sincerely, for the worth of our work and the honor of our profession. II 574 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Nationj D. MORALS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS *| J. H, PHILLIPS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BIRMINGHAM, ALA. For OUT present purpose, the conception of morals as the art of right behavior or the development of practical morality must suffice. The use of the term in this restricted sense renders unnecessary any consideration of the various theories regarding ethical sanctions, the nature of the moral sense, or the development of the moral judgment. As elements fundamental to any scheme of moral instruction in our public schools, under existing limitations, the following principles are assumed: 1. The subject-matter of morality is himian conduct. The concrete fabric of morals is to be found in the social activities of individuals. Out- side of social relations, the individual has no moral status. The subject, therefore, involves the nature of the child and his reaction to his social environment. 2. Moral instruction must not be confused with instruction about morals. Excellent theories may be propounded without relation to prac- tice. Noble precepts may be enunciated only to be ignored in conduct. Habits of action should therefore precede rules of conduct. The concrete facts of morals should precede the learning of principles or the formulation of abstract theories of conduct. 3. Without minimizing the importance of the motor activities and the intellectual element in education, the teacher must realize the transcendent value of the feelings and emotions. Here lie the springs of conduct; the emotional life of the child is the key to intellectual training, and the basis upon which character may be developed by inducing in the child self- determined and habitual lines of behavior. Modern psychology confirms the principle that the best work in the industrial or the intellectual field requires an emotional atmosphere; that any solid attainment in language, mathematics, or science depends upon the inspiring motive, the emotional attitude, and the impelling interest of the learner. High thought springs from keen emotion. It is the heart, even more than the intellect, that incites and directs himaan activities, mental and moral. The training of the intellect alone will never produce an exalted character; neither will the training of the feeling alone. The school must train both intellect and feeUng, thought and emotion, if an ideal character is to be the result. Character in the psychological sense may be regarded as identical with will. The old Pythagorean problem in geometry has its analog in the realm of morals. In the psychic triangle, the will, or the power to execute and achieve, is a constant resultant of knowledge and feeling in the indi- vidual, in society, and in the race. 4. The will is thus synonymous with character, and becomes the starting-point as well as the end in all teaching. Any subject, process, Council] COMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY 575 method, or device that does not tend to develop the will of the child has no moral value. But will training is an indirect process; the child's volition must be reached thru his instincts, his impulses, his feelings, his perception, imagination, and reason, his sense of duty, obligation, and responsibility. The motive to action must be grounded upon some feeling combined with an adequate knowledge of means and ends. Ethical training thus consists primarily in the cultivation of right feelings guided by right knowledge toward virtuous ends. With this statement of the principles involved, we may consider some of the means and methods thru which the school may develop ethical con- sciousness and moral character in the child. I. The school organization. — When the child enters school, he is little more than a bundle of selfish impulses. These native propensities are to be directed, harmonized, and co-ordinated with his new surroundings. His first problem is the adjustment of the self to the not-self. By barter and bargain with his fellows, by alliance, offensive and defensive, by play and work, the social instinct is developed and the foundation is laid for the industrial co-operation and social interchange required in our modern civilization. Due subordination of the individual will to the requirements of organized society can scarcely be expected of those who in their early education have been deprived of opportunities for the development of the social instinct under institutional guidance. In the school, the child, for the first time, is an active member of a social whole, to which he must adjust himself. His new relation and his reactions to new stimuli require conscious effort. His first activities may be largely imitative and without conscious motive. But imitation, tho low in the scale of ethical value, involves some degree of originality and volitional activity. He at least yields passive obedience to the requirements of the social whole. To him, the habitual is the right, and to the extent the spirit and practice of the school are ethically right, his reactions will crystallize into moral habits. In the home, the child's obligations and responsibilities are limited to those who are bound to him by personal ties; he has learned to obey his parents, to be truthful to those whom he loves, to respect their property rights, and to make sacrifices for their welfare. In the school this narrow code of morals is to be expanded, and the child learns to recognize and discharge his obligations to his teachers, his companions, and to the society of which he is a member. The virtues of obedience, punctuality, truth, honesty, kindness, sympathy, and self-sacrifice have their roots in the home, expand in the school, and strengthen day by day into elements of character, as the emergencies of expanding experience call them into exercise. The school represents the circumference of an ever-widening circle, of which the home continues to be the center. The center remains fixed, while the radius of the circles changes, and requires frequent readjustments in the ever- enlarging circumference. The annual or semiannual change of teachers 576 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National thus becomes of immense ethical value to the child. As he advances from grade to grade, the class, with its diverse social elements, remains practically permanent — a fitting prototype of the larger community life whose varied interests he must soon share, while the teacher, in some degree, foreshadows the character and dignity of changing official life in a democracy. The school organization thru its discipline thus develops the institutional spirit, enables the pupil to realize his higher and real seK as a social being, and imparts an ethical content to his character. 2. The school curriculum. — The conventional studies of the school have been too generally regarded as exclusively intellectual. Reading, arith- metic, geography, grammar, history, and Uterature are valuable as instru- ments of mental culture, and their mastery as such is unquestionably an important function of the school. The child must acquire technical skill in the use of these tools, and must become possessed of the keys to the storehouse of human wisdom. But this is not all. To justify their domi- nant position in the school curriculum, these subjects must be shown to possess within themselves elements of moral value as well as of mental culture. Their content as well as their form must be such as will gradually evolve in the child a conscious recognition of the laws which govern the world in which he lives, and develop within him the power of self -direction and self-adjustment in conformity with these laws. Several years ago, William T. Harris clearly pointed out the ethical values of the "five co- ordinated groups of studies," which he characterized as "the five windows of the soul which open out upon the five great divisions of human life." Likewise, the industrial and social activities of the school will be ultimately valued in proportion to their contribution to the moral life of the individual. The essential fact to be emphasized in the curriculum, however, is the relation of the emotional element to the intellectual — the harmony of knowledge and feeling in the development of volitional activity. This fundamental principle is the key to the ethical content of the school cur- riculum. 3. Methods of the school. — It is not enough that the subject-matter of the curriculum shall have an ethical content; methods of instruction and of discipline must likewise conform to ethical requirements. The school can never subserve sound moral ends until it recognizes the fact that it must develop in the child the power of voluntary self-expression. Whether the subject taught be arithmetic or a principle of morals, the teacher should never forget the maxim laid down by WiUiam James: "No reception with- out reaction, no impression without correlative expression." Impressions communicated to the chUd, that are not attended by "proper motor con- sequences," are not only incomplete and wasteful, but produce in the mind an incapacity for responsive activity — a. species of will-paralysis. The individual is too complex and many-sided to realize itself thru one mode of reaction or one form of expression. The four co-ordinate ' Councfl) COMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY 577 forms of expression usually recognized by the school are: (i) oral descrip- tion or spoken language; (2) the use of written or printed forms, or written language; (3) pictorial representation, or drawing; and (4) objective expres- sion, by making and doing things. The translation of thought from one mode of expression to another presents an important element of moral value to the child by enabling him to check up and test his various reactions. Telling is an important mode of reaction in the school, but there are many impressions that can never be completely or appropriately realized in the telling. So long as expression by telUng continues to be the chief method of the school, conduct and morality will remain largely a matter of words ,- preaching and profession will be divorced from practice. The methods of the school, in order to be moral, must enable the child to realize his impres- sions in concrete forms, and in terms of his own habitual activities. Here, also, the aesthetic and emotional nature of the child must play an important part. He must be trained to know and feel the difference between doing a thing and doing it well; between telling a thing and telling it well. He must feel actually pained in the presence of the inartistic, the I inaccurate, and the wrong, in any form of expression. It is this element that makes the difference between good speUing and poor spelling, between !good English and poor English, the neat and the slovenly, and between good conduct and bad conduct. We may call this element pride, interest, ambition, or what we will. In its last analysis, it is a combination of the moral judgment and the artistic sense; it is conscience in work as the result of an awakened moral sense. The tests of the methods employed in the school, both for instruction I and for discipline, may be found in the feelings and motives they tend to engender. The dominant spirit of the school should be favorable to the development and exercise of right motives. Such motives cannot grow in an atmosphere poisoned by envy, jealousy, hate, anger, threats, and ysical force. Nor are they likely to thrive in an atmosphere dominated y the competitive spirit of commercial life — the spirit engendered by class lonors, prizes, honor rolls, and other artificial incentives. Only in excep- ional instances should such incentives find justification, and then only til higher motives can be made effective. They appeal to the baser instincts of the child and tend to emphasize the more selfish impulses of Ws nature. The motives induced are too low in the scale of moral values; they are too closely allied with envy, malice, and the entire group of malevo- ent affections, to be considered as moral factors. The motives and incen- ives of moral conduct must be developed in the school, if they are to be ealized in the life of the citizen. 4. Informal instruction in morals and religion. — Systematic and formal courses in morals and religion are frequently advocated. The best expe- ience, however, has proven that direct and formal instruction in morals, ither orally or by means of textbooks, has been unsatisfactory. Repeated 578 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National attempts have been made to prepare textbooks containing a body of ethical doctrine adapted to children. Such efforts have invariably proven futile. Formal religious instruction is of necessity excluded from the American public school, and, in many states, the reading of selections from the Bible is forbidden by law, primarily because of the diversity of sectarian teaching. But it does not follow that the schools are irreligious or godless because they do not require as a basis for moral training the learning of a religious creed or the memorizing of a catechism. The teaching of our various sects may involve radically different beliefs and divergent interpretations concerning God and the mysteries of Providence, but the rehgious spirit they seek to develop is one and the religious and moral virtues they seek to inculcate are practically the same. The public school assumes this religious spirit and strives to secure the practice of these religious and moral virtues as the flower and fruitage of that spirit. When all sectarian differences are eliminated, a valuable residumn of creed will remain as a common posses- sion. These common fundamental truths — the existence of Gk)d, the Father and Creator of all, the brotherhood of all mankind, and the reality i of a life beyond death, intimately related to the present life, may be assumed as the common denominator of all rehgious faiths and may serve as an adequate religious sanction for a system of moral training in the school, if such sanction is deemed essential. The one vital religious element in the school is the personality of the teacher, no matter what his rehgious creed, provided only he is deeply imbued with the rehgious spirit. Such a teacher! will find appropriate means to stimulate the rehgious instincts and to vital- ize into moral habits the rehgious instruction obtained by the child in the home or in the church. The teacher of children must be big enough to avoid the things that divide, and with reverence and hvunihty bring to the heart of childhood those eternal verities that shall tend to unite humanit}' and develop a consciousness of the truth that shall forever abide. The mere learning of the decalog has never made the heart of man unmistakably responsive to duty; the mere repetition of a catechism hae: never evolved a high type of moral consciousness. The verbal expression is not the appropriate and final reaction for an ethical impression. That a man must necessarily be law-abiding because he knows the law, that the intellectual process of memorizing the facts of ethics will insure mora conduct — this is the fundamental fallacy in moral training. Rules o* conduct can be taught only in terms of the child's activities. Incidents o daily occurrence abound in the schoolroom and within the range of th. child's experience, which will afford the best opportunities for efficien training in morals. Contemporary history affords abundant material fror which even a primary class, under the guidance of a skilful teacher, ma; receive practical and lasting lessons in morals. Literature, ancient an; modem, history, sacred and profane, the biographies of great heroes an; leaders of men — all combined form an exhaustless treasure house from whic: I CouncU] COMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY 579 lesson material, examples, and ideals may be obtained, suitable for all classes, all stages of development, and all conditions of human experience. But it may be objected that this incidental and indirect method of developing moral ideals and inducing moral conduct is desultory and unsys- tematic. We must not forget that the facts of nature and of experience do not come to us in tabulated forms or in prearranged systems. If the child is trained ethically, it will be by the desultory and unsystematized facts of human experience. E. THE USE OF TESTS AND SCALES OF MEASUREMENT IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF SCHOOLS GEORGE D. STRAYER, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. Tests and scales of measurement are being employed by a great many superintendents of schools in their work in supervision and administration. These tests and scales are used by administrative officers for the following purposes: (i) to compare the achievements of children in one school system t with the achievements of children in other cities; (2) to compare the I achievements of children in the several school buildings or other administra- tive units within the school system; (3) to study the progress of children in I any given subject from grade to grade; and (4) to indicate for any period or succession of periods the progress made by any particular group or groups of children. An example of each of these uses, employing in each case a different scale or standard test, will make clear the significance of this new I movement in educational administration. A comparison of the achievements of children in one school system with the \work done by children in other cities. — Table I which follows gives the scores m arithmetic made in the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades on the Courtis tests in the four fundamental operations. TABLE I Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division Grades Grades Grades Grades v VI vn VIII V VI VII VIII V VI VII vni V VI VII VIII Detroit Boston Other cities Butte 3-9 3-7 3-9 2.9 4.6 4.9 4-4 3-4 5-4 5.6 4-7 3-8 6.7 7.8 5.6 5-3 5-5 4-9 4-5 S-S 6.2 6.3 6.1 5-8 7-3 6.9 7.8 7-1 95 8.6 8.4 9.8 3.8 3-3 2.6 41 4-8 4.8 4-S 50 6.0 S-i 5-2 6.S 75 6.5 6.4 8.1 2.7 2.0 2-3 3-6 4-4 3-3 4-3 4.3 7-1 S.I 5-8 7.2 8.8 6.9 6.3 10. 2 These standard tests were given in Butte, Mont., in order to discover the quality of work done in this field. As a result of the comparisons which were instituted, it was suggested by the commission which was employed 58o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National to survey the school system that Butte was doing well enough in the funda- mental operations, and that possibly something less of time and energy might be devoted to this field. The comparison of the achievements of children, whether among several school systems or among the several units of a single system, may often lead to the conclusion that the work is being well done or even possibly too well done as compared with the other results achieved by the schools. A comparison of the achievements of children in the several school buildings or other administrative units within the school system. — The administrative officer must always be interested in the relative achievements of children in the different schools within his system. Of course it is never to be expected that each school unit will be able to show exactly the same accom- plishment upon the part of children as each other unit or building. The best single measure of the success of the teachers and principals in charge of a particular building is to be found in the progress being made by the children. It is well, nevertheless, to know of the variability which may exist, and on occasion to make provision for groups of children who are particularly backward, or to relieve from some part of the work children who have shown unusual ability in this particular field. An illustration of such a comparison is given in Table II. TABLE n SXAMDINe OF THE SsVEItAL GSADES IN SPELLING ASSANGED BY Schools' Schools by Numbers I 3 3 4 Grade II 89 72 75 77 66 75 84 73 77 87 80 74 80 82 98 75 73 91 73 74 91 89 80 Grade rn Grade IV 78 Grade V 88 Grade VI 82 Grade Vn 78 Grade Vin 83 Average 76. 5 78. 5 81.2 82.8 In deriving the spelling lists which were used in the tests scored ir; Table II, it was discovered that the average ability of children was repre sented by a mark of 70 per cent correct. In the schools represented in the table, all were above the average, and it might be suggested that the time which had been given in schools Nos. 3 and 4 to increasing the achievemen in spelling might have been used to better advantage in some other field. "The words used in testing these schools are those derived by Leonard P. Ayres, of the Russell Sag' Foundation. Copies of the lists given to each grade appeared in the survey of the Springfield, HI., scbook published by the Russell Sage Foundation, and in the survey of the Butte, Mont, schools, published by th< Board of Education, Butte, Moat. Council] COMMITTEE ON TESTS AND STANDARDS OF EFFICIENCY 581 A study of the progress of children in one subject from grade to grade. — Out of the most significant uses to be made of standard scales and tests is found in a comparison of the achievements of children from grade to grade. The diagram which follows indicates the progress made in English Results of Composition Tests PeRCENTA6E OF PUPILS AtTAININ6 GiVEN ScORES SCORES 'I 582 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National composition thru the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. The Hillegas scale for measuring the achievement in English composition was employed. Teachers frequently grade papers in English composition by marking the best paper in the group at or near 100 and scaling from that point down to the poorest paper. This process is repeated from grade to grade with very little appreciation of the real progress or lack of progress on the part of the children of the class. A scale for measuring results in English composition has the merit of introducing an objective unit. The teacher who has before her such objective units will be much more certainly able to know and to measure the progress of children during a semester or a year. With such objective standards before her, it is fair to expect that she will work with much greater definiteness for the development of skill in English composition. The progress made by a particular group for a period or siiccession of periods. — Table III indicates the progress made in penmanship during a period of twelve weeks. The Thomdike scale for measuring the quality of handwriting was used. ^ TABLE in J AcmEVEMENT IN PENMANSHIP 1 Gkaoes IV v VI VII vm 1st Measure-Median . . . 2d " " 3d " " 8.3 8.3 8.8 8.7 9.8 I0.2 8.9 9-5 II. 2 10.9 IX. 4 II. 7 10.7 "•3 II. 8 When standard tests or scales of measurement are employed by adminis- trative or supervisory officers, we may expect both teachers and children to be interested in results. In the table given above, it will be noticed that the median achievement of children in the sixth grade after twelve weeks is above that of the eighth grade at the beginning of these measurements. It would, of course, be unwise to allow children to concentrate their time and energy upon a single field in which they expect to be measured. Over against this danger may be suggested freedom which may be allowed to children, to classes, or to schools that have achieved results which are con- sidered satisfactory. It may be asserted with confidence that tests and scales of measurement will be used in increasing measure by administrative officers because of the more precise knowledge concerning school condition!; which can be gained in this way, and because of the incentive for pupil;; and for teachers found in the very accurate comparisons which may bt instituted. CouncUl COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION 583 TOPIC: HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION A. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON HEALTH PROBLEMS IN EDUCATION THOMAS D. WOOD, M.D., PROFESSOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y., CHAIRMAN The joint committees of the National Council of Education and the American Medical Association have issued one report on "Rural School- houses and Grounds" and another entitled "Minimum Sanitary Require- ments for Rural Schools," Copies of these may be obtained from the United States Bureau of Education in Washington. Your committee is now studying the health conditions of country-school children and is advocating all feasible measures for the improvement of the children and the schools in the country. Rural-school children have more physical defects than city-school children. A comparison of all the available statistics of health examinations of school children shows that, almost without exception in the list of defects, the children in the country are less healthy and more handicapped than the city children. Examinations within the last three years of 330,000 school children in New York City showed 70 per cent defective. Corresponding examinations of 294,000 rural children in Pennsylvania showed 75 per cent defective. The city children have received much more health attention than the country children, and this is one reason to account for their better health. Twenty-two states have laws providing for medical inspection. In over four hundred cities in these twenty-two states, medical inspection is pro- vided. In only ten states is medical inspection even attempted in the rural schools, and with the exception of three or four states, the attempts at medical inspection in the rural schools are so fragmentary and desultory as hardly to deserve mention. Compulsory as well as permissive medical inspection laws are much less frequently enforced in the rural schools than in city schools. In considering the purpose and worth of the health examinations, the iiscovery of physical defects is only the first and the easier step in the ful- ilment of the task. More important yet is the opportunity, nay, the duty, )f the state to provide thru the public schools for the promotion of the lealth, of the complete education, of the entire welfare of the children. Relatively much less effort is made in the country than in the city to follow ip the discovery of physical errors in school children by provisions for emedying and correcting the health defects brought to light. In rural England, under the operation of the Education Act of 1907, vith its more recent revisions, splendid work is being done for the health are of the children in the country. Rural America should not be out- listanced in a matter of such vital import to the present, and, even more, 0 the future welfare -of the entire nation. $84 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National Your committee recommends the following measures as important and possible for the care of the health of children in the rural schools: 1. Sanitary schoolhouses. Rural schoolhouses are relatively much less sanitary in construction and care than city schools. 2. Adequate training of rural-school teachers in school hygiene. Rural teachers must, in the nature of circiunstances, assume more personal responsibility than urban teachers for health supervision and care. 3. Health examinations including dental inspection of all rural-school pupils once a year. 4. Health care at medical and dental clinics to be made available and reasonably accessible for country children. 5. Follow-up health work by district and school nurses. 6. Warm school limches are as important for country children as for city children. Rural teachers testify that warm lunches resxilt in "better afternoon school work and less need of discipline." 7. More general and adequate inculcation of health habits and instruction in practical hygiene for all rural-school children. 8. Co-operation of state authorities, conamimity, social, and fraternal organizations for the promotion of the health and welfare of school children. All of these measures have been tried sufficiently to demonstrate con- vincingly their worth and feasibility. B. METHODS OF EXTENDING THE PROPAGANDA FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF SANITARY CONDITIONS IN RURAL SCHOOLS JOHN M. DODSON, M.D., UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO, CHICAGO, ILL. The topic assigned to me as the representative of the committee of the American Medical Association in this symposium may be briefly presented. It is necessary for me only to supplement the report which has been made by the chairman by a presentation of the plans and suggestions of the committee in reference to extending the propaganda for the improvement of sanitary conditions in the rural schools. The idea of urging upon the National Education Association that it take up the health problem for consideration was born of the conviction that this Association afforded an opportunity for the greatest service and realization of the benefits to be derived from the recent advances in preventive medicine. Preventive medicine has been newly born in the last quarter-century. The possi^ bilities in the way of lessening the mortality, diminishing the amount oi sickness with its attendant suffering, grief, and misery are dimly appre ciated even in the medical profession, and not at all by the public at large If we are to hope for large returns in the way of practical benefits fron: these recent advances, it must be thru a universally enlightened public and this education of the public must come for the most part thru the public schools. At the first meeting of the joint committees, held u i Council] IMPROVING SANITARY CONDITIONS IN RURAL SCHOOLS 585 St. Louis three years ago, it was unanimously agreed that the best results would be secured by confining the work of the committee in the beginning at least to one topic, and "The Sanitation of Rural-School Buildings" was chosen because it is obviously the most fundamental. It was further j agreed that the rural school should be made the object of the chief work of the committee and the wisdom of this decision could not have been more strikingly demonstrated than it was by the report of the committee pre- ; sented at Richmond last year in regard to the health conditions of the pupils in the rural schools as contrasted with those in the urban schools. When the physical defects are found to be from one and one-half to four and five times as frequent in the children in coimtry schools as they are in the city- school children, there is clearly something very wrong in the country schools. It is still further agreed by the committee at this first meeting that the first step should be an investigation of the existing conditions, for while the impression was universal that the average rural school was seriously defec- tive, no extensive and accurate investigation had been made of the condi- tions. F. B. Dressier, now a member of this committee, was found to be engaged in such an investigation, and his report supplemented by some iurther ones which were made under the direction of the committee set iown in no uncertain way the fact that the little red schoolhouse is far rem being what it ought to be. No school board, or superintendent, or )ther individual concerned in the location and construction of a school )uilding need any longer be at a loss for adequate information along these ines. The problem which now presents itseK to the committee and to his Association is to disseminate these facts as widely as possible, to the nd that every teacher, every superintendent, every school officer, and very parent in the United States may come to know that an insanitary choolhouse is a disgrace and a reproach to the community which tolerates ts existence. The task of disseminating this information thruout the Jnited States is one of great magnitude. How shall it be accomplished ? First: By the wide distribution of circulars such as the one already repared on "Minimum Sanitary Requirements for Rural Schools," forty lousand of which have been distributed by the United States commis- oner of education. Second: By articles in newspapers, magazines, educational, and other )umals, especially in agricultural magazines, directing the attention of le public to the importance of such school sanitation and hygiene. It ill not be sufficient, however, to rely wholly on the printed matter. This iportant matter must be presented in addresses and discussions before achers' institutes, teachers' associations, farmers' institutes, meetings of omen's clubs, before state and county medical societies — in short, before 1 bodies of individuals who have to do in any way whatsoever with the ral schools. Your committee would suggest that steps be taken to present is matter by giving it a place on the program at every teachers' institute $86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Natio and association held in this country during the coming year, while in the winter months the same subject be included in the programs of farmers' institutes, women's clubs, and the like. The Council on Health and Public Instruction of the American Medical Association will undertake to see that it is made a topic for discussion at every county and state medical society which can be reached. As has been suggested by the chairman, the sanitation of the rural schools should be made an important topic in the curriculum of every normal school and institute to the end that every teacher receiving instruc- tion in one of these institutions shall be informed upon the subject. It is further suggested by the committee that a system of prizes be instituted in each state to serve as a stimulus to school districts to improve the present conditions. This should be done by securing in each state some arrange- ment by which the state board of pubUc instruction would offer a prize for the district or county showing the greatest ratio of improvement in the sanitary conditions of its rural schools in the next three or five years. Your committee has been engaged in the preparation of a score card based on the schedule of minimiun requirements already issued. This score card will shortly be ready for publication. The prize, it is suggested, might consist of a moving-picture machine, with approved educational films, or of a circulating library, or of a series of reproductions of the great works of art which could be circulated among the schools in the county or district. It is believed that the funds necessary for the purchase of such prizes can be secured from the state or thru private donations. The committee would emphasize the fact that these prizes should not be offered for the best possible conditions found in the rural schools at any particular time irre- spective of the financial resources of that district, but should be given for the greatest ratio of improvement shown in the sanitary conditions in a given period of three or five years. Already in one state a committee of district superintendents with which the chairman has been asked to co-operate is arranging for such a competition, and steps have been taken to secure the necessary funds. Third: If this work is to be conducted by the National Education Association thru a series of years — and such continuity of effort is impera- tive if any considerable results are to be secured — some arrangement must be made by which the committee can secure information from several states thru the state superintendent of pubUc instruction as to the progress which is being made. By such a plan, it will be possible by the end of five or six years to determine how effectively this propaganda is working toward tht.> improvement of the sanitary conditions of our rural schools. May I say in conclusion that it has been very gratifying to the repre- sentatives of the American Medical Association to meet with such a cordial and hearty response to the suggestion that this great Association interest itself more actively than had been the case heretofore in this important y CouncU] SECRETARY'S MINUTES 587 matter of the health problems in education. This is an educational, not a medical movement. It is your plan as educators, but the American Medical Association stands ready as it has in the past to co-operate in every possible way to further this movement, and it hopes, from the work of this committee, for the achievement of important advances which will redound to the great benefit of the school children of the future. SECRETARY'S MINUTES OAKLAND MEETING OFFICERS President — Robert J. Aley, president, University of Maine Orono, Me. Vice-President — James Y. Joyner, state superintendent of public instruction. . .Raleigh, N.C. Secretary — William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal School Chicago, 111. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, August 18, 1915 The meeting was called to order in the City Auditorium at 9:00 a.m., with President \ley in the chair. The following program was presented: "The Purpose of a National System of Education" — Carroll G. Pearse, president, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. Topic: The History and Development of American Education "Elementary Education" — EUwood P. Cubberley, professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. This paper as read constitutes hap. i of the author's book on Public School Administration (Houghton MiflBin Company, Boston, 1915). For this reason, it will not appear in this volume. "Secondary Education" — Charles E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, dich. "Higher Education" — Elmer Ellsworth Brown, chancellor, New York University, v'ew York, N.Y. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Afternoon, August 18, 1915 The meeting was called to order by President Aley at 2:30 p.m., in the City Audi- orium. The following papers were read under the general topic "Present Activities and xcomplishments": "Elementary Education" — Harry B. Wilson, superintendent of schools, Topeka, ans. "Secondary Education" — Payson Smith, state superintendent of public schools, ugusta, Me. "Higher Education" — Frank Strong, chancellor. University of Kaosas, Lawrence, ans. The following report of the Committee on Membership was adopted: UGusTus S. Downing, Albany, N.Y., Vice-President Term expires 1918 LLEN C. Sabin, Milwaukee, Wis., Executive Committee Term expires 1918 UGUSTUS S. Downing, Albany, N.Y., Committee on Membership. . .Term expires 1918 j^^RROLL G. Pearse, Milwaukee, Wis., Committee on Membership.. .Term expires 1918 I'HN R. Kirk, Kirksville^Mo., Committee on Membership Term expires 1917 S88 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (National MEMBERS Terms to Expire in 1921 f^m I Samuel Avery, Lincoln, Nebr., to succeed himself. Fred L. Keeler, Lansing, Mich., to succeed Lewis H. Jones, Ypsilanti, Mich. Lloyd E. Wolfe, San Antonio, Tex., to succeed himself. Guy Potter Benton, Burlington, Vt., to succeed himself. Henry Siizzallo, Seattle, Wash., to succeed himself. Luther L. Wright, Flint, Mich., to succeed himself. George M. Philips, West Chester, Pa., to succeed himself. Neil C. Macdonald, Valley City, N.D., to succeed himself. Ernest E. Balcomb, Greensboro, N.C., to succeed himself. J. E. Burke, Boston, Mass., to succeed himself. Teshs to Expire in 1917 Frederic E. Farrington, New York, N.Y., to succeed E. C. Moore, Cambridge, Mass. George L. Towne, Lincoln, Nebr., to succeed D. B. Parkinson, Carbondale, El. THIRD SESSION— Wednesday Evening, August 18, 1915 The meeting was called to order in the City Auditoriiun at 8:00 p.m., by President Aley, and the following program given under the general topic "Future Outlook and Possibilities": "Elementary Education" — Grace C. Strachan, district superintendent of schods/ Brooklyn, N.Y. "Secondary Education" — ^J. Stanley Brown, superintendent, Township High School^ Joliet, lU. "Higher Education" — Guy Potter Benton, president. University of Vermont. Burlington, Vt. William B. Owen, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE PURPOSE OF A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION CARROLL G. PEARSE, PRESmENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS Civilized nations, among them the United States, spend vast sums ir the education of their people; the more completely civilized a nation according to our standards, the more thoroly it attends to the education 0 all its people. In the United States, the nation, state, and local community pay out more each year for education than for any other governmentii expense. What is the purpose of the people in pouring out thus lavishly of their wealth into this channel? It is sometimes said that with th American people education is a passion; but it is fair to assume that . people so generally disposed to view projects from a practical standpoiii must have some strong imderl3dng reasons for this willingness to levy upc: its resources for the education of its youth. The first purpose of education is to rear intelligent citizens. It is th purpose that the people shall have some familiarity with thatknowledg i Council] A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION 589 which is now the common heritage of civilized men. So far as that knowl- edge can be made their possession, the citizenship of the nation has a broader foundation and a wider outlook for all the operations and affairs of life. Intelligent citizens have the art of reading and can lay under tribute the libraries which they can reach, as well as the volumes not in libraries, and the great river of periodical and occasional literature which can be made to serve their needs. They thus have that advantage in the formation of judgments which the possession of more extensive and more accurate infor- mation brings. They have also arrived at an understanding of the direction in which more knowledge lies and can utilize their skill in the art of reading to inform themselves as fully as is necessary upon any subject which they may be considering. Intelligent citizens are able to enjoy pleasures of a higher type. They are not dependent upon sensual gratifications. The citizen who can read and who has even a very general knowledge of the treasures of literature has open to him pleasures which are unknown to or unrealizable by the one who has no knowledge of the rich stores which are laid away for his use in enlarging his personal wisdom, or in contemplating the wise or the witty or the splendid thoughts of those who have set them down upon the printed page. He has eyes which see with understanding the plants and animals with which nature surrounds us and he takes pleasure in tracing their like- ness and variety, their forms and the adaptation of those forms to plant and animal uses. He sees order and beauty and the operations of natural law which uninstructed eyes do not perceive. He looks upon the phenomena of the clouds and the rain, the frost and the sun's heat, the rivers drawn to the sea, the lightning, the movement of the steam engine and the dynamo, the electric light and the telephone, and these have a different significance and a more vital meaning to the citizen possessed of general intelligence. A.nd tho the education which has given general intelligence has not fitted the receiver for a craft or vocation, like the blind man whose eyes had been inointed, he has a new vision; he has a knowledge of the world and of life md its conditions which gives him a new standard of judging those things *vhich are worth while as contrasted with those things which are not. His general intelligence has immensely widened his choice in the selec- ion of an occupation; to him a far greater range of employments is open han to the uneducated citizen; and for this reason he has a many times greater chance of judging correctly and taking up the one occupation in vhich his tastes and abilities give him the greatest promise of success. The ame general education has made him better able to perform more effectively ny tasks which it may be his to do and better able to understand the 'rinciples underlying, and the processes of any craft he may take up, and 0 renders him potentially a more effective practitioner of that craft. The nation educates in order that its citizens may be efficient. Effi- iency requires good health and a strong and well-developed body able to I 590 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National carry its share of the load of the world's work. A sound body requires that the youth learn the requirements of food and clothing and exercise and sleep; and that he form the habit of observing those principles of hygiene which are necessary. He must acquire, too, a belief in health and in his duty to preserve or improve it. The efficient citizen is an asset to himself and to the community at the same time. His skill enables him to produce a better income and so he can live with his family in better style in a better house, have better clothes, eat better and more nourishing food, and give to the children better oppor- tunities. The intelligent and efficient citizen is a better customer; not only can he earn a better income, but he is a better spender; he knows about more things which he would like to have, and with his better income he buys them, giving added prosperity to the butcher and the baker and the candlestick-maker and to all their kith and kin. This citizen is also an asset to the community in another way. The employers who need labor as an element in their business enterprises value the efficient worker, and he thus becomes an element of wealth to his employer as well as to himself; the efficient professional man who sells his knowledge and skill instead of his labor is worth much more to the community as well as to himself. In another way, too, if the state will understand its opportimity and the signs of the time, the citizen will be trained to a valuable efficiency; he not only will be willing but will be able to render his military duty to the state. He wUl be trained in the elementary school of the soldier; he willi know his facings and marchings and will be able to move and act in con- cert with other men; he will know how to live and be comfortable and pre- serve his health in camp; he will be taught to live and eat and exercise so that he may retain his physical vigor and effectiveness into and past middle life. This will be in contrast to the present situation of most dwellers in towns, too many of whom become fat and flabby and jaded after the first flush of manhood is past. This training of men to possible military effectiveness is almost wholly omitted in our present scheme oS education, as are, in large measure, the education for, and training to, the duty and practice of retaining physical strength and soundness. Attention to this item of education will not mean that the nation has become filled with thoughts of conquest or is about to fall upon some near 01 more distant neighbor nation to deprive it of its lands or to reduce it to vassalage, but that nation which possesses fertile lands and accumulate!- wealth cannot safely ignore the fact that opulence and the lack of powei to defend the borders of the state have, as long as the history of men has been written, tempted the hungry and hard-living to swoop down upon an : rend away the wealth to which the flaccid owners could no longer maintain their right. The world may some time establish an international pact ci. peace to be maintained by putting away the weapons of war and establish ing an international police to enforce the agreement. But, tho then Council] A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION 591 are laws against pillage and murder and outrage by one citizen against another, and policemen and courts to enforce them, it is not expected that you or your neighbor will calmly submit to such injury if a robber visits you while the peace officer is not at hand to protect you; and if there were no peace officer, as there is now no international police, the man who lacked weapons of defense, or who deliberately neglected or refused to be ready to repel attempted injury would have small respect shown him. A hundred years ago this nation could call to its defense a citizen-soldiery trained to bear arms in the defense of their homes against savage men and savage beasts or in the hunt for food for their tables; their muscles were inured to toil and long marches; they could live for days in the open and [ind food and shelter and maintain themselves. Today approximately tialf our people dwell in towns and rely on the bakeshop and the department ?tore and the street car instead of depending on their own feet and on their 3wn ability to find and provide shelter or garments or food; they are often "orbidden by law to bear or use arms. The people have as much courage IS their fathers; but a few experiences have shown us that our present :heory that the entire able-bodied male population constitutes a "citizen- ioldiery" at all competent to act effectively in any important national crisis s, to quote a former distinguished citizen of the nation, "an iridescent Iream." The decay of physical power and virility in men and women past sarly manhood and womanhood is also a serious problem which demands to )e dealt with. The state educates for economic or vocational efficiency; the citizen nust first choose — and the state is recognizing that it must supply him with nformation on which to base an intelligent choice — a suitable vocation; it is lot enough that he drift into one. And, having chosen, there must be aciUties for a thoro training for the vocation chosen. For many com- nercial employments, and for some of an industrial character, training is till given in the employment itself, and the state may note this in making ts provision for vocational training; but the state must see that for each rorker a way of preparation is open, whether for a profession or for a trade, r for some of the newer employments. The failure and disappearance or he essential modification of certain trades and occupations under the idustrial and other changes of the day and the diminished opportunity )r apprenticeship lays upon the state a steadily growing responsibility for leeting this need in the best way. The state educates for homemaking and the efficient discharge of ome duties. So fundamental is the home to the state's prosperity that le state cannot neglect to see that all possible attention is given to render- ig efficient in these vitally important duties the future heads of families ^d the future house mothers. Wise vocational choice and thoro training rgely determine the income the home may have, and the income fixes the aancial, and largely 'the social, status. The young man's attention may 1 'atKl 592 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Ns well be turned to his responsibility for the supplying of the home, foi maintaining its moral tone, and for assisting in the upbringing of the chil- dren which come into it. The future house mother may of right learn thd duties which will be hers as the spending partner, whose wise outlay of thi funds suppUed for maintenance will do much to make the home efficient as! a business enterprise; she should also be trained in the skilful doing ofi the routine duties of the home, and in the care and feeding and training of the children who come to bless it.* Both partners may well have learned the importance and the methods of thrift in the home. Some of this knowl- edge referred to as needed is now given in the home, some is picked up inci- dentally if at all. To prosper in the best way the state must see that either in the home or elsewhere the requisite knowledge and training are given. The state educates for efficiency in citizenship. The intelUgent citizen knows the history of the state and of other nations, and has a knowledge broad enough to point the way for him in the search for any further informa- tion which he may require; this citizen recognizes the proper attitude toward his government of which he is an integral part. This type oi citizen is vital to the continuance of a free government. The state must see that the necessary information is given, and the spirit of duty to the statf inculcated. It is important not only that the citizen be able to judge and tc reach right conclusions; he must also recognize his obUgation to carry hi^ share of the load, to be at the polls on primary day and on election day, anc to be present on other important civic occasions. The state educates its citizens to inteUigence in these matters of government, also, that it maj have local and state and national officials who understand their duties, anc who know how to inform themselves further concerning these when neces- sary. The state educates its citizens in order that they may have a socia attitude — that they may not only recognize these social obUgations but act upon that knowledge. This attitude of mind should not only make th^ citizen a better neighbor to the man on the next lot or to the family in th( upper flat; he will feel also that it is of concern to him if the neighbo is ill, or out of employment, or in misfortune. He will believe and ac upon the beUef that the citizen may not fend for himself alone and that it i- imsocial, even tho not illegal, for him, if he is gifted with talents of tha sort, to pile up a huge surplus of the world's goods, far beyond his needs He will feel that he must be interested in politics, not as a matter of persona advantage except as all citizens benefit, but for the good of all; that h> ought to concern himself with the community's problems — housing anc health and transportation and education and recreation. The system of education in a free state has for its purpose the rearm; of free and efficient and happy citizens. It is the gateway thru which ead may enter upon that field of endeavor which is his choice because it is th£i into which both his tastes and his abilities lead him. It is no part of th Council] HISTORY OF AMERICAN SECONDARY EDUCATION 593 duty of such a system to provide for or train a class of citizens who enjoy advantages and privileges above their fellows; nor, on the other hand, is it I any part of the duty of such a system to train a special class, skilled to render particular service from which others benefit more than do the workers themselves and their famiUes. Such a system if rightly planned v/ill furnish an opportunity for any youth, in whatever station born, to pass freely thru the grades and departments which his mental endowment may fit him to undertake, to any vocational and social goal for which he may show that he has the necessary character and ability. And especially it is no part of the duty of a system of pubUc education in a free state, so to direct the education of its people that there shall be built up within the state a powerful and perfect machine, whether industrial or military or both, the parts of which shall spring together at the sound of the trimapet, and, at the touch of the government upon its levers, shall run here jr run there, to create wealth of which the government may exact such ihare as it decides to demand; or which the rulers of the state may launch It the breast of a neighbor state to crush it into subjection. When rightly conceived the purpose of a system of public education is 0 produce free citizens, of desirable physical and mental and moral quality, vho are intelligent, and efficient, and social. ^OPIC: THE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN EDUCATION A. SECONDARY EDUCATION CHARLES E. CHADSEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DETROIT, MICH. Chancellor Brown, in his Making of Our Middle Schools, divides the istory of secondary education into the colonial period with the Latin ammar school, the period from the Revolution to the Civil War with the :ademy as the dominant form of secondary school, and the modem period, le period of the public high school. For all practical purposes this division ay be accepted. Our educational ideals, like our political and social ideals, are closely ;pendent in their origui upon the current ideals in Europe and especially in agland. To some extent they are marked by imitation, to some extent by volt. The colonial grammar schools, best illustrated by the Boston itin School, were unquestionably established frankly in imitation of the itin grammar schools of England. It is true, however, that even in these rly beginnings the stem religious atmosphere of the New England colonies dically modified their character. From the beginning of our educational history, the expression "free" Ls frequently applied to the public schools of secondary grade, altho the m S94 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National majority of the pupils were required to pay fees for various reasons. Thi: Boston Latin School, authorized by vote of the Boston citizens in 1635, marks the beginning of public secondary education in the colonies. Othei towns quickly established similar schools. The Hopkins bequest, a portion of which was assigned to New Haven to aid in the support of the grammar school, probably aided the develop- ment of the theory of the school committee, the vote of 1664 establishing such a committee. However, the idea of full control by the town itsel' thru the town meeting was destined to control for many decades, slowl> to be supplanted as in other branches of local government by the theory ci power delegated to the elected representatives. It is impossible to note th» varying forms of these schools, planned to prepare for the colleges with thei strictly classical education. The first general act establishing secondary schools was that of th< General Court of Massachusetts of 1647. This merely made mandatory thi system already established in a number of the towns by voluntary ac thru the local town meeting, but it is of vast significance as establishing ■ civil system of education, along lines now accepted as our national educa tional characteristic — education controlled thru state legislation. Th claim that this historic act furnished precedents for many other educationa acts is well substantiated. While much of the history of the colonis grammar schools organized along the lines marked out by this and othe similar colonial acts is not inspiring, and while during the later colonic period the ideals of many of these schools were greatly lowered, their servic to America thru the maintaining of the idea of schools controlled by tli commimity cannot be overstated. Coincident with the decay of the colonial grammar schools and there gious revival that was so marked a feature of the first half of the eighteen: century was the growth of a desire to have schools along lines similar to tl: academies of England which had developed as an outgrowth of the not conformist movement and the necessity of educating the children of tl; non-conformists who were practically denied an opportimity for trainii" in the universities of England. These English academies, altho poor^ manned and superficial, had caught the idea of zeal for knowledge and f' a wider range of subject-matter in the curriculum. Practically the diversity of religious belief coupled with a genuine desi for schooling for their children and a contempt for the traditional narrow ness of the grammar school forced the plan of co-operation upon the desirous of better schools. The theory of schools governed by boards trustees self-perpetuating was the outcome of the new need. , The Philadelphia Academy, probably established in 1749 and certainj the result of the statesmanlike plans of Benjamin Franklin, was the fi' school of this type. Altho Franklin's ideals were but imperfectly realist the institution certainly pointed the way to better conceptions of educatu Councill HISTORY OF AMERICAN SECONDARY EDUCATION 595 and a different theory as to the purpose of secondary-school training. The school was needed, so its trustees claimed, not only to furnish good education at home, but to overcome the lack of native-trained persons qualified to fill positions of trust. Another argument was that it would train school- masters of good morals. Originally the academy was divided into three departments, Latin, English, and mathematical, but, greatly to Franklin's disgust, the tradition for classical training prevented the carrying out of the plan to emphasize the study of English. We find here for the first time a conception in many ways not dissimilar to very modern schemes of secondary courses in English. Probably the Philadelphia Academy was the only academy correspond- ing to the ideals of the American academy of the nineteenth century estab- lished before the Revolution. We read of Marlboro Academy in Maryland in 1778, and Washington Academy in 1779, but the real commencement of the period of the academy dates from the founding of the Phillips Andover and Phillips Exeter Academies in 1778 and 1783. We have here academies established with acts of incorporation which served as models for the numerous similar institutions which flourished as the highest and most efficient type of American secondary schools until the present era of the great public high-school system. Many of the greatest men of the nine- teenth century attended these schools and their history forms one of the inspiring chapters of American education. In their beginnings they mark, as has been indicated, a protest against the grammar school which prac- tically assumed the existence of a lower class not expected to participate in the benefits of education. Democracy and the development of the self- respecting so-called middle class demanded an education which would furnish that which came to be called culture. Education as the developer of individual character was the dominant desire which the academy at- tempted to satisfy. We owe much of our later progress to the exaltation of the individual, and this social development was bound up most intimately with the ideals of the academy. While the period of the dominance of the academy was transitional, it was paving the way for real democracy. Both American education and \merican civilization owe much that we value most to the ideals fostered 3y the academy. Even the ideals of college education were broadened and nade more in harmony with the genius of the American people thru the stimulus of the academy. While the academies finally became in many :ases mere fitting schools for the American college, they were not so in heir early days. Not infrequently their courses included subjects not found n the college. To a considerable extent, the beginnings of broader college curses were due to the presence of similar courses in the academy. The ntroduction into the curriculum of courses in the English language and iterature, history, astronomy, chemistry, algebra, geometry, and geography Uustrates the tendency toward broader training which characterized the I h 596 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION INatioMi period. Presumably the same argimient of practical usefulness which now is used to justify new studies aided the introduction of this new material. The academies were recognized also as the proper institutions for the preparation of teachers of elementary schools. In fact, they really are the direct predecessors of the normal school. New York frankly accepted them as teachers' training schools and the early normal school in its organization differed only slightly from the typical academy. The academy also may be credited with accepting the idea of co-education as feasible and economical* Some of the first academies to be founded admitted girls as well as boys, while seminaries for girls from which developed the early efforts for higher education for women were organized in this same period. The academy, however, effective as it was, could not remain perma- nently the prevailing type of secondary school in the United States. There was no effective way thru which it could respond to the demands of the people. Its board of control was practically a close corporation and was not compelled to modify its ideals when there was local dissatisfaction. The typical American citizen is not often in sympathy with a system of education which he cannot directly influence. The same belief in public control which manifested itself in other institutions resulted in a school which, while not sacrificing the broader culture which distinguished the academy as contrasted with the traditional public grammar schools, should be directly governed by the people. The class education of the colonial grammar school was displaced by the school designed for the growing middle class. The wave of democracy which brought the academy into being was followed by a still higher wave bringing with it the idea of a secondary school for all, for the children of the poorest as well as for the children of the well-to-do. The free public school was coming to be regarded as the real American school and secondary as well as higher education was destined to be included as part of the school system. As in the case of the classical grammar school so with the pubUc high school, we find in Boston in the English High School our first example. The epoch-making report of 182 1 really foreshadows all our modern voca- tional school theories when it said, in recommending the estabHshment of the new school, that "a parent who wishes to give the child an education that shall fit him for active life, and shall serve as a foundation for eminence in his profession, whether mercantile or mechanical, is under the necessity of giving him a different education from any which our public schools can now furnish." This action of Boston was followed by similar action in other places. For the next forty years, the struggle between the public high school and the academy controlled by its board of trustees continued with varying results. By the time of the Civil War, it could be seen that the control of secondary education would eventually be accepted as belong- ing to the public and that public taxation must in the main be looked to as the means of furnishing its financial support. Coundll HISTORY OF AMERICAN SECONDARY EDUCATION 597 The history of the development of public opinion which resulted in the overtaking of the academy in popular favor by the high school shows that the support of the public frequently wavered and serious reaction in various places frequently occurred. Some earnest advocates of the public high school came to feel that the endowed high school would be the only way thru which this form of education could be assured a permanent foundation. The sound theory that the public itself must be taught to maintain the school finally prevailed. In the western states, thru the conception of a complete public-school system including higher, technical, and various forms of professional education supported by public funds secured thru both state and local taxation, a logical development from schemes of educational control found in colonial legislation has secured genuine and effective realization. State control, as yet in many states rather ineffective so far as secondary education is concerned, is secured to a very considerable extent thru inspec- tion either by the state university, by inspectors attached to the ofl&ce of the state superintendent of public instruction, or by varying forms of inspec- tion carried on under joint control. Whenever thru state action it becomes possible to furnish financial assistance to inspected schools securing favor- able reports, the efficiency of state inspection and control increases. The disinclination on the part of many communities to submit to any form of control from larger administrative units, which not infrequently has mani- fested itself in protests against so-called domination by either the univer- sity or the state department of education, has of recent years greatly lessened. This is due to the desire to secure financial assistance and scho- lastic recognition and to a greatly increased feeling of mutual co-operation fostered by the conferences between secondary-school men and the colleges. The realization that the public high schools need highly equipped teachers has resulted in a very general acceptance of the college degree as an evidence of minimum training, altho we are still far from having reached a condition when such equipment is compulsory. The idea that special training in the art of teaching should be secured by all candidates for secondary-school teaching is really yet in its infancy, but the remarkable extension of departments of education in our colleges and universities offers much to encourage one in the belief that we are soon to accept professional training as equally necessary in all departments of school work. The tendency toward broader curricula first fostered by the academies was accepted by the high schools in toto. This was secured not merely by introducing more studies which were required of all students, but thru the introduction of parallel courses and later by the idea of election of studies. The story of the modifying of the curriculum from the narrow one-course plan to the extended courses of the large city high schools is not essentially different from the similar development in higher education from which in later years it must admit much of its inspiration. /■ 598 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National The tendency in our large cities to establish various forms of high schools, each aiming to meet the demands of certain classes of students, is still opposed by those who believe that the interests of a community are best subserved when all types of education are found under the same roof. Certainly the idea so dear to us all that all education should closely connect itself with the schools both below and above is somewhat endangered by the present effort to specialize with the closest reference to the probable immedi- ate future of the child. The development of the intermediate or junior high school depends largely upon the final answer to our present discussions. The public high school starting as a school controlled by the adminis- trative board which directed the elementary school developed naturally as part of the general public-school system. In some sporadic cases, separate boards were organized, but it was not until the organization of the joint high schools and the county high schools, a movement designed to give to the children of communities too small or too poor to support separate high schools the opportunity for secondary-school training, that the high-school boards of education became a factor in high-school administration. While I have tried so far as possible to avoid statistics, one is almost compelled to call attention to the figures submitted by the commissioner of education in his latest report. We learn from this report that there were in the United States in 1914, 11,515 public high schools of which 8,275 ^^.d full four-year courses. There were in attendance in these four-year high schools 1,126,456 pupils. The public high schools now enrol 88.73 P^r cent of all high-school pupils, compared with 68. 13 per cent in 1890. So we see from these statistics that the acceptance by our people of the public high school as the proper secondary school for the very great majority of our students of secondary grade becomes more universal from year to year. The fact that the junior high-school problem is of constantly increasing significance is shown in the report that 168 cities report some form of such a school while 57 cities unquestionably have definitely organized schools of this grade. Students of American public education are always impressed by the remarkable harmony in educational practice which prevails from Maine to California. Altho local autonomy is in most places supreme and has only recently been modified in some states thru state legislation, our ideals in education do not differ greatly in the various portions of the United States. This has resulted from the innumerable state and national con- ferences on educational problems, the national constituency of many of our universities, the wise direction of the Bureau of Education, the increasing volume of professional literature, the wide circulation of educational magazines, and the constant interchanging of teachers who carry into every place the progressive ideas of our wisest theorists. Sometimes we become impatient at the slow progress and the ineffect- iveness of certain school systems, sometimes we become convinced of the Council] HISTORY OF AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION 599 wisdom of certain forms of educational administrations as contrasted with tlie waste and misdirected efforts of others, and long for the speedier reforms which could come thru more highly centralized plans of public control. Our calmer judgment, however, convinces us that the American idea of the closest connection with and control of the public school by the people themselves secures in the long run the popular support which makes possible a school system of the people, flexible enough to meet the changing demands of the community, always in touch with the people, and a sure safeguard against the disintegration which otherwise might come to our social and economic institutions. B. HIGHER EDUCATION ELMER ELLSWORTH BROWN, CHANCELLOR, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. The organization of university control is not a merely formal concern. The changes of organization which have taken place reflect changes of public sentiment and changes of our society in its essential constitution. These changes can be sketched only with the greatest brevity in such a paper as this. The European universities established before our own came into exist- ence were generally conducted under systems which seem to us cumbrous and compUcated. It is enough for our present purpose to say that they were not, as is sometimes stated, under the direct control of the church, nor under the direct control of the crown, but were related to both. The two colleges established in this country in the seventeenth century, namely Harvard and William and Mary, partook of this complex governmental character. Harvard, however, previous to the erection of its Board of Overseers in 1642, seems to have been for some years under the direct control of the colonial legislature. This fact gives some justification for the designation of Harvard as our first state university. It was Yale, our third colonial college, which set, for this country, the pattern of control by a simple, self-perpetuating board, without stipula- tions as to its membership after the first Ust of members, contained in the charter, and without provision for visitation by any outside body, whether ecclesiastical or governmental. It was only after legislation of an experi- mental sort and experience extending over more than a generation that this extremely simple and workable form of corporation was adopted in 1745. With some modification, the close corporation, namely that in which vacancies are filled by vote of the remaining members, was the prevaiHng type of the six additional colleges which were erected during our colonial period. These six, under the names which they bear today, were Prince- ton, Pennsylvania, Columbia, Brown, Rutgers, and Dartmouth. Down 6oo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National to the time of our Revolution, in short, and for some years thereafter, public education in this country, in the higher grade, of which we are speaking, was controlled by private corporations. This higher education was largely, tho by no means exclusively, ecclesiastical in its trend and purpose. It showed but little promise of a breaking away from established traditions and an entrance up)on new lines of public service. But even in the colonial period, and much more during the Revolution- ary War and in the generation succeeding, there was complaint against the colleges. This took many forms and was directed to diverse ends. The student of our educational history finds much of interest in the pamphlet and newspaper warfare over this subject. The colleges, intrenched behind their charters, were hard to get at. It gradually became dear to those in opposition that the main question was not that of particular abuses or deficiencies, but the question of public responsibility in general. Espe- cially after the colonies had become independent states, with a sense of unlimited power residing in their legislatures, the attempt was frequently made to determine the conduct and even the constitution of an estabUshed college by simple legislative action. I have found no evidence of such undertakings directed against Princeton, Rutgers, or Brown. But the remaining six institutions dating from colonial days were all, at one time or another, the objects of such endeavors. Columbia and Pennsylvania indeed had, each of them, its brief experience of direct state control. As a matter of course, the college authorities offered resistance, and this whole movement finally culminated in the Dartmouth College case, decided by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1819. Those familiar with the history of government regulation in this country know what an epoch-making decision this was in its bearing upon the devel- opment of our industrial and commercial corporations. By declaring that a charter is a contract between the government and the chartered institution, it put a stop to attempts at governmental interference with such insti- tutions. In so doing, it deferred for two generations any effective control of business corporations by statute. At the same time it turned the attention of those who were interested in the public responsibility of edu- cational corporations toward the establishment of schools and colleges under the direct control of the state. There were those who had turned to this solution of the problem even before the Dartmouth College decision was rendered. That unique institu- tion, the University of the State of New York, had come into existence in 1784. There had been early endeavors looking to the establishment of a national university. South Carolina had provided for a state university in 1 80 1. North Carolina, while making a somewhat similar provision, did not bring its state institution under direct state control until after the Dart- mouth College case had been decided. Meanwhile, Thomas Jefferson, hav- ing given up the project of making over William and Mary College, had Council) HISTORY OF AMERICAN HIGHER EDUCATION 6oi set about the establishment of a state controlled university in Virginia, an undertaking which was crowned with full success in 1825. The great leadership of Jefiferson stamped the state-university move- ment with a predominantly southern character in the period preceding our Civil War. At the same time, however, a related movement was gaining headway in the great Northwest. The Ordinance of 1785 had set apart lands for the support of seminaries of learning in the northwest territory, and the Ordinance of 1787 had put forward a high educational ideal for the government of that territory. Indiana made provision for a complete system of public education in its first constitution in the year 1816. A year later the territory of Michigan made the first of its three experiments in the establishment of a public university. Before the outbreak of the Civil War, President Tappan had thrown the weight of his great person- ality into the destinies of the institution at Ann Arbor, and with the added influence and prestige imparted by President Angell and a group of notable professors, this became the chief center of the movement for a generation following. The Morrill Act of 1862, providing federal aid for the support of colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts, has worked mightily for the upbuilding of education of a technical character since our Civil War period. A large part of this impulse has gone directly into the state universities, and even where the case has been otherwise it has, in a number of instances, furthered education of college grade under state control. The fact has often been remarked that even in states that had shown much dissatisfaction with the then existing colleges the Dartmouth College decision was not everywhere followed by an immediate establishment of state universities. This is no doubt largely due to the influential position to which the earlier colleges had already attained, and to the fact that the expense of the undertaking deterred some of the states from making the state-university venture when their needs were already met in part, even tho inadequately, by the old college foundations. But now we must make note of the relations between the state-university movement, when it was well begun, and the colleges and universities of the earlier ty^Q. The erection of such institutions, largely under the stress of denominational influence, had gone forward rather rapidly in the period previous to the third decade of the nineteenth century, when the founding of the University of Virginia, following the Dartmouth College decision, opened a new era in the state-university movement. It must not be for- gotten that the eigh teen-hundred-twenties and -thirties were with us a time of great social and educational ferment. The air was full of new causes, new projects, new aspirations. Our public-school systems were taking on their modern aspect. The most conservative of our colleges were conscious of new stirrings of the educational spirit. Some of these old-established institutions strengthened themselves as against the m 602 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (NaUonal movement toward public control by responding to the new needs which were finding public expression. And not all of the new institutions, erected in accordance with the new spirit of the time, were made subject to control by public corporations. Broadly speaking, then, the new movement appeared in two results: it gave us that new institution, the state-controlled university; and it gave us the old institution, the traditional college, as a remade and modern affair. The interaction of the two types makes a most diversified and fas- cinating story, but there is no time to tell it here. It is a story that has deepened in interest as enormous private gifts on the one hand have been matched by princely appropriations from the public treasury on the other hand. Already three of our states have gone far beyond the sum of three million dollars each in their biennial appropriations for university objects. The list of "public" universities, colleges, and technical schools in this country has now gone up to the number of ninety-four, including some five or six institutions of a still newer type — the municipal college or uni- versity. And many of these are charged with the spirit of the saying of President Van Hise, that this university stands ready to render any edu- cational service for which it shall be found the fittest instrument. Two fimdamental considerations emerge from this history, and they are such as may well be pondered deeply by the makers of our educational systems: (i) Both publicly controlled and privately controlled institutions have a necessary place in our educational constitution. Their interaction should become more fruitful and significant as time goes on, and as they find each its own best way of contributing to the common good. (2) In city, state, and nation our available provision of all kinds for the higher education must be studied, co-ordinated, and reinforced, together with all manner of provision for science and the arts, till it shall all together be wrought into a complete educational system, national in its scope, and adequate to the needs of this people at their highest estate and under the stress of their most compelling requirements. -#1 TOPIC: PRESENT ACTIVITIES AND ACCOMPLISHMENTS A. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION H. B. WILSON, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, TOPEKA, KANS. In its development from a mere idea to its present state of efficiency, many significant movements and tendencies have marked the progressive evolution of elementary education. Each thing which we now consider fundamental and indispensable to effective elementary education was once the " newest " thing in its field. It occupied the center of attention and dis- cussion. Each permanent addition to our scheme of elementary education Council] ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 603 was at some period in the past regarded with due suspicion. The "pros and cons " were carefully considered and there was a period of experimenting and testing before an unquestioned right to a place in our system of ele- mentary education was even tentatively accorded the "newcomer." Among the things which have thus struggled to a fixed and permanent place in the scheme of things, the following may be mentioned by way of illustration: (i) the fact of an elementary school; (2) the maintenance of a system of elementary education at public expense; (3) the present state of efficiency in the physical equipment of schools; (4) the established ways and means, inadequate as they are, of promoting good health and physical development; (5) the fact of training requirements for admission to the teaching profession; (6) each subject of study in the curriculum of ele- mentary education. It seems possible to organize the current activities in modem elementary education which are significant and characteristic under the following four heads: 1. The improvement of the curriculum of instruction. 2. The adaptation of the educative efforts of the school to different vocational ends, to varying social conditions, and to differences in individuals. 3. The evaluation of the results of education. 4. The adequate motivation of the work of the school. No other instrument which has been developed in evolving the detailed machinery of the elementary school is more important or far-reaching in its effects than the course of study. It is that its requirements may be met with the largest possible educational return that the entire expense of public education is entailed. In order that the children may derive the educa- tional benefits which follow from experiencing the course of study under the most favorable circumstances, expensive school plants are established, necessary equipment in the matter of furniture, laboratories, libraries, books, illustrative material is supplied, and all of these are manned and directed by a large force of teachers and other officers at great expense. The course of study and the social relationships involved in its execution determine the intellectual, emotional, and social experiences of the children during the period of their formal elementary education. Until within recent years, a course of study consisted largely of a body of material, roughly classified by subjects, which tradition and rather care- less experience had brought together. The use of this material was origi- nally prescribed by the board of education or the school directors. Later this function was delegated to the superintendent of schools, but the course of study continued to be an instrument prescribed by authority from above. In a study of thirty-five representative school systems in 1910, to find how courses of study were determined, I found that in all but seven of these systems the courses of study were prescribed by the board of education and superintendent of 'schools. What was prescribed was determined by 604 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IN. tradition, imitation, and personal opinion. There were no carefully wrought out principles derived from careful studies in sociology and psychology and from careful measuring of the results the schools were producing under- lying the development of the course of study which was prescribed. Within the last decade, however, the progressive evolution of society has produced the efficiency engineer. Fortunately for the advancement of education, the scientific study of the nature of children and the laws underlying the learning process and of the conditions and needs of society which the formal educational agencies may help to meet had progressed far enough a few years ago that the educational efficiency engineer became a possibility and consequently very soon a reality. It is true that his advent was hastened somewhat by a rampant public criticism of the schools, in part led and inspired by such leading educational journals as the Delineator and the Ladies^ Home Journal. The work now under way in the reconstruction of the course of study for city schools is well illustrated in the thorogoing and progressive attacks in Boston and St. Louis. In his December, 1914, report Superintendent Dyer says (p. 20) : During the past year the attention of elementary teachers has been concentrated on the course of study and especially on the fimdamental branches. The purposes of revision are (i) to select the topics that deserve major emphasis and give them adequate treatment; (2) to subordinate the topics of less importance in such way that they will receive much less attention; (3) to omit obsolete or nonessential matter; (4) to indi- cate those facts or exercises which should receive repeated attention until they are under the control and at the command of the pupil; and (5) to give as many illustra- tions as possible of the application of the topic or practice to the life of today or the experience of the pupils. In his report to the board for June 30, 1914, Superintendent Blewett sets forth in detail (pp. 299-321) the fundamental attack on the revision of the course of study for the St. Louis schools. These committees have endeavored to define the fundamental principles vmderlying education and to develop a statement of the function of the public school. To quote Superintendent Blewett: It shoidd apply this conception of the public school in determining the contents of the coxirses of study, the total amoxmt of time to be devoted to it, the various kinds of subject-matter to be introduced, the relative importance of the time of their introduction, and the length of their continuance and the amount of total time of the course to be allotted to each. Every state survey which has thus far been reported has devoted large attention to the course of study. The constructive efforts which these investigations have stimulated are certain to be far-reaching. Bulletin No. 51 from the Department of Education of Minnesota indicates the extensive effort imder way there to improve the course of study, altho no survey of the public schools of the state has taken place. In the survey now under way in Illinois, there is a department devoting large attention Council) ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 605 to the program of studies in the charge of W. C. Bagley, of the University of Illinois. Within very recent years, as we have come to emphasize the relation of education to vocational discovery and efficiency and to understand scientifi- cally the wide differences in children, we have made large progress in the adaptation of the educative efforts of the school to promote vocational efficiency and to suit these differences in children, whether they be due to nationality, to peculiar social conditions of living, or to other causes. Such adaptation is the essence of providing a system of universal education. A mere enumeration of the agencies developed for meeting the needs of children who vary from the normal type is striking evidence of the progress which has been made in recent years and of the present emphasis upon the importance of differentiating the educational agencies in the interest of serving every type of child. The agencies thus far developed, altho the terminology for describing them varies greatly, may be roughly classified according to the types of children served as follows: 1. Children with special physical defects, giving rise to agencies for serv- ing the deaf; those with particularly defective eyesight; the crippled; those with speech defects such as stammering and stuttering; those who are anemic and undernourished, or evidencing tubercular tendencies, giving rise to open-air and open-window schools. 2. Children whose mental needs and characteristics vary widely from the normal, giving rise to agencies for the better education of the supernormal or gifted child thru grouping the children on the basis of ability, as is possible in large schools, or thru preparatory schools such as are maintained for the gifted in Baltimore and Worcester, or thru specially planned rapid- progress classes; the mentally defective, but improvable; the markedly retarded or overage children who are usually served thru review or oppor- tunity classes; and the foreign and immigrant children, whose special needs are met in special classes until they have acquired the ability to participate profitably in the regular English-speaking classes. 3. Those who are morally out of step and who are not reached by the means adapted either to normal children or to the children falling in the two classes above, giving rise to the disciplinary school for incorrigibles and to the detention home or parental school, especially for truants. In many small cities, the effort to extend these types of advantage must be centered in what is known as the "ungraded school," where the responsibility falls upon the teacher serving each type of child as far as possible. In addition to the agencies mentioned above, efforts are made to a degree which was formerly unheard of to reach each type of child thru knowing him and helping him individually and thru making provision for promoting children at irregular intervals in the interest of enabling each child to work at all times where he can accomplish the largest gains. In the St, Louis schools, attention is called particularly to the fact that 6o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National provision is made for reaching and helping the pupil who is "bored" by the work of the school and who longs to get at the practical work of the world outside of school. For these, classes are maintained whose aim is to emphasize the conjunction between the two and to show how the school ministers to efl&ciency of work outside the school. They also seek espe- cially to serve those children who have difficulty with the abstractions of the conventional schoolroom thru exercises of the manual type. Further, for those pupils who do not plan to finish the elementary schools, finishing classes are organized for thirteen-year-old children who have reached the fifth grade and who plan to leave school as soon as they become fourteen. The object of these classes is to fit these children for taking up some type of work more adequately than would be possible if they remained in the regular grade work. If we succeed in extending the adaptation of educational advantages until all types of children are adequately served, we shall have established universal education, which we must realize is quite in contrast with mere popular education. While service is the keyword for both types of educa- tion, popular education renders general service to all, whereas universal education renders the largest possible service to each. Popular education is mass education; universal education is individual education. Popular education seeks to aid the common people; universal education to aid all classes, common and otherwise. Popular education is for the whole body of people; universal education extends to, includes, and affects each of the whole body of people. Popular education makes a gross, general effort to render service; universal education is all-reaching, all-pervading in its methods of seeking out the individual. One suits the general mass of people; the other is adapted or adaptable to all and to various uses; one is for all, the other reaches all; one is general, the other specific; one pro- vides general opportunities, the other differentiated opportunities; one proclaims its possibilities, the other secures results. One holds out the advantages of a single, narrow course of study to all; the other varies the details of a broad course of study to suit the different types of children in the schools. The first brings abundant help to the few to whom it is adapted; the second adapts its efforts to insure the same relative service to each child. The first opens the same doors to all; the second opens as many doors as there are types of children and vocational ambitions. The efficiency engineer has made his largest strides in the evaluation of the results of education. It is probably no exaggeration to say that the most significant motive in American education today arises out of the possi- bility of measuring the accomplishments of the schools by the application of standard scales and units of measurement and by the employment of such comparisons as the reliable data now accumulated make possible. The Councill ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 607 efforts to study the result of public^ education scientifically fall in two large fields. The first concerns itself with the financial aspects of public educa- tion, the other with the measurement of the attainments of public-school children. Formerly, boards of education and administrative officers merely con- cerned themselves with such bookkeeping as would show honestly and correctly the amount of money expended. The object was merely to enter an accurate record. Modern school accounting does not disregard this earlier object of bookkeeping, but it concerns itself particularly to make its entries in such way as to make possible an interpretation of the results which the money expended is producing. We are not satisfied to know merely just how we stand, but we are concerned to know how far we have gone and what we have accomplished for the money expended. Progress in the matter of scientific school accounting has been both stimulated and made possible by such scientific studies as Cubberley's School Funds and Their Apportionment, Strayer's City School Expenditures, Elliott's Physical Aspects of Public Education in American Cities, and Hutchinson's School Costs and School Accounting. Advancement in this direction has also been greatly assisted by the aggressive activity of the Bureau of the Census in developing standard forms for reporting the financial statistics of the public schools and in reporting annually the data thus produced in such form that comparisons in cost between school units are possible. Updegraff's scien- tific Study of Expenses of City School Systems, issued as Bulletin 4"/ 3 by the Bureau of Education, was also a definite contribution to the scientific study of the financial aspects of public education. Far more difficult than the problem of reducing the study of school costs to a scientific basis is the task of measuring the attainments of public- school children. The last few years, however, have evidenced wonderful progress in this field. While the primary objective has been the measure- ment of results, yet from this movement have resulted numerous inquiries into the methods of securing results. In reality, therefore, the problem of measuring the attainments of children has split into two phases, one con- cerning itself more particularly with methods of securing results, the other, with the measurement of the results secured. The attack on methods has produced such results as Earhart's Syste- matic Study in the Elementary Schools, Stevens' The Question as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruction, Kirby's Practice in the Case of School Children. The Detroit Department of Educational Research gives as one of its aims the helping of teachers to give greater assistance to individual children 'So vitally related is the efficiency of the teacher to the results of public education that the present attention to the development of plans for measuring the eflSciency of the teacher demands a word here The second part of the Fourteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, by Boyce, provides an excellent summary of the efforts thus far made to estimate the efficiency of the teacher, evaluates the methods employed, and not only recommends the procedure considered best, but shows the value, from both the teacher's and the administrator's standpoint, of measuring scientifically the efficiency of the teacher. I 608 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National in accordance with their peculiar weaknesses. St. Louis has established in the public schools a psycho-educational clinic in charge of a trained clinical psychologist, in order that scientific study of the defects in children may be possible and that scientific aid may be available in the development of ways for improving the teaching process. Seattle and Chicago employ similar ofl&cers. ^, Far greater attention has thus far been bestowed upon the measurement/ of the attainments of children. The numerous surveys described by JuddV in Part II of the Thirteenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study ojffx Education, pp. 69-85, and by Buckner in chap, xxiv on School Surveys 'm^ Vol. I of the 1914 report of the commissioner of education, pp. 513-62, hav^ been concerned largely with the measurement of the educational results produced by the school unit under investigation. A mere list of the places thus far surveyed, which it is needless to give here, is overwhelming evi- dence of the prominence of this movement in current American education. The change from the attitude of self-complacency so conspicuous a few years ago in the reports of superintendents and boards of education to the critical, judicial attitude now manifested by the majority of reporting officers is undoubtedly due almost wholly to the scientific methods now employed for measuring what the schools are accomplishing. Rapid progress in this phase of school administration may be expected during the next few years. As Strayer says (Vol. I, p. 35, 1914 report of the commissioner of education) : Thru the data accxunulated in the reports of superintendents, thru the work of special departments of research and investigation in our larger city-school systems, by means of the collection of scientific data by state officers, by means of systematic inquiries or surveys of educational activities in state, county, and city, and thru the study of educa- tion in our professional schools, we may hope to measure more significantly than heretofore our educational practice and to establish with greater certainty the principles upon which we base administrative procedure. When the situation is grasped fundamentally, imdoubtedly the idea underlying the present emphases upon the improvement of the course of study, the adaptation of educational agencies to individual differences, and the evaluation of the results of education, is the more adequate motiva- tion of the work of the elementary schools. As never before, educational leaders are realizing that the schooltime of every child must count for the most possible in his educational development. That this may follow, the program of work and the methods employed must be such as will enlist his interest and his active attention regardless of the competition set up by commercial inducements or outside pleasures and enticements. Not only must the work of the school be worth while intrinsically but it must be so brought to the child, and he must be so brought to it, that it is meaningful, significant, and purposeful to him at whatever stage of development it may be brought to bear upon him. The work which he is doing in the school must answer questions he has had, supply needs he has felt, and CouncU] ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 609 solve problems which he has met. When the educational opportunities offered meet these requirements, the child's entire apperceptive basis focuses upon the work in hand. Not only does his ability intellectually focus, but large fountains of energy in the field of his emotional life, favor- able to the work in hand, are released. The result is success and accom- plishment on the part of children. They feel the stimulus of victory and of winning. The movement for greater eflBlciency seems to have as its central motive force the slogan that everything — content, organization, technique of teaching — which maintains its present position of influence in the school must be shown to be more serviceable in securing the ends sought thru public education than something else. Unless it can meet this crucial test, it must give way to the other type of thing which promises more. Until the educa- tive agencies are so directed as to supply the largest possible motive to school children, the ends required by efl&ciency shall not have been realized. The foregoing discussion implies thruout that the day of the pro- fessional administrative oflScer and superintendent of schools is at hand. The emphases which are dominant in modern education would be impossible under the clerical type of superintendent. Not only would he not conceive the problems which are dominant in modem educational progress, but he would not be able to further their solution if they were brought to him by out- side expert advice. A prerequisite to continued progress in the new fields of effort in the interest of eflSiciency is the further development of the pro- fessional superintendent of schools. Fortunately, large opportunities are now available for study and training for this particular profession. Not only are courses in the sciences fundamental to education and in psychology, sociology, economics, and government provided, but all of these are organ- ized and interpreted with particular reference to their significance from the administrative standpoint. Bodies of information are gradually accumu- lating and methods of procedure are being evolved which promise a subject- matter so thoro and well directed as to constitute a science of educational administration. B. SECONDARY EDUCATION PAYSON SMITH, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, AUGUSTA, ME. There is probably no other part of the school system of our country that is more under the scrutiny of the pubUc than that field which we define as secondary education, and in view of the somewhat chaotic condition of secondary education it may not be altogether easy to speak of its achieve- ments. Nevertheless this very condition is itself an evidence of the liveliest interest. And certainly, despite the criticisms of the dissatisfied, there is ample evidence that the pubUc high school has achieved popular approval and support. 6lo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National For example, it is within the memory of men not yet old when a large and controlling element of our people beUeved that the public was under no obligation to maintain any schools beyond those of elementary grade. Now, however, the great majority of our states give recognition to the absolute obligation on the part of the people to carry educational oppor- timity at least thru the secondary-school age. A majority of the states aid by subsidies towns and counties that support public high schools, while not a few of the states are now requiring all conununities to supply secondary- school privileges to all of the youth who are in a position to profit by them. Hence in the statutes of our land is a record of achievement in public confidence in secondary education. More striking, however, than the evidence of the law is that which is to be found in the enormously increased and rapidly increasing attendance in these universities of the people. There are few communities in which the increase in pubUc high-school enrolment is not outstripping by several times the in- crease in population. The doors of the public high school are besieged annually by an enormously increasing throng of j^oung men and women who look to it for a contribution to their growth and equipment. This increas- ing attendance, unparalleled in the case of any other educational institution, is a conclusive evidence of an achievement of popular approval and support. Again, the readiness of our secondary educational institutions to accept the new obligations that are being pressed upon them is an educational achievement of no mean order. With the larger public support and the greatly increased attendance have come innumerable new demands for altered courses and more varied educational opportunity. These problems of secondary education involve radical changes in administrative procedure, they involve entirely new social aspects of education, they involve a right perspective of that phase known as college preparation, and they involve the proper connection of school work with vocational demands. No other institution has ever been so suddenly called upon to face so radical a reorganization as that now being inaugurated for secondary edu- cation. The successful meeting of these new issues is the present-day achievement of secondary education that may very easily rank every other step of educational progress of this generation. It is perhaps an easy prophecy that the most notable contributions to be made in any field of edu- cation within the next decade will be those made by the secondary schools. C. HIGHER EDUCATION FRANK STRONG, CHANCELLOR, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS, LAWRENCE, KANS. The present situation in higher education is a complex one. Grants for higher institutions of learning both public and private have been large. The material equipment of colleges and universities has been increased as largely as one could expect. CouncU] ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 6ll That the spirit and purpose of American colleges and universities have improved and kept pace with their material development is not so clear. It may be doubted whether students and teachers have as yet understood and appreciated how serious is the problem of higher education and how necessary it is that the learner should give himself to his task with great singleness of purpose. There seems little doubt that the American uni- versity has not yet achieved entire success in imbuing its student bodies with the seriousness of life and its preparation. We have not yet suc- ceeded in putting first things first. American colleges and universities have not solved fully the problem of their relation to the moral and spiritual life of their students, of the right balance between the things that make for the higher and truer values in life and those that make for the utilitarian and materialistic side. They must learn that education alone cannot solve all of our problems, that a sound religious and moral life is fundamental to a nation. Our institutions of learning must be leaders in the strong social and moral movements that make for the betterment of the race. If they cannot be leaders in the moral and spiritual life of men, they have lost their strongest claim to support. On the other hand, the American public has to learn that it must not expect the impossible from its schools. If the American people are seriously disappointed in the public-school system as a whole, they are themselves to blame, for they have expected the impossible, have thrown the solution of the moral and religious problems that ought to be taken care of in the home almost entirely upon the school and college. It is not too much to say that the public conscience of the whole country must be aroused in favor of movements that will compel the community, the home, and the church to fulfil their responsibilities and duties. While American colleges and universities are in general sound and vigorous and wholesome, a decided feeling of unrest is evident thruout the country as to these great institutions of learning. This feeling relates to private institutions as well as public. One notable feature in respect to private institutions is the passing of the balance of power, so far as the size of individual institutions is concerned, from private to public institutions. To be sure, one private institution is by far the largest in enrolment of all the institutions in North America. But with this exception, it is probably true that the largest institutions in enrolment are public universities and that this is becoming increasingly true. A question of prime importance to private universities is their relation to the great American high schools. This question is leading to a change in entrance requirements in an attempt to adjust the institutions to the work of the public high schools. It is also leading to a serious consideration of whether students entering private institutions from public high schools shall be entered on examination only or shall be entered by certificate as in the case of public universities. The settlement of these questions may radically alter the complexion of 1 6l2 ■ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [NaUoial the great private institutions. On the one hand, comparatively few grad- uates of public high schools of the Middle West enter certain of the private institutions of the East. The effect of this is to localize proportionately the great private institutions so that at the present time, of all the insti- tutions in North America, a state university is probably the institution most completely national and international so far as concerns the number of states and countries from which its student body comes. This situation cuts off the private universities from close and intimate contact with the great democratic institutions that must more and more prepare the mass of students going into colleges and imiversities, and turns the stream from the public high school to the public university. It seems possible, there- fore, that the great private foundations may become less and less national and democratic in the distribution of their students and be confined more and more to the general locality in which they are situated. And what is more important, it seems possible that they may be restricted in the class of people from which they draw and thus become to a large degree class institutions. To my mind this would be a calamity, for there is an un- doubted advantage to the nation in these great private institutions being meeting-places of students from all classes and from all states of the nation and of the world. Coincident with this, there is a growing sentiment for the development of state universities in some or all of the original thirteen states of the Union. Opinions might well differ as to the strength of this movement, yet there are some who say that it is stronger now than ever before. Parallel with this is another striking tendency, relating itself entirely to state universities. In two states of the Union, at least, recent laws require the admission of graduates of four-year high schools, accredited by an agency named in the act, sometimes the state board of education or the state department of education, into the state imiversity without further action. While this takes away from the state university the control over its own entrance requirements and transfers from the university to the state department official oversight and inspection of schools, it also forges the last link in the chain of public education, beginning with the kinder- garten and ending with the graduate school of the state university. So far as one can judge, this method is likely to become universal and the effect of this action no one can yet foresee. That it is an action of unusual im- portance few will deny. It accentuates the difficulties in which private institutions find themselves and raises to still greater importance the ques- tion of the method of entrance into the institutions on private foundation. At least two disquieting situations have arisen during the last year or two. The first is the unexpected and disturbing agitation in many states having state universities against the university in some form or another. This movement has sometimes been directed against the university a? a whole and has denied the institution adequate appropriations. Some- I r CouncU] ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 613 times it has been directed against some departments or activities of the institution on the ground that the work was not "practical" or that the university was seeking to "run the state." Again, it has been directed against some individual or individuals in the institution. However it has arisen it has been so general as to be almost universal. Five years ago most administrators would have said probably that the question of state higher education was settled permanently and that state institutions never again would be subjected to general disquietude. Now many have been com- pelled to feel that the matter either of the form or of the permanency of state higher education is by no means settled. There are a great many ques- tions to be answered. Are the people as much in favor of state higher educa- tion as they thought they were ? Are they going to be willing to restrain themselves and exercise the self-control that is necessary to keep their hands off the immediate administration of the institutions ? Are they going to be willing to leave their universities free and independent, to allow them to develop in sympathy with the life of the state to be sure but following the promptings of their own inner spiritual life ? Is it going to be possible to separate state higher education permanently from the question of politics ? Is it ever going to be possible to have great questions concerning education and its support presented to a legislature and decided upon their merits and not on the merits of some individual, some faction, or some party? A subsidiary question concerned in all this takes this form: Does this agitation mean that state universities must become purely utilitarian insti- tutions ? Must they give themselves up entirely to those things that have to do with the immediate economic advantage of the state ? Must they cut themselves off from that indefinable and yet enormously powerful influence that comes from the culture of the past ? Must the material and not the spiritual be the guiding influence in state imiversities ? Is it true, or have we been mistaken in thinking, that the things that are vital and eternal are the things that are unseen and spiritual, that the material things of this life are the things that so easily pass away ? If state universities must become purely utilitarian institutions, then the hour of the private and denominational college has struck again and the nation will need and must preserve at their fullest efficiency those institutions that concern themselves primarily with the higher things of life. The second disturbing feature of the present situation is related to the first. It is the question of the freedom and independence of the teacher. Most disquieting things have happened in many universities during the present year. The statement has been made that there are at least ten institutions, one of them a great private institution, in which a teacher or administrator has been dismissed without a reason so adequate as to be convincing to the university community and to the public. Many of those interested in higher education would have said four or five years ago that ^1 6 14 ■ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National it is unlikely that the permanency of tenure or the freedom of the teacher would be questioned seriously again, but within one year the question has come up so many times as to make all real friends of higher education appre- hensive. Our colleges and universities would be of little value without the independence of the teacher and the full integrity and stability of his posi- tion. Uncertainty as to the independence of the teacher imdermines con- fidence in regard to everything that is done in the institution. It raises the question at once as to whether any work whatever of the institution is based on perfect liberty of thought, upon freedom to search for truth, or whether it is tinged with and warped by the fear of consequences. Can we depend upon what university men tell us in economics, in history, in sociology, in science, or are they speaking the minds of some invisible person unknown to the public ? As one great American journal has said, gaggmg teachers because of ill-advised or radical sentiments throws doubts upon the sincerity of the utterances of aU those level-headed, true-minded men that now speak with such authority and are the bulwarks of a soundly organized and administered community or state. The great war in Europe has of course affected everything in the world's life. It has affected American education. The most disquieting of these effects is the loss of confidence among a growing number of people in the results of German scholarship. How widespread this feeling is I do not undertake to say. It seems to have reached considerable proportions. That it should become exaggerated and go to extremes is greatly to be feared. The basis of our education in America is partly German. We have relied also on German psychology, on German philosophy, on German historical criticism and interpretation, on German biblical and textual criticism, on German sociology and economics. The vital question that all this raises is, Must there be a substantial reconstruction of what has been based upon German conceptions? Must we reverify all of our con- clusions? That is the logical conclusion of this wave of doubt. The whole matter demands the sane, unbiased consideration of all true scholars. Finally I beg leave to call attention to the opportunity of American universities that the present war crisis presents. Who is going to make good the inevitable letdown in the tremendous intellectual development in science for which for the past fifty years Germany has been largely respon- sible ? What universities are going to assimie the burden that, to a large degree, the great French schools are obliged to lay down? WTiat insti- tutions are to supply the place that the great English universities must for a time forego ? Nor is it a question of imiversity buildings, laboratories, equipment, and teachers only. The loss of vigorous alert yoimg minds is the most serious loss of all and one that is well-nigh irreparable. To carry onward the present standards of life of Western civilization requires a con- stant stream of alert and vigorous manhood flowing into our universities and colleges for preparation for the highest intellectual service. That Councill ACCOMPLISHMENTS IN HIGHER EDUCATION 615 steady stream has been going on for years. Everything in our develop- ment is postulated on it and its cessation must produce a great and para- lyzing effect. There is no nation of the first class largely unaffected by this terrible conflict but the United States, and it is from our country that the material for the leadership of the world should come. America and its universities should become the center of the intellectual life of the next generation. In order that American universities may perform their whole duty in this crisis, several considerations must be kept in view. There must be a more vigorous intellectual discipline in our colleges and universities. There is no doubt, if American institutions are to play their full part in the generation to come, that an appreciable stiffening of the intellectual fiber of our institutions, a great increase in the seriousness of our intellectual and moral purpose, is necessary. One of the greatest difficulties that American universities and colleges meet in this respect is the competition of secondary interests with the primary interests of intellectual develop- ment and the necessity of centering once more the main interests of the university body on the intellectual side of university life. The present crisis calls for a still greater and more unique creative work in research and investigation. The scholarship of our institutions cannot be extended or maintained without research, investigation, and publication. Our advance as a people and our usefulness to the world depend in a real sense upon the extension of the boundaries of knowledge, upon discoveries and improvements, not only in scientific but in literary, historical, and economic lines. There must be so far as possible an increase in the primary sources of research and investigation. In some lines of research, primary sources permanently reside in Europe and European institutions. That the present war will have a disastrous effect in this regard and do irreparable damage to the intellectual side of life is well demonstrated by what has happened to the library of the University of Louvain. But so far as possible the primary sources of investigation upon which creative work must be done should be transferred to America and here developed. American universities must have a revival of true religious and spiritual ideals. The war has shown that culture as the sole foundation for civili- zation is a failure. The crumbhng walls of the University of Louvain and the awful scenes upon the battlefields of Marne and Aisne and Galicia testify to that. Our civilization is a failure and culture counts for nothing if its flower must be the production of great fleets and armies, and the estab- lishment forever of militarism as the guiding principle in civilization. Our civilization, if it is to stand the awful shock of this war, must go deeper than 'Culture. It must go deeper also than purely formal religion. That, too, jthe war has shown to be a failure. It must go as deep as the real unity of the race and the real brotherhood of man. Universities and colleges have 6l6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [NaUonal not done their full duty in maintaining and extending sound spiritual life, and American universities in the present crisis will not do the work so necessary for the next generation unless they shall humble themselves in spirit and purge themselves of whatever interferes with the development of the highest and purest intellectual and spiritual life. The intellectual and spiritual burden of the world must in some large measure fall upon America and its institutions. It must be our task, so far as lies within our power, to help the nations withstand the tremendous shock that war is giving to Western civilization. TOPIC: FUTURE OUTLOOK AND POSSIBILITIES ^ A. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION GRACE C. STRACHAN, DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BROOKLYN, N.Y. |fi The chief hope in elementary education is that the course of study shall be so closely and so wisely related to the life of the pupils that each child shall have ample opportunity to become thoroly familiar with the master keys to the riches of literature, science, and art — the oft-derided "three R's" — and, at the same time, have full opportimity to study prac- tically and extensively along the line which his nature and his capabihty indicate will best develop him to the end that he shall realize his best usefulness and happiness as an individual, a member of a family, and a citizen of the world. This means that the course of study of every elementary school must be elastic enough to meet, in so far as it is possible, the natural inclinations, the needs, and the abilities of the individual, without weakening his character, Umiting his world, or jeopardizing the rights and privileges of his neighbors. And it of necessity involves voca- tional training, and trade education, but it does not of necessity mean breaking away from the formality and system necessary to develop strength of character, respect for law and order, and the mutual consideration and co-operation indispensable in a good citizen. Neither does it mean that the child of a doctor must be educated to be a doctor or that the child of a tinsmith must be trained to be a tinsmith. B. SECONDARY EDUCATION STANLEY BROWN, SUPERINTENDENT, TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOG! JOLIET, ILL. m The future of any institution must have as its chief setting its present and its past. Secondary education in America means the public high school and the private academy. The great mass of secondary education in this country is found in the public high school. The growth and development of ■f I- Cotmcil] POSSIBILITIES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 617 secondary education for more than two generations have been directed away from the private school. While there will always be a group of stu- dents of secondary-school age to be trained in private schools, the percentage of the whole group to be trained in public high schools will grow constantly larger. The public high school has long passed the stage when it was not considered a part of the common-school system. The decisions of supreme courts, the growth in public favor, the enormous increase in the amount of money expended for building and grounds, equipment and faculties, are a living and continued evidence of the popularity and necessity of the public high school. It is an incontestable fact that the public high school secured its first great recognition in the Middle West. It is probably true that a single sentence from the famous Ordinance of 1787 had as much to do with making this development possible in the great Mississippi Valley as any other force. This sentence reads: "Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." This statement cast in bronze and placed in a prominent position in the University of Michigan, the first ?reat state university established, has acted as a kind of leaven for all the public-school systems in this great valley and probably for all the school systems farther west. The reflex from this influence has doubtless had its 3lace in the development of public secondary education in other sections )f the great nation. But what of the outlook for this institution which is rapidly becoming a eal people's college ? The public high school of today is not the institution vhich existed ten years ago. It has undergone a very rapid transformation n response to a similar change operating in society at large. In this evolu- ion which is in process now the keenest seers have discerned the meaning if the "pedagogical barometer." The disappearance of the public free ands, the rapid increase in population, the mad onrush to the great centers 'f population, the keen penetrating competition of the modern business /orld, and the consequent comparison with conditions of production in 3reign countries have driven us, with little or no notification, to adjust our chool system rapidly to the changing condition in society. In some sec- ions of the country, it has seemed that such an adjustment could be made nly by dividing the forces of education into two separate and somewhat idependent organizations, the one styling itself the new and progressive, le other styled the old and somewhat conservative. Fierce legislative battles have been fought by both parties contending 11 the while that each had all the light and that the other was seated in irkness. These battles are on now. It is probable that when we have issed thru the present unstable interrogatory stage we shall find one stitution and one system rather than two. It is also probable that that stitution wUl in very many respects be like the institutions today, but m 6i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National there will be an effort to make a very direct and effective contact between the education and the life in the school and the education and the life outside the school. The yawning gulf, the aching void between school gradua- tion and pubhc service, the hiatus, and the consequent period of unproduc- tiveness on the part of the school's product will disappear. We shall then recognize that where we have a constant fluctuation in society there must be an increasing fluidity in the scholastic preparation of society for its ulti- mate duty. The period of reorganization and readjustment will be a constant period and we shall in consequence change the place of emphasis from decade to decade if not from year to year. The pedagog will then recognize and act upon the suggestion that society is not static but rather dynamic and that all systems which propose to deal with society must deal with changing conditions rather than with permanently fixed conditions. There can be no greater evidence of the future possibiUties in the field of secondary education than the fact of expansion. Already in many centers the periodof secondary education has reached down one or two years and in almost as many other centers it has reached up one or two years. In the first case, the reaching down, its purpose has been to prepare more quickly and more directly the boys and the girls before the age of sixteen for the actual service which they are expected to perform in the manufacturing and business world. Whether this movement will remain a permanent poUcy in the centers where it is now being tried out can be answered only after the years of experimentation have separated the good from the bad and the public is ready to express its opinion on the results. Whether the extension upward so as to include in the present secondary-school course the work now done by the junior college shall be extended beyond the confines where such experimentation has been found for ten or twelve years is like- wise a question which only this kindred evolutionary process can determine. It is, however, fairly clear now that the overcrowding of many of the uni- versities beyond the high school can find its relief only by so developing the institution below it as to reduce the number to be cared for in the great university. The junior college has apparently persisted, and many of the centers which now boast of its existence would be released from their obligations with great hesitation. The junior college is the newest distinct institution now developing iii public education. It has seemed to come from a somewhat local demand for an institution immediately and easily accessible to certain t>-pes of young men and young women who have finished the ordinary high-schoci course. It is not so much the extension of the curriculmn so as to include the first two years of the college that has made this institution develop, but it is rather in the fact of the immaturity of the boys and girls finishing ordinary high-school work and the consequent interrogation rising when the parent faces the necessity of sending the boy or girl seventeen years of age far away from home influence, from parental supervision, and from an> I Council] POSSIBILITIES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 619 ecclesiastical direction. Probably in this new institution we have come to inject more of the qualities which tend to make and mature womanhood and manhood and good citizenship than we have heretofore done. It is probable that in this institution a responsibiUty shall rest for a more com- plete development of the citizen by close supervision at home than has heretofore been possible in any of the types of institutions to which such high-school products might be sent. This is a phase of expansion peculiarly resting on the jimior college and extending as never before the responsi- bilities and duties of public educational leaders. This movement is again a new recognition of the place which the home may have in retaining near it the direction of the youths who are but citizens in the making. For many years we have heard in conventions that the home has been neglecting its obligation to the boy and the girl and that it has been releasing itself from many of its obligations and putting those obligations squarely on the school. With the development of the junior college, it would seem that pubhc opinion and the home behind such development is making its answer to the former accusation and assuming again the proper and right direction of the education of the young man and the young woman during the middle of the period of adolescence. Aside from these changes, which are largely expansions of the curri- culum, there is a growing demand that the physical and moral welfare shall be cared for in a very earnest and purposeful way. We are now beginning to see that the adolescent must be developed as a human unit and that in Drder to do that we must properly care for and direct the physical, social, ind moral life of the boy or the girl. It is a well-recognized fact that the 3oy who does not know his eyesight is defective works under an inexcusable landicap regardless of the time and effort he may make in a perfectly honest Aray. We are now ready to act upon the basis that it is the business of the )ublic educational institution to correct a physical defect in eyesight, in learing, in breathing, and give the individual so corrected a fair chance 0 get results from his effort in school. We are beginning to put into the chool and its obligations the meaning which John Dewey put into it when le said "The school is life." We are now beginning to interpret "life" in erms of physical, social, moral, intellectual welfare. The future of the secondary school is beginning to show that the mphasis, which has heretofore been most largely placed on the training of he intellect, is beginning to be shifted. We are now face to face with train- ig and directing the physical, social, moral, industrial qualities of the outh. More of the criticism of the public high school has grown out of tie undirected social life and the misdirected moral and physical life than rem all other sources. We are beginning to feel now that the teacher whose usmess it is to train the physical being must be as expert in his field of ctivity as is the teacher who is to train the intellectual side of the pupil, lore attention today is being given to organized, systematic, physical 620 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Nati education than ever before in the history of the country. The fact that in many schools physical education is a required subject applied to all courses of study and to all students unless excused by some reputable physician is a sufficient evidence of the trend of public opinion concerning the necessity for physical education. No longer do we dismiss this subject by saying we have a coach for the football, basket-ball, tennis, track, or other teams, but we are insisting that physical education shall be as much a part of the daily effort of teacher and student and shall be as important ir the development of the pupil as any other phase of his education. It car. scarcely be expected that all the student body will be equally interested iri the side of physical education represented in the games and team contests of one kind and another, but it is clearly evident that the most progressive; boards of education and the educational leaders with greatest foresight attach the most serious importance to physical education. The charges of dishonor and graft and unsportsmanlike conduct, which were formerly heard with reference to athletic contests, are rapidly disappearing and m their place is the well-founded defense of giving physical training to the whole student body. The social and moral education is now being made a subject of supreme importance, and the direction of this work has been looked upon with such seriousness as to justify the employment of a well-trained individual desig- nated now as the dean of women whose supreme duty it is to give close per- sonal supervision and direction of the moral and social life of the young people in the school. It is possible, under such direction, to give close supervision to all of the social activities of the school for which the school. in the mind of the public, may have any responsibility at all. The transi- tion from a condition of undirected social life to one of direction and con- trol is not always easy and is frequently embarrassing, but this problem like all other big school problems, has to be met and is being met now in scores of places, and results are being secured which are fairly comparably with the results in other departments of the school. Growing out of the social and moral needs of the students of secondare' school age, there will probably come the employment of a physician, as i regular member of the school faculty, and there may come the necessit) for securing the services of a man equally trained to care for the eye, ear nose, and throat, and to make a careful medical examination of all tl.( pupils in the school at least twice a year. In the upward evolution of the high school into a junior college, it i doubtless true that some considerable percentage of the small priva: colleges will find it to their financial interest and to the interest of thei constituents to become junior colleges. Some have aheady taken thi step and others are contemplating it. We shall then have in large number what we have now in small numbers — a junior college supported at publi Councfl] POSSIBILITIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION 621 in some measure, the same field of education but appealing to a different constituency. In attempting to project the future of the secondary school, we are firmly convinced that the private academy will persist only when it has sufficient endowment to maintain itself in the face of pretty serious opposi- tion, and that, in many cases, the private academy will add to its curri- culum the first two years of the college and join the junior-college field. The example set by a few cities and towns in the establishment of a junior college must gradually lead larger and larger numbers of cities ranging in population from twenty-five thousand upward to establish and maintain their own junior colleges. This will mean a kind of upward evolution in education somewhat akin to the development of secondary education in the most progressive European nations. It will mean that we can, by such development, meet the demands of the business and professional world. It will mean further that the present higher institutions, especially the large universities, will be relieved of what is to many of them now their most serious problem — the caring for boys and girls who have scarcely reached the middle of their adolescent period. This prophecy is a new interpretation Df the state's obligation to supply education at public expense to the chil- dren of the state from the age of six to the age of twenty-one. So far as we ire able to determine, there has been no court decision up to this time denying the right of any young man or young woman, under twenty-one /ears of age, to apply to the public schools for instruction during this entire Dcriod. The development of junior colleges in large numbers of centers of popu- ation means that in the future the present requirements of the best colleges )f law, medicine, engineering, etc., will be fairly and legitimately met before he young man or young woman has to leave his or her immediate neighbor- lood and withdraw from immediate parental direction and vocational guidance. i C. HIGHER EDUCATION 4UY POTTER BENTON, PRESIDENT, UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT, BURLINGTON, VT. Those who have preceded us during the day in the discussion of this ;eneral theme have been enviably advantaged. They have been privileged 0 enumerate the educational ideals and accomplishments of the years and 0 bring them up to date. We must attempt to speak convincingly of the uture outlook and possibilities of education in America. The under- aking, at best, is one fraught with peril to those who have pride in main- aining reputations for sound thinking. With knowledge of the shifting onceptions of school, college, and university aims, as evidenced by the Itered character of educational thought and discussion in the last quarter- entury, who with any conscious certitude wiU dare to say what our 622 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National successors will be thinking and writing and speaking about twenty-five years hence? Let it be clearly understood then at the outset, that I do not essay to forecast in detail the educational conditions of tomorrow and the day after. I only hope, in fulfilment of my accepted obligation for the discussion of the future outlook and possibilities of higher education in our country, to find safe mooring for some indisputable conclusions as to future probabilities by tying up to the self-evident truth that in the United States of Ameriai higher education is the business of the state. The axiomatic character of that statement is warrantable on the ground that it has become the fixed policy of every state of the Republic to assume responsibility for the exist- ence and direction of colleges and universities. Since higher education has thus become the settled business of the state, I shall devote myself to a defense of two propositions: first, that our Ameri- can colleges must reorganize imder state leadership; second, that for con- siderations of economy and efliciency, there must be, in every state, a working correlation of all the institutions of higher learning. In short, the general reform movement which American colleges and universities must undertake in the immediate future is one involving reconstruction and readjustment. Under the inspiration of direct legislative order, the gift of seminary lands, or the acceptance of the conditions of the Morrill Land Grant Law, every state in the Union has established a state university or state college of agriculture and mechanic arts, or both, in addition to one or more state normal schools. This assumption of the direct business control of highei education by the state will make it increasingly the state's business to see to it that all colleges and universities supported and controlled by the state shall be encouraged to lead in setting and confirming right ideals of Ameri- can life. Because higher education is the business of the state, it is a safe pre- diction that considerations of increasing future usefulness will early make i( the business of the state to encourage all its colleges and universities tc become business institutions. This does not mean that our colleges ano universities must find their chief claim to public approval in vertical files and faultless accoimting systems. Admitting the need of simple and easil> administered but accurate and thoroly intelligible oflice systems, it is, aftei all, not the mechanics of business I have in mind when I aflGirm that the next step in higher education will be that which makes it the business of the state to order that state colleges and universities shall be business inst. tutions that know their business. Humiliating as the confession may be, those who love truth must admit that American colleges and universities today do not know why they are what they are, or what they can be or should be. To make this admissior is not to disparage the value of the service already rendered to civilizatior ouncUl POSSIBILITIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION 623 ly the colleges and universities of our common country. We owe much to ur institutions of higher learning. The debt of America to its colleges and niversities can never be discharged. Even so, tho, the popular obligation /ould be infinitely greater than it is today if our institutions of higher ducation had been founded and developed with better intelligence. The ordinary American college or university in its institutional organi- ation represents a series of accretions. Most institutions of this type tarted with two or three faculty members and a very limited curriculum. LS the years have gone on and demands, either real or imaginary, have pre- ented themselves, new instructors and new courses have been added. I?he result in most instances is an educational aggregation rather than edu- ational co-ordination. State institutions have been located by legislative uthority or direction, often on the basis of political expediency without efinite assurance of satisfactory financial support, and without any well nought out plan of institutional development to assure a growing service D the state. With such ignorance of immediate needs in the days of founding, and ith such circumscribed vision of future possibilities, the wonder is not that ur American colleges and universities have failed to accomplish all that 'as hoped for them, but rather that they have, under these limitations, ccomplished so much that is creditable to the civilization of the new world. 'he fact remains, tho, that our institutions of higher learning have been )llowmg lines of least resistance. They started with certain departments E instruction because those same departments existed in other American istitutions or in the older countries of the world. This inclination to lind imitation has grown until now it has become the controlling factor in aming curricula. There is slight thought given to the question of real eed. The American college or imiversity of our day is a composite of nglish and continental ideals sprinkled all over with certain distinctively ude American notions. The 596 colleges and universities reported by the United States com- lissioner of education in 1913, with their more than 30,000 instructors and rofessors and their 335,000 students, enjoyed a combined income of more lan one hundred million dollars, but nobody knows whether or not that rge sum of money was wisely expended. It was doubtless honestly devoted ) specific purposes, but it is a warrantable belief that it might have been sed with greater benefit to the supporting constituencies of the several stitutions. The healthful development of our American colleges and liversities waits on a proper diagnosis of institutional disease. We cannot rescribe remedies until we know what is needed to guarantee educational -alth and effectiveness. We have been treating educational symptoms ithout knowing their causes. The duty facing American colleges and diversities in the immediate future is to find themselves. There is no nger justification f or.doing certain things simply because they have always 624 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [National been done, or for doing things in a particular way because they have always, been done that way. With due respect for honorable tradition but with i. larger regard for the proper demands of our changing social order and the rational evolution of civilization, our institutions of higher learning should call a halt until some method is found for the evaluation of their work to the end, when values have been determined, that the superfluous or less neces- sary activities may be abandoned as necessary preliminaries to the perma- nent organization of the indispensable and more necessary operations. A state institution belongs to the commonwealth that supports it and not to those employed in its operations. People of every point of viev/ should be enlisted in the effort to determine what a particular institution is,i what it can be, and what it ought to be in service to the public. As an advance guarantee of right conclusions, constituents of every calling, trus- tees, alumni, faculty members, and even students within proper limitations, should be set to the task of an honest attempt to discover institutional potentialities. Then, too, whenever and wherever expert coimsel or service may be needed the great private foundations should be called upon, with perfect confidence in their unselfish friendship, for the help they are best fitted to give. By such use of the good offices of external and internal forces in combination, we may hope for the determination of what the colleges and universities of America must do in their several localities if they are to be growing instrumentalities for the promotion of the general weal. The entire abandonment of preconceived notions is a necessary preliminaiyi to the solution of the problems offered by an educational institution in a given location. In every study of college and imiversity organization, the earnest effort to ascertain the needs of the legitimate constituency of the institution con- cerned should be made paramount. It will be necessary to forget, to some extent, what institutions in other sections of the coimtry are doing. The work of higher education in the United States has suffered much in recent years from obedience to untenable precedent. A college or university witli limited resources may do more of harm than of good by the attempt to coveri the same ground that larger and wealthier institutions differently situated may properly perform. State environment, resources, occupations, and needs are factors that should be taken into account. Within every state it- should be possible in the near future for institutions — state and private — so to adjust and correlate their work as to avoid a continuation of the present financial waste resulting from imnecessary duplication. It has become the fashion in certain quarters to deride the undergradu- ate study of Latin and Greek, but even the most rabid educational reformer will hardly insist that those who feel inclined by taste and talent to a study o^ the classics should be denied that privilege. The disciplinary and cultural value of these subjects is well established. It does not follow as a corollary the that every college in a given state should offer opportunities for the :ouiicai POSSIBILITIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION 625 .tudy of Latin and Greek. Conditions are conceivable which would make t inexpedient, in some states, to offer these subjects in any of its institu- ions. Prophets with prophecies born of their own desires have worn them- elves out predicting that the pendulum of popular approval would soon Itegin to swing back in the direction of the old classical college, meaning ihat the small college of the early fashion would come again to its own, in ue time, as the only reputable type of higher educational institution in the ountry. There is no strong indication that these predictions will ever be salized in fulfilment. Contrary to any tendency to move back toward the ild, the trend of institutional progress is leading in the direction of those oUege subjects which function with something real in the life of the student, nd that, of course, means that if the young collegian has a vital interest \ linguistics the finest culture and the best discipline will come to him iru study of the languages. Students of differing talents or inclinations are not profited by a com- ilsory study of the classics if classics have less of human interest for them lan have the pure and applied sciences. There are no high-minded parents ho prefer that their sons shall be educated without regard to religion and orals, or social and economic problems. On the contrary there are those iio want all the newest appliances in farming or the latest devices in ansportation and engineering presented in college, but along with these ey want their children to get an appreciation of the fine things in art, in erature, in history, in philosophy, and in ethics. May it not, then, be en- ely practicable, under the leadership of state-controlled institutions, to )rk out in the near future a more effective scheme for higher education in ' ery state — a scheme of readjustment that will command the co-operative ' pport of all those connected with the institutions of higher learning, de- minational and private as well as public, in the interested state, so that < e institution shall assume the responsibility for courses in certain subjects ' die another institution is guaranteed exclusive right for differing lines of s icialization that do not cross those running elsewhere in that state ? One important object of collegiate training is the development of the ; irage man, and when adjacent colleges and universities within states f erate for the avoidance of senseless rivalries and the abandonment of 1- lecessary competition, we shall find it possible to eliminate the waste of r nay from which every state is now suffering in its laudable efforts to F 'secute satisfactorily the work of higher education. The ultimate out- cie will be an improved civilization. Thru such co-ordination of work V hin states, it will be easier to call to the service of higher education men a I women of the largest ability for whom both the material and spiritual r ards of service will be much larger than any that can be offered under ^ present indefensible, slipshod, competitive method. Furthermore, ^ b such co-ordination of institutional work, it will be possible to give to tl student constituency of every state the educational opportunities that 626 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Natb, most of them may properly require without the mmecessary expense long travel to other states, leaving many who have obtained the bacci laureate degree free to continue their graduate studies at home in researc lines the state can best ofifer, with the added impetus of a desire to contini their studies in some greater university at home or abroad. The study of existing conditions for the discovery of what each insj tution within the state has been, what it has failed to be, what it cad^i and, above all, what it should be as a part of a state educational system command the highest respect of the world of scholarship, will necessari precede the unification of the work of higher education in each particul state. Political state sovereignty is a subject on which honest men mj disagree. Educational state sovereignty is absolutely essential to tl promotion of the public welfare. The state which shall lead in the effort | sweep away the debris of the years in order to get down to a solid foundati^ upon which to build a better superstructure of higher education proper] joined together and harmonized in all its parts will become a pioneer thj other states will gladly follow in rapid succession. So far as institutions of higher learning are concerned, the most beo ficial educational movement of recent years has been that which found :; origin in the work of university extension. In the days of the old cloisterl colleges of the continental type the street ran by the campus. Today it rui thru the campus, out onto the main highways and into byways that carry t; stimulating influence of the college or university to the remotest comersf the state. In 1906 the National Association of State Universities meeting t Baton Rouge received a report from one of its committees previous' appointed to propose a plan for the standardization of universities. Ttt report failed of adoption. It seems altogether certain that for many yes to come the typical American university will continue to be "a complexf colleges" — undergraduate, graduate, and professional. It will adhere p- marily to its original fimction as an institution for instruction; it vl perpetuate the best accomplishments of mankind in all ages, provid? without unnecessary duplication for the study of the languages, Uterat j , reUgions, laws, philosophies, and customs, so that nothing that the hum race has ever achieved shall be lost; it will extend the domain of knowletf, thru investigations of the phenomena of nature with the newer methods research in co-operation with scholars everywhere; it will disseminat widely as possible by means of publications and otherwise the knowle its members have found; it will seek to discover and encourage unus talent by recognizing rare abiUties among all classes; it will uphold highest standards of scholarship and professional learning in law, in m( cine, in theology, in education, in agriculture, in mechanic arts, in inve gation and in scientific service; and, finally, its supreme reason for existed will be found in the dedication of all its potentialities to the general welf^ :ouncil] POSSIBILITIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION 627 Such a university system within a given state as the culmination of the 5ublic-school establishment will not be confined to a particular locality. It vill guarantee to every properly correlated part the enjoyment of its char- tered or state-ordered privileges. Under the newer and better scheme of the |:oming day when intra-state colleges and universities shall be welded ogether without sacrifice of institutional personality into one educational i)rganization of the highest efl&ciency, those departments supported and ilirected entirely by the state will do no violence to high religious, political, ir social ideals, but they will command narrow sectarianism to keep hands ff. They will offer no hospitality to the designing politician. They will ive no permission to the fanatical dreamer or to the social and reMgious :onoclast to get into the limelight thru use of a university professorship. 'hey will give destructive caprice no protection under the cloak of academic reedom. Specific prophecies may never be fulfilled. The general prophecies E improvement along the broad lines suggested must be realized as vindica- on of the right of colleges and universities to continued existence. The ipreme purpose of public education should be the inculcation of a lofty )nception of individual and communal responsibility. Such a sense of isponsibility instilled in childhood and youth will later find its full fruition newer and better ideals of character, of service, of democracy, and of itriotism. Our colleges and universities, with full appreciation of their •cial obligations, will hasten the realization of this high purpose of education tru independent institutional reconstruction and by inter-institutional tegration. These two inevitable steps soon taken will insure the increas- g efficiency of higher educational work in America. It is the business of e state to lead the forward movement. DEPARTMENT OF KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Anna M. Stovall, supervisor and normal instructor, Golden Gate Kindergarten Association San Francisco, Cal. Vice-President — Myra M. Winchester, special collaborator, Kindergarten Division, Bureau of Education Washington, D.C. Secretary — Anna I. Jenkins, director of Roosevelt Kindergarten Pasadena, Cal. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, August 17, 1915 The depaxtment was called to order in the Auditoriiim Theater at 9:00 a.m., and the following program presented: Topic: Kindergarten Legislation "What the California Congress of Mothers Has Done for Kindergarten Legislation" —Mrs. H. N. Rowell, president, California Congress of Mothers, Berkeley, Cal. "Kindergarten Legislation in California — How We Secured It and Some of Its Results" — ^LUlian M. Clark, Los Angeles, Cal. Topic: The Kindergarten and the Elementary School "The Kindergarten-Primary Course in the State Normal School" — Ruth C. Hoffman, primary superviser, State Normal School, EUensburg, Wash. "Some Adjustments That Might Secure Closer Integration" — ^Mary C. C. Bradford, state superintendent of public instruction, Denver, Colo. "Progressive Development of the Kindergarten Course of Study in the Elementary School" — ^Lillian B. Poor, assistant director, Public-School Kindergartens, Boston, Mass. "The Advantages of Placing the Kindergarten and the Primary Grades under the Supervision of One Person and That Person a Trained Kindergartner" — C. E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich. William N. Hailmann, pioneer leader and publisher of The Kindergarten World, was called to the platform and presented to the audience, who gave him the cordial reception which his long and honorable service merited. The chair appointed the following committees: Committee on Nominations Frances Newton, Sierra Madre, Cal., Chairman Ada M. Hughes, Toronto, Ont., Canada Helen G. Dwyer, Evanston, HI. Committee on Resolutions William N. Hailmann, Pasadena, Cal., Chairman EUa C. Elder, Buffalo, N.Y. Lucy T. Ellis, Phoenix, Ariz. SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, August 17, 1915 The meeting was called to order at 2 :3o p.m., in joint session with the International Kindergarten Union. 629 m 630 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindeijarten After a program of songs by Nelly Laura Walker, San Francisco, Cal., the folJo' program was presented: Topic: The Kindergarten and Industrial Arts I ■• at "The Influences of Modem Education upon Handwork for Yoimg Children"— Marion B. Barbour, Los Angeles, Cal. "Practical Connections between Aesthetic and Industrial Values" — Catharine R. Watkins, director of kindergartens, Washington, D.C. Topic: Child Study S "The Trend of Progress in Child Study"— Elisabeth Ross Shaw, director, School of Mental Measurement, Evanston, HI. "Modem Psychology in Its Relation to Discipline" — Gail Harrison, State Normal School, San Francisco, Cal. "Education in Relation to the Imagination of the Little Child" — ^Maria Montessori, M.D., Rome, Italy. The following officers were elected for the coming year: For President — Mary B. Fox, director of Kindergarten Department, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. For Vice-President — Ella C. Elder, supervisor of kindergartens, Buffalo, N.Y. For Secretary — ^Fanny A. Smith, 863 Lafayette St., Bridgeport, Conn. THIRD SESSION— TtJESDAY Evening, August 17, 1915 ^• The evening session was called to order at 8:00 p.m. and the following program pre- sented: "Child Education as a Basis for the New Internationalism" — May Wright Sewall, Indianapolis, Ind.; Harriet P. Thomas, secretary, Woman's Peace Party, Chicago, DL; J. H. Francis, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal. The following resolutions were presented and adopted: Resolved, That we recognize gratefully the splendid hospitality of the city of Oakland in affording us the opportunity of meeting in her magnificent City Auditorium as well as the imiversal courtesy extended to us by her citizens. 2. We appreciate keenly the hospitality of the East Bay kindergartners, our hostesses at the luncheon. 3. We feel deeply indebted to the press, both of Oakland and of San Francisco, for its courteous and generous attention to our proceedings and their publication. 4. Our thanks are due to the officers of the department for the excellent and inspiring program, and for affording us the opportunity of hearing May Wright Sewall, India- napolis, Ind., Harriet P. Thomas, Chicago, HI., Maria Montessori, Rome, Italy, and Nelly hauls. Walker, San Francisco, Cal., in her charming songs. 5. We welcome with special gratification the co-operation of the International Kindergarten Union in our meetings, and we trust that on futiu-e occasions we may be similarly favored by these leaders in the work of the kindergarten. 6. We commend the hopefully progressive spirit that pervaded the discussions, the growing tendency to incorporate the kindergarten as an integral factor in public education, and the introduction of kindergarten principles and methods in the work of the elementary school. Anna I. Jenkins, Secretary Department] KINDERGARTEN LEGISLATION 631 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS TOPIC: KINDERGARTEN LEGISLATION A. WHAT THE CALIFORNIA CONGRESS OF MOTHERS HAS DONE FOR KINDERGARTEN LEGISLATION MRS. H, N. ROWELL, PRESIDENT, CALIFORNIA CONGRESS OF MOTHERS, BERKELEY, CAL. It is the purpose of the National Congress of Mothers and Parent- Teacher Associations, of which the Cahfomia Congress of Mothers is a part, to further in every way possible the wise early training of children. To this end it has been lending its influence for years toward the establishing of kindergartens in the public schools. I take it that you expect me to give some suggestions that may be used to obtain kindergarten legislation in states where the kindergarten is not a part of the school system. In California, the present law is the outcome of years of effort to awaken the members of our own Congress and the public generally to the value and need of kindergartens. But even with the demand for kindergartens that finally came, it is improbable that our bill would have received much attention if it had not had the backing of thousands of women voters. Late in the year 191 1 women were granted the suffrage in this state. We had one year in which to plan before the next legislature met. The strong women's organizations of the state formed a Women's Legislative Council and agreed on certain measures that each should advance, all supporting all measures as far as possible affecting women and children. The Congress of Mothers framed and supported a kindergarten bill which, on account of its reasonableness, became the present law. It provides that upon petition of the parents or guardians of 25 children between the ages of four and a half and six (we had said four and six) residing within a mile (we had said half a mile) of an elementary school, the board of education shall establish a kindergarten in such school. The law provides for the I co-operation of the people, the school authorities, and the county super- visors. In the legislature it was referred to as giving "local option in kindergartens." The law does not purpose the wholesale estabUshing of kindergartens; the growth has been gradual. Training schools have had time to meet the demand for competent teachers. Two more state normal schools have added training departments within the last two years. Only one state normal school had a kindergarten-training department when the law was passed. As a result of the law 106 new kindergartens have been established and 56 more are promised for this fall. An amendment added to the law at the first session provides definitely for support to the extent of ten cents ™ 632 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kinderpirten on each hundred dollars of assessed valuation. Each school district sup- ports its own kindergartens under the law. So the kindergarten situation in California is fairly satisfactory. We believe, however, that every child, as far as practicable or possible, is entitled to this group-training in his formative years for the sake of his future social, moral, and physical efficiency. A wise college president said a few days ago that everything is possible that is for the good of the children. This gives us heart. Let us do all that we can to bring the knowledge of the value of the kindergarten to parents, who are the voters and taxpayers, and in a short time the kindergarten will have its legitimate place as an integral part of the public-school system. The kindergarten director has a responsibility here. Every kinder- gartner should feel it to be an important duty to form mothers' classes or reading circles for the study and discussion of books on child-training that the mothers may know how to co-operate with her in her methods for the development of the children; also that they may gain a truer appreciation of the value of the kindergarten. They will then be ready to assist in any movement for better kindergarten legislation. When a group has formed a permanent organization, it should apply for membership in the state Congress of Mothers and Parent-Teacher Asso- ciations so that it may have the help and direction of the Congress, and so that its members may assist the Congress in its work for the good of their children. I would say, then, as a basis for kindergarten legislation — organize and educate parents; give the suffrage to those most interested in child welfare. B. KINDERGARTEN LEGISLA TION IN CALIFORNIA— HOW WE SECURED IT AND SOME OF ITS RESULTS LILLIAN M. CLARK, LOS ANGELES, CAL. Prior to the year 19 13, there were fourteen coimties in California, eight of which were in southern California, having public-school kindergartens which had been estabUshed by the local boards of education and supported by local taxation, and forty-four covmties having no public-school kinder- gartens. There was no law in our political code providing for the estabUsh- ment, maintenance, or government of kindergartens. Consequently each city or town desiring one in connection with its pubUc school had to depend upon the will of its individual board of education in regard to its estabUsh- ment. In many instances these boards of education, not realizing the importance of the kindergarten as a part of the pubHc-school system, failed to Usten to any and every request brought to them, and, because of the lack of any compelling law, patrons of these schools were powerless to do more than request and accept the refusal if their request was not granted. Department] KINDERGARTEN LEGISLATION IN CALIFORNIA 633 The California Congress of Mothers, keenly alive to the advantage of kindergarten training to every child in. the state as well as to the few, resolved to work for the adoption of a state law which would govern the establishment of kindergartens as a part of our public-school system, and, if possible, to have this law passed by the legislature of 191 3, which was the first legislative session held after the enfranchisement of women in Cali- fornia. The kindergarten teachers of southern California, hearing of the work which had been started by the Congress of Mothers, "put their shoulders to the wheel" also, enlisted the interest and support of the kindergarten teachers thruout the state, and did valiant work in furthering the cause. Thirty-six southern California legislators held a conference in Los Angeles in the latter part of December, 191 2, at which time people who were interested in matters of proposed legislation were invited to be present land discuss such proposed legislation. The legislative committee of the I Los Angeles City Teachers Club had a hearing before this conference, and, among other proposed measures which they were indorsing, included the recommendation of the kindergarten section for some definite kindergarten legislation. Some of the members were also interviewed personally and their support asked for bills which were to be prepared; and two legislators, one from the Senate and one from the Assembly, promised to introduce these bills when they were ready. The president of the normal school in Los Angeles had tried in previous years to have a certification bill introduced in the legislature, providing that the holders of kindergarten certificates be allowed to teach in the primary grades, but he had never succeeded in getting such a bill before the legisla- tive body. While the question of kindergarten legislation was being agi- tated, we thought it an opportune time to introduce a primary certification bill also. Resolutions indorsing these two ideas — 3. state law for establish- ment of kindergartens and primary certification for kindergarten teachers — ivere read and adopted by the Southern California Teachers Association :hen in session in Los Angeles. This work was all done within one week. It probably would have been setter planned and therefore better executed if we had had more time for he preparation, but quick action was necessary if we were to take advantage )f the opportunity of a hearing at the legislative conference and the Southern -alifornia Teachers Association. Our coimty school superintendent, who was considered an authority on tate school law, was asked to formulate the two bills. After the legislature onvened and the committees were appointed, the chairman of the commit- ee on education of the Assembly was asked that an opportunity be given he advocates of the kindergarten to appear later before a joint committee 'n education of the two houses. This request was granted. In the mean- ime, some leaflets of campaign literature had been prepared. A meeting M 634 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Kindergarten was called in Los Angeles of representatives of the kindergarten teachers from each town within a radius of one hundred miles of the city, at which time plans for an active campaign were formulated. These representatives went home ready to do enthusiastic work in their several towns. Printed petition blanks and copies of leaflets were sent to each of these representa- tives for distribution. Copies of the leaflets were inclosed in a letter which was written to every county superintendent of schools in the state and many of the city superintendents. Leaflets were sent to every member of the legislature. Letters were written to each member of the educational committee, and they were also interviewed personally by their own con- stituents. Many of the other legislators were seen personally and written to. Articles were written and printed in the daily papers. Petitions ask- ing for indorsement of the bills were widely circulated and signed. A similar campaign was being conducted in the northern part of the state also. We seciu-ed indorsements from the boards of trade and chambers of commerce in the different cities and towns, boards of education, city, and county school superintendents, and various civic organizations and women's clubs, all over the state. Of all this campaign work done, we believe the educational literature sent out, and the personal interviews with the members of the legislature, were the most effective means of molding pubUc sentiment in favor of kindergartens. One of the Los Angeles kindergarten teachers was sent to Sacramento by the kindergartners of southern California, thru the courtesy of the Los Angeles Board of Education, which body generously granted her a three weeks' leave of absence without any loss of salary. She was sent to represent them at the meeting of the educational committee and to do personal work in the legislature. She carried with her letters of introduc- tion and indorsement to the governor, lieutenant-governor, and a number of legislators. Two bills had been introduced providing for the establishment of kin- dergartens. One was indorsed by the California Congress of Mothers and designated in the legislature as "Local Option in Kindergartens"; the other was drawn up in Los Angeles and provided that the kindergarten should be made an integral part of the state elementary school system and receive its support from the state school fund. At the meeting of the joint committee on education, there were present a nmnber of leading advocates of kindergarten legislation. A number 0;: these people were given an opportunity to speak on the subject and were closely listened to by members of the committee. It soon became apparent that no work was needed to convert the com- mittee to a belief in the value of the kindergarten in the school system; that evidently had already been accompUshed thru the Uterature which had been sent out and the conversations that had previously been held. There was a decided difference of opinion as to its being made an "integral par: Department] KINDERGARTEN LEGISLATION IN CALIFORNIA 635 of the state school system." It was shown that the state as a whole was not ready for such a broad legislative measure, that it might work a hard- ship on some communities, and representatives from country districts would I not vote for it. No recommendation was made for any of the kindergarten bills at this meeting and the outlook seemed, at first, to be rather discouraging, but as the strongest opposition was directed toward the idea of the kindergarten being made an "integral part of the state school system," rather than its estab- lishment being optional with local districts, we decided not to give up but to try it again, this time with the "Local Option" bill. With the co- operation of a member of the staff in the oflace of the state superintendent of schools, two of the legislators, and the supervisor of kindergartens in Sacramento, the "Local Option" bill, which in its original form was incom- plete and inadequate to fill the needs of the situation, was reconstructed in such a way as to meet the approval of all concerned. This bill became an active law in August, 1913. The main points of this law are: "Boards of education or school trus- tees shall upon petition of the parents or guardians of twenty-five or more children between the ages of four and one-half and six years residing within a mile of an elementary-school building establish and maintain a kinder- jgarten," and it shall be supported from the local district tax. The educa- jtional committee also passed, in an amended form, the bill providing for the primary certification of kindergarten teachers. This bill as passed provided that "holders of kindergarten certificates who have had at least one year of training in a state normal school or one year of teaching in an elementary school shall be entitled to teach in the first grade of the elemen- tary school." After these bills had been passed by the Senate and Assembly, our attention was turned to the signing of them by the governor. We wanted to be sure he was thoroly conversant with the importance and advantage of aavmg such laws on our statute books, and that in the signing of the mul- titudinous bills that had been passed these would not be overlooked and orgotten. This work was done thru letters to the governor and a few personal interviews by interested influential people and thru the personal watchfulness of the Sacramento kindergarten supervisor. Much of the success of our kindergarten legislation was due to the work done with indi- vidual members of the legislature in personal interviews. The greater and most effective part of this work was done after the bills id been passed out of the educational committee and before they came up fore the two houses for adoption. That is by far the most trying of any rt of the work. To do this work successfully and acceptably, one should )ssess a great amount of thoughtfulness and tact, and must be able to I'ecognize and improve the opportune time for pleading her cause in a few agical, concise, and. telling sentences, and in such a dignified, womanly 636 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten manner as to command the respect and attention of the man with whom she is speaking, even tho he may not agree with her opinions or be able to work with her. One must also avoid encroaching too long or too often upon a busy man's time. I have been asked about the expense of our campaign. The expense to the kindergartners of southern California was about $145.00. This included printing, stationery, postage, etc., also the expenses of the repre- sentative sent to Sacramento, but did not include her salary for the time she was there. The California Congress of Mothers spent about $25.00 for similar expenses. The kindergarten teachers of Sacramento, San Francisco, and Oakland doubtless spent some money in the campaign also, but I have no data concerning the amoimt. I judge, however, that it would not exceed the amount spent by the Congress of Mothers, which would make a total of approximately $200.00 of actual money spent in the active campaign. There had been several years of effort back of this on the part of the Con- gress of Mothers and others, however, to educate the people and to create a public sentiment in favor of kindergartens. Out of all this experience we learned many valuable lessons. One of the most important and probably the most significant one for anyone wishing to profit by our experience was this: If before any bUls had been formulated, or any work had been done with the members of the legislature, representatives of the people in different parts of the state who were inter- ested had gotten together and agreed upon some measure that would suit the conditions of the state as a whole, and then had had one bill instead of two proposed, all the effort would have been concentrated upon that one bill, and our results would have been accomplished much more easily and doubtless in a better manner. Before closing, I want to give you a little idea of what has been accom- plished as a result of the kindergarten laws, which have been in force for two years: Thru the efforts of the California Congress of Mothers and the National Kindergarten Association, working thru its California secretary in co- operation with various women's organizations, 106 new kindergartens have been opened in 56 different towns, 50 of which had never had one before, and an additional nmnber of 56 new ones will be open in the fall of 1915 in 36 towns never having one before. A new kindergarten training depart- ment has been added to one of the state normal schools which had none before. Several kindergarten teachers — ^I do not know just how many — have gone into first-grade work mider the primary certification law, and are earnestly working to help bring about the closer connection between kinder- garten and primary school, which educators everywhere have felt was necessary for the strengthening of our public-school system. In a number Department] THE KINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY COURSE 637 of instances, kindergarten teachers have been assisting in the first-grade rooms of their buildings in the afternoons, thus helping more closely to connect the work of the two classes. In the legislature of 1915, the law for establishing and maintaining kindergartens was so amended as to make definite provision for the amount of tax to be levied for the support of the kindergartens. It now provides that an additional tax of not to exceed ten cents on each hundred dollars of the taxable property of the school district may be levied for the use of the kindergarten. TOPIC: THE KINDERGARTEN AND THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL A. THE KINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY COURSE IN THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL RUTH C. HOFFMAN, PRIMARY SUPERVISOR, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, ELLENSBURG, WASH. I. English a) A course in the story and story method for kindergarten and primary. h) A course in rhetoric to teach the method of simple, direct, and accurate expression, in both oral and written composition. c) The history of English literature from Chaucer to Pope. This should include an intensive study of masterpieces with rapid supplementary reading. d) The history and principles of language teaching in the grades. e) Reading and speaking. This should include a consideration of all "methods" of reading; voice as an interpreter of mental states; technical vocal training. n. Education a) Elementary child study with obervation as the basis; how to study; native impulses of children and their educational impor- tance. h) Principles and practice in education; curriculum values and organization of subject-matter, program-making, class organ- ization and the individual child. c) Rural sociology. To give an intelligent, sympathetic imder- standing of conditions as they are to be found in rural districts. Rural-school problems considered; their administration, super- vision, and factors influencing their efficiency and those attend- ing their management and organization. Observation of actual work being done in rural schools. 638 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten' in. Practice Teaching a) Class and group teaching. One period of forty minutes daily thru one semester, an equal amount being given to kindergarten and primary grades. Purpose — the study of class problems. The lesson. Plans for same. The relation to child. Special! methods and management. h) A second semester of practice teaching in charge of a room three periods daily for one semester, with consideration program-making, balance, relation of subjects, adaptation to Note. — All students specializing in kindergarten work should take a course indudiagj Froebel's philosophy and literatiire for children and an extra semester in kinderg practice. IV. Handwork. The vital and right relation of all expressive work. a) To the development of the child. h) To the general subjects that make up the daily and yearly pro- gram for the child. ', c) Actual practice and study in principles of design, freehand draw-^^ ing and painting, composition, clay modeling, basketry, weaving, * and methods of teaching the same. A short elementary course in manual training is very desirable. .-Ill V. Psychology. A survey of the topics of psychology of educational significance, with application to teaching. A special study of some psychological subject thru experimentation and reading. ^ a) Psychology of the senses and of some of the mental processes studied thru laboratory experiment. h) Psychology of thinking, the technique of experimental edu- cation, and a psychological experimental study of some problem in education. c) The psychology of special subjects — treading, writing, spelling. VI. History 1* a) Mediaeval Europe. h) The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Great events and chief elements in the development of the leading nations of the world, including the United States to 1850. c) Recent progress of the world from the American standpoint. d) American explorations and settlements. "ft e) Methods of study and teaching. at Vn. Biological Science a) Botany. To make the pupU familiar with the language of systematic botany, to develop systematic habits of observation and some skill in manipulation. Department] THE KINDERGARTEN-PRIMARY COURSE 639 h) Zoology. Study of types with all the classes and principal orders of animals. c) Cellular biology. The cell considered to be the ultimate basis of life. d) Bacteriology. Parasites in their relation to human life, includ- ing some important phases in general human pathology and the etiology of diseases. e) Neurology as a preparation for the study of psychology. /) Physiology of the sense organs. g) School sanitation and methods. h) Nature-study methods. VIII. Sociology a) Sufl&cient for some idea of the laws of social development. The factors involved in normal social evolution and the mutual interdependence of the social organs involved. h) Temperance and hvmaane education. IX. Mathematics a) Study and history of the development of arithmetic, algebra, and geometry, with their relative importance. h) Method of presenting each to primary and kindergarten children. X. Music a) Study of problems of the kindergarten and primary schools. h) Study of material child voice. c) Ear training. d) Drill in rhytlim, intervals, and individual singing. e) Choice and use of material for various grades. XI. Home Economics a) Dietetics. The basic principles of human nutrition with special reference to food requirements and nutritive values; relation of diet and disease. h) Treatment of diseases. A practical course in the treatment of simple ailments, the handling of emergencies va. the schoolroom and elsewhere, application of bandages and dressings; prepara- tion of food for the ailing. c) Textiles. Astudy of the history of textile industries; the sources and characteristics of each of the textile fibers; a knowledge of fabrics and their adulteration. This study of textiles and fabrics includes a consideration of the factors influencing the selection of subject-matter for classroom use. d) Consideration of application of principles in preparing lunches for children. 640 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten Xn. Agriculture a) Soil. Common types of soils; their relation to heat, moisture, and air with the practical bearing which these factors have upon ,> tillage, irrigation, drainage, etc. The elements of soil fertility,^, their sources, functions, and the means of increasing and con- • serving them. b) Crops. Staple farm crops of the country; growing, harvesting, and marketing, c) Horticulture and school gardening. Operations of the garden thru the different steps of soil preparation, plotting, seed testing, planting, irrigation, and cultivation. Xni. Physics and Chemistry a) Design and manufacture of simple apparatus; soimd studii light studied. b) The consideration of the common non-metallic elements; occur- rence, properties, methods of preparation, commercial uses, the), common compoimds of these elements, their properties, methods i^' of manufacture or natural formation, and commercial uses; the;!, study of the mechanism of chemical reactions and their expres-i sions in symbolic form. » c) Descriptive chemistry and elements of qualitative analysb.^ The common metaUic elements, their occurrence, properties,* methods of preparation, commercial uses, and chemical separa-'| tion and detection; the compounds of these elements; their i properties, method of preparation, or natural occurrence and^; commercial uses. A course in chemistry designed to assist the g. student in the understanding of subjects presented in courses in '^ biology, agriculture, domestic science, etc. I XIV. Geography, Geology, and Astronomy a) Geography as the central subject of the earth studies. Physiog-'j!(' raphy, geology, mineralogy, and astronomy studied more par-* ticularly in their relation to geography. b) Specific methods of teaching geography and related subjects. XV. Physical Education a) A course in planning and conducting gymnastic lessons suitabl^" for school and playground. % b) A course in the recognition and correction of defects and faulty \ postures among children. > c) Physical training for life activities of a nature to be continued | thru life; the relation of the teacher and the commimity in J directing the recreation. Department] ADJUSTMENTS TO SECURE CLOSER INTEGRATION 641 B. SOME ADJUSTMENTS THAT MIGHT SECURE CLOSER INTEGRATION MARY C. C. BRADFORD, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, DENVER, COLO. It is not necessary to defend kindergarten principles. They have absolutely revolutionized the practice of the profession of teaching in all grades and all branches. They have linked the school to life, irradiating the schoolroom with the pleasant homely light of everyday happenings, and projecting some of the system of the schoolroom into the home and the community, thus making a unit of the life of the child. They have been the impulse from which have sprung new educational definitions, fresh adaptations of educational theories, and readjustments of educational living. They have made schools more natural and life outside the school more beautiful. Yet when this acknowledgment has been made, it must be admitted that there is not as perfect adjustment between the work of the kinder- garten and of the primary grades as there should be if the child is to pass from the kindergarten to the lowest grammar grade without consciousness of a break in school ideals and practice. And that the child should do this is most important. An ever-widening horizon should be the aim, not an abrupt transition from the normal self-expression existing in the kinder- garten to a system verging upon, if not characterized by, actual repression. There can be no question but that kindergarten methods should be carried thru the primary grades. The use of ampler thought-material need not forbid the employment by the grade teacher of the sane ways and means used by the kindergartner. In fact in the best and most modern schools we find that many of the devices used by the students of Froebel and Pestalozzi are much in evidence, and that first- and second-grade teachers gladly avail themselves of these educational tools. Even when the third and fourth grades are reached, and the various concrete aids to mental processes are being replaced by comparatively abstract means, the kinder- garten spirit may and should mold the work. On the other hand, I have a theory with which many kindergartners disagree, and I, an outsider, almost hesitate to tell a body of professional Froebelians that I can see no reason in the world why reading should not |be taught during the last kindergarten year, always supposing that the d spends two years in this preparatory blossoming work. Why should it be considered unprofessional to advocate the teaching of reading in the kindergarten, provided the reading be so taught that the child will feel little if any distinction between that mental exercise and the others that lie undergoes in the child-garden ? There are many ways of making reading >pring naturally from living, and the printed symbols in the book should lot be more mysterious than other symbols that come to have significance 642 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten for the kindergarten child. The consciousness of being surrounded by garden methods rather than schoohoom rules may be preserved even in teaching reading, and should be projected into the school life of the child even thru the first four grades. We all admit the need of a greater correlation of the elementary grades with the kindergarten and this can be accompUshed in the various ways before hinted at and by adopting the plan of Superintendent Chadsey, formerly of Denver and now of Detroit, whereby the offices of supervisor of kindergarten and primary work are combined in one person, and, as Dr. Chadsey suggests, that supervisor a trained kindergartner. If such a unification of the work of primary and kindergarten supervision were to become general, it would undoubtedly result in the much-talked-of and much-desired correlation of the educational agencies directly affecting the life of the child from four to nine years of age. Of course, there should be some standard professional requirements exacted of one holding this sort of position — requirements that would mean a background of broader scholarship than is sometimes required of kindergartners and yet making available for all yoimg school children the specific and profoimd philosophy of the kindergarten system. Let us hope that the effort now being made by kindergartners and primary teachers alike may result in a better understanding of the work of each and a more perfect unification of methods to the end that the children may learn to know the truth, to respond to beauty, to work skilfully, and to serve lovingly. ^ C. PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE KINDERGARTEN COURSE OF STUDY IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL LILLIAN B. POOR, ASSISTANT DIRECTOR, PUBLIC-SCHOOL KINDERGARTENS, BOSTON, MASS. The tragedy of our school system is the fact that we do not utilize to the best advantage the experience of the preceding year and consequently we fail to recognize the richness of the work of the previous grades as we plan our program for the coming year. This is true not only of the kinder- garten and primary grades, but equally so of the steps between the grammar school, high school, and college. One great problem of today is the blending of these breaks in the school system and so eliminating the loss of time which is boimd to occur in the adjustment of the pupil to the new grade. A child's education should be continuous, his development normal, natural, and along lines of interest. At home he sings and plays, rims and jumps, and talks freely of his experiences to a sympathetic listener. When left to his own direction, he follows the interest which appeals to him most strongly. This type of existence is quite generally approved for the little child, and the kindergartner, knowing the home life of the child, builds Department] DEVELOPMENT OF KINDERGARTEN STUDY 643 her work on this natural activity. She does not make the mistake of teaching the boy or girl that he has two feet to run with, or two eyes to see with, but begins at once to teach him to walk gently, to see right things, and to classify objects seen. There should be no break between the kindergarten and the first grade. There is no break in the child's life to demand it and there is every reason why there should be a natural expansion of the ground already covered so happily and with such richness of experience. The addition of new material reawakens the interest in doing and the spirit of play continued thruout the grades stimulates the desire for achievement. Joy in doing is the motive of the kindergarten and should be the motive of all education. In the kindergarten the child learns the beginnings of citizenship, principles which are aroused by recognition of the rights of others and his duty toward the world, which knowledge comes by degrees to a child. The first step is built on the relation of the child to the home. His outlook on life is broadened gradually, losing nothing by the way. So, too, the good primary teacher knows the work of the kindergarten, knows enough of its aims to have a clear idea of the type of experiences compassed and a general idea of the amount of work accomplished. She will know how to build on this basis and how to give the child who comes to her his just right, for it is essential for the highest good of the child that the two grades should work together without loss of either interest or power on his part. The error of ignoring the work covered by the kindergarten year is a grave one. Particularly true is this if the primary class is made up of kindergarten-trained children. To this error is due much of the criticism of the kindergarten-trained child. No child will maintain interest in the formal development of a lesson long since thoroly learned thru the play of the kindergarten. The kindergarten child should come to the first grade with increased powers of observation gained thru actual experience during walks, talks, and practice with the technical materials common to the kindergarten. He should have added powers of seK-expression and creative ability — the former the outcome of a wider interest in all life around him, the latter due to opportunities for representing experiences by means of the varied materials offered in the kindergarten. His vocabulary should be increased thru the freedom of the conversational periods connected with nature talks, home experiences, and story-telling, which fill so large a place in the kindergarten program. He should have better physical control, gained thru plays, games, and rhythmic exercises, together with sympathetic conferences between the mother and kindergartner in relation to the early forming of habits. He should know definite facts of form — number and size, position and direction, color and design. In considering the progressive development of education in the kinder- garten-primary unit of our school system, which extends thru the third 644 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten grade, let us always remember that the change from grade to grade should be natural. Interests of one grade should overlap those of another. There can be no dividing line; the change in method of instruction should be gradual. The busy-work of the grades should be the outcome of the manual work of the kindergarten and should be practically self-directed. We may safely assume that the child knows how to handle certain material common to both kindergarten and the grades and is now ready to progress at the suggestion of the primary teacher. Children bring from the kindergarten definite ideas of nimiber. They are of the tj^e which deals largely with relative size and proportion and are the natural outcome of their play with the gifts of the kindergarten material. These number experiences which the children have imconsciously appro- priated have not been tabulated, but the experiences are there ready to be further developed in the first grade and tabulated in the later grades. The teacher who beUeves in the spirit of the kindergarten will agree with me that such nmnber experiences shoidd continue in the first grade thru continued use of objects similar to those in use in the kindergarten. The number work of our kindergarten extension classes in Boston is devel- oped thru lessons with stick and rings, building blocks, and surface measures. More definite work in grouping is encouraged in these classes than is prac- ticed in the kindergarten. The kindergartner knows the ground which has been covered, and takes up the extension work at that point, progressing from step to step, giving new mmiber experiences, or varying the old thru use of new arrangements or new material. Definite problems are offered to the class, and it is characteristic of the kindergarten child that each one works out his problem according to his own plan. In a lesson recently observed, the problem was the making of oblongs on a large sewing-card. In the class of twenty-five children, seventeen different plans took shape, each child absorbed in the problem, caring nothing for the ideas of his neighbor, but definitely working toward the goal set for the class, happy and absorbed imtil the goal was reached. When a definite task is set, it is always an advance on any previous clas5 work. We also give many opportunities for original work requiring accurate statements descriptive of the results accomplished. The child brings from the kindergarten such knowledge of form that the introduction of reading seems to be a natural step of progress. The forms of the letters are new and the mechanical difficulties involved ir reading and writing must be overcome, but it would seem logical to clain: more rapid progress because of this general preparation in kindergarten The acquaintance with nature, with human life, and with literature which the child brings to Jiis reading lesson will give a meaning to the words which will help to make them his own, and which cannot fail to enrich his progress thru the early days of reading. \i Department] DEVELOPMENT OF KINDERGARTEN STUDY 645 The development of language takes on a more definite form in the first grade. The kindergarten awakens the interest in good stories, touches a little on dramatization, and makes a beginning of original story-telling. The first grade naturally builds on these beginnings. The dramatic instinct of a six-year-old child seems abnormally out of proportion to certain other tendencies, and opens up a wide field for character building, since the child who creates a part in the drama lives that part. We also have a great field in the primary school for original story-telling. The child in kindergarten will tell a story that meets every requirement of a good story. It will have a beginning that catches the interest, a series of events, a climax, and an end, and all be compassed inside of forty words and told in forty seconds. The story-telling of the kindergarten will naturally be continued in the grades, for the children have plainly shown their need. They are ready for stories of experiences of little children of their own age. The primary teacher also builds her program on the child's love for color. Assuming the possession of knowledge of simple facts of color, she progresses to harmonious combinations, to various color tones, and to "color seeing" in nature. In fact, the kindergarten child has already mastered much of the art work prescribed for the first grade. He is accustomed to the manipulation of materials and to the arrangement of simple designs. He has learned the names and characteristics of simple geometric forms and will not need to dwell long on the description of a square or circle, nor will he need the reiteration prescribed in the average course of study. More time can well be given to drawing from nature, to reproducing stories both in drawing and in free cutting, to definite construction work in folding and cutting followed always by free work, to creative work with clay or plasticine, and to weaving. The development of applied design to objects made in paper construction adds interest to the form and gives an opportunity for artistic expression. May we touch on music as one of the joyous beginnings made in the kindergarten? The child sings in kindergarten because he loves it, he sings at his play, and often unconsciously sings as he works. With many children, it is a natural expression of inner harmony, and any child, after sympathetic encouragement, lifts the low-voiced monotone to the singing voice which is desired. The primary teacher is happy who finds herself in the midst of a class of singing children and will encourage singing, not only in the morning exercises and during the few minutes allotted to the subject in the program, but will use it as a bit of leaven when the children need a rest or change of interest. A song sung while the children are work- ing at their desks is a happy innovation. She will also encourage the making of sentence songs after any particularly rich experience. I have tried in this brief paper to show how the activities of the kinder- garten produce a good foundation for the work of the grades, and how the 646 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten teacher of the first grade who knows the kindergarten program can build progressively upon this program. The spirit and purpose of the kindergarten prevail in our best primary- schools, but the conditions are such in many schools that the freedom of the kindergarten cannot be maintained in the primary grades, for the spirit of play seems to disturb the spirit of order. We will, however, recognize the fact that the child needs short study periods with rest periods between and such rest periods that there shall be opportimity for physical freedom. We are watching with interest an experiment in play in one of our primary schools in Boston. A special play teacher has been assigned to a building of six rooms whose duty it is to supervise the play of all grades, At no time during the day is the yard imoccupied. Groups from various classes play for twenty minutes, return to the classrooms, read or do pre- scribed class work for twenty minutes, which is followed by twenty minutes' desk work elective but related to the lesson of the day and finally by repe- tition of the same program. The children move quietly to coatroom and yard, return to seats and take up work without a word from the room teacher, who is occupied with the second section. There is no disorder, and at four o'clock the class is as fresh as it was at nine in the morning. It certainly demonstrates the value of play in education. It also shows that freedom is not disorder, imless you choose to permit it to lapse into that condition. The child must play his way thru the early years of his education if he is to receive all that rightfully belongs to him. He cannot settle down into adult manners and customs without losing the glory of being a little child. A happy childhood is his just heritage. It is the greatest gift we can aid in giving him and every joy we can bring into a child's life helps in the general uplift of the world. It rests with the primary teacher to decide whether she will find a waj' to continue what we believe to be the natural way to gain a response from children in the grades. Hill-climbing is a difficult experience until we conquer it in this spirit. The actual physical effort required to reach the crest is the same, but the mind and the spirit are engrossed by a deUghtful experience, not burdened by a continuous consciousness of the wearisome act of foot-lifting and placing. Points of adjustment are coming to us one at a time, so that in these' days of progress the teacher who wishes with all her heart will see the ful- filment of her wish. The day cannot be far distant when recognition of the kindergarten as a base of all education will be general, and when the ideals of the kindergarten-primary unit of our educational system will be uniform and will be based on the best interests of childhood. Department] HANDWORK FOR YOUNG CHILDREN 647 TOPIC: THE KINDERGARTEN AND INDUSTRIAL ARTS 1. THE INFLUENCES OF MODERN EDUCATION UPON HAND- WORK FOR YOUNG CHILDREN MARION B. BARBOUR, LOS ANGELES, CAL. The real meaning of popular education. — ^The democratic idea of edu- , cation still causes many educators to shake their heads doubtfully. They fear beauty and culture are to be sacrificed, that education is becoming too practical, that the emphasis is too great upon industrial arts, in fact that education is in danger of becoming degraded, dragged down to a mere bread-and-butter basis. They feel that eflSciency spells technical skill robbed of all the finer aesthetic expressions of life. They have failed to see that education is for the formation of character. By character is meant that quality which renders the individual "able to make good and valuable selection along all lines of living." In fact, their breadth of vision has been too narrow for them to see that the preparation of youth for a service- ible life rather renders him the more appreciative of all that culture implies, orepares him "for the higher life of the spirit and for participation in the public life of ideas." It is the appreciation of the problem which is, by its nature, close to the :hild's need, demanding of him the same kind of thinking inside the school :hat would be demanded of him in the world outside, which has brought ibout present methods and subject-matter. This is plainly seen in the :haracter of handwork for young children. Our present kindergarten standard consequently would banish from kindergarten practice all forms )f handwork which cannot be used by children and which can be of no real v^alue in their eyes. It has been said that "the crude beginnings of handwork in the kinder- garten and primary cannot be classed as industrial product," nevertheless 'thru these crude beginnings is the finished product of later years possible." Consequently it is just as important to start the child right along these lines IS to give him the right start in his reading and writing. This means that brmalism must go and an overemphasis of technique be avoided. Tech- lique must always lag behind the idea and the idea must be the child's, not he teacher's. As this becomes more fully appreciated, things not vital to he child's interests or needs will be omitted. The child's demand has ever ^een for houses, dolls, wagons, clay dishes, furniture, etc. If folding is to )e done, something of worth will be the result. There will be boxes, baskets, icrapbooks, a set of table linen for the doll's house, or a kite that will fly nstead of small models accurately and neatly folded and pasted in a book 0 be taken home at Christmas or at the end of the year. Much kindergarten work has been justly criticized for its insincerity, ['he child has been pushed into a finer, higher expression than he can 648 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergartet understand or appreciate. The result is mere imitation, a parrot-lik( reproduction of the teacher's idea. Dr. Dewey feels that to stress tht aesthetic sense may tend toward moral insincerity, the child not responding naturally but because he is expected to. Inflttence upon material. — ^The quality of instruction depends fimda mentally upon the quaUty of subject-matter. Let us therefore first con- sider the character of materials used in the handwork with young children, keeping in mind that the criteria for selection depend upon the child himseL" and his own natural selection and use of materials. This is first based upon his instinctive manipulation, second, upon his play motives, and third, upon his need to clarify thought. Just how does the use of materials clarif)- thought? "Materials are divine obstructions." The effort against them brings back an enlarged view, an added strength and efl5ciency. So thought travels out and comes back to itself. A child knows his own thought b}- painting, modeling, doing. In this sense these obstructions are the reflec- tion of his thought and result in self-consciousness, seK-revelation. For a child, to quote from Dr. Dewey, "does not have clear ideas and express them, but he expresses that he may clear them." The field for selection based upon the above criteria is a large one and can be most abundantly and satisfactorily suppHed at httle cost to school boards. All, or nearly all, that is demanded during this first period of manual expression is an abundance of large blocks, paper, paste, cardboard boxes, cloth, yarn, needles, thread, string, wood, nails, nature materials, clay, sand and water, with auxiUary material furnished by both the teachers and the children to help more fully express this idea or that. Just here I wish to offer one word of caution in regard to cheap material. Cheap material should be furnished as long as inaccuracies do not harm construction. For instance, it is neither economical nor educative to use, poor clay, which crumbles when modeled, or is so elastic that it is almost' impossible to handle with any result whatever; or to use cardboard which cracks instead of bends when the need is to make a clean, firm fold; or tot use scraps of too fine yarn. However, I do not mean by this that the child: should be deprived from experimenting with different grades of material in order that he may make his own comparisons and learn to appreciate quaUty and hence relative values. But it is vmwise to resort frequently tc makeshifts. You cannot expect a fine house to be built with a blunt saw, crooked nails, and a light hammer any more than you can expect satisfac-i tory work with children who have poor scissors or paint brushes, cracked] blackboards, or small sand tables. What is wanted, therefore, is material which has a significant and appropriate relationship to the child, offering him opportunity and motive for the exercise of his powers, both mental and physical; material which frees him, binds him down to no set rule, teacher's aim or attitude, but gives him opportimity to try his strength and to meas- ure himself against the abihty of others, and gives him confidence in his )epartment] HANDWORK FOR YOUNG CHILDREN 649 jwn power to create and in his "power to use ideas." For instance, a good Uustration is the present demand for large sheets of drawing-paper, for ;heets of blank printer's paper, rolls of manila and hardware wrapping japer which is tough, flexible, unglazed, and of good color, instead of little l-quares and circles in neat and expensive packages. There must be no crimping, no small and "finicky" work, but everywhere freedom to think md do for one's self. The time has come when, according to our present manual arts concep- ion, gifts and occupations should no longer be considered separate phases f kindergarten practice, but as phases of one and the same thing embraced mder the one term "handwork." A few years ago many kindergarten eachers thought to meet the situation by a compromise, calling gifts, table work," and occupations, "handwork." Present standard will not ccept this. It has small patience with empty terminology, with " schools " f work, based upon a prescribed use of didactic material. Didactic material endangers the child's natural relations to Ufe for it is a death blow 3 experimentation. Auto-education is valuable only when the stimuli flfer situations which grow increasingly diflScult to solve; then it builds up Dund thinking and the making of judgments. Used otherwise, didactic laterial develops a minimum of judgments. Modern kindergarten prac- ce has therefore eliminated all but the large blocks and sticks, and we light add large rings and discs which are used not in "consecutive series f work" but as play materials. The other gifts are omitted because they re small and tend to induce nervous handling. They are abstract and lathematical forms and violate the order of mental development. On the ther hand, big blocks supply a social and a practical adjustment that can- 3t in any way be given by small material. The big blocks are heavy and > encourage group work and the result from the contributive effort imanded may be enjoyed by all. Also the big blocks have great intel- ctual value, inviting analysis of thought. Children of seven and eight years often work with blocks more intelli- :ntly and with greater absorption in the idea than children of kindergarten ;e. Because of this we must not fail to carry over the blocks into the imary grades. Influence upon method. — In the education of very young children, the acher will always be of more importance than method or material. Frank cMurry, author of How to Study, states that the greatest factor in the velopment of the individual is the personal relationship between pupil d teachers, for, as he says, "the test of the quality of instruction is found the activities of the children." It is the artist teacher, therefore, who es that method which forms good habits, habits which result in good nduct and purposeful activity. But good conduct from the modern edu- tional point of view is more than punctuality, regularity, and neatness. t is rather the correct habit of using the mind," which depends upon 6so NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarte habits of motive, appreciation of values, organization, and independence This calls for a balanced type of teaching, for healthy action and inter action between pupils and teachers. An instructor of manual arts in one c the large schools of this state, in speaking to me of the attitude she hold; toward her students, said: "As soon as I have developed the mind process in any one of my students, my hours of 'teaching' that student are over for from that moment I become his or her adviser and assistant." To thf academic mind, to allow the child to come thru the learning process anc keep hands off is agony. However, any teacher who cannot allow thi learning process to take its course had better give up teaching little childrer and go into a "higher grade." The only way to get good form in this work is thru self-expression. This at first must be crude. The habit of technique can be found only thru self-expression, the crude results of which depres: the form-loving soul. There really is no battle between spontaneity anc good form if the teacher's attitude is the right one. The learning process of life demands things in activity. Consequent)} when we enter a kindergarten and see on every hand evidences of forma work, we know that the teacher has interpreted the child from above down that she has not taken him as he is but as she wishes him to be. Such : method is not conducive to the learning process. The teacher of young children who can sit down with them, acceptin; any play suggestion that they may give and still make sure that they find ; real discovery, or result — the one who can work with any material and sti: carry out a principle — this is the teacher who commands method. Ther is no one method, but a perfect blend of teacher, pupils, and material. 1 is evident that this would give just opportunity for the activity of all thre factors, opportunity to try a variety of ways of going about things to arriv at certain ends. Many people still think that the experimental method i impossible, for they beheve that "ends" are necessarily imposed, or tha once they are either originated or imposed the "means" becomes so fixe that opportimity for experimentation is annihilated. Is this true of th adult problem ? If we watch children of all ages in their undirected use ( materials at home and out of doors, we find they are either experimentinj discovering what they can do with them, or working with a purpose, makin something definite. Modern psychology has proved the fact that there no difference in the mind-process of the adult and that of the child. Tl only difference is in the character of the problem. Common-sense woui show that this does not prohibit a legitimate place for imitation, for suj gestion, and even for direction. There can be no tyranny of mind ov( mind. Tolerance and respect for individuality must be shown by t: teacher, for is not a six-year-old child as worthy of respect as a man ? Bac of all work with children there must be faith in their worth. Therefc: above all the teacher must place the center of gravity upon them, she mu allow them to attack the problem for themselves, giving them first ti Departmentj HANDWORK FOR YOUNG CHILDREN 651 material for free experimentation, that they may discover for them- selves the possibilities and limitations of each. This is the only sane approach. In fact the "experimental method" which develops naturally into the "problematic method," thus giving every opportunity for the development of technique which comes thru the growth in the situations themselves, is the perfect blend of all methods of which I have already spoken. Let us now consider the outside interests of children, which furnish motive for their handwork. There are the house, garden, community, making of toys, dressing dolls, making of paper dolls, the seasonal interests [which bring the need for kites, marbles, tops, boats, snow shovels, sleds. Then there are festivals and parties. These natural conditions set the majority of children's problems. For instance, dolls create conditions out )f which the problems arise. The doll needs a dress, hat, cap, muff, and ippet; she needs a swing and a rug, a set of dishes and linen for the table, ier house must be furnished with beds, chairs, and tables; the windows nust be curtained and the beds supplied with pillows, mattress, sheets, and )lankets. If we had doll families and doll communities in the kindergarten ind primary, many problems would therefore arise naturally and bring ibout creative and constructive work. Toy animals are almost as great a lelp in giving opportunity for natural childish problems as the doll. There aust be barns, sheds, and fences for the horse and cow, pens for the rabbits, . fold for the sheep. There must be wagons, carts, racks; roads must be lade and bridges built, for wagons open a whole field of possible activities, s do trains, brooms, tubs, washboards, stoves, and flatirons. In fact, there 5 so much to be done in connection with all these that I have known Chil- ian to plan their work three weeks in advance. Materials suggest problems to young children whose interest is more nmediate. With them the mastery of the material is in itself a problem. .s ideas grow out of the using, they in their turn suggest other ideas, with le result that there is growing definiteness which is really the beginning E purpose. The kindergarten must therefore select carefully for emphasis ich material as can be shown to have the greatest significance. Let me discuss briefly these materials which are most commonly used 1 the majority of kindergartens. Clay and wood. — Clay is especially valuable as it makes possible rep- sentation in three dimensions. No higher degree of skill or accuracy is ;pected with little children. The chief aim is to express and to awaken sense of proportion. The work with wood should be introduced thru the handling of scrap 3od. It is cheap and will be most suggestive. The youngest children n do Uttle more than assemble parts which have been gotten out for them, ith the older children the projects are suggested by their own needs or ose of their dolls. m 652 ■ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten Paper and cardboard. — All children delight in using paper and scissors and should be encouraged, as I have said, in free experimentation with these. Old newspapers cut up, fringed, and folded are excellent for this. The children may use these freely and not feel hampered, thus gaining power easily over tools and material. Outline cutting should be used very little, as its only value is in the technical training of eye and hand. Accuracy is needed most certainly, but not at the continual expense of creativity. There is no reason wh> original cutting should not give suflScient opportunity for growth in tech nique. A few uses of paper which will develop from the needs of the child or of the dolls are: paper dolls, soldier caps, hats, flowers, pin wheels, fans, Christmas-tree decorations, scrapbooks. The use of paper in construction should be carefully watched, as it is with this medium that much insincere work has been done. Furniture that will not stand after it is made and wagons which will not hold anything encourage children in a deplorable use of material. Chalk, crayons, and paint are mediums which, leading to the fine arts, are considered in the handwork of young children. The teacher's part is to aid in the elimination of scribble and thus avoid an arrest of development caused by the child's falUng into some one conventional representation. The range of subjects is as wide as the child's experience, and will include human figures in action, events in Uterature and in the child's own life, and local occurrences, such as fires, parades, circuses, excursions, home life. Bold work should be striven for, using the side of the chalk for masi representation. Children should be given opportunity every day for large; free drawing. Crayons and large paper either fastened to the wall or usee on the floor will give the added enjoyment of color. With the crayons some definite art work may be attempted, such as simple borders in flowers anc conventional design to be applied to industrial arts work. Above all, th( child needs large paper and plenty of blackboard space if his work is U bring satisfaction to himself. He cannot express anything worth expressing in a small area. One of the strongest reasons I can bring forward for thi drawing is in the training of the large fimdamental muscles of the arm. I have heard many kindergartners say that they would have men drawing if it were not for the chalk dust. I would advise them, as far i. possible, to put the blackboards out of doors. The children will not tak cold while they are exercising and the opportunity to work outdoors wi give an added pleasure. j Nature materials. — Chains of nature material may be made. There if an almost endless variety of these, including berries, nuts, seeds, reedf hollow stems of many plants. Melon seeds may be dipped in diamon' dyes and beautiful colors secured. Macaroni may also be painted in th long strips and broken to string between the berries. Painted bright orang Department] HANDWORK FOR YOUNG CHILDREN 653 t makes a beautiful harmony with the brown of acorn cups. These strings ;hould first be made for the child's own personal decoration, since interest ■n the decoration of the room comes later. Mistakes are too often made libout this, and the child tires of such a waste of effort, since it does not :ount because there is no real interest. Textiles. — Sewing and weaving come under this head. The process of ewing is interesting to all children, but its possibilities in kindergarten are estricted by the fine muscular co-ordinations it ordinarily demands. i^Tienever it is used, the materials should be coarse in order to insure, so !ar as possible, large, crude work. A box of cloth scraps and a rag or tockinet doll for each child offer excellent opportunity for experimentation. Vt first the garments are sewed on the dolls and the stitches are large and lexact, but later the need for better garments is felt and a pattern is neces- ary, in order, as a child told me, that "we may not waste the cloth." )resses are then made that can be put on and taken off. Winter weather uggests the need of blankets for the dolls' beds and cradles. The ends lay be overcast with worsted. Many Christmas presents, as sachet-bags, incushions, dust-cloths, and holders, can easily be made. There are cos- omes to be planned and made for the children's plays, such as an Indian Dstume, fringed and decorated, a knight's costume for a tournament, hich includes a cape, shield, and plumed hat. Funny costumes may be eveloped for Hallowe'en, thus encouraging the children to work out some- ling grotesque. Every opportunity for initiative, choice of materials, iste in color, and originality in design should be given. The projects will iclude, besides those mentioned, marble bags, work aprons, rag and yarn jlls. Then there are the dolls' rugs, hammocks, hats, scarfs, and muffs ) be woven on cardboard looms. As in the case of sewing, it is question- 3le whether much weaving should be attempted in the kindergarten on :count of the prolonged effort which most projects require and also because le nature of weaving is such that execution must be much more accurate tan is required in any other form of children's work. Because of this, iper-weaving should be mostly omitted. These are a few of the possibilities of handwork with young children, eeting the requirements of child psychology and hygiene, and demanding the child his interest, effort, and reflective thought. If the kindergarten desires to remain a vital factor in the general educa- )nal system, it must be consistent with its principles, for "education is ) longer a divorcement from but an identification with life." 6S4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergart ■ B. PRACTICAL CONNECTIONS BETWEEN AESTHETIC ANI INDUSTRIAL VALUES CATHARINE R. WATKINS, DIRECTOR OF KINDERGARTENS, i WASHINGTON, D.C. That the kindergarten is a living member of the great educationc body is attested by the influence upon its thought and practice of eac important movement in modern pedagogy. As a member it is not, and cannot hope to be, exempt from certain mocL fications and changes, nor can it expect to escape the problems which o j complex social life is now forcing upon the schools for solution. Perhaps \h most crucial of these problems is that of vocational training with its accorr panying demand for the introduction of industrial arts into theschcc curriculum as a preparatory step. The controversy which this question has precipitated between th advocates of the old cultural, liberal type of education and the advocate of the new movement has sifted down into the kindergarten and largel influenced its thought and practice. While I do not claim that the technical side of this discussion has directl affected the kindergarten, the distinction which is now made in our kinde gartens between the industrial and the fine arts is clearly traceable to tb controversy which is at present dividing our best thinkers. Whatevf distinctions it may be necessary to make higher up, they do not, in ir opinion, belong in the kindergarten, or even in the elementary schools, seems to me imwise to begin to differentiate before the child has had chance to gain command over his tools of knowledge or before he h had a legitimate period of experiment in either field, which in their fin analysis are not opposed but simply differ in controlling aims. Whatever approach we may make to industrial arts in the kindergarte I feel that it is a mistake to throw undue emphasis upon the utility of tl product or upon its relation to some form of industry, for it is thru expej mental process that the child finds his greatest opportunity for creatii self-expression. In representative drawing, for example, and in much of tl construction work done by Uttle children, the vague image with which th< start is wholly lost in the joy of feeling themselves creators. The fin result may be as unexpected to themselves as to the teacher, but the id^ thus accidentally reached becomes the incentive for conscious creati work. Each effort of the child cannot be related to some concrete situati( to some industrial project without a sacrifice of this period of experime With the young child, ideas do not spring from the head full grown 1 ' Minerva, but gradually take form thru the doing and are strengthened ak clarified in the process of expression. Even when the idea dawns, the ch> delights in playing with it, repeating it, modifying, changing, or addi; to it, before it becomes fastened within the limits of a single project. IJ )epartment] AESTHETIC AND INDUSTRIAL VALUES 655 Take, for example, crayon work in the kindergarten. After a period f experiment during which no conscious purpose has controlled, a certain hythmic spacing or perhaps two or more colors used alternately may sug- gest a design for wall paper. The children may act on this idea if they so lesire and consciously go to work to make a wall paper, possibly for the indergarten doU house. Here they have an opportunity to apply the technique gained in previ- us work, to compare their designs and workmanship, and to select the one est suited for the purpose. A designer tries dififerent schemes, compares, nd then selects. The child also should have a chance to compare and to ilect that taste may be formed and guided. If, on the other hand, a wall- aper pattern had been the clearly defined end in view when the crayons ere first used, the period of experiment, during which ideas were clarified, 3-ordinations of hand and eye established, and some degree of technique lined, would have been either wholly omitted or materially shortened. In the industrial end to be attained, there should also be some provision )r the aesthetic values, that the children may gain some appreciation of le place which beauty holds in relation to industrial products. The two 2long together, both "function in life," for when the life interest ceases lere can be no real art of any kind. Harmony of line, tone, color, appropriateness to purpose, even the :ecution of the child's work, all of which are elements of beauty in the fine ts, can be conscious goals in the teacher's mind. But in order to start the lild toward these goals, there must be a longer or shorter period of experi- ent when the activity is an end in itself. The simple units of design which grow out of experimenting with blets, sticks, and rings are repeated by the children and changed again id again with joy in the activity and in the feeling for rhythmic rangement. This type of work, which clearly aims at developing an art sense, an preciation of some of the elements characteristic of the fine arts, need t exclude applied design. The children have many opportunities for ilizing the knowledge thus gained in decorating the various little articles lich they make either for themselves or to celebrate some festival occasion the kindergarten. Drawing, painting, free cutting — indeed all of the usual kindergarten ndwork — may be thus used. To insist that every design in the kinder- : rten must be applied to some article of utility or illustrate some form of lustrial art frequently results in attempting projects which take so long complete that interest is lost and real control of material, with its accom- 1 nying sense of power, sacrificed. In weaving, for example, may not the ' Idren who have had a chance to experiment with number and color * nbinations and to create a few simple patterns in paper mats get a better 1 a of process than they would if they had been limited to the weaving 1 656 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Ebdergaite of a rug or hammock, which takes so long to finish and which admits of n variety ? The two experiences are not mutually exclusive. There is no reaso: why the children should not apply in the more permanent play articles the knowledge of process and the appreciation of color gained thru work witt simple materials. Construction work with the blocks also offers excellent opportunitiee for developing an appreciation of both the art elements and the social ^c economic significance of industry in society. In illustration of this, let me briefly describe the making of a city with the blocks, by which the children ir some of our kindergartens consciously appUed the ideas gained in the perioc ; of free experiment and also gained some idea of the interdependence 0: society and of the numerous and varied factors which contribute to the social whole. The work lasted for several weeks, the buildings being sug gested from day to day by the children; the materials were selected by then and the work was imdertaken both singly and in groups. The capito building was made after a visit of the entire kindergarten to our nationa capitol and special attention was paid to the architecture of this and of th( other federal buildings. The capitol, which was in the center of the city was built by several groups of children partly from memory and parti} from a fine picture of our capitol. Houses of many varieties were made and placed along the streets — stores, markets, churches, moving-pictun shows, their own school building with the name over the door and a flaj flying from the top, playgroimds, street cars — all were included in the fina representation. Nor was the element of civic beauty forgotten, for tht children insisted upon parks, and rows of trees lined the streets. Some times groups of children experimented in the making of a particidar build ing and thru the suggested criticism became conscious that the purpose 0 a building should determine its style of architectm-e. In other kindergarten where the children constructed their houses out of pasteboard boxes insteae of blocks, attention was directed to the art element in the furnishing of thi rooms and each child selected some color scheme for the wall paper and th' rugs — the latter being made out of paper, as possessing greater possibilitiet for color combinations and original patterns. Here the previous period of free experiment in spacing, in balance, rhythm, and proportion — in wha has been termed "art for art's sake" — contributed consciously to th decoration of the miniature homes. In endeavoring to make the work of the kindergarten of practical valu: industrial processes have sometimes been introduced which were too detaile' and too prolonged to sustain the child's interest or to give him an appreci able share in the work — notably the effort to show how foodstuffs ar changed in the process of cooking. A sequence familiar to the adult because built upon successive steps of experience, may pass over the child head. The amoimt of labor involved does not enhance the value of th department] AESTHETIC AND INDUSTRIAL VALUES 657 irticle in the child mind. Values, with the little child, belong to the realm of eeling, and not to intellect. Such exercises, like the too perfect toy, leave 10 room for constructive imagination. The play attitude here would do ar more for the child — as in the game of the "Mulberry Bush" — in which he activities of an entire week are relived in a few minutes. Thru dra- natic representation in both stories and games, the child can begin to mderstand a few of the typical processes in our industrial life and to effect ome of the important practical adjustments. In the play aspect we get Iso an emotional content, a chance for putting one's seK in the place of he worker, and thus awakening real feeling, which is lost when the appeal •■, primarily to the understanding. Imagination needs space, it is cramped : the "play pretend" attitude, which can compass all thuigs, is confined DO early in the actual. Thru imitative play, based on observation, the hild may gain a pretty clear idea of steps in the industrial process and of be place of labor in the economy of life. While industrial arts, as a school subject, makes ample provision for lotor expression, its general purpose is not to develop technical skill but 3 give the children "a background of knowledge and experience which ill enable them to appreciate the industrial aspects of civilization" and hich will prove an influential factor in the formation of character. The kindergarten can do more to further this comprehensive purpose by wakening a right attitude toward work and workers, thru all of its varied istrumentaHties, than by throwing imdue emphasis upon industrial pro- ;sses or products. Any differentiation at this early stage cannot but be a istinct loss to the child. His social relations, his relations to the physical orld in which he lives, and his industrial relations are one by reason of s own undifferentiated experience. As in every new movement, there IS been a tendency in industrial arts to exalt the part at the expense of le whole and thus endanger a sane balance. Perhaps it is more difficult to keep this balance in the kindergarten than any department of education, for there is a strong temptation, when ;aling with inexperienced plastic material, to try out every new movement id even to attempt activities and subjects which can be mastered with far 5S effort later on. In our zeal for results, "we consume ourselves, we cannot ripen because is a waste of time hanging upon the bough." 658 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergant TOPIC: CHILD STUDY "^11 A. MODERN PSYCHOLOGY IN ITS RELATION TO DISCIPLINl GAIL HARRISON, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. The great struggle in Europe this past year has caused many of j to think more seriously and analytically about the whole question of f reedor and control, about the relationships existing between the governed and th governing. How much of freedom and control is necessary in variou situations to the end of living eflSciently and happily ? The very fact that a democracy throws so much responsibility up> the individual is our best reason for working out the whole democrat: creed in our schools. We must not forget the demands and needs of societ and overemphasize the demands and needs of the individual child. Oi schools from the kindergarten to the imiversity must be an embryon: society where the child and youth meet actual life situations and conditior and are thereby strengthened, disciplined, and prepared for effective livinj because they have the opportunity to live so every hour. Are we not realizing more keenly every year that the majority of 01 youth have respect for very little in this world; that they are an indulge( entertained, undisciplined group, sadly prepared for the art of living l some worthy purpose ? Do not think me a pessimist about this. It essentially an optimistic viewpoint for the ciure seems well begun when v have realized and frankly acknowledged the need of remedies. "Man in proved education as he improved any other human activity, by ope* minded thought about it. Social pressure is required to prevent folly ar injustice in education as elsewhere," , The great problem for a democracy today is how far it is wise for til immature to make their own laws or have a voice in their making and hoj far the mature shall enforce them. Is there not a happy medium betwee freedom and control in our methods of training children which will produ: children to be enjoyed and looked upon as blessings ? which will develc in them a respect for their elders and a desire to be with them, not awe n« fear, but a wholesome admiration for superior attainments ? Familiarit should breed, not contempt, but admiration and aspiration. In this whole matter of discipline, modern psychology is very encoura ing if we would but heed the statements of experts leading in this field education. Chief in importance among the social instincts are: (i) gregariousne^ or the liking to be with our own kind, which should afford daily opp: tunities for making social adjustments and discipline us gradually in becoming members of a group; (2) mastery and submission, which develc our leaders and followers; (3) love of approval — an instinct which we u in too shallow and superficial a way, showering our approval upon tl Department] PSYCHOLOGY IN ITS RELATION TO DISCIPLINE 659 veneers of life, upon the pretty clothes children wear, or upon their sugar- ;oated manners, rather than upon the virtues which really make daily life ivorth while: kindliness, consideration for others, and duties done which ;ontribute to the welfare of the home, the school, and the community. As the first necessity in education everywhere is to know what man will DC and do apart from education, it surely behooves us to consider more :arefully the "original nature" of young children and how we may modify ind redirect it toward the ultimate best. All changes produced happen in accordance with certain fundamental aws of change, and "reason finds the aim of human life the improvement ind satisfaction of wants." These laws are: First, the law of exercise. 'Other things being equal, exercise strengthens the bond between stimulus ind response." Secondly, the law of effect. "Satisfying results strengthen md discomfort weakens the bond between stimulus and response." This stimulus-response concept is the pivot and core of all modem ;ducational psychology and Thorndike feels that original satisfiers and mnoyers are the greatest levers education has at its command for redirect- ng, modifying, and eliminating original nature. The satisfyingness and annoyingness of the states which follow the naking of the connection between the stimulus and response are the chief orces which remodel man's nature. This law of effect is the fimdamental aw of learning and teaching. Upon this law and our wise application of it 0 the training of little children rests the whole question of discipline or the ack of it. If the satisfactions and annoyances followed consistently upon he heels of the responses made, we should have less friction and more elf-control and self-government. In the homes today let us take for instance the table manners of the hildren. How many children do you know whom it is a real pleasure to ave at the table ? I am not expecting them to live up to the old tradition f being seen and not heard, for surely we have gotten beyond such rigidity, estraint, and discomfort. I merely expect them to take their place as lembers of the household who all have the same aim, that of an enjoyable leal where each individual proves his understanding of the law of recipro- ity. Any failure to contribute to this aim must result in some annoyer f sufficiently deterring power to make that child realize that he prefers 0 stay a member of the group. Children are very wonderful in the way in which they live up to the emands that are made of them. They behave as well or as badly as they re allowed to. The blame for their unpleasant ways must not be laid pen them but upon those who have had charge of their training and have llowed them to grow into unsocial beings, unbalanced and disagreeable, ^ fact, social nuisances. Mothers and teachers too often ruin their ttempts at discipline by giving too many chances. A phrase I hear very few moments at a friend's table is: "David, if you do that again ] 66o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarte you cannot have your desert," tho never but once did this actually happen, even tho the misdemeanor was almost always repeated with slight varia tions. A child cannot be expected to behave well when there is companj' unless he has acquired the habit of behaving well when there is not; tha-. is a psychological impossibiUty. So much of the talking might be avoided, and beneficially so, if thosii who bring children up would do more and say less, if the annoyer admin- istered were closer to the child's feelings, if he really cared about it, if it really annoyed him! As long as children get what they want without be- having well or without doing things for other people, why should they change their actions ? So often the punishment or annoyer given means nothing; for instance, the child is sent to the kitchen to finish a meal or is sent ta bed and allowed to have books and playthings. To a sensitive child there may be ignominy in having to finish a meal in the pantry but to the average one it matters not so long as the pie or cake is forthcoming. Then, too, if the child is constantly removed from the situation and stimulus which offers temptation, how is he to acquire strength and con- trol to resist making the wrong response ? How is a child ever going to learn how to behave in any given situation if he and the stimulus are kept apart ? Opportunities for social adjustments must be constant and regular and made among those contemporaneous in age as well as with their elders, away from mother or nurse or teacher who prompts, props, and prods his moral and social responses, who is his conscience and who make his choices for him. Social or life situations allow for the great factors of learning both by imitating others and from the suggestions of others, and these are very valuable if the suggestions come from a sufficient variety of sources. Many children today are greatly to be pitied because too much is done for them and dictated to them and they are deprived of the learning pre- cesses. We seem to have dropped into an age of entertaining, a breathless going from one sensation to another, whether it be mechanical toys for tht five-year-old or moving-picture plays for the sixteen-year-old. It noi only destroys their power to think, but also makes happiness, contentment and resourcefulness impossible. At seventeen, life is spoken of as "£( dull" if there is not "something doing" every waking hour. It is deplorable that one finds so few children who contribute anj service in their homes. Is this not one very strong reason why time hangi heavily? We seldom value anything that we do not make sacrifices for The law of contrast as expressed in the proverb "Variety is the spice o life," is a necessary one if we would have appreciation, but variety doe: not mean fatiguing and nerve- wracking and incessant change. The slogan for children today seems to be "Make them happy." Con sequently they are planned for and about and deprived of the chance o \ Department] EDUCATION AND IMAGINATION OF LITTLE CHILD 66l learning the real joy of accomplishment and of overcoming difficulties. They grow up without the ability to do so merely for lack of practice. Duties should be planned for children, especially if they are only children or wealthy ones. How shall we bring about an appreciation of all that is done for them if they never are allowed to taste and learn thru daily need the pleasure of working for others ? This slogan actually deprives them of the curative side of remorse, which may follow a misdemeanor or a failure to get good marks at school. Something is done to divert and cheer them and mother defends and finds excuses for delinquencies if masters or family chide. No resolve to try and do better results from these failures and the child grows to college age without developing the sterling qualities he is expected to have. To return to this fundamental question, Why have law and obedience ? First, because in a democracy they mean the protection of individuals against those who do not obey. Secondly, because in the home they mean the welfare and happiness of each member, and because they bring habit formations. Thirdly, because in the school they mean conservation of both energy and time and protection of the weaker from the stronger. What may we do to help children win the right sort of freedom? (i) Study and work for a better understanding of the fundamental prin- ciples of democracy. (2) Apply these principles in the management of children in the home, school, institution, and commimity. Children must be helped to discover that participation in the life of different city states, as Colin Scott defines them, depends upon: (i) their own seH-control; (2) their power to use freedom in order that freedom may be allowed at each stage of life when control means the power to govern self and contribute to the welfare of any particular environment; (3) the fact that freedom is gained and held just so long as variation from traditions means progress; (4) the fact that all life conforms to law and that physical and spiritual freedom is obtained only by conforming. B. EDUCATION IN RELATION TO THE IMAGINATION OF THE LITTLE CHILD MARIA MONTESSORI, M.D., ROME, ITALY The belief is very common that the little child is characterized by a Host vivid imagination and that because of this a particular education >hould be brought to bear upon him in order to cultivate such a special gift )f nature. His mentality differs from ours; he goes beyond our vigorous iJid restricted limits, and delights in wandering thru the fascinating world )f the unreal, as is the case among savages. This infantile characteristic also gave rise to the generalization of a naterialistic idea now no longer held, that is, the life of the individual I 662 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kind«saTt« reproduces the life of the species, and thus the Hfe of civiHzation is repro- duced in man, and therefore there are found in the httle child psychic char- acteristics peculiar to savages. For this reason the child, like the savage, is fascinated by the fantastic, the supernatural, the unreal. Rather than give utterance to similar flights of a scientific fantasy, it is simpler to note that an organism still immature, like that of a child, may distantly resemble mentalities less matured than our own. But allow- ing those who interpret infantile mentality as the "savage state" to keep their beliefs, the objection can still be raised that in any case this savage state, being a passing state and one which has to be overcome, education must help the child to pass thru it. It should not develop the savage state or hold the child back in it. All the forms of imperfect development which we find in the child bear some resemblance to like characteristics in the savage. For example, in language: the poverty of the vocabulary, the existence of concrete expres- sions only, and the generalization of words, because of which one word serves for many uses and also to indicate different objects; the lack of modes in the verbs, because of which children use the infinitive only. But no one will say that for this reason we should artificially hold the child back within the confines of such a primitive language, in order that he may easily pass thru this prehistoric period. Tho some peoples remain perma- nently in a state of imagination in which the unreal prevails, our children belong to a people whose mentality finds its delight in great works of art and in the civilizing results of constructive science. Such products of a superior imagination represent the environment in which our children's intellect is destined to mold itself. It is natural that the child in the nebu- lous period of his mind should be attracted by fantastic ideas, but we must not, because of this, forget that he is our successor, the one who must out- strip us. The least we can give him for such a piupose is the maximum of all there is at our disposal. A form of imagination which is held as "peculiar " to infancy and almost imiversally recognized as creative imagination is that spontaneous work of the infant mind by which children attribute desired characteristics to objects which do not possess them. Who has not seen a child ride horseback on his father's cane, switching; as tho he were moimted on a real horse ? Consider what pleasure children, take in making a wonderful coach by putting chairs together. Behold' proofs of imagination in the child! But let us observe rich children, who possess docile ponies and habituall:' ride in a carriage or automobile. They would look with a sense of disdain at the child nmning about furiously whipping a cane; they would be astonished to see children so happy under the delusion that they were being carried along by stationary chairs. They would say of such children: "They are poor and do this because they have no horses or carriages. \ Department] EDUCATION AND IMAGINATION OF LITTLE CHILD 663 An adult becomes resigned, a child deludes himself. But that is not a proof of imagination; it is the proof of an unsatisfied desire. It is not an activity allied with gifts of nature; it is a manifestation of conscious noticeable poverty. No one certainly would maintain that it is necessary, in order to educate the rich child, to take away his h9rse and give him a cane, and neither is it necessary to prevent the poor child from contenting himself with his cane. If a beggar had only dry bread to eat and were to seat himself beside the iron grating of a fine basement kitchen, because in smelling the food he imagines that he is eating delicious dishes with his bread, who would prevent him ? But no one will maintain that, in order to develop the activities of the imagination of those more fortunate, for whom the real meals are destined, it is necessary to deprive them of their meat and give bread and savory smells. A poor mother who loved her child very much gave him a piece of bread in this manner: she divided it into two parts and gave them saying, "This is bread," and "This is meat." The child was satisfied, but no mother would wish to undernourish her child in order to develop his imagi- nation in this way. And yet I was asked in all seriousness if it would not have been harmful to give the use of the piano to a child who was constantly pretending to play the piano on a table. "Why should it be harmful?" said I. " Because in that case, he would, it is true, learn music, but he would no longer be exercising his imagination and I do not know which of the two is the most useful," was the reply. Some of the Froebelian games are based on like beliefs. The child is given a block and is told, "This is a horse." Then other blocks are arranged in a certain way and he is told "This is a stable." "Now let's put the horses in the stable." Then the blocks are arranged in still other ways. This as a tower; this other the village church, etc. In such exercises the objects (blocks) lend themselves even less to the illusion than in the case of a cane used as a horse, where the child at least does mount and move about and whip his horse. To make towers and churches out of the blocks which were first horses brings about the height of mental confusion. Fur- thermore, in this case, it is not the child who "imagines spontaneously" and works with his own brain. He must picture for himself what the teacher tells him at that particular moment. Tho he is not quiet, tho he really thinks that the stable has become a church, or tho his attention may be wandering, certainly he would like to move about and he cannot because he must watch that sort of cinematograph which the teacher names in rapid succession, but which, alas, is composed of pieces of wood, each like the other. What is nurtured in this way in such immature minds ? What do we find of a similar nature in the life of adults that will show us the definite results of educating the minds after this fashion? There are men who really mistake a tree for a throne and give therefrom kingly com- mands and some believe they are God. In more serious forms, "illusions" 664 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergaiui are the beginnings of false reasoning, the concomitants of deUrium. Tht insane create nothing. Neither do those children who are condemned tc the restrictions of an education which would unconsciously tend to develop their childish manifestations into illusions — that is to say, manifestations oj immaturity in normal development. We are wont to think that we develop the child's imagination very much by giving him to believe that certain fantasies are true. For example, in the Anglo-Saxon countries, Christmas is represented as an old man covered with snow, who carries an enormous bag filled with toys for the chUdreE and comes into their homes at night. But how is it possible for the child's imagination to be developed by that which is in truth the fruit of our; imagination? It is we alone who imagine and not they; they merel}- beUeve; they do not imagine. Creduhty is indeed a characteristic of the immatiure mind which is lacking in experience and in a consciousness of realities. It is foimd where there is a want of an intellect which can dis- tinguish the real from the unreal, the beautiful from the ugly, the possible from the impossible. Creduhty may exist even in an adult, but then it is in opposition to the intellect and it is neither its basis nor its product. Creduhty germinates in the state of intellectual darkness, and we are glad to have superseded that stage. We cite creduhty as a stigma of the lack of civilization. Education should not follow the path toward creduhty but rather that of inteUigence. The experience and maturity of the mind cause credulity to disappear httle by Uttle, and instruction is a help in this. Be it in peoples or in individuals, the evolution of civilization and of the mind tends to lessen the state of creduhty. Wisdom, as is often said, dissipates the error of ignorance. In this void, which is ignorance, fantasy easily wanders about, just because it lacks that support which permits of attaining greater heights. Thus the Pillars of Hercules disappeared when the Straits of Gibraltar became the passageway of the oceans. Is it perchance this illusive imagination founded on creduhty that we wish to develop in the children ? Surely not; it is not our wish that such a condition should continue. In fact, when the child no longer beheves in the stories, we are dehghted and then we say, "He is no longer a child." Such must be the course of events and we expect it. The day will come when he will no longer beUeve these stories. But, when this state of maturity is reached, we should ask ourselves, "What have we done to help? What ' support did we give to this feeble mind in order that it might strengthen itself ? " The child overcame all his obstacles in spite of our impulse which kept him back in a state of illusion and ignorance. The child overcame himself and us too, and reached the goal whither his inner forces of develop- ment and maturity lead. He, however, might say to us: "How you have made us suffer! Our hardships in the effort to develop were already great and yet you oppressed us." Would this not be the same as if one were to 41 Department] EDUCATION AND IMAGINATION OF LITTLE CHILD 66$ treat the gums in such a way as to retard the growth of the teeth just because one of the characteristics of the newborn babe is its lack of teeth ? Would it not be like keeping the little body from growing because one of the characteristics of the preceding state was that of not being able to stand upright? In fact we did act in this manner when we tried to have the child keep his baby talk, and so kept his language in a state of inferiority and lack of precision instead of helping him by letting him hear the sounds of words clearly articulated and having him see the movements of the Ups. We copied his rudimentary language and repeated the primitive sounds he emitted. So we detained him at length in the formative period — a period full of difficulties — of great efifort on the part of the child, holding him back in the arduous state of infancy. This is what we are doing today by our so-called education of the imagi- nation. We amuse ourselves with the illusions, the ignorance, the errors of an immature mind, just as only a short time ago we delighted in the laughter of the baby who was being tossed up and down — a thing which is now con- sidered dangerous and is condemned by chUd hygiene. In short, it is we who are amused by the Christmas tales and the child's credulity. In admitting this we should recognize the fact that we resemble somewhat that lady who was interested in a dispensary for poor children, but who kept saying, "If there were no more sick children I should be most unhappy." Artificially to halt one stage of development and amuse one's seK thereby —as in the ancient courts, where they were wont to arrest by artificial means, the growth of some poor victims in order to make dwarf jesters for the king — is one of the unnoticed faults of our times. This assertion may seem harsh, but it states a real fact. We are unconscious of it, it is true, and yet we speak of it constantly, when we say, with such disdain for the immature age. "We are not children." If we did not arrest the child's unmaturity in order to contemplate this inferior stage, but instead would give freedom for his growth, admiring the marvels of his perfecting of him- self always in the way of greater conquests, then we would say of him as did Christ, when he said that he who would be perfect should become as a little child. That faith which is true is the basis of religion. I have often been told that the education of the imagination founded on this basis of fantasy "prepares the soul of the child for religious education," and that an education based on reality, such as this method would desire, IS too arid and drys up the spiritual springs. Such reasoning, however, :annot be shared by religious persons, for they well know that myth and faith are at opposite poles and that tho the myth must cease to be real as 'Oon as the child's mind matures, faith must accompany man to the end of life. Rehgion is not the product of a fantastic imagination; it is the greatest reality, the only trut^ji for the religious man. It is the fount, the support of 666 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten his life. The man who is not religious is certainly not one lacking in imagi- nation but rather lacking in inner poise. In comparison with the religious man, he is less serene, less strong in misfortime. Not only that, he is more vacillating in his own ideas. He is weaker, more imhappy, and in vain does he cling to his imagination in order to construct a world outside the bounds of reality. But if he hopes by means of imagination alone to attain the goal of his true life, he may in a moment of supreme struggle feel his feet sinking in the quicksands. When an apostle seeks to call a soul to a religion where he may rest his faltering foot on a rock, he has recourse to the feelings, not to the imagina- tion, for he knows that he need create nothing, but has only to call in a loud voice to that which slumbers in the depths of the heart. Truth is the basis of every great artistic production of the imagination. Manifestations of art are also based on truth, even tho they are the most glorious proofs of the heights which the imagination may reach. Fine arts and Uterary works attain greater heights in a measure as they draw their content from truth — ^not copying the truth but constructing the original work of the imagination on truth. Nothing is more fantastic than Dante's poem, where the imagination of the poet roams thru hell, purgatory, and Paradise, and yet the imaginative beauty of the thought is gained thru similes, which reveal the poet as a potent observer of reality. It is said that Michael Angelo was wont to walk up and down every evening looking far off into space. When asked what he was looking at, he answered, "I am looking at a dome which is being constructed within me," and this was the dome which he reproduced in St. Peters. But it would never have been created and realized if a thoro study of architecture had not furnished the material for its construction. Thus Greek art has siurvived all other arts as tho it were immortal and superior to them all. Truth positively sought for is the basis of the scientific production of the imagination. Our times mark a great progress in civilization as compared with past centuries. This progress is due to the fact that man has used the positive research of truth as the basis of the imagination. It is because of this that the imagination of man has been able to invent all the wonderful appliances in existence today in the fields of electricity, mechanics, chem- istry, and biology. In their wildest imagination, oiir forefathers could never have pictured a world where men could send messages from one covmtry to another across oceans and speak in low tones between Paris and Rome; where men could fly, and where, as guardians of mankind, they could drive from them the scourge of infectious diseases. No one in the olden times could have fantastically imagined the rich products of our day. Education must prepare the modern child for the renewed civilization of our day, this civilization which is based upon positive research of truth Department] CHILD EDUCATION AND THE NEW INTERNATIONALISM 667 that is, the child whose hand, whose eye, and whose ear are eager to grasp the truth with precision, and who becomes capable of mental concentra- tion. In like order in which the body seeks the elements which satisfy its hunger and then transforms them in the inanimate workings of assimilation, so the child nourishes himself with truth, organizing within himseK the constructions of the imagination which create the beautiful and the good. Thus we will help his intellect, which tends to organize itself, to go on, to experiment, to acquire knowledge until he can more easily and more per- fectly accomplish the effort of intellectual growth. He is destined, there- fore, not to represent our inferior humanity, but to surpass us. CHILD EDUCATION AS A BASIS FOR THE NEW INTERNA TIONALISM I. MAY WRIGHT SEWALL, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. What is the significance of the phrase, "the new internationalism"? It implies an old internationalism. A contrast of one thing with another often gives a clearer perception of both. The only internationalism known or practiced by hiunanity up to the middle of the eighteenth century was the internationalism which might be classified as the internationalism of exploration, discovery, exploitation, and war. The first advance upon these forms of internationalism was made by the efforts of people, who had practiced all the preceding forms, to super- impose their own views of life, especially in regard to religion, government, and social habits, upon the people whom they had in turn discovered, conquered, and exploited. The new internationalism implies abandonment of the effort to exploit, to conquer, or to compel to one's own beliefs and habits. Probably the country at the present moment best adapted to the exercise of the spirit oi the new internationalism is the United States. The present tragic war that involves the larger part of Europe and threatens to involve it all before its conclusion is the logical and inevitable result of the feeUngs Lhat impelled all the forms and methods of the old internationalism. There is no country involved in the tragedy which is not represented in :he schools of the United States. As it has been found easier to bring the children of recently arrived immigrants into kindergartens and infant schools 5f all kinds than into any other, we may state that the kindergarten is the jlace where all the principles involved in the new internationalism should ie and may be most easily inculcated. The cities which have the most composite population are the ones whose kindergartens offer to teachers the best field for this work. But, at the iresent time, our population has become so complex, that, excepting in the nost exclusive localities, it would be hardly possible to gather in all of the 668 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergarten children of a neighborhood without bringing together from two to a half- dozen or even a score of nationalities. What are the principles involved in the new internationalism? First of all, the sense of wholeness as applied to the human race. Secondly, the spirit of appreciation which will enable one to value the qualities and characteristics of each section of the race. Thirdly, an abatement of the tendency to overvalue the contribution of that section to which the majority of the children in any kindergarten may belong. % n. HARRIET P. THOMAS, SECRETARY, WOMAN'S PEACE PARTY, CHICAGO ILL. In the title to that remarkable book The Century of the Child, Ellen Ke}' has briefly and happily expressed the tendency of modem education. From all parts of the world come reports of new movements and systems, of bureaus and laboratories and surveys, which have as their object the devel- opment of great universal principles of child study; and all about us are signs that educators are beginning to demand the same selection and over- sight for the beginnings of training which used to be required only for its completion. Out of the mass of psychological investigation and experiment which is constantly appearing, we may lay firm hold on two great working principles in the development of child study. First, the whole of education may be said to be simply a matter of the attention. Secondly, we do not intel- lectualize life, but the springs of conduct lie in that subconscious region where impressions are stored long before any conscious processes are set up, a region from which memory is constantly drawing the most powerful Stimuli for behavior. In connection with both these principles environmenti is of supreme imp)ortance. I use environment in Thomdike's sense, as including the entire uni- verse so far as it may directly or indirectly influence an individual. Now every hiunan being is provided with a dominant reflex system almost as complete as that of the animals and almost able to do the work of life. Consciousness comes in to do what the reflex system cannot do. It is the distinctly human part of us. Included in this reflex system are the fundamental instincts: anger, fear, curiosity, hate, love, and the funda- mental appetites of food and sex. All these are bom afresh with every| child. They cannot be eliminated and it would not be wise to try to eliminate them, but they can be greatly modified and sublimated. ^ An individual's nature and the changes that take place in it may bej described in terms of the responses of thought, feeling, action, and attitude which he makes and of the bonds by which these are connected with the situations which life offers. These connections are the starting-point lot all education or other human control. The aim of education is to per- petuate some of them, to eliminate some, and to modify or redirect others. Department] CHILD EDUCATION AND THE NEW INTERNATIONALISM 669 It is a first principle of education to utilize any individual's original nature as a means of changing him for the better, as a means of producing in him the information, habits, powers, interests, and ideals which are desirable. Since it is the tendency of psychologists everywhere to become social psychologists, new social groupings are being created around the interests of the child, and new efforts are being made to bring him into helpful relationship to his environment. Every society, even the simplest savage society, tends to develop and encourage the social qualities and to inhibit the antisocial qualities, thereby securing safety, food, and life more surely. Every society, in fact, has all the cardinal virtues: courage, self-sacrifice, benevolence, economy, patriot- ism, etc. The only difference in respect to the exercise of these virtues between the savage tribes and ourselves is that they have no theory that they must behave well and virtuously toward members of other groups. The code of the savage is to secure his own safety and well-being first, and he does it group-wise, just as gregarious animals do, because of the obvious advantages of teamwork. It was the code of the American Indian that he was at war with all with whom he had not concluded a treaty of peace. This is our real attitude also, but we do not admit it: It is in that sub- conscious region to which I have referred. Regard for others had its origin in family and tribal life. Society, thru religion and education, thru the establishment of standards, thru the bestowal of praise and blame, has made a huge and partially successful effort to extend this interest in others; but in practically all literature the hero is still the one who does the maximum of damage to outsiders — Sam- son, Odysseus, Robin Hood, the generals on the side we happen to favor in the world's battles. The textbooks in schools have much responsibility for sectional differ- ences and national vainglory. In our daily teaching, attitudes are set up which correspond to those of ancients toward the heathen. Our moral and social code applies only to those who are allied to us, akin to us, of our color, and our traditions. But we are beginning to realize that almost any attitude is possible in an individual ajid in a society, accord- ing to the habit or mores of the group. Slavery may be in the mores or freedom; toleration or persecution; aristocracy or democracy; exploitation of the people or service of them; war or peace. All these things lie in the region of the unconscious or incompletely conscious; and this is the region of the sentiments which are warmer and more precious to us than any of our rational values. The rational world is after all a mere accommodation to these irrational values, something erected in their interest. The hopeful thing about the subconscious memory is that it is a region open to reform, conversion, and control. In this connection our first priaciple — education is a matter of 670 NATOINAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Kindergartei, the attention — is of the utmost importance. From infancy upward, we are continually building a picture of ourselves and our world. The mis- fortune is that our impressions are so often of things defective and of types degraded, so that our ideals are correspondingly limited or selfish. K you want to make an idealist, you must catch him young. Out of the vast and varied social repertory you must select his traditions; you must beautify and spiritualize his surroundings. Swedenborg has declared that the end of the senses was to see God. We might say that the end of social consciousness is to make us see Utopia, and seeing, create it. It has been a matter of great interest and astonishment to me to see how readily children accept scientific and social truths. Children are pro- vincial only when made so by having their attention constantly engaged by provincial models. It is comparatively easy to extend their vision stage by stage to the larger outlooks, first of region, then of nation, of Occident, of Orient, and thus of all mankind. Long before a child comes to the point of studying civics in an academic way, he may have acquired a perfectly logical conception of the expansion of family life into community, state, national, and international life, and of his own relationship to each of these groups. The idea that a new generation is necessary to a thorogoing reform depends upon the principle of creating a new set of subconscious memories. In this connection, teachers have a rare opportunity to make the arts and sciences serve himaan welfare by engaging the attention of children on the side of constructive processes and of research. The Panama Canal makes a wonderful story of the conquest of the material forces of the world — 3. greater victory than any ever won by arms. Tremendous imagination is required in scientific investigation, as well as in the quality and the determination of the explorer. How can Uie imagination be more exquisitely invoked than by these lines by Keats ? I felt like some lone watcher of the skies, t^Bi U When a new planet swims within his ken. '^P r Now that there are practically no more worlds to conquer geograph- ically, the explorer has to turn to other regions. The discovery of the germ theory in medicine was as important to the world as the discovery of America, and in this connection teachers have a great body of material thru which to make an appeal to the imagination and sympathy of children. The teacher must be psychologist, sociologist, eugenist; and, in order to develop new values and new models for the attention of the child, and to create a new store of subconscious memories, I suggest to you a Uttle bit of Nietzsche's philosophy: "Let the value of everything be determined afresh by you." DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Margaret E. Schaixenberger, state commissioner of elementary schools, Department of Public Instruction, Sacramento, Cal. Vice-President — Adelaide Steele Baylor, assistant state superintendent of public instruction, Indianapolis, Ind. Secretary — Marv E. Foster, superintendent, Cass County Schools Plattsmouth, Nebr. '.■> FIRST SESSION— Friday Forenoon, August 20, 191 5 The department was called to order in the City Auditorium at 9:00 a.m. The following program was given: "Some Factors Making for Growth of Elementary Teachers in the Field" — C. Louise Boehringer, county superintendent of schools, Yuma, Ariz. "Welfare and Efficiency of Teachers" — Thomas D. Wood, M.D., professor of physical education, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. "The Teacher's Field in Public Health Work"— Elizabeth W. Allison, M.D., medi- cal director of state normal schools of Wisconsin. "Standardization of Rural Schools" — E. F. Carleton, assistant state superintendent of public instruction, Salem, Ore. "The Efficient Country School" — David B. Johnson, president, Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Rock Hill, S.C. "Community Center Work" — ^Josephine Corliss Preston, state superintendent of public instruction, Olympia, Wash. "The American Elementary School" — Carroll G. Pearse, president, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. SECOND SESSION — Friday Afternoon, August 20, 1915 The meeting was called to order at 2:30 p.m. in the City Auditorium, and the follow- ing program presented: "Some New Problems for the Old School" — ^M. P. Shawkey, state superintendent of schools, Charleston, W.Va. "The Wisdom of a Wider Use of the Probational in Discipline in the Public Schools" — ^James W. Crabtree, president. State Normal School, River Falls, Wis. "Working Plans for the Home Teacher" — Amanda Matthews Chase, representing Commission of Housing and Immigration for California. "The New Citizenship" — Fannie Fern Andrews, secretary, American School Peace League, Boston, Mass. "Unconscious Discipline — The Blend of the Self-acting Group" — ^John R. Kirk, president, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. "What Becomes of the Grammar-School Graduates and the High-School Non- Graduates?" — H. E. Van Norman, vice-director and dean, University Farm, Davis, Cal. "The Large versus the Small Unit for Rural-School Administration and Supervi- sion"— Edith K. O. Clark, state superintendent of public instruction, Cheyenne, Wyo. The Committee on Nominations presented the following names: For President— Ada. Van Stone Harris, director of elementary practice teaching, public schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. For Vice-President — Bertha M. McConkey, assistant superintendent of schools, Springfield, Mass. For Secretary — Marie Turner Harvey, Department of Rural Education, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. These officers wer© duly elected for the coming year. 671 672 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary THIRD SESSION— Friday Evening, August 20, 19x5 The meeting was called to order in the City Auditorium at 8:00 p.m., and the follow- ing program presented: "Some Fundamental Principles of Elementary Education" — P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D,C. "The Special Teacher" — Susan M. Dorsey, assistant superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal. _ "Address" — William M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa. %■ "The Organization of Intellectual Work in School" — ^Maria Montessori, M.D., Rome, Italy. "Supervision of the Elementary School in the Philippine Islands" — Frank L. Crone, director. Bureau of Education, Department of Public Instruction, Manila, P.I. ^ \^ Margaret E. Schallenberges, President j PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS SOME FACTORS MAKING FOR GROWTH OF ELEMENTA TEACHERS IN THE FIELD ^ C. LOUISE BOEHRINGER, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, ^ YUMA, ARIZ. ^Z The problem of the growth of teachers m the field is of vital importance not only to the teachers themselves, but is significant also for school supervisors, for those having in charge the administrative affairs in o\ir schools, in town, city, county, and state, and for the patrons of our schools, who in this day are taking no small part in matters of school advancement. Preparation for the work of teaching is the first important factor making for future growth on the part of the teacher. The teachers coming from our normal schools and from our colleges and universities with departments where the problems of education are studied at least as seriously as are the problems in mathematics and physics have an excellent basis for growth in the profession. It is a matter of encouragement to all interested that the nimaber of teachers with such preparation is increasing. In numerous towns and cities of this great West, the proportion of such teachers nms as high as 95 per cent of the teaching body. Preparation, however, is but a beginning, for growth is a continuous process. There is no middle ground. Either we advance or we fall behiad in the forward march of educational progress. The story of progress is one of continuous venturing, seeking, and giving. Some teachers make marked progress largely by their own direction; others need the support and inspiration that come from competent super- vision. The teacher who by her own initiative seeks for growth will con- tinue her study and investigation of problems in psychology, child study, and sociology, and will verify her teaching efforts thereby and will find a Department) GROWTH OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS 673 larger scope for them. Often she will become conscious of problems which in the close range of the classroom have escaped her attention. Since the fields of psychology, child study, and sociology are compara- tively new and rapidly growing ones, the teacher who has been out of the normal school or college for three or four years finds that new problems are claiming attention and that new investigations have been tabulated. Then, too, when the teacher has had several years in the schoolroom with a definite work of her own with problems that have grown in her consciousness, she is in a position to derive new gains from a study of these fields which were first opened for her in the normal school. The growth of the teacher is in no way a distinct process separated from the growth of the individual as a man, as a woman, as a member of a social group. Every influence and every experience which affords a fuller under- standing of life, a more complete realization of its opportunities and its responsibilities, and a more sincere appreciation of its values and its beauties, means enrichment and growth for the individual. Such a one, if a teacher, becomes a growing influence in the lives of children and young people, provided these values are made to function in the relationship between teacher and children. The great world of literature is recognized as one of the most potent agencies for growth in imderstanding and appreciation. Several times I ave heard the statement made that teachers are not as wide readers and interested students of literature as are persons in other professions and walks of life. The first time I heard this statement I resented it. Since then I have come to know there is too much truth in it to make a denial of it. If such is the case, there are conditions responsible therefor which should be changed. The truly growing teacher is a reader of the world's best literature. In the secondary school and in the advanced grades of the elementary school, we often find departmental work for which teachers have made special preparation. In so doing, they have chosen some field for which they have a personal inclination and have proceeded to make themselves proficient therein, and if they are in the class of growing teachers they seek greater proficiency. More and more primary and intermediate teachers are finding satis- faction and growth for themselves in acquiring more than a general knowl- edge, understanding, and appreciation of certain subjects and activities in their departments. I call to mind a superintendent in a small town in a middle western state who, as a teacher several years ago, began a special study of literature. Since then he has won a reputation in his state as one who is more than an ordinary student and interpreter of a certain phase of literature. He is asked to participate in numerous district and state programs. The real significance of his case is not in that he has won recognition far andr wide in his state, but in the fact that his study has 674 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementaiy meant growth for him and that he is an influence and inspiration in the lives of his teachers and students. There are teachers here and there in towns and villages and rural communities where departmental work is not in use, who find a similar development for themselves in making a special study of some particular field, and who are thus able to render wider service. With the ever- increasing field of literature made available for use in the elementary school, wise discrimination and selection is necessary, and teachers who make a special study of this question for their schools find a broad and stimulating field of endeavor. The same holds true in a special study and investiga- tion for nature study, folk dancing, or for any field of study and activity in the elementary school. The study and effort put forth in gaining more than an ordinary working knowledge in a certain field means growth. The opening of the school plant for wider service makes new demands upon the teachers in the field. In thousands of communities, the school- houses will remain closed from a third to a haK of each school year and there will be no combined commimity effort for advancement except as the teachers promote this work. The teacher who succeeds in this work studies community conditions, assets, and needs and wins the co-operation of the people in work to be undertaken for community welfare. The parent-teacher association, with all of its many opportunities for co-operative effort, may be one of the most forceful factors in making the work of the school effective and in extending the scope of its usefulness. This organization does its best work when teachers as well as parents take an active and sympathetic part in the work. The rural teacher who is a student of rural sociology, who has made a survey of neighborhood social assets and needs, and has opened the school- house for wider service to the commimity finds himseK growing in leader- ship. The knowledge and insight gained by the teacher in making the school a social center and in extending its service makes it possible to keep the daily work of the school more closely related to the problems and interests of life. There is much in the way of growth for teachers in participation in various community organizations such as the commercial club, civic organi- zations, and woman's clubs. In them the teacher and superintendent hear discussions by local persons which often give them a new perspective for school activities, and by their interest and participation they win for the school and their efforts a respect and support which mean much for the advancement of school interest. It is not imusual in some schools for the superintendent to relieve the teacher of some duty in order that she may give a paper or address at a woman's club, and superintendents and principals find time and opportunity to participate in the discussions and movements of civic and commercial organizations in their afternoon or evening meetings. Department] GROWTH OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS 675 Voluntary clubs and organizations of teachers for study purposes or for social purposes have demonstrated their value in affording opportunities for self-expression and growth. Especially is this true in our larger towns and cities. This is a movement that should receive much encouragement from supervisors and teachers in our smaller towns and outlying rural communities. Besides the growth that the teachers find for themselves in the interchange of ideas in discussions, and in the inspiration and direc- tion in lines of study and investigation, these organized groups of teachers are great forces in promulgating ideas and in advancing such movements as consolidation of schools, the circuit system of special teachers of music, cooking, and manual training for village and rural schools, the county unit system, and others of equal significance — movements that depend for their moral and financial support upon the vote of the people concerned. The day for the realization of these and similar movements is hastened by the concerted activity of teachers and patrons in educating and interesting the general public. Any measure which gives to the teacher greater free- dom and fosters conditions making possible greater service on the part of the school is worthy the attention and support of teachers. The supervisor who has clear and sympathetic vision is a very important factor in the growth of teachers. Teachers are of such varying stages of growth and experience that the work of the supervisor demands great wis- dom. While striving for unity in the work of certain groups of teachers, the most important problem of the supervisor is so to stimulate and direct the efforts of the teachers that they may make the best and most whole- some growth of which they are capable. Teachers clarify their ideas thru self-expression and gain confidence in their efforts thru co-operation. Courses of study and plans of work should not be thrust upon teachers by those in authority, but should be the product of teachers and supervisors working and studying together. Provision for more intimate supervision of our thousands of schools in rural communities is a most urgent need. The duties and obligations of the county superintendent are such that only one or two visits per year can be made to most of the schools. The supervisor who is a student of rural sociology and economics and who has an intimate acquaintance with the problems of the rural school and community knows how to assist the teacher and local leaders in making a unit of a neighborhood or community and how to make the school minister to the best development of country boys and girls and of the older members of the neighborhood. These are some of the factors making for the growth of elementary teachers in the field. While all are significant, none is more so than the self -directed effort of the teacher who has found herself in her work and who is daily inspired to her best effort by the presence of boys and girls. The growing teacher is a student of psychology, child study, sociology, eugenics, and in the light of these examines and verifies her efforts. She is 676 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary growing in the knowledge and appreciation of the great values of life; she knows that there are definite problems in the lives of boys and girls that demand her ablest and most sincere effort. She has learned that there are several ways by which adjustments are made, and that her best work is being done when she makes her schoohoom an atmosphere in which the child can grow naturally because she combines the elements calling for adjustment in such a way that he makes the largest and best responses of which he is capable. Her realization of the many- sidedness of the problem keeps her open-minded, and she is willing to investigate and to accept from others that which is good. The teacher who is truly growing is learning thru self-realization that the great goal of education is service. ^b i — ^ #1 THE TEACHERS FIELD IN PUBLIC HEALTH WORK | ELIZABETH WILSON ALLISON, M.D., MEDICAL DIRECTOR, STATE NORMAL':- SCHOOLS OF WISCONSIN ' It is significant that the normal schools are beginning to realize their opportunities and duties in the far-reaching activity known as preventive medicine or public health. The right of society to health is one of the latest rights to be recognized and the obligation to secure and protect health is more and more evident. Many of the accomplishments in sanitation and public health are the result of education. The instruments used for public- health education have been lectures, congresses, exhibitions, pamphlets, bulletins, and books. This education has aroused public sentiment, which has given rise to much gratifying co-operation. In this tremendous but not superhuman task of teaching health, there seems to me no more effective method than to commit it to those who are and are to be the teachers. Progress in these matters cannot be made with- out an intelligent understanding on the part of the teacher. It is therefore important to teach the teacher. It is said that the normal school is his- torically the only institution in the country which has aimed to deal with the teaching problem. The Board of Regents of the normal schools of Wisconsin felt the need of making the normal schools of the state instnmients of public health and in 191 2 appointed a physician for this work. The work as organized con- sists of: (i) exclusion of the physically unfit among the normal-school students; (2) detection of remedial physical defects with suggestions in regard to same; (3) instruction in preventive medicine. I. The term "physically unfit" is very elastic, but we should have some physical standard. The public has not been in a position to protect itself against those physically unfit in the profession, but it is beginning to make certain demands. For example, what community will now tolerate a teacher who is known to be tuberculous? It is well to enlighten these Department] THE TEACHER AND PUBLIC HEALTH WORK 677 physically unfit, and stop the source of the physically undesirable, as we would the intellectually undesirable. My experience with several thousand young men and women during the last three years has shown me that the health habits of teachers need improving. I recall a statement made by one of our young men students in which he cited his keen disappointment as a child when he learned that a much-admired teacher ate candy. I have a similar feeling of (disappointment when I hear statements like the following: "I do not (iiave time to eat breakfast"; "I wear the same weight clothes in winter as in summer"; "I hate rubbers," etc. When the teacher does not live sanely, she cannot have as wholesome an influence upon her pupils as she might exert. 2. In the normal schools of Wisconsin a health-record card for each student is on file in the department of physical training. The side filled Dut by the physical-training teacher consists of a record of height, weight, ind lung capacity, the neck, chest, and hip measurements, and a detailed record of posture. The physician's report includes a record of the past medical history, personal history, sex history, family history, and the present rendition of nutrition, skin, eyes, ears, nose, throat, teeth, glands, lungs, lieart, and elimination. Each student is advised in accordance with the :onditions which are found. The average conditions of the above for the eight normal schools with Eour thousand students are as follows: Faulty nutrition 2.8 per cent Skin diseases 6.0 " Headaches 15.0 " TV f .• • • /needing glasses i4-3 " Defective vision|^^^^| 1^^^^^^ ^J^ » Defective hearing 5.9 " Adenoids 2.5 Catarrh 9.0 " Diseased tonsils 5.0 " Goitre 22.0 " Nervousness (marked) 4.0 " Heart action abnormal 5.5 " Tuberculosis of lungs o. i " Menstrual pain 13 .0 " Constipation 9.0 " There is very little information as to the health conditions among the teachers of the United States. The record of illness among English teachers ^hows respiratory troubles and nervousness as the most frequent of the Tiorbid conditions. In Sweden, the morbidity records of the 18,000 ::eachers of that country show an average of 4 per cent of the male elemen- tary teachers and 9 per cent of the female elementary teachers who are jnable to attend to their school duties for one month each year. 678 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementar 3. Instruction in preventive medicine consists of individual advice anc. classroom instruction as follows: a) Personal hygiene. This supplements what they have studied from the text and what they have received from the instructors of hygiene and physical training. b) A couple of lectures are given on the physical examination of school children. Teachers should be taught the essential facts about defectivii vision, defective hearing, adenoids, catarrh, diseased tonsils, nervousness, and mental defects. The seriousness of every trouble and its particular relation to school progress and to the general public should be recognized. The teachers should be taught to communicate the information to the parents in an intelligible manner. The parents will understand that the teacher has no ulterior motive in recommending treatment, whereas if a physician recommended the same he might be considered as having aii "axe to grind." The way to get defects remedied is to convince parents that they should be remedied. There is no one who can influence them as much in these matters as the teacher. The teacher should have an intelligent understanding of the health of each child so that the nature and the amount of the work will be in accord with his or her capacity and physical development. A child who comes to school without the proper ratio existing between work and play, and between work and rest, is physically and mentally handicapped. c) Lectures are given on the cause, avenue of infection, mode of trans- mission, period of incubation, symptoms, complications, results, and pre- vention of the following communicable and preventable diseases: measles scarlet fever, chicken-pox, smallpox, miunps, whooping cough, grippe, pneu- monia, tuberculosis, diphtheria, meningitis, and infantile paralysis. Teach- ers should know that " children's diseases " are not necessary. They should have a desire for the best in sanitation. The significance of modem bio- logical cleanliness can come only thru education and example. Normal- school training should do something to overcome the poor sanitation of thf public schools. Many health problems are complicated with economic anc social difficulties. Preventive medicine has become a basic factor in the "science of society." Teachers should be acquainted with some of the efforts and accomplishments of the local, state, and federal health service Very little has been done in state organization of school health, but the development of health work in schools imder city control has been ver> rapid. The results of a course in public health for teachers cannot be estimatec but the teacher profits directly from the lessons learned, the child profit; from attendance at a school which has due regard for his physical well- being, the home profits from the lessons of sanitation and hygiene which are carried into it, and the state profits indirectly as these lessons are appliec as a matter of course in the home of the future citizen. Department] STANDARDIZATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS 679 The attempt to make the normal schools of Wisconsin helpful in for- warding the health movement by example and training finds its foundation in the fact that education of the mind alone may be harmful, and that the health of the child and his teacher, as well as the sanitation of the school buildings, is of fundamental importance. It finds its mathematical verifi- cation in the statistics of the relation of school life to health and disease. It finds its financial justification in the greater conservation of human health. It finds its moral justification in the altruistic ideal of race welfare and human happiness. We rejoice in the wonderful achievement of the completion of the Panama Canal. That we may gather inspiration for public health work, let us recall that the important factor in making the Panama Canal a reality was the making of the Panama Zone a healthful place in which to carry on the work — a most brilliant achievement in preventive medicine. Let each ask himself or herself: "What is the problem in school health which I should help to solve ? " STANDARDIZATION OF THE RURAL SCHOOLS E. F. CARLETON, ASSISTANT STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, SALEM, ORE. Lady Somerset, in an article for the North American Review, writes as follows: Here at the back of the hills nothing happens. Day after day we look out at the unchanging face of our narrow world, little grassy fields where a few rough cattle graze on pasture that is mostly moss and rushes, and a sluggish stream, bordered by willows, winding in and out among them. Here and there in the hollows stand damp stained cottages from which men and women, gnarled like the apple trees in their gardens, come out to labor on the poor farms. The children, wild as mountain goats, leave the hamlet early in the morning to cross the hill to the nearest school, three miles away. Once they have gone, there is no sound of life. There are no young girls to be heard singing or laughing at their work; they have gone off to service or to business in the towns that might be a thousand miles away for all we hear of their bustle and stir. The young men go too, except a few who stay to plod as laborers on the farms and to lose their youth in monotonous days of dull, heavy work. News comes slowly over the hills, and when it does come our dull minds rarely grasp its meaning; it seldom touches us; for we have been left so long in ignorance that we have grown like the slow-moving beasts in the pastures. Yes, and we have grown coarse and brutal, too. In a few brief strokes the writer completes the picture by describing the little church which they attend. The rector discourses on Rehoboam, Abijah, and Sennacherib We hear of no more gracious personalities. From the rector's teachings, the Kingdom of God and his Christ are as little heard of in our backward parish as in Central Africa. While wonderful improvements have been made during the last few y'cars in rural life, no one who has lived for a period of time in the country 68o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Elementary and is familiar with rural conditions thruout our nation can fail to recog- nize that there are still such communities to be foimd even in this country. Why are our city schools advancing so rapidly ? Why have our rural schools, with a few occasional exceptions, remained as they were years ago ? Some of the causes I expect to trace and to show what place our plan of standardization has in the improvement of the rural schools and the better- ment of our social welfare. With our ever-increasing tendencies to do away with representative forms of government and to give to the people all power direct, as witness the initiative, the referendum, and the recall, the stability of our insti- tutions and our hope of any advance in civilization depend upon the public opinion of each community. This pubHc opinion simply means the govern- ing thought of a majority of the individuals. If their ideals are low, theii- lives mean, narrow, and cramped, then each institution of such community will be of little account, and the state as a whole must suffer in proportion to the number of such communities it contains. Those of us who hope to make the rural school efficient must realize that we must first put mto the hearts of the people affected a desire to have better schools. As I consider this phase of our work, I am reminded of a painful inci- dent which I witnessed a few years ago. A powerful young man, almost physically perfect, was caught in some machinery, and his body and arms] terribly mangled. The victim was imconscious and showed signs of severe shock. Finally the sensory nerves began to readjust themselves, so that they could carry the message of anguish to the brain. Then began the fight for the mind to assume control once more over the crushed and broken body. As the cries of pain would escape, those standing by would beg of the attending physician to repeat the injection of morphine which had at first been given. What would have been the result? The tired brain would so gladly have given up the struggle. That condition known as shock would have gained the mastery. The patient would have passed away within an hour. The doctor was firm and the pain of the torn muscles aroused the mind from its lethargy. The nerves controlling respiration, circulation, and the other functions of the body began imder the terriblei stimulus to take up their work, so that in due course of time the patient was in a proper condition to respond to the treatment of the physician. In the typical rural district today there is an apathetic condition. I^ anyone suggests some new plan, he disturbs the seK-satisfaction of the people and many of them cannot stand even the slightest pain. Lest I may be misunderstood and be interpreted as condemning the| farming p>eople as a class, let me say right here that this attitude, or condi- tion of mind, is true of the people of any community. The difference is only in degree. Someone has said that the inhabitants of a large city are the most provincial in the world, and I am inclined to think the statement is true. )epartnient] STANDARDIZATION OF RURAL SCHOOLS 68l And yet rural conditions will never improve until someone makes these icople, who live somewhat out of touch with the busy rush of the world's /ork, very discontented with their lot. Only last July, I spent a day with friend of mine — a book farmer, his neighbors call him. He had in one omer of his farm a small field of hay, twenty acres. In the spring, when e was preparing the soil, the neighbors ridiculed him. They told him that liat particular field had not produced a crop for years, that the soil was ^om out. He sent for a man from the Oregon Agricultural College to test le soil. Acting upon this expert's advice, he spent seven dollars for the roper kind of fertilizer. The yield was just two and one-half tons of hay 5 the acre, while the next best crop in the neighborhood was only one ton. he other farmers are now willing to look up to this college man, but they re suffering from more twinges of pain. The college man showed my lend how much more economical it would be to have a gasoline engine ) pump the water used and a pressure tank to furnish both hou^e and bam ith a good supply. The changes were made, but now another improve- lent has been suggested. "The college is changing my standards, and ly neighbors have decided that no book farmer will have better improve- ments than they have," this man said to me. The labor and anguish is so iinful that one cannot help wondering at times if it would not be better ) administer the opiate, "let well enough alone," and allow them to sink ick into the peace of unconsciousness as to what is taking place in the Iter world. To such a people, how can you make the appeal for better schools? y making them discontented, arousing their pride, and taking advantage the primal instinct to imitate others. Several years ago in Oregon, the ate superintendent in talking to his coimty superintendents in convention id: Your rural people think their schools are as good as they are in any other state. ley know of no way to measxire their usefulness, or more exactly speaking, their use- sness. Try to work out a standard to which each rural district must bring its school, tneasuring-rod whereby the farmer may be convinced that he has not as a rule been aviding house and grounds for the school children equal to those for his cattle and horses, It he has not been demanding the same grade of eflSciency of the rural teacher as he 3 of his hired hands. The county superintendents went home and a number of them set to )rk formulating a set of standards for their rural schools. A brief descrip- )n of what took place in one county will do for all. Fifteen requirements r standardization were printed on a large card, and one was hung on the >nt wall of each rural school. The type was large so that the card could read easily from any place in the room. To be standard, a school was luired to have a model school plant and a trained teacher. The detailed luirements are published in pamphlet form by the Oregon State Depart- mt of Education. 682 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elematai; A gold star was fastened opposite each p)oint to which the school wi. entitled. Then came the work of the county superintendent. He begai in one of the best districts, and, with the co-operation of the teacher, h held a meeting of the patrons. By dint of much urging and many per sonal invitations, he secured the attendance of nearly every father ai;' mother in the district. Twenty questions, typewritten on sUps of papej were distributed among the farmers, and the chairman of the board c directors was requested to preside over the meeting. The questions wer all on local conditions. Each in tium would answer his question, and th(j there would be a general discussion. At this first meeting, it require effort on the part of those directing the meeting to bring out many exprcj sions of opinion, but that was nearly five years ago. The plan of holdb this kind of meeting has now been extended to every district in the count} The people are called together at regular intervals, and everyone he learned to talk. The result of the first meeting was that the people decided to levy local district tax and to have the honor of being the first district in tl county to have a standard school. With the money raised, the directoi employed carpenters to take out all of the windows on the right-hand sic of the building and to build as many more on the left. They drained tl playgroimds, built cement walks to the outbuildings, provided for janiw service, and instructed the teacher to see that the outbuildings were supplit with disinfectants recommended by the State Board of Health. In tl place of the old stove which was in the center of the room, they piu*chast a modem heating plant equipped with a ventilating system. The schoc house was painted inside and out, and a beautiful, tho not expensive, repri of one of the old masters was purchased and hung in the schoolroom. A great celebration was held in this district when it had earned all ; the stars and the first standard school was presented with a beautiful pe- nant, on which was inscribed the name of the school and the words, "Staiif- ard School." Accounts of the meeting were given in all the county paps and thus the campaign for better schools was launched. An appeal ) local pride was made in every district. There were miany discouragemeS and an endless amount of hard work for the county superintendent and fi teachers; it meant many long midnight drives and much work that is rt prescribed in the school laws of Oregon among the duties for county suj)- intendents. But they kept at it. The work has continued in this county for nearly five years and ro-t of the rural schools have become standard; really better than standal, for to prevent stagnation the requirements were raised slightly every y'-'- The neighborhood meetings are becoming a part of the community 1- Last year the county superintendent and his assistant conducted to meetings a week, making a total of 128 meetings held during e school year under their direct supervision. Interest has grown so tiit Department] THE EFFICIENT COUNTRY SCHOOL 683 i)ne entire day is given up to an annual meeting in each district. The armers and their wives come early and all bring luncheon. The meetings isually begin at ten o'clock in the morning and close at four o'clock in the iftemoon. The state educational institutions have been called upon to lelp. There is always one outside speaker to give an address on some topic )f vital importance to that particular community. In the meantime other counties thruout Oregon have taken up the tandard plan. The State Department of Education thru its succeeding uperintendents has encouraged and helped with the work. An enlight- :ned public opinion has developed to such a degree that it was possible for he present superintendent when he took up his work at the head of the Oregon schools to establish a state standard and in doing this to receive he hearty approval and co-operation, not only of his county superintend- nts, but of all those interested in education thruout the entire state. The reason that the plan of standardization for the rural schools is ound to succeed is that, in order to progress, there must be some way for community to measure its growth, to compare what it is doing with what thers in similar lines of endeavor are accomplishing. There must also be found some way to arouse the pride of our people -) that they will look about to see what others are doing and then an oppor- jnity must at once be provided for their better impulses to express them- 3lves in action, so that the ones aroused may not be victims of what the sychologists term "suppressed emotion." Those who made the investi- itions for the Russell Sage Foundation found this to be true, for after a loro study of all the school systems of the United States, they recom- lended in their "Comparative Study" that each school district should iways have power of levying a special tax in order to stimulate local pride id initiative. The success of the Oregon plan has been largely on account : the fact that the administrative school officers, the county superin- indents, and the state superintendent meet twice a year for a week's )nvention. Plans are discussed, policies are formulated, and the county iperintendents learn what others are doing. Stimulated by this contact, ley go home to organize their teachers into a loyal band to work for the ivancement of the rural schools and the development of a better social life, hich, taken together, makes one of the big units in the greatest of all works, le uplifting of humanity, the betterment of the condition of mankind. THE EFFICIENT COUNTRY SCHOOL ^VID B. JOHNSON, PRESIDENT, WINTHROP NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE, ROCK HILL, S.C. The efficient country school is the most vital educational need of this lole country of ours. The whole rural problem which is probably our 3st vital problem is "'practically the problem of the country school." f 684 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elemental Farms are being abandoned by the owners and agricultural progre?; and production are failing to keep pace with growth in population and witt progress in other directions mainly because the country school has failec and is failing to relate its work to the life of the rural community. The startling exodus from the rural districts to the cities is general]^ attributed to the lack of proper educational and social conditions in tl- country which the properly organized and conducted country school migh have supplied. From social and economic surveys, it has been found that in Illinoi about 95 per cent of the landowners who move to town do so because arts of Missouri more than half of the farmer are renters. The agricultural conditions in these two states are typica of those in other states. The evils of farm tenantry are impressively brought out in a recen book by Jack London. He calls the average tenant a "land-hog" wh takes everything possible out of the land and puts nothing back into i< He gives instances of where tenants had " skinned " enough out of the rente land in this state in three years to buy land for themselves. He recalls tb story of an old farmer who told a professor at an agricultural experimer station: "They ain't no sense in tryin' to teach me farmin'. I know a about it. Ain't I worked out three farms?" According to the census of 1910, 45 . 6 per cent of the land in this countr available for agriculture is not cultivated by either owners or tenants. J. L. Coulter, of the George Peabody College for Teachers, has asce tained from the census of 19 10 that during the ten years from 1899 to 19c agricultural production in the United States increased only 10 per cent ov< that of the preceding decade, while the population — the number of moutl to be fed — increased 21 per cent. Eggleston and Bruere, in an admirable book on the work of the rur school, hold that it is "the menace of hunger that is turning the natic to the rural school as the only instrument capable of averting widegpref disaster." Confronted by the danger of a shortage in the production of the ra materials used for feed, forage, and clothing, " the nation is turning to \s rural school because, owing to the changes wrought by the last centur>^ our economic and social life and more especially in the economic and see;- condition surrounding agricultural production, the rural school more tin any other one instrument today controls the food supply of the nation.' Altho the prosperity of every other calling and of the coimtry itsf depends mainly upon the prosperity of the farmer, the wealth-producer f the country, his interests have been overlooked in legislation and in t- organization of courses of study in educational institutions until compai- i Department] THE EFFICIENT COUNTRY SCHOOL 685 lively recent years. There is now common agreement with Gifford Pinchot in the opinion that " no nation can continue to prosper unless its civilization is built upon the abiding foundation of a strong and satisfied life in the open country." The efficient country school which is to improve agricultural conditions and to keep good citizens on the farms and make good citizens on the farms must relate its work to the community life of the people served by it; must educate the children for country life instead of away from it; must teach, therefore, agriculture, and must relate universal elements of education to country community needs; must train the children for their future work in the home, on the farm, and in the social life around them; must be a "community center of education, instructing both children and adults in terms of country life and pointing the way to community prosperity and welfare"; must concern itself with the business and social life of the people, promoting helpful and profitable co-operation and neighborliness. It must also help to better the rural home and the condition of the farm woman. Someone has called the lack of sociability in the country, the tendency of the countryman to live to himself — country individualism — " the tuber- culosis of American farm life." The efficient country school cannot neglect the health, the recreation, or the social ideals of the people. Frederick T. Gates, of the General Education Board, in a publication of that Board under the title The Country School of Tomorrow, places attention to health Df the pupils and sanitation of the homes first among the duties of the coun- try school of tomorrow. He sums up the work of the efficient country school to be to make rural life, just where it is, healthful, intelligent, efficient, to fill it with thought and purpose and with a gracious social culture not without its joys. The efficient country school must be housed in a properly constructed school building with good light and ventilation and school furniture and equipment and sanitary closets. The grounds should be ample and prop- erly laid off for all kinds of recreation. There should be gardens in connec- ion with the school to be worked by the pupils, and the school should mcourage the pupils to work small gardens at their homes and should super- ase them. We are now trying as an experiment in our state small demon- stration farms in connection with a limited number of country schools in 'ach county. The efficient country school must interest its pupils and their )arents in the boys' corn clubs and the girls' canning and poultry clubs. t must give credit for home work. The redirected course of study needed for the efficient country school nust be determined by the needs of the social and economic life of the immunity as determined by a social and economic survey of the com- aunity. You cannot ''hitch up education to life" without knowing what hat life is — the prevailing aspirations of the community, "its economic and 686 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementety social resources and possibilities, its deficiencies and needs." It is not to be understood that it is proposed to discard the fvmdamental studies; it is proposed to relate these studies more closely to agricultural life. For instance, in arithmetic, instead of teaching stocks and bonds, Troy weight, cube root, and such subjects, it is proposed that problems relating to the dairy, the feeding of cattle, and other farm activities be given. It is pro- posed to put new leaven into old essentials, discard some subjects of the old traditional curriculum which fail to express the activities and needs of the community, and add new subjects that are needed for agricultural progress, such as nature study, agriculture, manual training, domestic science and art, farm management, marketing, and rural sanitation. There are still some who contend that there is great danger of making the schools too materialistic by stressing the practical in education, that real education is secured thru the study of the so-called cultural subjects. Our position is that there is culture in the study of practical subjects and more — ^namely, a living. Any country that does not include the practical subjects in its system of instruction may expect the same fate which befell China. That country stood still for two thousand years because its system of education | had to do only with the philosophical, the literary, the historical, and had nothing of the concrete or practical in it. After all is said and done, however, there can be no efficient countr} school without an efficient teacher — and that means a teacher trained specially for teaching a country school in the right way, one who is in sym- pathy with rural life. The efficient teacher for the country school must be not only a good teacher of subject-matter, "giving instruction in terms of the local environment of the child," but also a good community leader. She must be able to stimulate local campaigns for rural progress. Under her leadership there will be road improvement, good farmers' clubs and insti- tutes, and country church progress. She must be imbued with the spirit of civic service, A distinguished college president upon his inauguration not long ago said that the master word of the eighteenth century was "liberty," of the nineteenth "knowledge," and that of the twentieth would be a blending of these two into a noble: and richer ideal — citizenship or service — in which individual liberty and the acquisition of knowledge for the sake of knowledge would be unselfishl} subordinated to the welfare of the people as a whole. Every teacher, bu: especially the country teacher, must catch this spirit of the twentietli century and be governed by it. I believe that permanency of position and adequate salaries will soon follow such service. Many of the normal schools have recognized the need of special training for country teacher-: and have provided for it. It is to be hoped that all will soon do so. At Winthrop College we require all of our normal students to take agriculture and to make and work school gardens. Our seniors are requirec to observe and practice in the training school where school gardens ar« 1 Department! COMMUNITY CENTER WORK 687 vorked by the children. We give two courses for country teachers — the ural-Iif e educational course of four years and a one-year course for teachers ilready in the field. The efficient country school cannot be maintained .0 any extent without trained supervision. To meet this need, we have a itate supervisor of rural schools and a woman county supervisor of rural ;chools in some counties. We have an experimental rural school designed jspecially to show how a single teacher can make her school a factor in the 'ife around it. Children from an adjoining district are brought to the ichool in a regular school transportation wagon. It has been the efiPort in the school to work out a course of study specially idapted to the needs of the children of the country without regard to any raditional course of study. All precedents have been ignored. The bought always in mind is to train the farm children for their work and life n the country home, on the farm, and in the social life of the country. All he activities of the school are based upon work in the garden and have ;rown out of such work. Proper recreation for the children and social gatherings for the parents lave not been overlooked. The children have been led to take an interest a the boys' com clubs and the girls' canning and poultry clubs. We do not claim by any means that we have worked out yet the plan ar the best organization, management, and course of study for the most fficient country school, but we do believe we are working along right lines nd hope that we may contribute something of real value to the final olution of the problem. Our students preparing for teaching in country chools are given practice in our rural school under the direction of the eacher of the rural school. We have arranged to transplant this school from the college campus 3 a school in the country with the purpose of demonstrating for our state nd section how the country school may be made a community center, slating and directing, in a way, all the social, religious, recreational, educa- ional, and industrial activities of the countryside. ,^. COMMUNITY CENTER WORK JOSEPHINE CORLISS PRESTON, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, OLYMPIA, WASH. In the brief time allotted each speaker I could not hope to do more than rely refer to the many excellent results brought about by community enter organization. So I have determined to confine myself to one sub- ivided phase of the subject, the home for the teacher provided by the lool board. Washington now has 112 teachers' cottages. Thirty of our thirty-nine aunties possess from' one to twelve of these homes, varying in cost from 688 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION $50 to $3,200. Some of these residences are movable shacks that can b? set on a logging train and moved when the camp moves; some are humbh "lean-tos" built against the side of the schoolhouse; in one district on the Colville Indian reservation the teacher Uves in a combination house and tent; in several instances the upstairs of the schoolhouses have been fitted up for housekeeping; in many cases the old school building has been worked over for a house for the teacher when a new schoolhouse has been erected. But the majority of the cottages are the serviceable, sensible, well-built little house of from two to six rooms, standing near the school building. We have two double houses, the one at Amber, and the other at Eureka. In both cases the principal and his family occupy half of the house, and the young women assistants occupy the other half. We feel proud of the development of the cottage idea in our state The movement had a very modest beginning. Eleven years ago next September, when I was assistant county superintendent of WaUa Walla County, a yoimg woman came to me in much distress. It was the olc story: she had been out to the community in which she was to open schoo the next week, and she had found that no one there was willing to board her. The family that had always boarded the teacher had moved to towr to send their children to high school. We were much troubled over the situation, and I suggested that I could give her another school in th( county, for I considered that the district in question had failed in its dut) to her. We had about come to the conclusion that this was the only thin^ to be done when an idea seized her: "In the farmyard across from th« schoolhouse I saw a portable cook wagon. If the district will put thi; house in the schoolyard for me I will furnish it and keep house." So thi; cookhouse was fitted up for the brave young woman. It was not the mos; comfortable residence that one could wish. When the heavy fall rains se in, her property, her clothes, and her bedding were often soaked. But hen she hved with her twelve-year-old brother, and she taught the school \^ the end of the allotted term. When school opened in that district th( following fall, the teacher again occupied a residence supplied by the schoo board, but this time it was a neat two-roomed cottage. The first teache; who lived in this first real cottage in Washington taught in the districi three years, a long time for a rural teacher to keep the same school. Sh left to complete her college course. How do these cottages reflect upon the elementary education of on state ? The prime need of a rural school is the strong teacher, the teache with initiative, leadership, experience, high ideals, broad sympathies, at* education. The rural school needs teachers who will stay in the com munity long enough to understand that community, for it is agreed tha a teacher can do better work the second year than she did the first yeai and that her work increases in value along with her tenure of office. It \ not an unusual condition for teachers to spend a lifetime in the same schoc Department] COMMUNITY CENTER WORK 689 in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and England. How may we work toward that goal? I wonder if there is anyone in this audience who at any time in the past went out to teach a country school full of enthusiastic plans for the work. He found a reasonably well-cared for schoolhouse and grounds, but when it came to finding a place to live it developed that the families in the most :omfortable circumstances did not "care to be bothered" with a boarder. So the teacher, after considerable difficulty in procuring any place at all, finally was taken in by one of the poorer families. If you have had this experience you will recall the difficulty you experienced in trying to prepare youT work for the next day in a poorly heated, poorly ventilated room with I family of vigorous children playing about, and the regular duties of the lousehold in progress. After an hour spent in a vain effort to study, :)erhaps you went off to a cold room that served as a sleeping apartment or other members of the household, one or more children often occupying he bed with you. The food served the next day was doubtless in keeping vith the rest of the entertainment. I certainly do not intend to convey the impression that we have not as ;ood country homes in Washington as can be found anywhere. We have, can think of many, many districts where the teacher obtains the very inest accommodations that could be asked. She has wholesome food, . heated room where she may work undisturbed, and the proper environ- nent of refinement, three qualifications that I hold must be provided by a listrict for its teacher if that district gets the best service that the teacher s capable of giving. The reports coming from our cottaged districts are highly encouraging. Ve find that a cottage attracts the very best teachers, and for less salary. >et it be known that a district furnishes a cottage for the use of the teacher, nd that district practically has its choice from among the best teaching alent of the state. It is noticeable that the teacher who has the use of cottage is not anxious to make a change each school year. The district ith a cottage is able to secure as a teacher a married man with much fine xperience. I have in my office a list of the men who lived with their imilies in school cottages last year, most of them men who would not have Dnsidered for an instant a country school position had not the living ccommodations attracted them. We have a number of instances of cot- iges being built to keep a strong teacher. These families usually occupy ^e cottage during the vacation months, improving the property, and laintaining a supervision over the schoolhouse and groimds. It is a source t much gratification to these men to feel that they can actually establish home while teaching a country school, and it means a great deal to them nancially to be able to have a garden, a cow, chickens, etc. The cottage is one of the greatest factors in our " wider-use-of-the- hool-plant" movem'ent. Our rural schoolhouses are more and more 690 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elemental being used for other purposes than for the day instruction of the childreii It is pleasant to see the country schoolhouse often lighted up for a con ■ munity center event. With his home on the school grounds, the teacher is able to do a distinct service to the people about by having a good firti and the lights burning when the time for beginning arrives on a cold wintt;: evening. We have received many expressions of appreciation of this littl« benefit derived from the cottage. The teacher is in a position to supervijii the janitor work and the playground activities at all hours. District; that had had trouble in property being injured, windows broken, etc. report that the presence of the cottage with its teacher overseer has com pletely done away with this undesirable situation. The teacher's residenci seems to stimulate the desire for other improvements at the school, and ij also stimulates a community spirit. One teacher writes: You may be interested in reading about other improvements that have been add* since the teacher's residence was built. They include a gymnasiimi 38X 28 feet, equippei for basket-ball; a manual-training shop, completely outfitted; a private water syster by which the school is supplied with piure spring water; new seats, bookcase, wall map; ^obe, and encyclopedia for the schoolroom; sanitary supplies such as liquid soap, papc towels, drinking-foimtain, and first-aid cabinet; a grafonola with about forty careful! selected records; and a moving-picture machine with which we show new educatiom reels every week. Add to this that we have an attractive playground, and you mus admit that we are as well equipped as any one-room rural school in the cotmtiy. Tb salary paid the teacher this year is $1,000. The greatest change has come over many commimities. The peopl are taking pride in keeping the schoolhouse and cottage homelike and i beautifying the school grounds. This pride has extended to their home: which receive much better care. Knowing that the teacher's cottage, an the way the teacher or the teacher's wife cared for the cottage, would i many cases serve as models for the entire community, we have taken cor siderable care in planning two suitable residences, one a single and on a double house, and in suggesting that the most accurate attention shcnilj be given these homes. In anticipation of the rapid growth of the schoo cottage idea within the next few years, we have made arrangements whereb complete building plans will be furnished to school boards at a nomiri! cost. We are suggesting that the heavy furniture be supplied by thes school boards and that a small rental of perhaps one dollar a month t paid the district to cover the wear of this furniture. We want the teach(;; to bring their own rugs, carpets, bedding, table linen, and dishes. ^\ feel that infinite care in the minute decorations and equipment of the houses is time well spent, for the kitchen especially will mean much ; a model. Therefore our kitchen plans, while simple, include those pric less modern conveniences that would reform most country homes and gi^ the country woman the conception of an easier method of doing her wor The teacher's cottage, then, assures a living place for the teacher, attracts better teachers, it increases the tenure of office, it makes tl i Department] NEW PROBLEMS FOR THE OLD SCHOOL 691 I teacher infinitely more efficient in schoolroom and in community, it brings I about a wider use of the school plant, it serves as a model for the neighbor- I hood. It is one of the prime factors in our Washington community center I organization. SOME NEW PROBLEMS FOR THE OLD SCHOOL M. P. SHAWKEY, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHARLESTON, W.VA. The public schools of our country have been the subject of a good many attacks recently. Some of these attacks have been made by ignorant and hostile critics and some by intelligent and friendly persons. The schools have been declared inefficient. In one place it is charged that the pupils do nothing but play all the day. In another it is charged that the chil- dren are being overworked. In one place it is charged that the methods are old and antiquated. In another it is charged that the schools have been ruined by the introduction of so many frills and "new-fangled" Ildtions. In one place it is charged that the schools have abandoned the damentals and in another there is a lament that they spend all their e on the same old things. In one case it is charged that the teachers stick to the textbooks too slavishly while in another the charge is that the textbooks are not learned. One of the most common complaints is that the schools are not practical, but on the other hand there are some very inteUi- gent critics who complain that they are emphasizing the utilitarian too much. Indeed there is a class of radical critics who pronounce the old school a failure and propose to substitute some new scheme of education for it. This paper cannot concede that the old school is a failure. It holds that its fundamental principles are eternal and that therefore it will last as long as there are human beings to be educated. Any possible change that may be made will be a mere incidental and will not affect the fundamental ture of the school. The old school faces some new problems. They are t problems that demand a new kind of school but they do demand some important readjustments of the old school. These problems are fruits of fthe new developments in our industrial and social life. As has been pointed lUt so often by our magazines, the apprentice system is gone. Labor is [highly specialized. It takes thirty-nine tailors to make a coat. One man used to do it and he wasn't much of a man either. Every one of the thirty- mine tailors must be a specialist. The school formerly prepared men to live. There is now even greater demand that it prepare men to make a living. If the apprentice system is gone and there is no other means of preparing ithem to make a living, then it is a problem for the public school, a prob- to meet which will require some readjustments of a striking character, e school will not fail to meet these new demands upon it. It cannot do for it is its mission to serve and the needs of society must ever determine e character of its service. 1 692 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementiy The new industrial life presents the school with its most obvious new- problems but it is the changed social life that presents it with its most difficult and most important new problem. It is infinitely more difficult to produce a man than it is to produce a mechanic but it is also infinitely more important that we produce the man. The changes in our social life in recent years have been much more radical than the average man realizes because of the easy and noiseless way in which these changes have come about. Within the past three or four centuries particularly the social life of the race has reached its highest and best and that social life has clustered around the family as a center. Let us study the American family for a moment. Sixty years ago the typical American family consisted of father, mother, three sons and four daughters, living lovingly and happily under a single roof, but today the t)T)ical American family consists of father, mother, and son, or father, mother, and daughter, or father, mother, son, and a poodle dog. This is ! not mere sentiment. The statistics of the government show that the average family in this country decreased from 5 . 6 in 1850 to 4 . 5 in 1910, or a decrease of almost 20 per cent in less than an allotted lifetime, and that too in spite of the coming into this country of thousands of Eiuropean families of large size. A small family, one with a smgle child or two chil- dren only, is not an efficient social organization. The smaller the family is the less efficient it is socially. But the diminishing size of the American family is not the only hind- rance to its social efficiency. We are rapidly becoming a nation of city dwellers and city life tends to break up the coherence of the family organ- ization. For instance, how many thousand families now live in apart- ments where the various members sleep, eat a hasty breakfast, and then hastily scatter off to a distant office, factory, or school from which they return in time for a late dinner at night or perhaps only for a late retire- ment ? Such a family life is in strange contrast to the old-fashioned family where the children gathered around a family board three times a day with father at the head and mother at the foot, where the whole group spent the evening hours about a wholesome fireside, and then took a half-hour tC' read the Bible and sing the psalms before retiring. Yet that is rapidl}' coming to be the typical American family, which means that as a social organization the American family is speedily going into bankruptcy. The relation between the school and the home is intimate. What; rights over the child or what opportunities to serve the child the home surrenders either voluntarily or involuntarily the school should assume. The old school is therefore being confronted with a very important new problem, namely, the moral training of the child. It must do for the child what its parents do not care to do for it and what they cannot do for it because of the new social and industrial conditions. It is not surprising that many parents believe the school more competent to give the child the Departmeotl NEW PROBLEMS FOR THE OLD SCHOOL 693 moral training it ought to have than they themselves are, nor is it difficult to see how poorly such training must be done by either the father or mother who leaves the home early in the morning and gets back to it late in the evening, eating but one or two meals of the day with the children whose moral training is dependent upon them. I do not hesitate to say that I consider the moral training of the child the most difficult of all the problems confronting the school at the present time. The desire to earn money may quicken the interest of the child in the mechanical skill which the teacher wishes him to acquire, but there is no such tangible incentive to lead the same child to acquire the good habits which the teacher knows he must possess in order to become the man of character which she hopes for him to be. Pride may drive a child to study his lesson for the honor of knowing it, but the homely virtues so necessary to strong character are neither alluring nor popular in the general crowd. The life of a child in this country before the introduction of the con- soUdated school, the trolley, the automobile, the cheap story book, the illus- trated newspaper, and the moving-picture show was quite simple and free from many evil influences that have come with these modem developments, but the school today must compete with all the alluring devices that a greedy commercial age can devise. Of all these devices there is none more effective than the moving-picture show. Reports of the "movie" concerns recently made public show that the people of this country paid out last year an aggregate of $300,000,000 for admissions to these shows. The reports do not reveal what proportion of this mass of money was paid by children, but certainly it was a large proportion. First, is it not teach- ing children extravagance — and extravagance is our national sin — to let them spend money in such large amoimts for a thing that is for the most part a mere amusement; and, second, what is the moral tone of the average moving-picture show ? The first query I leave for you to answer but on the second I have some evidence to offer of a definite character. For many months I have been accustomed to study the intent group of children that constantly crowd the entrance to the "movies," especially It the opening and closing of the school sessions. Since the pictures seemed to have such a firm grip on the children, I was led to inquire into the nature of the matter presented by the shows. Passing down a leading street in a city of something less than one hundred thousand population in the central part of the United States, I listed the picture shows into which young people were pouring by the thousands. Here are the attrac- tions offered: 1. Negro Burlesque Civil War scene in which an officer has his sword drawn against his own son 2. Christie Mathewson A policeman separates two young men in a quarrel over a girl 3. Frohman in Belasco's May Morning — pretty ante-wedding scene 694 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION {Wwnpif 4. A young man tempted away from his innocent sweetheart by the beauty of a rii of the street iA t 5. A haunted house 1 w I An old man and two young ones — one with a pointed revolver threatening murdi 1 6. A cowboy girl and two men in the rough life of the ranch An Indian stealing up to stab the woman asleep 7. A burning-ship catastrophe A desperate first fight I j1 A yoimg man drugged and robbed by two companions In a city of forty thousand population, an investigation of all the shows presented during an entire month revealed the facts that 25 per cent might be classified as "good" and "not bad" 75 per cent might be classified as "bad" and "very bad" 35 per cent showed cigarette smoking 50 per cent showed drinking 50 per cent showed gun play and murder Deceit, intrigue, jealousy, and treachery were leading features of at least 40 per cent of these shows. The picture show is a great teacher but it must be rescued from its present evil ways. It must be made an ally of the school. To meet the new industrial and social demands upon it, the school must be enlarged in scope and extended in means of doing its work. ItJ working day should extend from eight in the morning till five in the evening. and from the first day of July till the last day of June. It must have not only a Ubrary at its command but also a workshop. It must have not onl> ground to work but also ground to play. It must teach the child both ho^ to live and how to make a Uving. THE WISDOM OF A WIDER USE OF THE PROBATION AL IN DISCIPLINE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS J. W. CRABTREE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, RIVER FALLS, WIS. The probational in discipline has always been used more or less by suc- cessful teachers. During the past decade not only the schools but the courts have resorted less than ever before to the plan of meting out a definite amoimt of punishment for a definite amount of misconduct or crinw'. Probation in the discipline of the school has the same general meaning as probation in the practices of the court. In its strict sense, "probation," according to high authority, "is a judicial system by which an offender against penal law instead of being punished by a sentence is given an opportunity to reform himself undei supervision, and subject to conditions imposed by the court, with the ena in view that if he shows evidence of being reformed no penalty for his offense will be imposed." apartment] DISCIPLINE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 695 iS It is easily seen that the deep-seated purpose of the suspended sentence and the probational period in the courts is to save men and to make fairly good citizens out of those who have shown evidences of moral weakness. The results have been most gratifying wherever probation has been thought- [fully employed in dealing with wrongdoers and criminals. The results in Indianapolis may be taken as typical: during the past year in Indianapolis sentence has been suspended in 236 cases and judgment withheld during good behavior in 3,474 cases. The majority of these were first offenders. In the cases where the judgment was suspended, the court has had to set llaside and commit the defendants in only two cases, and, where the judg- ment has been withheld, less than 2 per ceat have been returned to court for a second or subsequent offense. The reports of the probation oflScers in Indianapolis, Cleveland, Denver, and other cities are full of evidence of heroic and successful efforts toward right living on the part of those who have been permitted under supervision and with sympathetic help to reform themselves. This method of dealing with one who has broken the law retains whatever self-respect he may have and brings out the best elements of his nature, whereas heavy fines and serving jail and penitentiary sentences not only bring humiliation and dis- grace upon the family, but have a tendency to develop the worst in the man's nature, and give him back to society a worse criminal than before. At first it was thought that the principles of probation could safely be applied only to youth and to men whose offenses were considered trivial. The reports of the courts in cities and states show, however, that each year the advantages of probation are extended to larger numbers of men and more and more to those who have committed grave offenses. The courts have themselves been surprised to find that extending probation to the more serious cases has not apparently increased the number returning to court for a subsequent offense. There are instances where the operation of the law of probation has been unsatisfactory, because of incompetent judges or inefficient probation oflScers, but the world has been astonished at the success and achievements of probation for both children and adults. The courts will continue to find men who are not considered worthy of a chance for living among other people while they strive to reform themselves, tho the nimiber of such cases will doubtless be greatly diminished as the method of probation becomes more fully systematized, organized, and developed. The plan of probation works essentially in the same manner in the school as in the courts. The most refractory pupils are segregated by law from those to be taught in the public schools. These are taught in day truant schools, reform schools, or industrial schools for unmanageable pupils. So far as the public schools are concerned, the plan is carried out some- what as follows: The refractory pupil has his hearing; he is convinced of guilt and promises that he will not commit the offense again. The teacher 11 696 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Elementtt; suspends sentence, placing the pupil on probation, possibly under thj supervision of a probational officer or other person. During the probational period, the teacher enlists the co-operation of the home and every usabh influence and in every way helps the pupil to keep his agreement. Thi most unmanageable pupils are given advantage of a probational period. Very often the pupil is given a second or even a third chance befwe he finally receives his sentence. It would be a great surprise to you to know how few ever actually receive sentences at all. The juvenile court borrowed the idea of the probational period from the school. Nothing had been done by the schools to work out a plan for general use. Very little had been said about it and nothing at all had been written. Conmion-sense told each individual teacher to deal in some sucli manner with children. Practically all teachers known to be successful in dealing with refractory pupils used the principle of probation in some form. But strange as it may seem, it remained for the juvenile court, not the school, to systematize and work out a plan for general use. Just as the juvenile court is saving hundreds of children from becoming criminals in large cities, the principles of the probational system as appUed in the schools save many times that number of children in these same cities and this in spite of the fact that superintendents and teachers have been slow to appreciate the saving force of probation and that so little time and attention has been given to it as a means of reforming refractory pupils. This system is so important as a means of saving children that every teacher and every superintendent should become better acquainted with it and make a more extensive use of it in dealing with wrongdoers. One superintendent makes use of the idea in this manner: Teachers sending pupils to him for pimishment hand in a statement of the case including their reasons for considering the pupil guilty. The pupil is called before him and subjected to a process of questioning. The pupil is always impressed with the superintendent's fairness and also with his firmness. If in need of further evidence, time is taken to secure it. All the essential facts are finally noted down in a vest pocket memorandum, together with the pupil's agreement. The principal then releases the pupil, suspending the sentence during good behavior, showing absolute confidence in his keeping his promise. He has had less than 10 per cent of these pupils referred to him a third time. Many superintendents have had similar results. Where this principle is used by teachers, very few cases ever reached the superintendent. Without the period of probation, the number coming for a second and third punishment is very much greater. Being released on good behavior leads the pupil to make an effort to control himself that cannot result from the simple memory of past punishment and pain. This plan not only reduces punishing to the minimum, but it decreases in corresponding degree wrongdoing among pupils. It means that the worst mend their ways and Department] DISCIPLINE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS 697 remain in school. It means higher moral standards and better self-control on the playground and in the schoolroom. The wise use of probation prac- tically does away with all forms of corporal punishment. The probational system of the juvenile court is used successfully in managing truant and industrial schools. These most refractory pupils need probation. They need firm teachers with big hearts to apply proba- tion. The government must reach the home life of the pupil and the work of the school must in some way influence and direct even the outside and home play of pupils. Probation and an abundance of industrial and pur- poseful work and study are actually reforming a large percentage of this worst class of pupils in a number of institutions thruout the country. Best of all, a wider use of probation in the public schools will reform most of these worst pupils before they become so refractory as to make it necessary to send them to the truant or reform school. R. W. Himehck, principal of the normal school of the city of Cleveland, who has made a careful study of the causes of truancy in both Indianapolis and Cleveland, finds wrong home environment to be the first cause and wrong methods of discipline to be the second cause. He says: In my judgment most of our school punishment is of a vindictive, revengeful sort. As soon as a pupil steps over the line, the teacher wants to exterminate him, that is he wants to get him out of the way. The teacher works on the plan that such a pupil is wholly bad, and assumes on the other hand that reforms should be instantaneous. This attitude of mind and heart on the part of the teacher naturally makes the pupil worse. We have many strong teachers, but I have foimd many instances where the child was plainly made worse by wrong methods of control on the part of the teacher until it became necessary to segregate him from the other children. There is certainly a demand for a much wider use of probation in the public schools. The following is what Charles W. Eliot, ex-president of Harvard Col- lege, has to say on this question: Pupils who are decidedly and persistently "refractory" shoiild, in my opinion, be permanently eliminated from any ordinary public school. They belong in a school by themselves — a school conducted with the intention of reforming its pupils, and not of caerely punishing or imprisoning them. For pupils that are only occasionally refractory, exhortation, the creation of new interests, and brief periods of probation are the most successful methods. The school for refractory pupils should make large use of farm abor and manual work of many sorts, in the effort to secure relief from bad inheritances ir dispositions thru interesting hard work. Herbert Brownell, of the University of Nebraska, says: Probation, after all, in dealing with people, young or old, is but affording a fair oppor- unity for them to get right and make good after having gone wrong thru ignorance of vhat are better ways, or from impulse misdirected. Probation assimies the sanity of luman nature in general and that the desire for doing right is natural. All home training if children worthy of approval is but a series of probationary steps. The school is an xtension of home instruction and training and may well use the probationary methods mployed in the best homes. The probational system implies faith in pupils who desire to correct )ast mistakes. It is an accepted fact that one is likely to find that for which 698 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Eleme he is looking. This is especially true of the teacher who plays the part 1 the detective in order to learn of the wrong acts committed by any pupil and true also of the teacher who searches for good in any pupil. He does not permit his teacher to be disappointed in the quest. There is no surer way of developing the bad in the nature of the child than to distrust him and no surer way of developing the good than to have faith in him. The impelling force in my life has not come from my teachers who were suspicious of me, but from my parents, teachers, and friends who looked upon my errors as accidents and were glad each time to give me another chance and who made it plain that they had faith in me. Probation implies faith. Let us use probation more widely and more wisely in our public schools. WORKING PLANS FOR THE HOME TEACHER AMANDA MATHEWS CHASE, REPRESENTING COMMISSION OF HOUSING AAD IMMIGRATION FOR CALIFORNIA My text is the Home Teacher Law passed by our last California legis- lature. Here is its gist: It shall be the duty of the home teachers to work in the homes of the pupils, instruct- ing children and adults in matters relating to school attendance and preparation therefor; also in sanitation, in the English language, in household duties, such as the purchase, preparation, and use of food and clothing, and in the fimdamental principles of the Ameri-i can system of government and the rights and duties of citizenship. We of the coast feel this to be a momentous and far-reaching piece of legislation. Not that we claim to have invented the visiting teacher. Under many names, she is already part of the public-school system in several cities of the United States. We do claim, however, that California leads in giving the movement state-wide backing. The home teacher is employed by the people, and to the people her services are due, not donated. The pressing need for the home teacher is in the foreign quarters of cities, since immigrant education is at present a critical issue between the United States and destiny. As rapidly as may be, however, the home teacher will be placed in all congested districts.! Our present bill allows no more than this, but the work will, in time, demand its logical extension to wherever, in town or village, living condi- tions and domestic ideals fall short of our American standards. But alii that will be another story, when it happens. In blazing trails for our first year's eflFort, we need consider only what the home teacher can do in and for a congested neighborhood. The new law broadens our base of activity in such a school districl. Heretofore the cry has been "Americanize the children and they will Ameri-| canize the home!" This topsy-turvy method flies in the face of natural social evolution. What it has brought into the home is confusion and often Department] WORKING PLANS FOR THE HOME TEACHER 699 disaster, since un-Americanized parents lose control over their Americanized children who consequently are liable to fall into lawless ways and frequently bring up as delinquents before the juvenile court. The fault does not lie in giving the children too much education but in dividing the family against itself by bestowing too little on its other members. Latterly we have been more assiduous about gathering the foreign fathers into evening schools and we have still more sweeping efforts in con- templation for this severely important labor. The immigrant mother, how- ever, has been left almost entirely out of accoimt. We have ignored the natural homemaker and yet tried to Americanize the home. We now see our error and are undertaking, here in California, to educate the entire family instead of discriminating against that important member, the mother. The degree of success which we shall be able to bring to your attention next year largely depends on the working plans with which we put our new act into execution. The act is as explicit as it is the business of such a law to be. Its very elasticity is in its favor if we have the wisdom to use that property wisely in formulating our corollaries. For corollaries we must have. A compulsory education law, for instance, is not intended to take the place of a course of study and a school program. Even so, our home education law must be supplemented by instructions to home teachers regarding the presentation of the designated subjects, these instructions I roughly corresponding to the grade teacher's course of study. The home I teacher should also be provided with a program, even tho it be an india- rubber one, able to stretch indefinitely at the pull of emergency. It is not desirable that the school district have two heads. I believe the status of the home teacher is that of a specialist responsible to the principal of the public school with which she is connected, a part of the I field force of an elastic system. While the bill is noncommittal on the point, it seems natural to speak of the home teacher as feminine, since most of the activity outlined is such as would naturally be assigned to women. There is in the field, however, i place for a lesser number of men to attend to certain phases of the work, particularly along the survey line, finding out where the men and the boys spend their evenings and their money, whether or not and why the saloon is the pleasantest spot in the district, dealing with men's lodging-houses, and rendering other valuable service along lines not practicable to women. Now to indicate sketchily a tentative working program for a home teacher. It would be quite natural for her to wish to be at her public school before nine o'clock in order to confer with the principal and teachers regarding any special children whose homes they particularly desire to have visited. The forenoon would just as naturally be passed in making those visits and others on her own initiative. ^ 706 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementaiy At every house her first endeavor should be to wm the friendship and confidence of the mother. These visits must be imhurried. If the visitor is being initiated into the very heart of some particular home, its problems, and difficulties, that is her time to hear the whole story even tho she gets no farther that forenoon. A certain pastoral element enters into these interviews. Irving King in his Social Aspects of Education, remarks on the modern tendency of society to gather up one and another function of changing institutions and bestow them on the public school. Those two dear old-fashioned friends and advisers, the family doctor and the family pastor, have shed each a scrap of his mantle on the shoulders of the home teacher. Like them she is to be a real intimate possession of the family. May she be endowed with wisdom and grace to be worthy of this high phase of her profession and may she emulate doctor and pastor in the sense of the sacredness of confidence. She must refrain from making the morning's experiences the theme of racy, gossiping narratives to entertain her friends or fellow-workers. She will surely never use the word "slmn" and will be chary of the word "case." We shovddn't like to be "cases," not even to the angels of heaven, nor should we appreciate hearing those same angels refer to their earthward flights as "slumming expeditions." The opening wedge into many family situations will be "attendance and the preparation therefor." Indeed, one of our prominent California edu- cators rejoices in the home teacher as a "glorified attendance ofllcer." To read backward into the causes why the children of some particular family attend school irregularly or in poor physical condition is to diagnose the weakness and perhaps the tragedy of that family preliminary to the work of social reconstruction. For this, the home teacher will call to her aid the various ameUorative agencies of the community, the charities, district nurses, and the like, as the need of their services is indicated by her investigations. She must not herself be connected in people's minds with the bestowal of material gifts. She will, however, have some share in problems of employment since she will natiu^y come to know something of the quality of the workers. Realizing the narrow, limited lives of many foreign women in this country, she will make every effort in her power to connect them with mimicipal centers of recreation, playgrounds, and parks. Juvenile diflSculties which the home teacher is endeavoring to settle out of court should take precedence of all other business. It is in ways like this that the need of a flexible program is apparent. It must allow her tc adapt herself to the necessities of her own particular neighborhood. It must give her liberty in hours and in days that her people may be served. It must not prevent her throwing herself into any emergency she comes across and relinquishing it only when proper assistance is available. So much for the mornings. Let us now consider the afternoons. ta Department) WORKING PLANS FOR THE HOME TEACHER 701 Every school located in such a neighborhood as will require the services of a home teacher should have, as part of its equipment, a "school cottage" or its equivalent in housekeeping rooms within the school building. This must be a model American home, small but complete, attractive but simple and inexpensive. During the forenoons, this cottage can be used in connection with the grade work in domestic science. But afternoons it should be entirely at the disposal of the home teacher. I doubt the advisability of her actually living here as it is after all only a modified schoolroom and the teacher must keep in human touch with the outside world, but decidedly it should be her official residence. Here she should be distinctly a hostess welcoming the mothers as into her own home. The cottage itself will be a vital object-lesson. How can we expect a foreign woman to imitate a variety of house-furnishing and housekeeping which she has never seen ? Here is something intelligible to go home and copy. Hence the ultimate ideal for the afternoon work will be to have it conducted for groups of mothers assembled in the cottage every school day ixcept Friday, Friday afternoons being reserved for special uses. At the cottage, the home teacher may be assisted by the instructors in sewing, cooking, and music. In addition to being hostess, she herself will teach English, civics, sanitation, and other subjects. Weaving may be ncluded in the cottage instruction. The home teacher should interest lerseK in fostering such handcrafts as she finds the people have brought :rom their own countries and in connecting them with a market for their ^ares. The sewing should be practical and include garment-making, tnending, and making over. The cooking taught in the "real kitchen" of the cottage should be con- ined to simple, wholesome dishes. About once a month, each cooking :lass should jointly prepare a complete dinner, set it forth on a white .ablecloth with flowers in the center of the table, and partake of the feasts. Vet nothing must be too fine or elaborate for home copying. In teaching civics to foreigners, the heart must be appealed to quite as nuch as the understanding. The fundamental principles of our govern- nent are such as to arouse patriotism when properly presented. These mpressions should be deepened by hero tales, patriotic songs, and flag ixercises. The teaching of EngUsh to adult foreigners, many of whom are illiterate n their own tongue, is a fine pedagogical art with a psychology of its own. The instruction must be live, practical, interesting, even dramatic. Now to dispose of the left-over Friday afternoons. Let them crown the abor of the weeks. One should be for a "Mothers' Day" celebration in the assembly room vhen all the mothers of all the groups are entertained with a program fur- lished by a different grade each month. There should be an address of 1 702 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION fElementi; i welcome by a pupil, songs and recitations honoring motherhood. Aftei the program, the mothers are invited to inspect a display of pupils' work Refreshments are served by the children. The lesson of seeing thei;- parents the honored guests of the school is a wholesome one. Another Friday afternoon is needed for an "At Home" in the school cottage when the mothers may display their handcraft work, exchange lace patterns, sing folk-songs, and feel almost as if they had enjoyed a brief sojourn back in the far lands from which they came. The remaining Friday afternoons could be given over to a special variet}- of visiting — the distinctly social call, only long enough for the exchange of amenities. That these calls constitute a tour of inspection looking for evidences of cottage instruction in the houses will be the home teacher's professional secret. All improvements will be noted with heartfelt praise. If the visitor has added some special touches to her dress, it will contribute to the joyous spirit of the occasion. As to her ordinary costiune, let it not be a uniform. There is nothing undemocratic in the district nurse's uniform since she would wear it when called professionally to the richest dwelling. But the home teacher must give the impression of dressing like other! teachers. Her working gowns can easily be simple and sanitary without emphasizing these qualities to a conspicuous and pharisaical degree. Every family, foreign or native, should be visited, but necessity should place the emphasis. The home teacher may reasonably be required to spend one evening a week at her civic center and thus she can do much to keep the neighborhood in touch with the advantages there offered them. Finally, those who enter this splendid pioneer field must realize the unity imderlying the few and simple provisions of the Home Teacher Billj The general aim for these next years is to put immigrant mothers in com- mand of their own situation by correlating them with the best America has to offer. Hence no visit or lesson can be limited or hteral in its import. It must open out beyond itself into the vision of the whole achievement. THE NEW CITIZENSHIP \ FANNIE FERN ANDREWS, SECRETARY, AMERICAN SCHOOL PEACE LEAGUTj BOSTON, MASS. In the midst of the European upheavals, when civilization is hanging in the balance, the United States stands out as the one great nation at peace capable of extending her good offices for the re-establishment of la^^j and order. Her unique position and her traditions give her the leadership in creating a new form of world society which will lay the foundations of a higher world life. We cannot escape this responsibility, for this country has become an active part of the world and as such must play her part in it If civilization breaks down in Europe, we shall suffer just as vitally, althc Department] THE NEW CITIZENSHIP 703 not SO directly, as the European countries who are now engaged in mutual destruction. Not only in the interests of civilization then, but for the preservation of our own ideals must we assume this new obligation. The development of the American ideal depends on the way in which this coun- try will react on the military, economic, and moral conditions of the world. This reaction means the beginning of a new citizenship which in the future must demand a knowledge of the forces which advance or retard the general betterment of mankind. Every citizen of our country should be conscious of this new obligation and should understand the method by which the United States, in this critical time, may render this service to the world. Our greatest opportunity lies in working out a plan which will secure the world against another such catastrophe. The beginnings of reconstruc- tion which will follow this war can be made only by a neutral people who fortunately find themselves free from the terrible and bitter animosities which now control warring nations. No nation is more fitted to perform this world service than the United States, whose laws are founded on the principles of democracy and the ideals of human brotherhood. This, our highest service to humanity, can be rendered only if during the war we are able to keep ourselves from being drawn into the maelstrom of hate, revenge, and fear. But we cannot avoid this danger by isolating our- selves; there is no such thing as isolation for any nation in the world today. Whether or not the United States may be privileged to play the part of mediation, it is distinctively her opportunity, after the peace settlement conference, to press the plans for a political organization which will give security to each nation and allow it to pursue its own ideals thru an inter- dependence necessary for an unhampered progress of civilization. This must be the first step in reconstruction — the first advance which can be made to re-establish the spirit of harmony and good- will which was making such distinct progress before the war. In the world congress, which must surely follow the peace settlement conference, civilization will either retard or advance, and it may be that on the attitude of the United States will li depend in large measure whether one or the other takes place. Obviously t ' here the United States will assume a new role, for this is a critical departure i from her national traditions. ' Our education should react to the meaning of all this, should make ready to train future citizens to undertake the duties involved in the changed conditions. Henceforth, American citizenship must assimie these broader functions. To point out the methods by which the schools may teach these new obligations is the purpose of the American School Peace League. In my article on "The War: What Should Be Said about It in the Schools," I endeavored to point out the new responsibilities of the teacher occasioned by the European war. I emphasized at that time the importance of arrest- ing the development of race antagonisms and of teaching that the great 1 704 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementaiy idea of American patriotism is to wipe out racial prejudices. If the teacher is to follow the forces which are to make such changes in civilization, it will be necessary to keep abreast of the practical plans offered for the reform of international relations. The most feasible idea yet advanced is that of the League to Enforce Peace, organized in Independence Hall on June 17, 191 5, and indorsed by groups of eminent men in England, Holland, Ger- many, Switzerland, and other countries. This indicates the trend of inter- national thought. Providing for a judicial tribunal to settle justiciable disputes between nations, a council of conciliation to consider non-justiciable cases, and periodic conferences between the signatory powers to formulate and codify rules of international law, this League, which is headed by ex-President Taf t, contemplates the building up of a judicial and legislative body capable of dealing with world relations. In further providing that the signatory powers shall jointly use forthwith both their economic and military forces against any one of their number that goes to war before submitting its dispute to the judicial tribimal or to the council of concilia- tion, the League guarantees a sanction for its judicial decisions and paves the way for gradual disarmament among the nations. This League there- fore contemplates a government which will minister to the welfare of the people. The time is not far off when international organization will be taught in our schools if only to elucidate the real functions of our national govern- ment. Our teachers can begin at once, however, to teach the spirit of good-will, for the reconstruction which is to follow the war is dependent upon the dissemination of this spirit. The American School Peace League has published "A Course in Citizenship — With Good- Will Doing Service," whose aim is to instil in the child, in his gradually widening life-experiences, an intelligent spirit of co-operation and good-will. The eighth grade of this course introduces the new conception of citizenship, and deals with the larger social group, the world. Here the purpose is to show that civiliza- tion progresses only by the mutual assistance of all nations, each making its peculiar contribution. The course leads to an appreciation of all these efforts, explains the various agencies which have brought the world into the family of nations, and develops the thought that good-will is the fimda- mental principle in the promotion of international harmony. By teaching this spirit of citizenship, the teacher is inculcating a broad and sympathetic outlook toward the people of all nations and is implanting just and Uberal thoughts with regard to human society. The teaching of history offers a distinctive opportunity of interpreting the new efforts for world organization. One of the most important activ- ities of the League is that undertaken by the history committee which has nearly completed a general course in history for the elementary schools and a series of type studies from the fourth grade to the eighth. Many educa- tors have long felt that our histories place far too much emphasis upon the Department] . THE NEW CITIZENSHIP 705 political and military phases of history and far too little upon the develop- ment of the social institutions which have, in their particular fashion, influenced the destiny of our nation. So, too, the relation of the United States to world history has been too much slighted. The committee points out that the problems of developing our resources, of extending our indus- tries, of developing education, and of working out the unique experiment of a federated nation have been solved by the representatives of different nations imbued with the American spirit of liberty and justice, and that the activities involved in the solution of these problems form a conspicuous part of the history of our country. The committee further points out, in the type studies on "The United States and the World" and "The World Family," that our country has always been a part of the world and that in the future it is destined to play a still larger part in the councils of the nations. The committee urges teachers to develop in their pupils an intelligent and sympathetic understanding of foreign affairs and states that the use of the course and the type studies should result in the develop- ment of the ideal that the economic and moral welfare of humanity demands uninterrupted co-operation among the nations and the reign of reason and justice founded upon international good-will. Such instruction will teach the high significance of those things which enter into a true conception of civilization. From its first inception, the American School Peace League has aimed to enlist the co-operation of the teachers of other coimtries "to promote the interests of international justice and fraternity," and for this purpose its secretary has addressed the principal educational bodies in most of the countries of Europe. The School Peace League of Great Britain and Ire- land was organized after an address by the secretary of the American League before a representative group of British educators. The League is a member of the Litemational Association of the National Federations of Teachers, and sends a delegate to each annual meeting which is held in the different countries of Europe. Peace Day bulletins, modeled after those prepared by the secretary, have been published in Holland, Belgivun, and Himgary, and have reached the great mass of teachers in those coimtries. Before the war, then, a beginning had been made among the teachers of the world to co-operate in the promotion of international harmony, and we must not lose sight of this spirit, even at this time when the teaching of hatred toward the enemy is officially prescribed. The solidarity of teachers is the greatest hope for eliminating the deep underlying causes of war. The teachers of the world can accomplish this, and here again it becomes the opportimity of the American teachers to make the first advances in the commg reconstruction period. Only by the spread of intelligence, knowl- edge, and good-will can we hope for the permanent reform of international relations necessary for the future well-being of the world. The new citizen- ship should be permeated with the imiversal spirit of good-will. I 1 7o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementaij UNCONSCIOUS DISCIPLINE— THE BLEND OF THE ^ SELF-ACTING GROUP * JOHN R. KIRK, PRESroENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KIRKSVILLE, MO. For the patent seat fastened to the floor in order to obstruct school activities, we begin to substitute movable chairs that allow comfort and contribute to activities. The rural and village schools, as well as the cit) school, begin to have the telephone, the portable organ, the swinging globe, the stereopticon with storage battery always ready for instantaneous use in the geography lesson, the literature lesson, the history lesson, and all the lessons. AppUances multiply for manual arts, household arts, and the ele- mental sciences; likewise libraries, decorated schoolroom walls, ventilated indoor toilet, shower bath; regulated heat and ventilation; the power pump to give running water; the gasoline engine and electric generator; but all these external accessories of education may be mechanically operated without any adequate appreciation of the one great fundamental and ever- lasting internal vibrant force, the stream of throbbing life in the children themselves. I therefore draw for you in simple language a life-picture illustrating my theme. It comprises a few hundred children. They typify any small village or consoUdated school, children from four years of age in the kinder-l garten to seventeen years of age in the high school. They are always inl motion. Recitation programs are broken into quite freely. The children play a little, then work awhile. From the out-of-door games they rushl back to their studies with glowing countenance and rapid pulse and healthy perspiring bodies. They are self-vitalized. The school gives them oppor- tunity for that which is wholesome and enjoyable. They respond with a willingness not otherwise to be seen in school education. Children do not have to be taught how to study. When given natural conditions they do no droning over assignments. They anticipate what is needed in thdij lessons. They have a new intellectuaUty, an increased capacity of inter- preting problems. They read with penetration. They sense the situation in study as they do in play. They are unconscious of discipline and co-operate with generous unselfishness. I In the organized game and play, the teacher is leader part of the time but the children constantly think out things for themselves. They rise tcj unlooked for excellence in the interpretation, idealization, and dramatiza,-' tion of their Uterature, their history, and their other regular studies. The shirk and the idler disappear. Children are not naturally lazy or indifferec t any more than bugs and mosquitoes are naturally lazy or indifferenii Children are not active in body and sluggish in mind. Under all natura' conditions both their bodies and minds are active. How imnatural it is when we fasten the children into immovable patented furniture and seek by all available means to force them to be inactive! How abnormal it i? epertment] UNCONSCIOUS DISCIPLINE 707 |for us to expect their minds to be active and receptive and responsive while re compel them to inhibit all their natural impulses and to hold their )recious bodies in fixed attitudes for many minutes without change! How lure retard the heart action, and by rendering the circulation sluggish, also lecrease nerve action, and thereby repress mind action! But we begin to )w better and to do better. Each morning the children come running happily to the call to lessons, /"ith vigorous heartbeat, they read, they work, they study a little while. Then we send them in groups for a few minutes to the indoor gymnasium rcise or the out-of-door game to receive them back in exhilarated state ibody and mind ready to do what we would have them do, even in an -time "study," and ready to do it with a will because they know they presently be called again to participate in the song or the folk-dance ar the manual arts or the fine arts or the household arts or other motivating it activity of body and mind. Thus with movable furniture and other lodem appurtenances, and with impressionable, sympathetic, whole- ouled, sane-spirited teachers, the children find school never repressive, irer tiresome, but nearly always joyous and nearly always exhilarating. With one-third of the time systematically given over to organized physi- activity, the children in the other two-thirds of the time accomplish "more in their studies than they did under the old-time screwed- to- the-floor scheme and glued-to-the-seat discipline. I venture one illustration of what I saw this year. It was a practice school of a teachers' college, with children from four to seventeen years of age. From September to May, there is a twice-a-month extemporized half- liour program given by all the children from fom: to seventeen years of age, all assembling at one time on a specially constructed platform. The kinder- garten children are in front, the high-school children at the rear, all being massed somewhat compactly. They assemble in the presence of seven hundred teachers and intending teachers. In the program the children of one group sing beautifully. Those of another group co-ordinate mind and body action in the sword dance or the rhythmic rubber-ball game or the Highland fling or other folk-dance. Some give relay races, others competitive games. From the old point of view, the children are quite irregular in their coming and going. They are not massed in straight hne, they do not keep step. Some sit on the floor, r)thers stand up. They all eagerly watch all the games. No one gets into disorder, for disorder spoils the game. Since all the children participate, all the children enjoy. All the children desire all others to have a chance. A.11 the children desire to see what all the others can do. The old-time solo performance is discarded. Cultivation of introspec- tion and personal awkwardness thru standing alone and saying declamations IS not permitted. Embarrassing self-consciousness disappears. As soon as the game is well learned so that it begins to be performed somewhat i 708 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION lElementery automatically, it is cast aside and not given again because it has lost its educative force. Nothing is allowed to become automatic. Thus mental concentration and mental alertness are constantly stimulated and human manikins are not produced. No child is left to act in isolation. No child is so placed as to center his attention upon himself to the exclusion of others. Opportunity for self-consciousness is not given. Hence the children leani thru co-operative and sympathetic group action to play their parts in the social whole. Thru plays and games appealing to children's instincts, the raw recruits the partially trained children become alert and impressionable and respon- sive. The bad child, if there is such a thing, is swallowed up in the self- acting group of good children. The awkward squad grows anxious and, sensitive, alert, receptive, and responsive. The child unaccustomed to co-ordinating mind and body is awakened by the force of semiconscious imitation. And there comes about an unconscious discipline, a self-control and co-operating spontaneity. It is the blend of the self-acting group. By intermixing study and class exercise and play thruout the school, a new purpose animates the children. We therefore freely and intentionally iiitermix at all hours of the day the study lesson, exercise and game, arith- metic and song, woodwork and spelling lesson, play and study, sunshine and shower bath. Each school exercise functions in stimulating each of the others to the highest attainable effectiveness. And the child loves the school. Thru constantly changing the program in the intermixing of studies and play the children learn to love school and to love right conduct and to grow more happy and more healthy and more sanely self-active. WHAT BECOMES OF THE GRAMMAR-SCHOOL GRADUATES AND THE HIGH-SCHOOL NON-GRADUATES? H. E. VAN NORMAN, VICE-DIRECTOR AND DEAN, UNIVERSITY FARM, DAVIS, CAI. So many young people completing the grammar-school courses in our American schools have never entered the high school, or, if entering, never finish the high-school course, that the question of why this is so is receiving the serious consideration of thoughtful educators. The answer made i: that the courses are not adapted to the needs of these particular younj2 people, as they do not expect to go on to the college or university courses In the rural communities, as well as in the city, probably an even large! proportion of boy graduates from the grammar school fail to complete theii high-school course. Observation shows that many of these young meii after they are too old to go back to the high school awaken to the need ol more education. To these young men between the ages of eighteen and twenty-five, tht state of California offers at its University Farm School at Davis a three Department] PUPILS WITH UNCOMPLETED COURSES 709 years' course in agriculture — a course in which the only mathematics given is that which applies to the solution of agricultural problems, such as the arithmetic of balancing feed mixtures for live stock, the making of fertilizer mixtures for crops and orchards, the computation of irrigation ditches, the computation of building materials, etc., as well as that necessary in ordi- nary ranch survey practice. The work in English is confined to business forms and the oral and written expression incident to the work of the course. In the sciences, those which are the foundation of agricultural practice, such as chemistry and botany, plant pathology, bacteriology, etc., receive the most attention. Practice work is given in every branch of instruction with a view to illustrating fundamental principles and providing sufficient manipulating skill to make reasonably sure that the student has acquired an understanding of how and why to apply the theoretical knowledge to field practice. The judging and feeding of animals, the operation of incu- bators and brooders, the planting, pruning, and spraying of fruit trees, the planting and cultivation of garden plats, the assembling and operation of farm machinery, the making of butter and cheese, and many other and varied practical operations are included in these courses. The success attending the efforts of graduates of the university farm course suggests that it is helpfully adapted to the needs of young men going out into the business of making a living on the land. The question is how can this help be brought to the attention of the thousands of young men in this and other states offering similar opportunities to the public, for many of the states offer some form of opportunity in agricultural education to this class of young men. California has set aside a ranch of 779 acres with its live stock, poultry, orchards, fields, laboratories, creamery, dormi- tories, etc., for their education. How can they be made aware of this fact ? Investigations already conducted show that nearly 50 per cent of the students answering the question why they came to the university farm did so because some friend told them of it, suggested, advised, or urged them to go. Others discovered it thru their own reading or accidental visit. The grammar school, the high school, and the university keep track of the university or college student until graduation, but who knows where the young man is who dropped out of the grammar school on completing his course or out of the high school before completing this course ? How may he be made aware of the opportunity the state offers him ? What agency can inform him of his opportunity, can urge him to take advantage of it, can encourage him to overcome the diflSculties which to him may seem to prevent his attaining the education which at fifteen he may value lightly and at twenty may want without realizing that it is attainable ? What can the high-school teacher, the school principal, the country superintendent, the county-school officers, and the one-room rural-school teacher do for this large class of non-high-school graduates ? 1 7IO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elemem Few of those who finish the grammar school finish the high school. Of those who drop out in a rural state, many should be interested in train- ing for success in agricultural pursuits. What can our educational system do for this class of yoimg people? We have an outdoor school for the ailing; we have a reform school for the vicious; we have a school for the feeble-minded ; we have a night school for those who must work in the day- time; we have the truant oflficer to keep in the schoolroom those whom the law says must be schooled in spite of themselves. But what are we doing for that large class of wholesome, healthy, eflScient young men who, thru misfortune or short-sightedness, discontinue their education with the minimum the law permits, only to discover their mistake at eighteen to twenty-five (the average age of the entrants to the University Farm School is twenty years and one month) ? In the opinion of the speaker, the teacher in the rural schools, espe- cially the one-room schools, whose social life is cast among the rural young people, is in the best position to know which of the young men should be interested in adding to their present education and practical ranch expe- rience the training and knowledge to be secured in the University Farm School course in agriculture. If in addition to any personal encouragement the rural-school teacher may give the possible future farm-school student, she would send his name to the school, its influence added to her own would often induce the young rancher to increase his earning power, broaden his view, and stimulate his ambition by study and work with other ambitious young men in the agricultural course. THE LARGE VERSUS THE SMALL UNIT FOR RURAL-SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION EDITH K. O. CLARK, STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, CHEYENNE, WYO. In studying the relative merits of the large versus the small unit for rural-school administration and supervision we find a problem, or rather the solution of many problems, of the rural school. One-room schools will always exist, but individual boards of education for each school are not necessary. It is just as unreasonable as to have a distinct and separate board of education for each school building in a city and just as fatal to progress. It is probably not necessary to present arguments against the one nor in favor of the other, but more profitable to spend this time in briefly emphasizing a few of the most conspicuous advantages of the larger unit. I Those states and coimties which have been wise enough to avoid the tragic mistake of cutting their districts up into small bits, which would isolate individual schools into weak and meaningless units, are to be heartily con- 1 Department] RURAL-SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION 71 1 gratulated. They have had the wisdom and courage to combat the narrow- minded prejudice which clamors for the smaller unit and have preserved to their schools the possibiUty for growth and development which will eventually place the rural school on par with that of the well-organized and well-equipped city system. The advantages of the large district may be grouped under three general heads from the standpoint of (i) financing, (2) supervising, (3) standard- izing. I have placed these heads in this order because often the greatest drawback to well-equipped schools is the question of funds. In the large (iistrict this is simplified. A part of a county or commimity may be so fortunate as to contain a railroad, a mining district, a rich agricultural or stock country. Other parts of the community may be newly settled and not yet yielding taxes altho contributing indirectly to the business prosperity of the railroad, village, or other richer sections. It is just as reasonable that the funds for school purposes shall come from a general tax cover- ing all of the larger district as that county roads, government, etc., shall be supported by a general county tax. The schools of a community are one of its public enterprises and should be supported on that basis and not be dependent upon a limited local tax. The question of finance also includes the possibiUties for equipping the schools in the district with the necessary books and apparatus. Large districts buying supplies in large quantities can secure much better prices. All of the schools may have the benefit of the supplementary readers in various subjects without the expense of supplying each school with the full assortment necessary to thoro and com- prehensive work, because sets of various texts may be circulated among the schools. After being used in one for a given number of weeks or months, they may be exchanged with another, in this way avoiding monot- ony and keeping the child's interest constantly aroused by presenting new and attractive work to be done. Not only is this system practical for supplementary readers, but for texts in other subjects in which it is impor- tant to have a broader understanding than that made possible by being limited to one authority year after year. School libraries might be ex- changed among the buildings in the larger district. Without dwelling longer upon the advantages of the large unit from a financial point of view, let us consider the question of supervision. It cannot be disputed that to make a school system eflBicient there must be a reasonable amovmt of wise professional supervision. In the small rural district this is impossible. District trustees are not qualified nor willing to devote time to school supervision. Often they have not the training nor experience which would render them competent to advise a teacher in the matter of methods by which the best results might be secured. The county superintendent cannot give the time to the individual schools which they need, due to the fact that her territory is too large to permit of frequent visits. Eliminating the possibility of supervision from these two sources, i 712 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary the small district school is left to work out its own salvation, and as a result it is left out of the forward movement which must carry with it all edu- cational plants that are really to serve a purpose in training the youth of our country. This lack of supervision and consequent deterioration of rural schools is responsible also for the impossibiUty to secure well-trained and efficient teachers for such communities. Teachers who are looking toward advance- ment feel that they cannot afford to accept positions in schools where con- ditions do not offer a field for up-to-date and constructive service. They seek employment where their modem training may find support and co-operation and naturally apply in the district where there is a school system. Until recently this classification could be appUed only to the city school, but patrons and trustees are realizing the imperative need for bring- ing about a changed condition in the country and the result is the practice of consoUdating into one large district, often fifty by twenty-five miles in extent, the many small, one-building districts which formerly occupied this territory. The board of education is increased to six members and a district superintendent is employed to act as executive officer of the board, giving all of his time to supervision, systematizing the curriculum and adapting it to the local needs and interests of the community. The district superintendent looks after the purchasing of suppUes, the repairs of school buildings, the qualifications of teachers applying for positions, and, in short, by devoting his entire time to the work, makes possible that unification of the schools into an organized system which is described in the third head of my outline as "standardizing." This final accomplishment of the larger district is the most vital of all, 1 since it is only in this way that the rural schools can ever hope to attain the efficiency of the city which year after year calls from the country those who wish to give the best educational advantages to their children. It should not be necessary, and, under the plan just discussed, would not be necessary for people ever to have to take their children into the city for school privileges. Every large district would have its own system adequate : to the needs of its people and providing its boys and girls with a rural high | school of high standard which would offer courses especially fitting the' needs of the community. This is not a dream of imattainable ideals, but a very practical state- ment of conditions which could and should exist in every rural community. The plan has already been tried in some parts of Wyoming and is being! adopted in other sections of our state with gratifying results. Thinking people are realizing that it is the only possible way of giving to the rural; boys and girls educational advantages equal to their city cousins without sending them away from home. artment] THE SPECIAL TEACHER 713 THE SPECIAL TEACHER SUSAN M. DORSEY, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CAL. A recent definition of the "special teacher" should be quoted: "One rho teaches any subject not given in school in the days of our forefathers." am indebted to a special teacher for this illuminating definition, given Ijoubtless in a spirit of jest. It illustrates two points: the bewilderment of |lhe general pubUc at the great array of new subjects finding place in our iools which for want of a better generalization are referred to as special, id the unthinking attitude of many educators who accept these subjects i something inevitable or as something striking and appealing without any conviction of their worth or any adequate realization of their educa- lional significance. For the purposes of this discussion, I shall define the special teacher as who gives training in those subjects which obviously connect with the itmde community life and respond easily to the child's need for action and ^ression. These subjects include all manner of manual work, involve or less of activity, and serve to introduce the child to the physical Kties of life. These educational readjustments are proving more or less puzzling ses and just at present the stress is falling on subjects that have to • largely with the physical realities of life. A great group of such subjects developing, calling for a somewhat different type of teacher from the iitional schoolmaster. The call is for those who can train in the funda- |iental processes by which the race has been wont to satisfy its physical The "special teacher" has evolved. I shall ask you to consider the relations of the special teacher to other •achers and the school and then the relation of special work to community fe. In broadening the scope of instruction in our schools, the opportunities r misunderstanding have been countless. The advocates of intellectual aining only once looked askance at the introduction of music and drawing id later on their feeling was akin to disgust when one by one the "bread- id-butter" subjects knocked for entrance. Into this atmosphere of dis- ust and suspicion the poor special teacher has made her entry. Small nder that there have been clashes and heartburnings. Even now, in the tual working out of programs and salary schedules, there are many oppor- iiities for unpleasantness that detract from perfect harmony and remain echoes of the one-time distrust and dislike of the special teacher inter- per. The first condition that tempts to misunderstanding is the fact that the ecial teacher often works in a room not her own as in the case of music id drawing. She enters a place where, to a certain extent, the atmosphere 7t4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Eementa has been already created. Possibly the regular teacher is not sympathet toward her particular brand of special work and is not careful to conceal h contempt for such "efifeminate" subjects as music and drawing, or he ma have deprecated the fact in the hearing of the children that time should b taken from arithmetic and reading to be spent on sewing, sloyd, ar. gardening. It is not always easy for the special teacher to overcome th; handicap and win from the children a hearty co-operation in a subjec against which a suspicion of unworthiness has been lodged. HappUy, sue prejudices are fast disappearing and in many school systems diversified wor holds an honored place. Another difficulty of atmosphere sometimes confronts the speci: teacher who enters a room in which there is no prejudice against speci; work, but in which there always pervades an air of distrust, confusion, d disharmony. The regular teacher and her pupils are not at one and as result the special teacher can bring the children into a mood to respon happily to their work only by the expenditure of much nervous energy an valuable time. It is not an imknown thing for the room teacher to stan idly by watching the distressing process. Out of sorts herself with hi pupil contingent, she finds, perhaps imconsciously, a selfish satisfaction 3 the embarrassment of the special teacher, for does it not furnish confirmir evidence of the general unworthiness of this particular student brood? Another hindrance in the way of the special teacher is the ranking < her work as recreation and relaxation. The latter it surely should be, the extent that all change of work should prove relaxing. No annoyan- that the special teacher has to encoimter is more trying, especially if tl children have imbibed this misconception from their elders. In meeting these difiiculties, the teacher is aided somewhat by t\ nature of her subject, which appeals to the child because it offers oppcf tunities for expression or because it deals with concrete material rather tha with symbols as is the case so largely in reading, grammar, and arithmeti it enables the child to make something. The enticing nature of the su- ject, however, cannot relieve the special teacher from high endeavor if h" work in wood, metal, weaving, sewing, cooking, and the like is to prove a agency thru which shall be brought home to the child some of the priml necessities of the race. This leads me to the next point. The work of the special teacher ca5 for a high type of excellence. Not everyone or anyone will do — ^m(t emphatically not. The special teacher must be able to adapt herself aii her work to several grades. This calls for varied experience and a gol degree of adjustibility. Then, too, the very method of the special room is markedly social a 1 tends to disorder. There is much of action and interaction among ta pupils, which call for a teacher who understands moods, who is undisturhi by physical activities and their incident hum, who enjoys the processes f i )epartment] THE SPECIAL TEACHER 715 jroduction, and enters into the child's love to create. These are large lemands. They imply warmth of nature and a certain enthusiasm in see- ng the chips fly not possessed by everyone. There is sometimes a dis- )osition to minimize the difficulties in special teaching. Let music serve ,s instance of the many things that must be attended to at once. There nust be correct tone at the right time and good tone quality, else something )esides music will result. Let any piece of handwork be considered — a hair, for instance. There it stands in its naked ugliness and clumsiness, »r in its beauty of tight, evenly fitting joints, its smoothness and polish, ts correctness and elegance of design, and the teacher must be able to secure hese results. If the regular teacher fails at times to be en rapport with the work of the pecial teacher, the converse is equally true. Absorption in her little realm nakes her somewhat forgetful of the other educational factors in the school, ,nd the narrowness of specialization shuts out the broad vision of the whole leld from which rich illustrative material and varied analogies might be irawn. Have you ever met an enthusiastic teacher of folk games who ould not give an intelligent account of the origin and significance of the ame she taught ? Have you ever met teachers who were painfully igno- ant of the history of the materials they were using or the age-old story of heir particular craft ? Have you ever met special teachers who were sadly icking in background, and who, therefore, could not just say where their •articular contribution to education would naturally fit in ? It is sometimes urged that the special teacher must spend more time and loney in preparation than the regular teacher, that she must be constantly )oking ahead for changing conditions and fashions which call for more raining on her part if she is to keep abreast the community moods. This '■> hardly the case. World-life is mobile, never static. Every teacher who xpects to remain acceptable must renew her spirit. It is more than a latter of learning a few processes or acquiring a little knowledge. It is a latter of interpreting aright human life and the great world-soul, from 'hich emerge all social movements and their expression in physical processes, iehind all art and invention is the cry of the human need, which is the one ig, insistent thing to reckon with. Every teacher to be successful must 2ek at times those who understand and can interpret, whether the teacher 'ork in physical material, or in artistic and literary symbols. So much for tie special teacher in her relation to the school, her difficulties, her respon- ibilities. My second point has to do with specialization in its relation to the ommunity. If there is any place in the whole realm of education where 0 sort of an apology should be accepted for failure to associate the work f the school in a helpful way with homes and community activities it is ere. The advocates of the practical have too long derided the dead methods and unproductivity of the Latin teacher, where years of work still 7l6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [i result in inability to read Latin books. It is now wholly unsafe for ther to fail in the most convincing demonstration that shop work, sewing, cook ing, music, and the like furnish experiences that respond directly to sodg, needs. Doubtless some in this audience have known music teachers whc cautioned their pupils not to perform for the entertainment of others, as tho some virtue might depart from them should they make their art cor tribute to the amenities of the home. The music taught in our schoo': should be a community blessing of which the more given out the mor( remains in the soul of the child, like Longfellow's song, "breathed into tti air" and "found again in the heart of a friend." Drawing taught then should be of a kind which inspires the pupU to keep his drawing pad dos^ at hand, ready to sketch, to draft, to design, to use: it should not be a talen folded in a napkin. Said a business man to me: "The one thing I ha\i needed again and again in my business is a knowledge of lettering. Mj school drawing taught me to make a conventional design for linoleum o wallpaper." Possibly available knowledge of lettering might be found use ful to many business men. The object of teaching girls in our schools t sew is not achieved when a few neatly stitched models are hid away to b shown to grandchildren as we now view the "samplers" of a forme generation. In all this special work there should be a distinctly social motive Girls should learn in school to sew that at home they may make clothes an dam stockings for themselves and the other members of the family. Tb special teacher has failed in her work if she has failed to make this corr munity connection. Cooking is taught, not to furnish a drawing card fc the school exhibit thru a fine display of tempting edibles, but rather th: girls may acquire some training which will be of actual service in the hom in helping to solve the problem of the family needs and the high cost ( living. We have a right to expect that the expert knowledge of the speci.' teacher translated into terms of the child's experience shall serve the homi The teaching of gardening has not come into its own if it results in nothir more than a few neat plots in the school garden, however much the wor involved may have relieved the overwrought nervous tension of the chi! thru exercise in the fresh air. Even the habits of industry, order, promp ness, and observation required in gardening will not fully justify the su! ject. These habits may be acquired in the study of spelling and arithmett The ultimate object of school gardening is achieved only when the child back yard blossoms into a flower bed or develops into a vegetable gardt or when the unsightly vacant lot next door becomes a patch of beauty a contributes to the family support. A few suggestions may be offered just here. This teaching of speci subjects should not be directed toward the demonstration of one or anoth' pedagogical theory. It should not be too highly valued for its entertainii; Department] ORGANIZATION OF INTELLECTUAL WORK IN SCHOOL 717 and interesting qualities nor even primarily for the purpose of satisfying the child's inclination for physical activity. The real motive in all special work should be to give experiences in types of community processes, so that our children may be at home in the common work and ways of humanity for the sake of their own preservation and development and for the help of others. Evidence of such result is proof of the value of special subjects. The special teacher is highly favored in that the social motive under- lying her subject is perfectly obvious. It does not for this reason follow that the social motive will be liberated and permitted to realize itself. All this work may be done in so perfunctory a way that it has no more to do with present-day activities and experiences than the embalmed remains in the tar pits of La Brea Rancho. On the other hand, the regular subjects may be so surcharged with the social spirit as to be actually vibrant with responses to community needs, desires, and aspirations. This leads me to revert in closing to a suggestion offered in the open- ing of this duscussion, namely, that the segregation of certain subjects into a group called special is based on a wholly superficial distinction. There are really no special subjects, but there should be a special method, a social one, in aU education, which should recognize the oneness of the child. By this special method, our public schools should become so far as possible embryonic communities in which the child may gain thru his own expe- riences an understanding of the physical realities of life as well as of the age-old literary symbols and material. All is needed if the child is to enter into his complete social heritage. THE ORGANIZATION OF INTELLECTUAL WORK IN SCHOOL MARIA MONTESSORI, M.D., ROME, ITALY The organization of the work of which I intend to speak consists in an aggregation of those means of development which I have determined by experiment and with which the children work in school in order to develop their intellect. What I am about to say has reference therefore not to schools in general but to my own school in particular. You must, therefore, first of all, have a picture of the environment. The children enter the classroom, each one chooses some work, selects some object, and works with it at his own pleasure without ever being interrupted by the teacher. There are practically no collective lessons, but instead short individual lessons, which is suflScient for the teacher to start the child in a long work which he can finish by himself. The work which each pupil does when it is not the direct command of the teacher is a free, spontaneous labor. The process thus developed is a process of intellectual auto- education — of auto-ihstruction. 7l8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Element The didactic material plays a most important part in this development These objects are presented to the child; they are graded according to the difficulty, and correspond to the psychic needs of the child. And that the reason they attract the child's attention so strongly as to make hi deUght in his work and incite in him a marked power of concentratioi From simple objects which primarily attract the senses the children pa to objects which teach reading and writing, and later grammar, arithmet geometry, drawing, music, etc. The main argument of this treatise is spontaneous development of the intellect in its relationship to the organi tion of the intellectual work which I have just touched upon. We mi take a brief siu^ey of the procedure of the work. There is no fixed program or schedule which from without directs children's activities, nor does the directress hold herself to any fixed pla for the day's work. The child has already reached a certain plane development and as he enters the room he does not enter lacking interest He is neither ready nor resigned to submit to the work which a teacher ha prepared for him and his companions. On the contrary he enters possesse of a definite interest. He knows what he has to come to do. Perhaps the hours have seemed long to him since last he worked with the objects which he so desires and which he needs. He immediately takes some one object and carries it to his little table or to some place which seems to him most suitable for concentrated work. He knows that no one will disturb him, but should he need help he will at once receive it in such a way as fuUy to satisfy him without annoying him and without depriving him of one mite of his enthusiasm or one instant of his time. This inner force comes from his own intellectual development; his interests are intelligent interests. He wishes to know the colors better, or perhaps his greatest desire is to compose words with the movable alphabet, or the thought of solving new problems sends him eagerly in search of the arithmetic material. K he is older, problems in geometry or grammar may claim his entire attention. Perhaps he may wish to isolate himself to read again a poem which the day before attracted him, but did not satiate him. The best thing to do, therefore, in this case, is to stand aside and see what happens. And just this should be the attitude of the teacher who, like the children, is filled with an eager interest. She is alert and keen and has at hand all the objects which may, in orderly succession, be given to these children who are ready to seize upon what they already know; but the unknown, which represents for them the future path, she stands ready to present to the child as soon as he shows that he is satiated with that which he has and asks for something else. This unknown may be some other objects or some other exercises, which answer the unanswered questions raised by the preceding object, as the successive chapter headings of an interesting novel vividly attract the attention, awake the thought, incite the memory, and at their end provoke the question, "What is the sequel ?" Department] ORGANIZATION OF INTELLECTUAL WORK IN SCHOOL 719 The teacher is there, ready to offer the sequel. What she does is to observe the entire phenomenon of these interested children who are working under her eyes without ever disturbing or interrupting them. What has been said gives an idea of the phenomenon. It is, however, not as simple as it sounds. It is not an interest of given material which is carried over from chapter to chapter. It is not the outward thing (the graded material) which directs the phenomenon. The direction of the phenomenon comes from within. The natural development of the work is the real guiding power. It is, indeed, the psychological fact and not the ingenious con- struction of the material which gives us the key to understand and to follow the development of the intellect, altho the graded material may be the means of gaining this development. In order to analyze and to render more clear the phenomenon about to be developed, we will make use of the accompanying chart. The line A A represents a plane of quiet and repose, the curved line represents the average of work. The child enters the room, looks around quietly, then chooses an easy piece of work already familiar to him, such as the shading of colors; tljis he soon exchanges for something harder, tho also familiar and often repeated, such as composition of words with the movable alphabet. This comprises the first period of work — ^not too intense — which I call work of "entertainment" or of preparation {B and C), and this lasts from 9:00 to io:oo a.m. At this p>oint there is a pause (D). The child stops work without at once desiring some other object. He seems somewhat excited, and wanders around the classroom. A teacher who did not understand the work would think that the child was tired. Probably she would try to have him rest by taking him into the garden and letting him play. But the teacher who knows the method knows that this is a period of false fatigue. After a moment, the child goes directly and chooses a harder piece of work, one more difficult for him or new to him (writing, composition, arithmetic, and the like), and the real concentration of thought and prolonged attention have begun. He will work for an hour and a half at the same thing with intense interest. This is the period of prolonged work (£). When the child finishes this work he is not excited, but calm and serene and often he is laughing and sociable. He takes an interest in his companions' work or draws near the teacher to confide in her — his is a thoughtful attitude (F). This stage is quite different from that of false fatigue (D), where the child showed he was excited. Now, if an incautious 720 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Element teacher had interfered at this stage of false fatigue in order to have child rest or to distract him, he would not only have lost the power of gre concentration, but he would not have regained that final serene calm, thoughtful attitude. Evidently this is a characteristic phenomenon; is the first work of "entertainment." Along with the excitement of the final choice, it forms part of a whole cycle which must be completed in its entirety in order that the child may at the end feel rested, calm, and satis- fied. It is to this last stage, which follows the completed cycle of work, that I wish to call the attention of those interested. For it is worthy of note that the child does not rest, in the general sense of the word. That is, he does not rest because he is tired. On the contrary, he has the rested appearance of one who has exercised enough to renew his forces. For example, he who comes from his sea bath full of vigor and satisfaction and stretches out on the sand does not do this because he is tired and seeks respite from strenuous labor. When we have had some pleasant exercise in the open air and then stop to sigh from sheer delight and to smile at our friends, certainly we are not to be taken for tired people resting from our labors. Rather do we feel like those who eat any excellent meal in peace and take a nap in order to assimilate the food. Surely we cannot say that these people are resting from the work of masticating and swallowing a good dinner. Here we have the child who has finished the cycle of work chosen spon- taneously, who has had an intellectual feast and has enjoyed it, and after- ward feels better, stronger, more satisfied. It is at this stage in the period of final rest in the normal cycle of work that the gradual transformation of the child's character manifests itself. It is evident that in this stage he does not rest, but rather rejoices in th^ inner fruits of his labors, matures them and assimilates them. His bearing is worthy of notice. He is calm, strong, master of hi serene, satisfied, and feels an inner well-being. He is expansive, he enriches his forces by outward expansion. His expression is thought He goes around observing things inteUigently or withdraws within hims as if a more orderly and better balanced intellect were being formed in When such exercises are continued methodically each day withoij useless interruptions from others, but following freely their own paths development, the children not only acquire a tendency to work constant even out of school, but they become imusually obedient, ready at slightest sign to execute another's will and with evident joy. The follow examples may serve to illustrate this phenomenon: Outside of the dren's school hours, I give my training students lessons in anthropoloj and I take two or three children as subjects. These children must a\ their turn to be measiured, and while waiting they voluntarily go and some work, such as lacing. When we are ready to take their measi ments, we have only to make a sign and they quickly take off their shoei| ■■f'i. Department] ORGANIZATION OF INTELLECTUAL WORK IN SCHOOL 721 and take their place on the anthropometer. I dismiss them and they return quietly to their work. I call them again and they reply again in the same manner. Another example: The period for the examinations of the student teachers is at hand and the children must be used for the practice lessons given by the students. While waiting, the children work quietly; for example, painting postcards with water colors. At each call they nm, present themselves for the trial lesson of the pupil teacher, and then return to their painting, and so on ten times in succession. It is evident that this obedience is not caused by submission, but that it is the result of inner richness and inner equilibrium which have been attained, and because of which the children have acquired a great power of adapting themselves to environment, without losing their inner equilibrium, as one who, having absolutely mastered the equilibrium of his own body, is able to adapt himself and respond to rhythm, and take ever more and more difficult steps, full of expression, without ever wavering or falling. No one has directly taught obedience and the love of work, and yet these qualities have developed in such an excellent and extraordinary manner that those used to treating children by other means remain astonished and incredulous. However, the fact that methodical exercise may indirectly develop certain qualities is not entirely new. For instance: Monks, in order to acquire moral strength to live a rigid life, go as missionaries among savage peoples; and to remain constant thru life to a difficult task, do indirect exercises which are, in their last analysis, exercises of concentration, such as prayer, solitude, silence, and, above all, meditation, and these are con- stantly repeated at certain determined hours of the day. It is not preach- ing, exaltation, or impulse that causes all this. It is not that the monk thinks: "I am a superior man and wish to become a hero, so I will depart and go among savages, to meet my death." No; it is because the monk has regulated his life so that he concentrates and orders his peculiar power — that is, he becomes fortified and organized. Thus he surpasses other men in moral strength. This is logical and easy to comprehend. For a simple example, the water of a flooded plain can never be used as power, but once concentrated in a river, the same quantity of water acquires a motor force which, for instance, may be utilized for the production of electricity. Up to the present we have not applied the laws of life to the intellect in such a way as to strengthen it, rendering possible the maximum utiliza- tion of its powers. To make use of the intellect up to the present day has signified utilizing it for learning or culture, which often means dissipating it. It is as tho we used the water of a small river for irrigating the meadows — the more the meadows were irrigated, the more the possibiUty of utilizing the river as a motor force would be diminished. This may not be a very good comparison, but it serves to call attention to the two dififerent directions 722 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Elementary m taken by the intellect — namely, dispersion and concentration of energy. Any teacher can dissipate the intellect of his pupUs by directing it into channels prescribed by himself, but concentration can be attained only by the child himself. These are, therefore, two opposite methods. In order that concentration may come about, it is necessary that child should have at his disposal means of development which he is free use — that is, it is necessary to organize intellectual work for him. Now is evident that the mind cannot concentrate except upon an object wo of such an effort. It must contain the means of learning in the most rational way. A faulty or useless object could never attract the lively intellectual interest of the child. This interest, therefore, guides us in constructing in a perfect manner the means of learning and in obtaining that which in the regular schools would be called " the maximum efficiency of study." It is only by a method which, in giving intellectual learning, concentrates the inner powers, that one observes the direct influence of the learning upon the character and the moral quaUties. Without such a method this co-operation would not result, because surely it is not merely by the study of geography or mathematics that man becomes honest or heroic. Neither is it possible that a weakling should gain strength by committing to memory the history of heroes. It is concentration of power which gives strength and whatever be the means that provoke this concentration, they become a means of building up of character. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — George E. Marshall, principal of high school Davenport, Iowa Vice-President — EuMA J. Breck, head of English department, University High School, Oakland, Cal. Secretary — Claude P. Briggs, principal of high school Rockford, HI. FIRST SESSION— Monday Forenoon, August 23, 1915 In the absence of the president, the meeting was called to order by the vice-president, Emma J. Breck, head of the English department of the University High School, Oakland, Cal., at 9:00 A.M. The department met in Ebell Hall. Herbert Lee, principal, University High School, Oakland, Cal., was appointed to act as secretary pro tempore. J. Stanley Brown, principal. Township High School, Joliet, 111.; Milo H. Stuart, principal, Manual Training High School, Indianapolis, Ind.; and Arthur P. MacKinlay, Lincoln High School, Portland, Ore., were appointed as a nominating committee to report at the close of the afternoon meeting. J. Stanley Brown, principal. Township High School, Joliet, 111., presented his paper on "The Place and Function of the High School in the American System of Education." R. T. Hargreaves, principal. North Central High School, Spokane, Wash., followed with a paper on "The Possibilities of the High-School Library." Discussion: C. C. Certain, head of department of English, Central High School, Birmingham, Ala.; Herbert Lee, principal. University High School, Oakland, Cal.; and others. C. C. Certain, of Birmingham, Ala., moved that the chairman of the Department of Secondary Education appoint a committee to study the problems of high-school libraries and report at the next annual meeting of the department. The motion was carried imanimously. The following committee was appointed subject to such additions as might later seem advisable in order to secure the necessary geographical representation: C. C. Certain, head of department of English, Central High School, Birmingham, Ala.; Hannah Logasa, Chicago, 111.; Ella Morgan, Los Angeles, Cal.; and R. T. Har- greaves, principal. North Central High School, Spokane, Wash. The objects of the committee are: (i) to bring high-school teachers to a realization of the value of the high-school library as a center of intelligence and refinement in school life; (2) to demonstrate its helpfulness to all subjects of the high-school curriculiun; (3) to determine the best method of control in order that it should contribute the greatest good to the school. The committee will arrange for a joint meeting of the Department of Secondary Education and the Library Department to be held in New York at the time of the 1916 session. The duties of the committee are to be specific, not general. Hence there will be no duplication of its fimctions with the functions of the Committee on High-School Libraries of the Library Department, with which it will co-operate. The specific functions of the 723 724 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (SecondaryJ committee are: (i) to discover thru investigations made in the high schools in the several! sections of the country the organic relationship between the library and English, modem] languages, history, mathematics, science, commercial subjects, manual arts; (2) to dis-| cover imder what conditions this relationship can best be fostered. Each member of the committee is expected to submit a report to the chairman not ' ater than April, 191 6. George C. Thompson, principal of high school, Alameda, Cal., and Mary P. Putnam, vice-president, Manual Arts High School, Los Angeles, Cal., discussed the following topic: "Faculty Advisers in the High School — ^Their Need and Function." Frank L. Crone, director. Bureau of Education, Department of Public Instruction, Manila, P.I., read a paper entitled "The Secondary Schools of the Philippine Islands." SECOND SESSION — Monday Afternoon, August 23, 1915 The meeting was called to order in Ebell Hall at half-past two o'clock and the follow- ing program was presented: "Extra-curricular Activities — Their Relation to the Curricular Work of the School" — V. K. Froula, principal, Lincoln High School, Seattle, Wash. "Practical Arts for Girls in the High School" — ^Mary P. Putnam, vice-president, Manual Arts High School, Los Angeles, Cal. "High-School Efficiency and What It Means to a Community" — ^William H. Snyder, principal, Holljrwood High School, Hollywood, Cal. The nominating committee made the following report: For President — Edward Rynearson, principal. Fifth Avenue High School, Pittsbxugh' Pa. For Vice-President — Emma J. Breck, head of English department. University High School, Oakland, Cal. For Secretary — W. J. Beggs, teacher of Latin, Johnson High School, St. Paul, Minn. These officers were unanimously elected. THIRD SESSION— Monday Evening, Augtot 23, 1915 The meeting was called to order in Ebell Hall at 8:00 p.m., and the following program given: "The Organization of High Schools into Junior and Senior Sections" — P. P. Clazton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C. "The Future High School" — ^Lewis B. Avery, assistant superintendent of schools, Oakland, Cal. Herbert Lee, Secretary pro tempore I PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE PLACE AND FUNCTION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL IN THE AMERICAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION J. STANLEY BROWN, PRINCIPAL, TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL, JOLIET, ILL. It is only within the past five years that any state has attempted to answer for itself. What is a high school ? What is a college ? What is an elementary school? and even in such cases the definitions have been so flexible as to produce little or no interference with the ambitions in other states to supply a continuous curriculimi of education for the boys and girls, young men and young women, thruout the legal school period, six to twenty- Department] PLACE AND FUNCTION OF HIGH SCHOOL 725 one years of age. No one may discuss what the high school was without [ giving credit to the University of Michigan as the one institution which blazed the way for all the great state institutions in the Ohio and Mississippi I Valleys and farther west. The supervision and inspection of high schools by these state institutions constitute one of the great stimulating forces in the development of the high schools just as the influence of the eastern non-state institutions constituted and yet constitutes one of the great stimulating forces to the growth and development of the private secondary institutions in the East. The careful inspection by capable men from the limiversities, their recommendations to the boards of education, super- I intendents, and principals touching equipment in laboratory, Ubrary, and ifewnilty, the insistence of these university representatives upon adequate I scholarship, adequate pedagogical training, size of classes, hours of reci- tations, and other things having to do with the physical development of the high school have had an important place in the development and evolution of the public high school. The great variations in the methods of taxation and support of the high schools in the various states have of necessity much to do with the way these institutions have developed, and for this reason there are various types of high schools in various states. The most numerous and probably the best known is the village and city type as a part of a village and city system of schools. In some places we find this type entirely supported by taxation, local and state; in other places we find this type supported partly thru private endowment, sometimes in the form of buildings, sometimes in the form of bequests. These endowments in buildings or other bequests are supplemented by local or state taxation, but the institution itself remains a public institution for all the people of high-school age. It is safe to predict that, since some of the great state institutions have received large endowments in lands and buildings, the public institution of secondary grade may in the future receive large endowments in buildings, lands, and money. The constantly increasing interest in this type of institution would seem to argue that benefactions may be more properly bestowed here there are hundreds of thousands to participate in the benefits than where there are simply hundreds, and our own convictions concerning the preservation of democracy would seem to justify in large measure the investment of large private fortunes in public secondary education. The diflference of opinion existing in the older and newer states con- cerning the question. What is the best unit of school organization — district, township, or country? and the relation of this difference of opinion to density of population and to fundamental notions of government has led to the establishment of a second type of high school outside of those men- tioned. The township high school of Indiana is one specific type whose function is to serve a larger 'community whose population is mainly rural. This 11 726 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary t)T>e of high school is popular, performs a somewhat different function from that of the metropolitan school, but continues to defend the doctrine that public education extends to persons from six to twenty-one years of age. The township high school of Illinois is a somewhat different type oi institution from that of Indiana and kindred institutions. This type is the only pubUc educational institution supported entirely by local taxation. It does not receive a penny from the state, it is not subjected to control by the state department of education, and it is therefore free to develop accord-, ing to the direction of the local community, the township board of edu- cation, the superintendents, and principals of such institutions. This LjI a popular type of institution in Illinois, and the communities in which these institutions are placed vary in population from a few hundred to sixty thousand or more, and these schools serve as the only public high school in such villages, cities, and rural communities. Another specific type is the county high school whose name implies the county as the unit of taxation. Various southern states and various western states have this type of high school. Probably the best example of this type is found in the state of Kansas. The organization of this instil tution is akin to the notion which the great Jefferson projected at the time of the estabhshment of the University of Virginia when he believed that the great central state university ought to have very close organic coni nections with the secondary institutions from which it would receive its students. It is clearly evident from these various types of pubUc secondary insti-i tutions that there cannot be a single kind so long as local government has sway and so long as the individual has an important part in determining what he shall do. It is for this reason that there are so many grades c' high schools in various states and that these grades may be defined in terms of years. An institution may be a high school with a single year's worki with two years, three years, four years, five years, or six years. The comi munity whose school provides only one or two years of high-school worl beyond the elementary school is as fixed in its opinion that it has a higl school as another community that has four or five or six years beyond thi elementary school. The commissioned high school receives its name because some stat^ authorities give it a certain standing. It is not unlike the accredited higl school in other states, which has received its standing by virtue of an inspec tion at the hands of some college or university authority. Still another kind is called a recognized high school, the term definet in law as a school providing a course of two or more years of work approve( by the superintendent of pubUc instruction. If the high school is of ai accredited character and has the right kind of equipment in laboratory library, and faculty, its board of education may extend the course to fi\' or six years and then the high school becomes a junior college. Department] PLACE AND FUNCTION OF HIGH SCHOOL 727 In my judgment, the place of the high school in an American system of education is in a constant process of evolution, and for this reason neither its number of years in its course of study nor the nature of its curriculum nor the extent of its powers to tax can be permanently fixed at one point. Its place must be determined more largely according to the demands of the community which it serves than by any other cause. The high school has shown itseK to be the most important educational institution supported at pubUc expense. Read the program of this convention, read the program of any great educational, business, or religious convention, and you will find the high school continually referred to, occasionally in terms of approval, frequently in terms of reproach, but always in such a way as to convince you that this institution has a very vital place in the life of the people. The high school is probably subjected to more criticism from uninformed and misinformed people than any other type of educational institution. There is some reason for this because it is the one institution whose function it is to take care of the education of hundreds of thousands of young men and women during the period of greatest mistakes; that is, the first half of the adolescent period. This is the period of physical, social, ethical, intellectual, industrial, and ecclesiastical experimentation. Not all of this experimentation proves successful, but all of it seems to be necessary in order to produce a man and a woman capable of dealing with the realities of life. Favorable comments and bitter criticism are heaped upon the high school because it is a kind of impersonal center where all blame for any disorder, for any mistake, for embarrassments of any kind may be placed, but in these criticisms it is of rare occurrence that a statement is made so specific as to admit of a real investigation. It is a rare occurrence to find either a man or a woman willing to make an investigation of the ! gossipy reports which are very wilUngly listened to, and it is to the great oedit of this institution and its place in the community that in spite of the mistakes made by the high-school boys and girls, by the faculty and the board of education, that the public, whose eyes are fixed on this institution, I are yet willing to vote larger and larger sums of money for the support of this institution. This, after all, is the biggest kind of a test of the real place which the school holds in the public mind. The great Lincoln once id, "If we could determine whence we came and whither we are bound we would know better how to steer." We have tried to show briefly something of what the high school was and something of its future place and function. It must, above all things, serve its constituents in rendering such service. It will be necessary to extend the number of its curricula in some cases, to extend the number of years in the course of study in other cases, to extend the school day in many cases, and to extend the school year. The impatience and restlessness of an American youth, coupled with the support and anxiety of the American parent, are continually pressing ]ipon I 728 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION pecon. the school administrators to use every effort to make the boy or girl ready to enter college, to enter business, to enter some profession, or to enter the affairs of some kind of life outside of these three mentioned. There is continually pressure to reduce the time to prepare for these activities I have mentioned when the parent and the boy or girl are brought into con- ference. There is continual legislation when the state, the social, and other organizations looking to human betterment are brought into conference to extend the period of youth, to extend the period of preparation for all professions, to extend the period of preparation for business, in order that the man or the woman may enter upon such activity with more mature judgment and better-trained mind than were brought to such activities a generation ago. The public high school in maintaining its place and performing its proper function must meet its newer obh'gations, and, in order to meet these newer obligations, it needs more time, more money, more equipment in teaching force, laboratory, and library. If this institution is to maintain its place and to perform its proper function, it must be so equipped as to meet all the demands made necessary because of legis- lative enactments providing for a longer period of preparation on the part of a student before he enters upon a business or professional career. The new demands of industry must mean very soon that the school shops of all kinds and the related equipment of the school must be in operation during the vacations as are the business activities with which these shops are most closely related. The spirit of co-operation peculiarly belonging to the twentieth century must mean that the school is to be more and more com- pletely linked with the industrial business and commercial life of the city in which the school happens to be located. We must arrange, in larger and larger ways than we have yet done, for the yoimg man and the young woman to work in the school from eight o'clock in the morning until twelve and then be permitted to work in some kind of productive employment from one o'clock until five. In some industries, it will be necessary for the periods of co-operation to be two weeks in alternation, in others one week in alternation, and in still others the afternoon of every day with a full day on Saturday. These are some of the demands which are being made now and which are perfectly legitimate and with which the school people and the business people ought to be in the greatest harmony and co-operation. Probably the largest factor in determining what is to be the place and function of the high school in our American education is seen in the struggle between the individual parent and the boy or girl on the one hand, and the manufacturer, the business man, and the industrialist on the other hand. The former take the position that the child has the right to develop his own life in the way which seems best to his parent and himself and that his duties as a citizen demand that he shall have training related to the develop- Department] PLACE AND FUNCTION OF HIGH SCHOOL 729 merit of citizenship. Social, ethical, and religious organizations demand that he shall have a physical education, and that his moral and social life shall be developed and unhindered during the formative years. These organizations maintain that the preservation of the race and its development in the right direction mean that the body must be as carefully trained to the performance of every organic function as it is possible for the expert teacher of physical education to secure. They further maintain that the basis of moral, social, and civic life rests first in a physical basis, and that none of these factors which combine to make up the complete character can be omitted without detriment to both the individual and the state. There is a clearer and clearer atmosphere at present recognizing the obligation of the community and the state for a higher and better development of the indi- vidual. The tendency of such development, as is contended for by these organizations, means a lessening of crime, a discontinuance of many of the types of correctional institutions now maintained by the state, and a con- stant procedure in the direction of an ideal citizenship in a democracy. These are the contentions which place sentient humanity above non-sentient cupidity of material things. In many cases the manufacturer, the commercialist, or the industrialist wishes to make every individual employee subordinate to the production of his particular institution. With him it is not most important that the individual employed shall be the best citizen, the most honest and careful man, but that he shall be able to turn out from the factory, or from the commercial institution, the things which bring the largest financial returns and pay the biggest dividends on the dollars invested. EflSciency is inter- preted, not in terms of human character, right living, and good citizenship, but rather in terms of material products turned out by a given number of individuals in a given time. The speeding-up process may increase divi- dends and profits by mental and physical and muscular exhaustion in a concentrated effort to do in thirty minutes what was before done in forty minutes, but if by so doing we diminish, by the same ratio represented, the period of usefulness or the period of service, there is grave reason to believe that some way must be devised to put a check on efficiency secured in this way. The place and function of the high school will clearly show that waste can be eliminated and that efficiency can be maintained up to a certain point, but that beyond the point where the manufactured product has to be turned out at the expense of reducing the years of life and the term of useful and active citizenship it may not be permitted to go. The high school is under no obligation to supply ready-made human units or cogs for a machine whose sole interest is not in the human unit or the human cog but in the turning out of a product which may be sold for money. I have tried to set forth in this paper that the place and function of the high school is to serve and that in this service the order mentioned in the 73© NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary following paragraph from the Ordinance of 1787 ought to be observed: "Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged. THE POSSIBILITIES OF THE HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY R. T. HARGREAVES, PRINCIPAL, NORTH CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL, SPOKANE, WASH. The function of the high-school Ubrary is a constantly growing one. Each year finds the Ubrary extending its work over an ever-widening field of endeavor. It is changing from a passive to an active force in education. The time was and still is in some communities when the Hbrary was content to consider its full duty performed if it kept open its doors during school hours, suppUed its patrons with the necessary books of reference, and provided space sufficient for those who wished to do reference work. Its success was measured in terms of the nimiber of patrons who sought entrance. These passive features still remain in the best modem high-school Ubraries, but they are no longer the mark of its success. During the past three or four years, the hbrary has developed initiative power. It has become fired with an ambition to render constructive service to the cause of education; it has developed social features undreamed of a decade ago; it has imdertaken to give Hbrary instruction to all the pupils of the school; it has joined forces with the high-school bureau of vocational guidance and placement in an effort to direct the reading of the pupils along the lines of their occupational interests; it has sought the pupils and is constantly urging them to spend their off periods within its doors, that it may have opportimity to teach them how to use their leisure hours and cultivate in them a taste for the best books and the best magazines. How these special phases of library work may be put into effect each school must determine largely for itself. There are no fixed methods which will operate equally well in all communities. At the risk of being personal, I will outline as briefly as possible the efforts made to render some of these special phases of library work effective in the school which I have the honor to represent. Immediately following the close of the first faculty meeting of each school year, a social tea is given to both the men and women of the faculty in the high-school hbrary. Here the new teachers are made acquainted with all the members of the teaching staff and also with the Ubrary and its facilities. All books acquired during the vacation months are placed upon tables where they may be inspected by the faculty and their titles noted. On the third Saturday evening in November, the school gives its annual "At Home." Invitations are sent out by the principal's office to all the parents and patrons. All departments of the Department] POSSIBILITIES OF THE SIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY 73I school are thrown open for inspection. The library makes much of this opportunity. The student library board together with the librarian act as a reception committee to conduct all the visitors about the library. Each visitor is given a printed circular bearing the title "A Student's Reference Library" with the explanatory note that it is a list prepared in answer to the question frequently asked by parents and pupils, "What reference books shall I buy first ?" In January and again in June of each year, all the 8-A classes of the grammar schools north of the river are invited to visit the high school the same afternoon. They are met by the 9-B pupils and taken to the auditorium, where an entertainment is given them. At the close of the entertainment, they are conducted about the school, finishing in the Ubrary where they are welcomed by the librarian and the student library board. By means of these social features, teachers, parents, and prospective pupils are brought in touch with the library. In order to awaken in the pupils a feeling of ownership and to give the librarian more time to serve the individual pupil, all matters pertaining to order and disci- pline in the Ubrary have been placed in the hands of a student library board of eleven members elected from the three upper classes. All the affairs intrusted to this board during the two years it has been in charge have been administered with splendid success. This work of socialization has focused the attention of the pupils upon the library. In a word, it has brought the library to the pupils. Library instruction has been made a part of the work in the department of English. This work is required of all Freshman pupils during their first semester. Ward's Practical Use of Books and Libraries is used as the text- book and a series of lessons is based upon it. Sample pages of the standard dictionaries and encyclopedias have been secured from the publishers. These are furnished to the classes in sufficient numbers so that each member of the class may have a page before him while the teacher explains the char- acter and arrangement of the material. Early in the semester these same Freshman classes are sent to the library, where they are instructed by the Ubrarian in the use of the card catalog and method of arranging and classi- fying the books. Here they are given a practical test by the librarian of the knowledge which they have acquired about the library in the classroom. The teacher follows up the work done by the librarian with the assignment of a subject for a bibliography to be worked out and handed in as a written exercise. Then a series of lessons is given on the use of magazines and The Reader's Guide. Back numbers are loaned to the classes for this purpose. These lessons are followed by a written exercise requiring the use of The Reader's Guide. In a similar way, the pupils are taught the value and use of the standard reference books such as the almanacs, gazettes, atlases, concordances, etc. Two lectures are given by the librarian: one to the Freshmen on "The Use and Abuse of Books" and one to the Seniors on "The Choice of- Books for a Personal Library." The formal instruction 732 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary in the use of the library is given during the Freshman year that the pupils may be able to use the Ubrary effectively thruout their high-school course. It would doubtless be better if all this Ubrary instruction could be given by a trained Ubrarian, but this is manifestly impossible in a large high school. The present plan has one advantage in that it brings about a close co- operation between teacher and librarian and makes a working knowledge of the Ubrary and its facUities a necessary part of the teacher's equipment. Experience has convinced us that this method of giving Ubrary instruction works. The verdict of the Ubrarian, who is in the best position to judge, is that it is practical, while it appeals to the pupil and the teacher as one of the most interesting features of the EngUsh course. We made our first experiment with vocational guidance and placement last year. The part of the Ubrary in this experiment has not progressed beyond the estabUshment of a vocational bookshelf and an attempt to direct the reading of the pupil along the line of his vocational interest. FoUowiug his conference with the vocational adviser, the pupil is sent to the librarian with a request that he be given a bibUography of the references available on the occupation in which he is most interested or for which he seems to be best fitted. Part of this material he must read before he meets his adviser for a second interview. It is evidently too early to ven- ture an opinion as to the value of this phase of the work. The avidity with which the pupils read the references given in these bibUographies is an encouraging sign. In some, even of the larger high schools, the Ubrary is open only to pupils who have reference work to do. What a pathetic mistake! What conception can such a school have of the possibiUties of the high-school library ? Little wonder that many boys and girls graduate from high school with the idea that all books may be divided into three classes: fiction, tasks, and texts. The bookstores feature the popular novels with their catchy titles and attractive covers. The news venders continually display a host of maga- zines with covers designed to appeal to the eye, many of which are as cheap in content as in price. The average home is supplied with the current issues of some of these cheap magazines and an occasional best seller either pur- chased or borrowed from the pubUc Ubrary. Too frequently such magazines and books constitute the only reading material easily available for a large percentage of our pupils during their leisure hours. This situation presents a great opportunity to the high-school Ubrary which is awake to its possi- biUties for service. The pupil who has an off period should be encouraged to come to the school Ubrary and spend the forty-five or fifty minutes in reading for the sheer enjoyment of the reading. His interest should be awakened in the best periodicals and books. The illusion that all non- fiction Ubrary books are tasks should be dispeUed and an attempt should be made to cultivate his taste for reading and, so far as possible, his powers \ Department] POSSIBILITIES OF THE HiGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY 733 of discrimination. The high school is the place and the high-school age the time to cultivate the habit of self-betterment thru a wise use of leisure hours and the power for self -direction during the frequent periods of leisure which will occur when school guidance has ceased. The alarmist will object that if pupils are urged to go to the Ubrary to read they will neglect their class work. Undoubtedly this will occasionally occur in individual in- stances but that does not warrant a school in making a task room out of the library and destroying its opportunities as a dynamic factor in education. Better that a few pupils should abuse the hospitality of the library than that many should dawdle away their off periods in a large study hall in spas- modic efforts at study amid the ever-present distractions of sheer nimibers. To get the pupils to use the library up to its capacity every period in the day should be the ambition of every school administration. This can be accomplished thru the co-operation of the teachers, thru the use of posters, announcements on the bulletin boards, and thru the library page in the school paper. The library itself should endeavor to make its quarters the most attractive in the building. Equipment, mural decorations, bits of statuary, novel posters, and interesting chppings posted in conspicuous places all help. But most potent of all will be foimd to be an atmosphere of welcome and a spirit of unobtrusive and gracious service. Commodious quarters, the most modem facilities, and financial provision adequate for maintenance and growth are essential to the suc- cessful operation of the high-school Ubrary, but the vital thing is trained lead- ership. Better a poor equipment and a trained librarian than the finest equipment with an untrained director. Unfortimately the idea is quite prevalent that anyone who has some famiharity and acquaintance with books is competent to administer a school library. Most people are accus- tomed to accept without question the fact that trained leadership is neces- sary in the classroom, in the gymnasium, and on the athletic field, yet it is difficult to convince these same people that special training is equally as important in the library. Is the difiSculty one of fatuity ? I have no desire to labor the point, but if I were asked to organize a high school with 1 faculty of more than half a dozen teachers I should insist that one of them be a trained librarian. The work of all the departments, both academic md vocational, of our high schools is outlined in a definite manner so that "ach teacher knows exactly what he has to accomplish during the year. N^ot so with the library; it is a self -directing institution. The service that he library must render depends, therefore, upon the scholarship, the inven- ive fertility, the tact, and the devotion of the librarian. We are accus- -omed to be exacting in the qualifications we demand of the teachers, yet -ach teacher comes in contact with a comparatively small number of pupils, 'vhile the librarian has a point of contact with all of them. Have we not, herefore, a right to expect that she be the equal of the other members of he faculty in scholarship, talent, and teaching powers ? Is it too much 734 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary to ask that she have a college degree in addition to her library training ? An academic training will give her a wider knowledge of books and develop in her a confidence in her own judgment. It will inspire confidence in her advice and make her counsel respected and sought by teachers as well as pupils. If she has been fortunate enough to have had some teaching experi- ence, it will prove an advantage in giving her the teacher's point of view of the service which the library should render and it will also help her to a better understanding of the needs of the pupils. In addition to those quali- 1 fications already mentioned, I would add likability. This is one of the gifts the gods give men. It defies analysis. It arrests our attention but eludes our scrutiny. In a librarian it attracts the pupils to her and thereby i increases her power for service, for after all the high-school Ubrarian who has not the good-will and confidence of the pupils can accompHsh httle in any attempt she may make to influence their choice of reading or to lead them to a discovery of "fresh modes of access to hvmian nobility and human joy." The high-school library has so much latent power that he who would augur of its future possibilities must needs have prophetic vision. Whether it shall be a passive factor or shall undertake special phases of work and so become a dynamic force in the life of the school, whether or not it shall catch a glimpse of possibilities for service beyond the range of its present- day achievements, depend ultimately upon the originaUty and vision of its leader, the Ubrarian. THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS FRANK L. CRONE, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF EDUCATION, DEPARTMENT OF PUBlldj INSTRUCTION, MANILA, P.I. The PhiUppine pubUc-school system has been extended to every suflS- ciently populated island in the archipelago and to the most remote mountain settlements. In it are now enrolled 600,000 pupils, who are taught by 10,000 teachers, in 4,300 schools. Courses are offered from the lowest primary grades thru the last year of the high school. Under the head of secondary instruction, I shall include all instruction over and above that offered in the Philippine elementary schools. Second ary instruction will therefore include not only the general high-schoc courses, which resemble in a general way the high-school courses given r the United States, but certain other special courses offered after the com pletion of the elementary grades. Normal, trade, and commercial courses and courses in nursing, surveying, navigation, forestry, and agriculture wil be included. Thirty-seven high schools in the Philippine Islands give the genera high-school course. These schools are for the most part provincial in char acter but include also the Manila High and Central schools. The comple Department] SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THE PHILIPPINES 735 tion of the general course prepares the student to enter the university. There are enrolled in these schools about six thousand students. From these high schools there graduated last year four hundred students. A large percent- age of these graduates enter the university. The general course offered in these high schools differs somewhat from the course usually offered in American high schools. Foreign languages are omitted and more emphasis is placed upon English literature and composition. English is to the Filipino student in a sense a foreign language and supphes much of the cultural value which is here assigned to the study of Germanic and Romanic languages. The only other language is a year's optional work in Latin. Certain special courses have also been introduced to meet the particular needs of the Filipino student, including the materials of commerce, colonial history, and economic conditions in the Philippines. The related courses in biology and in physical geography, and the materials of commerce for the Philippines and economic conditions in the Philippines aim to incite interest in Philippine economic and industrial problems. The course of study therefore includes a year of algebra and of plain geometry, with another half-year of advanced algebra or solid geometry offered as an optional subject, double courses in literature and composition during the first three years of the high school, and one course during the fourth year, one year of general history and a half-year's work in physical geography, government, United States history, colonial history, and commercial geography, and a full year's work each in biology, physics, and economic conditions in the Philippines. The student who completes the elementary courses in the Philippine public schools may enter the normal school, where he will pursue a four- year course. When the student successfully completes his work at the normal school, he receives a certificate which gives him the standing of a secondary graduate and also shows that he is prepared to teach in the intermediate schools. A graduate of the normal school is not required to take the civil-service examination to be eligible for regular emplo3anent as teacher in the Philippine service. In addition to the regular lines of school work offered at the normal school, each student is compelled to do two years of industrial work and each male student is obliged to take one year of home and school gardening. There is also offered at the normal school a special two-year domestic science course. The normal school turns out more than a hundred graduates each year, of which one-third take the domestic science courses. In the Philippine School of Arts and Trades, students are admitted to the trade courses at any tune after they have completed the prunary grades. If, however, the student has completed the elementary grades he may after four years of successful study receive the diploma of a secondary graduate. Some years ago the Bureau of Education established a school for nursing, which was later turned over to the Philippine Bureau of Health. The school 736 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secon, is now under the direction of the Bureau of Health and receives male an! female students who have completed elementary grades. Altogether about two hundred are in attendance, male and female. The course offered is a three-year course. The Philippine Bureau of Lands has found it necessary to establish classes for the training of the surveyors needed in its service. The aca- demic work is given in the Manila high school by public-school teachers, the technical instruction being given by a teacher detailed from the Bureau of Lands. The young men who take this course receive a small allowance while continuing their studies and are later employed by the Bureau of Lands, where they are assured regular employment and steady promotion. The Philippine Bureau of Forestry gives instruction to a number of young men with a view to training them for the forestry service. To receive one of these scholarships the student must have completed three years of high-school work. High-school graduates are of course preferred. The College of Agriculture of the University of the PhiHppines accepts students who have completed the elementary grades in the PhiMppine public schools. After a six-year course they receive the degree of Bachelor of Arts. It will be seen that during four years out of the six they are doing secondary work. There is in Manila a PhiHppine School of Commerce. The attendance at this school is about four hundred and fifty. There is also a night school which enrols about the same number. The following courses are offered: a four-year course in commerce, a two-year course in bookkeeping, a three- year course in stenography, and a two-year course in stenography. The student who enters after having completed the elementary grades may after four years of successful study receive a certificate indicating that he has completed the high-school course as well as the business courses offered. There is in the city of Manila a nautical school in connection with the PhiUppine School of Arts and Trades. This school enrols about fifty stu- dents and gives two years of work in mathematics, Enghsh, physics, geog- raphy, drawing, and seamanship. After having spent twenty months on board an inter-island boat, the students are given a certificate of graduation. In addition to the public schools offering work as secondary grade, there are a number of private schools which are recognized by the govern- ment and authorized to issue high-school certificates. The instruction may be entirely in English, or partly so. The courses given in these schools are for the most part similar to the general high-school courses offered in the public high schools. Department] EXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES 737 EXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES: THEIR RELATION TO THE CURRICULAR WORK OF THE SCHOOL V. K. FROULA, PRINCIPAL, LINCOLN HIGH SCHOOL, SEATTLE, WASH. The two policies until recently in common practice in dealing with extra-school activities have failed. Trying to stifle the natural manifesta- tions of the youths' social instincts proved as futile as letting them run amuck was stupid. Both led to pathological conditions tending to disinte- grate school work and school organization and both led to the disruption of good school discipline. One poUcy fostered the insidious danger of the secret societies and cliques; the other led to a chaotic condition of mis- management, offering a field for play to outside officious and venal influ- ences. Insidious intrigue on the one hand and commercialism running riot on the other hand: these were the two horns of the dilemma with which the pedagog was confronted as a result of his shortsighted policy toward extra- curricular activities. "Well-developed notions of the significant social side of school work are only beginning to make themselves felt." It is gradually dawning upon even conservative school men that much of the "cussedness" of the youth- ful enthusiast of former days was nothing more than the outcropping of his natural buoyancy and craving for activity and amusement not furnished by the classroom. It is dawning upon the teacher, too, that by entering more into the play-life of red-blooded youth, and by giving them the benefit of his experience, he may direct their social cravings into useful channels. Thus he utilizes what was once such a thorn in his pedagogical flesh to fashion a better school out of his tempestuous institution, and to make better boys and girls out of his students by furnishing them a favorable opportunity for learning in action much that they will need to know as members of society, for "there are a thousand things which can be learned only by being an active member of a well-organized social group." Now what is there about the extra-curricular organizations that the curricular aggregations do not share ? The answer is implied in the con- •trasted words "organization" and "aggregation." The one pulsates with a unified life and purpose, the other owes its existence to a coercive regime, loosely connected and highly artificial. The extra-curricular activity has within it many of the essential traits of a real social group; it is in a sense a real unit of society. It is a spontaneous organization developed with reference to common aims. The whole is vitally affected by the actions and behavior of each member. It means team play. Literally, in such a group "no one liveth unto himself alone." The significance and educational value of this group-hfe to students is better understood when we realize that men have never lived alone, and that "hiunan nature is not something existing separately in the individual, but a group nature," which can be acquired only thru real fell(Jwship. 738 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondaiy The individual's relation to society is only recently coming to be better understood and appreciated. A real group organization takes cognizance of the individual and of the development of his powers, but forbids the selfish use of these powers. We complain of the selfishness of our day, of the de- generation of liberty into license, and of individuality into selfish individual- ism, forgetting that the man has become what the boy was taught to be. There would be even more to complain of were it not for the coimteracting influences of the club, the press, the gang. The school system, fortunately,, is not the only agency of education, even in our day of overemphasis on formal schooling. Emerson's statement that "we send our children to the master, but the boys educate them" comes to us with new force when we realize that the companionship of this or that boy is of greater concern in determining his intelligence and character than any study he may pursue in school, for his interests are expanded by contact with various minds, especially those of similar level. Education properly aims, not at the mere absorption of knowledge or acquisition of power, but at living — living with one's fellows, necessarily. Our more recent notion of education as "a preparation for complete living" or for "effective social service" would come nearer fulfilment if opportunity for such service were provided in the school itself. " Complete living" has a tremendous social reference and ethical implication. But in all strictly curricular activities the social aspects of education are sadly overlooked and by common consent the most neglected field in our educa- tional scheme is the ethical. Our ciurricular activities with little or no social implication are not even a satisfactory preparation for living, let alone the ambitious program involved in "complete living." Now to realize all that is implied in the socializing of the curricular work is well- nigh impossible under present conditions and hence we must look to the extra-curricular work to supply that need and to teach us gradually how to introduce into classroom studies what is finding its way spontaneously into student activities. It has been said that "all the abuses which are the objects of reform .... are unconsciously amended in the intercourse of friends." K this be true, does it not suggest a full explanation of the boy's zeal for his team and the advisability of organizing the whole school on a social-group basis ? In the boy's mind, the football team is not only an aggregation of individuals organized to play, but a social instrument with common needs, working along common lines, and embodying a common purpose. Nothing in the curricular work of the school can fiu*nish him with such a clear notion of social service. "The team is not only an extension of the player's con- sciousness; it is a part of his personality. His participation has deepened from co-operation to membership. Not only is he now a part of the team, but the team is a part of him." When an activity thus develops a sense of unity in the individuals participating, it begins to possess a real social Department] EXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES 739 significance tending to make each individual serve the whole unit. Under such circumstances it becomes as painful to do wrong as to suffer it. How different a classroom would be if it could be imbued with such a sense of harmony and total interest which every member of the class would strive to promote! Here, indeed, we would have something approximating a preparation for "complete living." The extra-curricular activities fix the youth's attention on mutual co-operation for the good of the whole. Here wholesome public opinion is generated and becomes an ally of good behavior. That is why many a youth behaves better and studies harder during his participation in athletic sports which are organized on the social-group basis, but slumps when such a motive is removed. And the same may be said of dramatic and other activities. It is no wonder that the boy who disobeyed a rule of regular attendance upon rehearsals for a class play laid himself liable to a "ducking" in a pond near the school building. Have you not often noticed the sudden manly development of some of your erstwhile rebellious boys after a brief training in one of these social-groups ? Have you not noticed the transforming effect on the doltish student of French when he was given a part in a French play ? But, in another sense, the extra-curricular activities serve a need which the curriculum fails almost entirely to provide for. I refer to the adoles- cent's craving for sociability. This is his most marked characteristic and to fail to provide for it is to do violence to his nature. It is a common- place to say that men make few friends after the youthful years, but to the youth that is the easiest thing in the world. It is a spontaneous process with young people to form groups for their sociables. The recognition of the school as a society has led school men to introduce many modifications into the formal side of its life, but even with these modifications it must be admitted that adequate provision for social training is far from having been made generally, altho the school is pre-eminently adapted for that purpose. " It is the natural center for the promotion and proper regulation of this side of the pupil's life." The several class organizations form natural units for the promotion of genuine sociability. These organizations are divided transversely into other groups of intimate associations and close interests. The literary society, the French club, the athletic team, and other similar units in every large high school have within them elements of a true corporate Ufe, affording opportunity for adequate expression of human association. The social training which comes from participation in such primary groups would be sufl5cient justification for the encouragement of these time-consuming activities. But when to this are added the oppor- tunities for social recreation the extra activities become more justifiable. Normal youth is the best preparation for normal manhood. On that ground alone, the satisfaction of instincts and harmless desires becomes a part of the educational process. "The youth who has no social life is usually unhappy and is sometimes driven by his solitude to vmfortunate 740 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary habits of thought and conduct." Whatever, then, contributes toward the youth's happiness and social development is decidedly commendable. Now when we consider the complete equipment of a modem high school for the promotion of the student's social and recreational life, we wonder why that equipment is not more fully utilized. No other agency at the community's command is so well prepared to handle this matter. Here is the auditoriimi fully equipped for the dramatic or musical part of the program. Here is the lunchroom ready to minister to the youth's insatiable gastronomic cravings. And there is the gymnasium with its slick floor for dancing and its broad spaciousness for games. Very few homes are in a position to afford a club life that could make such generous and such whole- some provision for their children's recreational needs. But, perhaps, the greatest dividends which are to be realized from investments in extra-curricular activities will be ethical. These primary groups become the rich soil upon which will grow and flourish those basic qualities, such as loyalty, honesty, justice, sympathy, from which character is molded. The best method of imparting moral training to the youth is to get him to take part in the actual social life about him, for every ounce of moral experience is worth a pound of ethical instruction. School life as seen by the student thru the classroom is artificial and too remote from his life-experiences. And we make bad things worse by continually harping on the school as a preparation for something in the distant future, thus creating a feeling in the student's mind of insufficient motive for the tasks at hand. Now motives in student activities are vital and easily discerned. Everything the youth does here has a visible organic connection with a pleasant and immediate end. Hence every effort becomes purposeful, a necessary condition for the establishment of desirable habits. Nothing in the school makes for good conduct like the intercourse and co-operation of a social group as manifested in student activities. The group life of the school has within it ethical possibilities such as the classroom regime has rarely realized. It provides the youth with ethical experiences, which is a different thing from furnishing him with moral precepts. Every moral experience is a bridge by which moral ideals are rendered capable of trans- ference from one set of conditions to another entirely different set. With- out such a bridge good habits formed in the classroom may not manifest themselves elsewhere. The mere fact that a boy has learned to make a square joint in the shop is no guaranty that he will do the square thing in a history examination. We have already learned that a voter's ability to read his ballot has not necessarily kept him from selling his vote. Our universal education has failed to accomplish what was fondly expected of it largely because it has been devoid of social reference. Principles which lie at the basis of a democratic society must govern the education of the youth who are to be members of that society. For such an education the develop- Department] EXTRA-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES 741 ment of initiative, self-direction, self-reliance thru mutual co-operation and emulation is essential. But if student activities are destined to play an increasingly important part in school work, as we have reason to believe, we must prepare to deal discriminatingly with the problems that are certain to follow in their wake. In the first place, there is a danger of placing too great emphasis on social group work. If it is wrong to exalt the individual at the expense of his social connections thru which alone he may fully realize himself, there is at least an equal danger of stifling the individual in our zeal for the group. In his book on the Social Aspects of Education, Irving King calls our attention to the fact that society is an organization and not an organ- ism. "It is an organization of individuals, intimately bound together in all they think and do and yet each possessed of a life of his own. No indi- vidual exists merely for the good of society." However highly organized the social group may become, then, there must be leeway for individual initiative and effort and the individual's zeal for books and their contents must receive proper respect. -— ' In the second place, it is important that true leadership in the social group be recognized and developed and not confused with braggadocio and mere self-assertiveness. Just because a boy by his manipulation has gained temporary prestige and won an election he may become deluded into the belief that he is a true leader. Such a fellow is likely to put a great premium on his ability to bluff his way or outwit a teacher by some clever turn. With a toss of the head and a disdainful tone such a self-satisfied "flunker" sometimes announces himself as a student of "men" and of the "world," and manifests his disgust for books and the "bookworm." His training in manipulating class or other elections may be a promise of future success, but certainly not in the ranks of municipal reform or civic virtue; it is more likely to equip him with the wily ways of the unscrupulous politician and with skill in outwitting the law of the land. "At present our society suffers more from the lack of true leadership and the kind of insight and morality necessary for such a function than from any other fault." The chief field of extra-curricular activities is the development of true leadership, which always implies self-control and often subordination of self, for he who would command must first know how to obey. And finally, there is a danger that he who has natural gifts for leader- ship and diversified ability may be encouraged to undertake too much in the way of student activities and thus jeopardize his curricular record or undermine his bodily strength. Here is the teacher's greatest opportunity for the display of judgment and unselfishness. It is a temptation for each teacher who is intrusted with the advisership of a student activity to look for the best material so as to make a showing. Thus the same boy or girl who manifests exceptional aptitude may be found in the leading rdle of several enterprises simultaneously. Under such conditions there is bound 742 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary to be a breakdown either in scholarship or in physique, and that is certainly unfortunate. It is worse than unfortunate. In the very things which J should make for democracy and wide participation, to encourage the development of individual stars is highly undemocratic. Such a practice! tends to defeat all that is good and sensible in the extra-curricular activitiesj and must be controlled by clearly defined regulations in each school. HIGH-SCHOOL EFFICIENCY AND WHAT IT MEANS TO A COMMUNITY WILLIAM H. SNYDER, PRESTCIPAL, HOLLYWOOD HIGH SCHOOL, HOLLYWOOD, CAL. The endeavor of the efficient high school is not simply to prepare a boy or girl to make a living, to go to college, or to assume a smattering of culture. Vocational education, college preparation, culture may well all enter into the high-school scheme, but they must be supplemented by something more before they will render the school efficient. Plato was right when he insisted that the aim of education was to produce good citizens. The good citizen must make a creditable living for his family. The high school must therefore present courses which will help him industrially. The good citizen who has ambition and ability must be helped to develop his abDity to its highest fruition. The high school must therefore offer courses which will prepare for higher institutions. The good citizen must lead an honor- able, clean, straightforward life whose aim is not exploitation of other people, but productiveness. He must persistently, honestly, and forcefully perform his civic duties, seeking to advance the good of the community and not his own selfish ends. He must be democratic, realizing that in a free coimtry there can be no such things as classes and masses. The high school must therefore make an earnest endeavor to develop in every possible way these traits in its pupils. Here is where mere curriculum fails and where the extra-classroom conditions and activities of the school must be largely relied upon. Its influence in this direction, if it is to reach its fullest efficiency, must extend to the entire community. It must therefore attract both the rich and the poor. A class school is both undemocratic and un-American. In certain communities one of the most serious problems of the high school is to attract the children of the well-to-do and the rich. A school that appeals simply to the poor or to the rich cannot be efficient in its commimity. Fully to serve its conununity the school must epitomize the community. To it must be attracted the boys and girls from all kinds of homes and here they must meet on a common basis and learn to appreciate that humanity is one. No high school will ever reach its highest efficiency until it is able to become the melting-pot in which are fused the different elements of the bepartment] HIGH-SCHOOL t^FFICIENCY AND THE COMMUNITY 743 community. Here the rich and poor, the refined and crude must mingle and learn to know and respect each other's good qualities and tolerate each other's weaknesses. The school may fail in many other respects, but if it is able to implant the feeling among its pupils that worth, not influence, is the criterion which should determine standing, it has ful- filled one of its greatest missions. The ability to instil the principles of real democracy must be the foundation principle in the construction of the school building, the planning of the course of study, and the administration of the school. The fact must never be lost sight of that the aim of the school is to serve the entire community. Since no two communities are exactly alike, no two schools should be exactly alike. The necessary variations may be slight or they may be very marked. A high school for an agricultural community and one for a manufacturing community should differ greatly in buildings and curriculum and to some extent in administration. Each community must therefore be carefully studied and those in charge of the schools must be able to come into close touch with both its social and its industrial life. They must know the prevalent condition and ambitions of the boys and girls and be able to get their point of view. Only in this way can the life of the school be made part of the life of the community and the community kept in close sympathy with the ideals of the school. The school should be a small community within the larger community, where the conditions are more ideal than it is possible to have them in the larger community. The closeness of companionship and interest will make its unity of action easier and under proper management will break down artificial social barriers. It is easily possible to have all the social functions such as can be readily participated in by the different members and to maintain a hearty spirit of good fellowship among all. Each pupil must feel that he has a civic duty to his school community and must learn his responsibility as one of its members. He must become imbued with a spirit of self -forgetful, co-operative helpfulness and must find out that the greatest good for the greatest number is the greatest good for himself. He must learn that the proper kind of school spirit is the spirit that builds up the standards and morale of the school; that in school the fellow who plays to the grandstand and for his own aggrandizement is a cad; that only as he does his part in the activities of the school will he be of account to the school. Wherever co-operative work such as music, dramatics, debating, or ath- letics can be undertaken, the necessity for teamwork will be emphasized and the impossibility of accomplishing great results by isolated individual action will be demonstrated. The spirit of community helpfulness and democracy, when once fully established in a school, will unconsciously influence the life of the community, breaking down, at least to some extent, artificial standards and foolish conceits. If it can be maintained, it will do more for the upbuilding of a community than any other one force that 744 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary i can be brought into it. The high school is usually the only institution 'm\ a community which has no rival, no competing sects, lodges, or societies.: It is the one place where factions can be eliminated, where dififering com-j munity interests can be brought together, and where all have a common pur-| pose. It is indeed the people's college. Recognizing, then, that the future] worth of the boys and girls is the only standard by which the efficiency ofij the school can be measured, that a school must be so adjusted to the needs] of the community that its training will prepare its graduates to be more] useful than they otherwise would have been, and that a school which imparts! to its pupils the ability and desire to be of service has fulfilled its highest] mission, what are the fundamental conditions necessary for the develop- ment of such a school? I believe they can be smnmed up under three'] heads: first, a stable, wise, and sympathetic faculty; secondly, such build-j ings and equipment and such surroundings that all classes of the commimity j will be attracted; thirdly, a flexible course of study which is adapted to] the needs and ideals of the community. No school which has a continually shifting faculty can understand or I meet the needs of its community. It takes time and patience and continued j effort to find out what are the real conditions and what are the dominant aspirations of any school constituency. But even if it were possible quickly to discover and understand the needs of a community, it would be impossible to adjust school conditions so as to meet them in the best manner without adequate acquaintance with the individual pupils and their home surround- ings. The spirit and morale of a school are, after all, its most important assets. These take years of patient and persistent work to estabUsh. The efficiency of a shop can be computed when the completed product has been turned out, but it needs at least ten years after graduation for the^ efficiency or non-efficiency of a school fully to show itself. It is the result- ing impress left by a school upon its pupils working itself out in their future] lives which determines whether a school has been successful. No groupj of teachers can be rightly judged by the apparent results of one or two years ' of work. No man who has the unobtrusive stajdng quaUties which usually characterize the efficient worker can show what he has in him for a school or a community unless his influence can be exerted for a term of years. That the rolling stone gathers no moss is tremendously true of the peri- patetic teacher. A boy's hide is not pierced by the first slap upon the back or the first short talk, and unless a man gets below the tan and down into the warm current of his pulsing heart he will be able to do Uttle which is really worth while for the boy. The school must be a character molder and the molding cannot be done by workmen who are on the run. No community which does not see to it that there is a permanency in the high- school faculty has the right to expect that high school to be efficient. If a school is to serve a community, it must attract the boys and girls of the community. To accompUsh this the buildings, surroundings, and Department] HIGH-SCHOOL EFFICIENCY AND THE COMMUNITY 745 equipment must be a little superior to that of the average home of the community. If they are inferior to these, the children of the more well- to-do families will experience a sense of distaste and depression and an unwillingness to attend. If they are much superior, there is likely to be engendered in the minds of many of the pupils a discontent with their own conditions and a feeling that in some way they are entitled to an extrava- gant use of public money and should be able to demand from the public luxuries which they could not hope to provide for themselves. Extrava- gance ought to be discouraged in every possible way. Perhaps no tendency which is not strictly immoral has more baneful influences upon young people than the tendency to live beyond their means. If there is one trait above all others which we Americans need to cultivate it is thrift. This cannot, however, be taught in the classroom. It must be instilled by constant unconscious exemplification. The course of study must be so flexible that it will appeal to each boy and girl of the community. It must simi up in itself the most vital aids for attaining at least some of the aspirations of each individual to whom it ministers. Of course it cannot expect to help in the realization of all the visions which come to the young people of the community, but it should be such that it can help in the realization of some of these. It must enable boys and girls to find themselves. It must bring them down from dream- ing about what they would like to do by giving them a chance to see if they have any real aptitude along the lines which lead toward the attain- ment of their hazy aspirations. The only way a boy can fully be persuaded that he can or cannot do a thing is by giving him a chance to try it or some- thing like it. Some boys and girls will desire to go on to higher institutions so that the ordinary high-school course presents to them what they desire, but there is a larger number who, at the time they are ready for high school, have no wish to go to college. They are, however, still too yoimg to make the aiost of themselves if they leave school. Nevertheless, unless courses ire offered which appeal to them, they will discontinue their studies at the md of the grammar school and simply drift for a series of years. This is remendously to their disadvantage and to the disadvantage of the com- nunity. Loafing cultivates a taste for loafing and loafers are among the jreatest evils that ever come to a community. Work must be provided II the high school which will attract these boys and girls. Commercial i^ork, shop work, domestic science, art, music, agriculture, and similar ourses which appeal to both their utilitarian and their aesthetic propensi- ies usually do this. The conditions of the community itself should deter- mine the particular features of these subjects which are to be emphasized and he manner in which they are to be treated. If the community is a resi- ential community qf some wealth, the artistic sides of the handicraft ourses will need to be accentuated. If it is a community in which a larger 1 746 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary part of the pupils will be engaged in industries, then the vocational side of the work must be most carefully developed. In planning courses of this kind more than in the planning of so-called academic courses, the condition and desires of the community must be carefully considered. There are places in which even domestic science has been an absolute failure because the teacher taught it in a manner which did not appeal to the community, whereas in neighboring schools of similar communities the course was most popular and highly valued. The kind of work best for a school is that which conforms largely to the good judgment of the community. The community will, as a rule, stand by the school that does the kind of work it can appreciate. Except in large cities and in communities where there are peculiar industrial conditions, it is doubtful whether a strictly vocational course should be given in the high school. There are very few American children of high-school age who are competent to decide in their thirteenth or fourteenth years what vocation they will be best fitted to follow. If they enter upon strictly specialized coiurses it will be almost impossible for them to readjust themselves. Many a boy, upon entering high school, thinks that he wants to go immediately into business, but, by the time he is a third- year student, he decides that he wants to go to college. If his course has been strictly vocational, this change will be very difficult and expensive in time. It is one of the functions of the efficient school to conserve the timei of its pupils and to enlarge as far as possible their desires and ambitions, not summarily to restrict and thwart them. The courses must be so arranged that they lead toward the ambitions of the pupils, and at the same time are wiser and broader than these ambitions; they must be such that they enable the boy to reach out toward a wider and wider hori2»n and not such that they hold him down to one definite and fixed point. If you will kindly allow a personal allusion: In the high school with which I am connected there are three aims in the course of study: (i) td prepare boys and girls for higher institutions; (2) to provide a course con taining subjects sufficiently diversified that the boys and girls may, : possible, discover their individual aptitudes; (3) to develop just as far a^ possible all those subjects which have to do with the home and home making. Every boy and girl expects some time to have a home and interested in those things which have to do with it. The chances are ninety to one that, whatever they may do in life, these subjects will prove useful To accomphsh this last desire, the course contains such subjects as hoir architecture, plumbing, furniture building, intensive agriculture and horti culture, automobile repairing, physics of the home, bacteriology of tli home, domestic chemistry, cooking, sewing, miUinery, care of the sicl^ home decoration, laundering, art, music, and so forth. Such subjects no only help materially in saving money but tend to preserve the interest an love of home which is so necessary for the well-being of any communit) Department] HIGH SCHOOLS— JUNIOR AND SENIOR SECTIONS 747 They attract the pupil, they appeal to the good sense of the community, and they are of lasting value to all who take them. Whatever a boy or girl may later decide to do, it is never felt that the time which has been spent in learning how to help make a home has been wasted. Such sub- jects, I believe, generalize the type of vocational subjects suitable to all kinds of high schools. No school can be efficient, however, unless the community in which it is situated takes a deep interest in it and endeavors to give it not only the material resources it needs, but as well that spirit of loyalty and helpful- ness which is indispensable. The community and high school are parent and child. Their ambitions, aspirations, and limitations must be mutual. They must help encourage and inspire each other. The community, like the parent, must endeavor to make the high school better than itself and the high school must strive not to disappoint the hopes of the community. In all education there is one great and ever-abiding truth which must always be remembered. The school is for the child and community, not the child and the community for the school. Big pay-rolls, good roads, fine houses, fine fire departments, and splendid police forces are all right, but happy, industrious, loyal, serviceful boys and girls in the high school are worth more in the community than all other things put together. Hhese are what an efficient high school means to a community and it is in helping to provide them that a high school demonstrates its efficiency to the community. ."^ THE ORGANIZATION OF HIGH SCHOOLS INTO JUNIOR AND SENIOR SECTIONS ^PHILANDER P. CLAXTON, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, WASHINGTON, D.C. Conditions in the United States have vastly changed. Wealth has Enormously increased and with it our great problems of transportation, tpublic utilities, civic life, and education have become correspondingly pcomplex. Public schools, elementary and secondary, are costing this year ; hundred million dollars. International commerce has become enormous id problems of tariff and constitutional provisions are more and more to [the fore. More and more also are we depending upon the direct action or jreferendum vote of the people themselves. What does all this mean ? It Isurely means the necessity for a much more thoro training of the average jcitizen whose vote is to sustain or to overthrow the great and growing jinstitutions on which our very existence as a great and mighty nation iepends. The simple elementary type of education of pioneer days, the litative, habituative type of education, no longer suffices. There is little Use for mere hands in industrial life today. Men must use heads as well lis hands. Men must have initiative. Men are needed who can do things nduy 748 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secon, without having to be told all the details. Mere learning won't do. Mere obedience to a superior's commands is not enough. Today even in matters of religion we are no longer content to quote glibly the dogmas of our fathers. Men are thinking out the problems of life and death and are brave enough to doubt, to weigh, and to come to their own conclusions. And, too, things are done on such a colossal basis. In place of the little I steamboat is the stupendous turbine-driven merchantman of today; in place of the little city hall is the civic center of today costing millions of dollars. So in agriculture, in mining, in architecture, in commerce, a different kind of education is now demanded for the masses of the people. What does all this mean to the schools? Surely that we must be nc. longer content with the per cent entering the high school. No! Everjl citizen, since he is to face and help decide such tremendous problems, must have a greater measure of education. How shall we bring about this ver} desirable change ? We shall divide our school into two sections of six! years each. In the first six, we shall teach the minimum essentials to all, throwing away much chaff that has come to clog the educational machine;, in the second six, we shall enrich the life of the adolescent to prepare himi for the great problems that sooner or later will confront him. Differentia- tion should here take place, since talents differ. The school and industrial| life should co-operate with the training of the boys and co-operate wiselyJ The half-time plan of the University of Cincinnati is well known. In a cotton-mill town down south a plan is in vogue by which a school of one hundred is divided into two sections, one section working a week in the school while the other section works in the mill, the sections exchanging each week. This is exceptional but the principle is good. The student shoul<] take some part in the industrial system and help to pay his way. Then b> all means let us have the right kind of vocational guidance — and what wi; help us more in this than to try our students out in various industrial line; of work during their school life ? The second six years should be divide; into two divisions of three, so that those who must may stop at the end 0 the first three with some definite accomplishment. In the last three; teachers wiU be more in the nature of specialists in subjects and work wil be of definite secondary character. Thus shall we be able to build a trul; collegiate education and lead the world to higher lines of imiversity thought THE FUTURE HIGH SCHOOL LEWIS B. AVERY, ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OAKLAND, CA The organization of the coming high school is already foreshadowc' in its beginnings now with us. There will be the junior high school, aftc this the high school proper, and then the junior college. Department] THE FUTURE HIGH SCHOOL 749 Let me give a few words to the intermediate school, or junior high school. The mere consolidation of schools has long been known and acknowledged as a forward step educationally and economically. Whole states have adopted the system on a large scale and have thus replaced many poorly housed and ill-taught schools with a few good and efl&cient ones. It is proposed in this state to allow children of the seventh and eighth grades in several adjoining districts where union high schools already exist to combine at the high school and thus form intermediate schools in connec- tion with rural high schools. In cities, with their well-developed trans- portation facilities, such union of seventh and eighth grades should be comparatively easy. With such combinations of, say, seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, it becomes possible to furnish better teaching service and additional privileges of curriculum. Such schools may be housed with the lower grades, as sometimes occurs of necessity, or, better, with high-school grades, where the larger use of the more expensive plant is thus made possible; but the future junior high school, or intermediate school, will be separately housed wherever possible. This will be for sound educational reasons, both social and scholastic. Children of primary age are better kept separate from those of early adolescent age, with whom life-problems are dawning, and they, in turn, can be better guided and guarded separate from the older ones who are in pretty complete touch with the great world about them. Modes of control, kinds of advice, and treatments of life- topics may well be different with these two groups. The curriculum of the present intermediate school, or junior high school, is not largely different from the corresponding grade curricula. The coming junior high school will have a new curriculum, textbooks yet to be written, and methods differing widely from those now in use in either grades or high school. It will be the purpose to cover the realm of human knowledge with the aim to inspire as well as to inform. Abandoning the logical and chronological order of teach- ing, it will be a school in which that which is near and concrete will form the basis of instruction, and vital interests will decide the lines of departure. In saying these things, I am not intending to discount the other phases of education, including drill and scholarship, but these will not be primary in consideration in this new school. Another valuable contribution of such a school endeavoring to cover the realm of knowledge in a comprehensive way will be the preparation of its pupils for making rational choices before being projected into the arena where the making of choices becomes their immediate and vital business. The courses in high school may be more wisely selected by pupils who have consciously joined in the exploration of their own capacities and interests and in whom some intelligent responses have been aroused, and, if the field of choice is outside of school walls, these awakened ambitions, interests, and judgments will be none the less valuable. 7SO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Secondary As the junior high school has been a development downward of the high school, so its development upward into the junior college is well under way. In California, ten high schools have added a regularly organized junior college. I have not the time to discuss the work of this school already so adequately set forth by others in this convention. I will refer you for further enlightening discussion of this subject to the circular on "The Junior College in California," issued by the University of California last July — a pamphlet of over 50 pages. The high school proper, which is expanding thus upward and downward, is expanding outward in no less degree. It is the livest educational institu- tion of its time, if growth and expansion are any indication. In the study of educational problems and the growth of educational theory, it is rapidly taking a leading place. A few years ago, when the period of normal-school expansion was upon us, the elementary-school teacher was the live student of educational affairs. But now the high-school teachers are given much theoretical preparation in addition to a larger academic education, and, what is still more to the point, they are up against such a multitude of complex educational problems in their real experience that they are getting a remark- able education whether they seek it or not. The publication in the present year of such a book on methods of teaching in high schools as that of Parker shows a remarkable advance in the application of live educational theory to the present high-school practice. The future high school will be a clear expansion of the present high school. The studies will be presented for the election of the pupil, but election will be based on a rational preparation therefor in the intermediate school, or junior high school. An attempt will be made to have the course of study of each individual promote the development of the individual rather than fit him to anything or for anything, I do not go the length of some of the advocates of the idea that the doctrine of formal discipline is wholly exploded. The explosion of a theory cannot deter those of us who have seen the transformation in character, purpose, and power that takes place in the lives of many of our youth in high schools from recognizing the facts of education and culture and their vital connection with teachers and schools. My hope and prophecy for the future high school is that these three attri- butes of highest manhood and womanhood — character, purpose, and power — will be primary considerations, and that scholarship and even efficiency will wait on them, as they do now in the final destiny of us all. I have no quarrel with the doctrine of efficiency that is everywhere stirring up a new interest in getting things done, but only with its assump- tion of finality. In every quarter it has invaded it seems to bring all back to a material basis and introduce a wholly materialistic spirit. Without doubt, the knowledge of the weak points of a school system, and the measure of the measurable product, are valuable data if it be understood that after the machinery is set right we have the spirit of the concern to reckon with. Department! THE FUTURE HIGH SCHOOL 751 The new high school will have to settle scores of questions that are now under discussion and they will have to be finally settled upon the basis of the prevailing purpose of the high school and that purpose is at present in some doubt. We find the opinion developing on one side that high-school education should be primarily directed to promote and secure the solidarity of the state and society, and on the other that the development of the indi- vidual should be the aim. These aims are somewhat reflected in the educa- tional systems of Germany on the one side, with social and state efficiency as the goal, and on the other by the more individualistic aims of English education. It may be that the results of the present war will temporarily swerve us one way or the other, but the final outcome seems to me certain. We shall successfully imite the two aims, but shall keep in mind that with us the freedom of the individual is fundamental, and neither labor nor capital, neither society nor state, neither theories of efficiency nor the acknowledged attractiveness of industrial and social solidarity shall keep us from making the high school first of all the bulwark of individual freedom. It will be the problem of the coming day to secure this freedom in the midst of a growingly complex and interdependent civilization and finally to make it contribute to those very ends of social and political solidarity it seems to contravene. Our high schools have been gathering into great plants. Economy and efficiency have been promoted thereby. Different schools have taken different and somewhat specialized aims. Some are commercial, some technical, some agricultural, and some frankly classical. There is, however, a clear tendency on the part of each to include all, or at least the funda- mentals of all. We insist that the integrity of the school shall not be a chief consideration; we do not imdertake to prepare pupils for a certain niche in life and unprepare them for others; we do not allow the state to insist on its notions of its own necessities. We are giving increasing respect to the choice of the pupils. True, we have given them little basis for rational choice, but that we are going to endeavor to remedy, for character is largely a matter of choice, and manhood is largely a matter of character, and only by cultivation of this comparatively virgin field — the education in the making of choices — can the future high school justify the large liberty it is doubtless going to grant to the individual in high-school education. If I have thus far read the tendencies aright, the answer as to what must be the character of state control in the high school of the future is fairly clear. State high-school systems will stand for local autonomy, excepting in so far as may be necessary to keep one part of the system from undue encroachment upon the other. Of the minor problems which the future high school will have settled, I can take time to mention but few. Without doubt the school plant will be more continuously and more widely used than now. The great flouring mills of Minneapolis changed their entire machinery without stopping an il 752 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Seconda^ ■ hour out of the twenty-four. We make no pretense of using our school plant more than an eighth to a sixth of the total time in the course of the year. The community is becoming interested at first hand in the schools. For many years the school authorities bemoaned the lack of interest in the school on the part of the home. Now mothers' clubs have been formed and parent-teacher associations organized, and these are interested, not only in the school, but in the children in the school. School authorities do not seem to know what to do with this new interest now they have it and are tempted to regard these organizations with suspicion and greet them with silence. Without doubt they may be a menace, but they may also be a source of assistance and inspiration. A large city has solved the problem by taking them into the school system, and they have served to keep the board of education in touch with the homes. Some are calling for segregation of the sexes in high school on grounds educational, hygienic, and moral. It seems probable that the objections to co-education on educational and hygienic grounds can be met when understood in the mixed school as well as in the separate school. There will doubtless be more of separate instruction, care, and advice. As to the argument based on morals, those who are practical students of social con- ditions are fairly unanimous that the free association of the sexes under proper and normal conditions is essential to obviate association under conditions improper and abnormal; that a considerable and wide acquaint- ance among young people of opposite sexes is the best guaranty that we can hope to get for fortunate choices and happy homes; that the breaking up of the united home by reason of flats, apartments, clubs, cheap shows, and the thousand city conditions that prevail even in small towns, so that the father, the mother, the boys, and the girls frequently go in different directions after the evening meal, can be met only by such a social center as shall once more bring fathers, mothers, and children together with the school as the basis of the center. It is certain that the whole social educa- tion of our young people — at present a haphazard affair — needs sympathetic and authoritative direction with co-operation of home, school, and young people. The future high school will not frown on social intercourse, properly conducted, among its young people, but will systematically pro- mote and regulate it. Many a young person would behave well in society if he knew how and it were the thing to do. The future high school will show him how and make it the thing to do. The success of the continuation schools and correspondence schools suggests that the future high school will not forget its pupils immediately when they have passed out from under its roof, but will keep in constant touch with them to advise and assist in their further education, and that instead of insisting that the four years of regular work is the only road worthy of choice, will offer, as many good schools do now, courses of instruc- Department] THE FUTURE HIGH SCHOOL 753 tion that will so appeal to the thousands that are now doing the blind-alley work of our cities that they will be encouraged to drop this work for a year to get a renewed hold on larger possibilities. What of military service for young men and their instruction in the art of the defense of nations ? I do not believe that patriotism is dead or dying, but I regret to see the materialistic basis to which it is reduced; Love of country is more the product of what we do for it than of what we get out of it. If our young people, for several weeks of each year, were organized on a military basis but for the purpose of making a definite contribution of labor for the public welfare, could not the results be woven into patriot- ism ? Such a military organization would be constructive, not destructive, and would be equally valuable in peace and war. I cannot in this brief view touch many of the important problems of the high school or indicate their possible or probable solutions. I can only insist that, however valuable the material and technical aids to education, the high school will not save or be saved by its palatial housing, its courses of study, its technical training, its trade education, its vocational guidance — not by the abundance of things it shall have or do, but only as these shall be made to contribute to a higher and spiritual service. Scholarship and efficiency may be good, and no one questions that, but character, purpose, and power are fundamental, and these are produced by the same sort of faith and hope and love in the school that are active in the home. The watchword of the new era will be service — a word that shows the devotion of efficiency to spiritual ends. DEPARTMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Livingston Farrand, president, University of Colorado Boulder, Colo. Vice-President — MsxviN A. Brannon, president. University of Idaho Moscow, Idaho Secretary — ^John E. Rouse, director. School of Education, James Millikin Uni- versity Decatur, 111. FIRST SESSION— Thtjrsday Forenoon, August 26, 191 5 The meeting was called to order in the Ballroom of the Hotel Oakland at 9:00 a.m. Ellwood P. Cubberley, professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal., gave an address entitled "University Surveys." Discussion. SECOND SESSION— Thursday Afternoon, August 26, 1915 The meeting was called to order at 2 130 p.m., in the Ballroom of the Hotel Oakland, and the following program presented: "Reed College and Civic Service" — William T. Foster, president. Reed College, Portland, Ore. "Higher Education in the Philippine Islands" — Frank L. Crone, director, Bureau of Education, Department of Public Instruction, Manila, P.I. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: For President — Ellwood P. Cubberley, professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. For Vice-President — Sidney E. Mezes, president, College of the City of New York, New York, N.Y. For Secretary — ^John E. Rouse, director. School of Education, James Millikin Uni- versity, Decatur, 111. John E. Rouse, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS UNIVERSITY SURVEYS ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY, PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL. The university survey represents a very recent movement, being copied largely from the city school survey, which has become somewhat common. Its purpose, if properly directed, should be to seek light on the organization and administration of a college or university, and to offer aid in directing the authorities of the institution in the task which they are trying to carry out. Its purpose should be helpfulness, and the recommendations made 7SS 7S6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Higli should be constructive and helpful. The idea is closely akin to the expertii of a business. It is very probable that we shall witness rather a large number of collej and university surveys, particularly in our state institutions, within the ne decade. With the increasing cost of higher education, we can probablj expect people in the different states to demand some investigation into wisdom of the large expenditures which our state universities are making. A college or university survey can be made very helpful to an institutioi or it can be made very harmful, depending almost entirely upon the attituc toward the problem assumed by those who are responsible for the surve If those in charge assume that their purpose is to study the problem care fully in its local setting, to evaluate the work and the needs of the institutic in terms of the best standards found elsewhere, to offer only constructi\ criticisms, and to render aid to those charged with the administration, survey can be made of large service in supporting educational authoritie in the good work which they are doing, and in informing the people of state as to the value of the work which their university is carrying on. on the other hand, the survey is not a survey but an investigation, if it purpose is agitation rather than education, if it tries to raise probler and not to solve them, and if as a result of the work the university is le in worse condition than it was before the investigation began, the result ^ almost certain to be demoralizing and harmful to the best interests of highe education. We have had one conspicuous example of each type. The first was recent survey made of the Drexel Institute at Philadelphia, the purpos of which was to find out what were the problems now presenting themselve for solution in the neighborhood of Philadelphia and within the financ possibility for the Drexel Institute authorities. The report is an excellei example of the experting of an educational business, and proved so helpfi to the Board of Trustees that its members invited the surveyor to becoi president of the Institute and carry his own report into effect. On the other hand, the so-called survey of the University of Wisconsin was a most outrageous investigation. One cannot read the report without feeUng that the actuating purpose of those in charge of the survey was criticism and agitation. The undoubted effect of such a document is to leave the uni- versity in a worse condition than if the survey had not been made, and, if the University of Wisconsin report is to characterize the university surveys of the future, then either the survey movement or the universities are doomed. The problems which a university survey might well consider would include the place and function of the university in the system of education provided by the state, or its place in the local conmiunity if in a state insti- tution; its administrative organization, with a view to determining the efficiency or inefficiency of the same; its teaching force, their training, Department) REED COLLEGE AND CIVIC SERVICE 757 salaries, work, and organization; the educational organization of the insti- tution; the curriculum, the direction headed, and desirable possible changes; possibly an evaluation of the work which the institution is doing; its needs in plant and equipment; the care of its students, and their needs; the uni- versity finances; and the probable future of the institution. In the case of a state university, the report could well point out to the people of the state the great importance of the work which their state university is doing, and how, while it costs large sums of money, it nevertheless returns to the state, economically, socially, administratively, and morally, a very large return on the investment. In other words, the university survey should be a helpful presentation of the university's position, work, and needs made to the directing board and to the people of the community or state. REED COLLEGE AND CIVIC SERVICE WILLIAM T. FOSTER, PRESIDENT, REED COLLEGE, PORTLAISTD, ORE. You have courteously asked me to speak about Reed College and its civic service. The college is established on a private endowment, with no obligation to state, city, religious denomination, or individuals; that is, no formal, specified obligation. Our conception, however, is that the institution should serve the entire city; and our aim has been from the outset that no individual in the city of Portland should fail to gain some benefit from Reed College. We are not particular exactly how, or where, or when, or under what circumstances we shall reach him; we want to help him, some- how, sooner or later. The fact that the city has contributed no money for the support of the college, and has been asked to contribute none, has not prevented us from co-operating effectively with the city administration. Members of our faculty have co-operated in the work of the art museum, the public library, the vice commission, health bureaus, and the home for delinquent girls. There, for example, we have had experimental psychologists under the direction of our faculty. One of our faculty is the head of the Oregon Civic League, an independent organization of voters for promoting good government. One of our faculty was the first chairman of the committee of one hundred which carried on a campaign that resulted in carrying the state of Oregon for prohibition by some thirty thousand majority. One of our members is president of the Oregon Social Hygiene Society, an organi- zation which has received $35,000 in aid from the state. Five members of our faculty, working under this organization, have given lectures on social hygiene to public schools and to the employees of department stores, factories, railroad companies, and lumber camps. Members of our faculty are on the boards of the Congress of Mothers, the Parent-Teacher Associa- tions, the Drama League, the Peace Society, the Archeological Society, the 758 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher Academy of Sciences, the College Equal Suffrage League, the Dental Education Society, and the Advertising Law and Ethics Committee. The head of our department of biology is an adviser of the Fish and Game Commission, one of its experiment stations having been constructed the expense of the state on the college campus. The college has endeavored to aid the city in solving some of its prol lems, thru the activities of both faculty and students. The college aims have faculty and students work together for the welfare of the city, this co-operative work we give our students certain kinds of training an^ practical experience similar, in the field of social service, to the co-operati\ plan in engineering at the University of Cincinnati. The young psycholc gists, for example, are doing field work in psychology. These students preparing themselves for work as experimental psychologists in connectic with agencies for the care of the feeble-minded and morally delinquent and major students in our courses in commerce and industries are worl with the Chamber of Commerce on an industrial survey of the city. Our campus and athletic fields were all turned over to the city dep£ ment of parks this summer for a public playground, and our advance students in physical education took charge under the municipal authoritie When the city commissioners were faced with the problems of motion picture and vaudeville shows, the mayor of the city called upon us to fumis information. We organized a cormnittee of sixty investigators, covere every theater in the city, and made a report to the mayor. The mayoi commissioners, and all the people of the city are led to understand that the are free to call upon the college for aid of any kind at any time and the are constantly doing so. Last winter, for example, we studied the problems of the unemploye No well-devised, thorogoing means of taking care of them had been brougl forward, and last winter emergency measures were taken to house feed some three thousand men who for part of the winter were unemploye Again the city called upon us for information. Naturally we took scientific way of going at the problem. Members of our faculty in charg of social economics took a group of students and an assistant in the depart- ment and studied the problem of imemployment. The students and faculty went among the unemployed, slept with them, and got life-histories of 431 of these men. They got some of the accurate information which is necessary as a basis for intelligent action, and the college published the report. Significant of our attitude toward the city is our extension course on "The Voter and the City of Portland." This course aims to present to every voter in the city of Portland the kind of information he ought to have in order to exercise intelligently his prerogatives as a citizen, and to present it in a concrete, non-partisan, accurate, up-to-date, and interesting way. For that purpose, we had the co-operation of every department of the city, and our faculty and students — because, as I say, all this work is usually done Department] REED COLLEGE AND CIVIC SERVICE 759 by students and faculty together — went into every department of the city and endeavored to learn all they could. Thus they presented to voters many timely items of information never before available to any except a. few on the inside. Our work was to bring out the facts, whether they were favorable or unfavorable to any individual, or to any political party, or to any form of government. We sent out word that anybody, anywhere, who would get together an audience could hear this course of six lectures. By that means we reached groups of voters at twenty-one places. This course served as laboratory work in public speaking because our students gave many of the addresses. We continued this field work in public speaking by having competent students explain to voters the measures on the initiative ballot. Our students have spoken on street corners, in public parks, social halls, public libraries, schoolhouses, churches — in fact, wherever the people would listen to them — and people are always ready to listen to speakers who know what they are talking about, who explain what is meant, for instance, by proportional representation, which was one of the measures on the ballot. We could not co-operate more effectively with the public libraries of the city if we owned the libraries. Every room in the main library, every room in every branch library, is made available by our progressive library board and staff for our extension work. The total attendance at extension lectures the year the college was founded, in 1911-12, was 3,360; last year the total was 13,547. Next year we shall offer fifteen free courses. Another branch of our work has been the annual conference, in which we have endeavored to get together at Reed College the representatives of every organization in the city of Portland which was in any way seeking to promote the welfare of the city. This annual conference has thus been a kind of clearing-house for agencies for social, moral, economic, and political progress. I do not know at this moment of any organization in the city of Portland, private or public, which was working for some definite improve- ment, which was not represented at the Portland 19 15 Conference held at Reed College. Over 150 organizations were officially represented thru exhibits and speakers. About five thousand persons attended. The entire program of that conference and of the one of the preceding year is available for distribution, and gives a better idea of the scope of the work than I have time to give here. The college has been in operation only four years. Much of our work, therefore, is tentative, and most of our plans are as yet visions of things hoped for. Four years is not a long time in which to find and use every opportunity for service to the city, especially since there were four years ago no campus, no buildings, no books, no faculty, no students, no college — only an endowment and an opportunity. Yet, in these few years, I have come to the conviction that a college in a city like Portland, Ore., is limited in the possibilities of service only by the limits of its own intelligence and faith. 76o ■ NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Higher HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS FRANK L. CRONE, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF EDUCATION, DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MANILA, P.L The Philippine Islands were discovered by Magellan in 1521 ; from tha] date until the American occupation the people of the Islands enjoyed Western civilization after Spanish ideals. The first evidence of interest o] the part of the Spanish government in education in the Philippines found in a Royal Decree of 1634 in which Philip IV ordered all archbishops and bishops to take steps toward the education of the Filipinos in the Spanish language and in Christian doctrine. There is reason to believe that very little attention was paid to this edict, however, since another decree was issued in 1686 in which the king invited the attention of civil and religious authorities to their failure to observe the provisions of the decree of 1634. It was not until 1792 that practical steps were taken toward the proper financing of the scheme of education. Primary education did not secure a real foothold until 1863', when primary schools were planned for every town of the Philippines. Instruction in Spanish was not always or even generally given. In 1892 there were 2,173 schools the attend- ance of which was small and irregular. From the beginning of the insurrection against Spain in 1896 imtil the beginning of the insurrec- tion in 1899 against the United States, most of these public schools were closed. Very early, attention was given to higher education in the Philippines. The College of San Jose was founded in 160 1 and the university of Santo Tomas in 16 10. These schools were originally established for the education of Spanish children but later both admitted Filipinos. Other institutions of higher learning were estabUshed, one of the chief functions of which was the education of the native clergy. A number of these old schools are still in existence, most of which have now conformed their courses of study to those prescribed in the state institutions and have secured the necessary authority for granting higher degrees. It was early seen that it would be necessary to establish a government university which would give instruction along more modem Unes and place more emphasis on practical education. As a result the University of the Philippines was established, and its organization was completed in 1910. Before that a School of Medicine and Surgery had been in operation and this became the College of Medicine and Surgery of the new university. At the present time, the enrolment in the University of the Philippines is approximately 2,000. The attendance is rapidly increasing. The uni- versity includes the following colleges: Liberal Arts, Medicine and Surgery, Law, Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Engineering, and the Schools of Dentistry and Pharmacy in the College of Medicine and Surgery, the School of Forestry in connection with the College of Agriculture, the School 1^1 Department] HIGHER EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 761 of Education in connection with the College of Liberal Arts, and the School of Fine Arts. The courses offered in the University of the Philippines follow in general the lines of American universities. A special effort, however, has been made to adapt the courses of study to the particular needs of Filipino students, and wherever there is a conflict between the life-needs of the students and the desirability of giving courses equivalent to those of American universities the former is given most weight. In the College of Liberal Arts the degree of Bachelor of Arts is given at the completion of two years of college work. This is in a sense a concession to Spanish ideas. The degree of Bachelor of Arts was formerly granted by Spanish schools at the completion of nine years' study from the time of entering school. The degrees of M.S. and M.A., however, are given at the completion of five years' college work, as in the United States. The School of Education grants a certificate to students who have secured the degree of B.A. and successfully completed a year of work in the School of Education. The College of Medicine and Surgery requires five years of successful study before granting a diploma. Advanced courses in tropical medicine and public health are also offered. The School of Pharmacy which is connected with the College of Medicine and Surgery offers two courses of three and four years respectively. A School of Dentistry has recently been organized in this same college. The College of Law offers a three years' course leading to the degree of LL.B. The courses of instruction are similar to those offered in American colleges of law, with special adaptations to the law of the Philippines. The College of Agriculture is the only college of the university located outside of the city of Manila. It is located at Los Bafios in the province of Laguna. This college accepts students who have completed the intermediate courses in the public schools and gives them a course of six years. High-school graduates may complete a course in two years. Advanced courses in agriculture are also offered. In connection with the College of Agriculture is a School of Forestry, the principal function of which is to prepare foresters for the government service. This school requires the completion of three years of the high-school course for admission. The College of Veterinary Science offers theoretical and practical courses in veterinary science and grants the degree of D.V.S. at the completion of five years of study. The College of Engineering offers a four-year course, at the completion of which the degree of Bachelor of Science in Engineering is granted. . The School of Fine Arts offers courses extending over a period of five years, but special courses are offered students who are unable to devote so long a time to their studies. The only funds at the disposition of the University of the Philippines are those provided by the Philippine legislature. Annually a sum of money is set aside for the current expenses of the university and for the construction of necessary buildings. The control of the university is vested in the Board of Regents, of which the Secretary of Public Instruction is chairman. 762 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION The Secretary of the Interior, the Director of Education, and the Chairmi of the Philippine Assembly Committee on Public Instruction are ex offii members of the Board of Regents; one member of the Supreme Court is designated by the governor-general to act as a member of this board. Six other members are appointed by the governor-general for stated periods of service. It will be noted that the university was established a number of years after the public-school system, and it has always been the policy of the university to allow the public schools to work out their problems in their own way without interference from the university. Since the courses in the public schools are designed to meet the special needs of the majority of students who are unable to take courses in the university, it is not always possible to conform high-school courses to meet university demands. Where this happens the university puts in special preparatory courses, and it does not presume to force the pubUc schools to adapt their courses to university needs. While the imiversity authorities are desirous of offering every possible opportimity in every line of education, the peculiar economic and social needs of the country demand that particular emphasis shall be placed upon the training of teachers, doctors, farmers, engineers, and veterinarians. The authorities have seen these needs clearly and are placing more and more emphasis upon the courses which prepare directly for useful careers in the directions indicated. The university has come to attract the attention of other oriental countries and it is not unreasonable to expect that the Philippines will become the center of Western higher education in the Far East and will, thru the University of the Philippines, come to exert greater influence in the future upon neighboring countries. A number of private institutions have been recognized by the govern- ment and are authorized to grant degrees. These institutions are for the most part conducted under church auspices. Instruction is given wholly or in part in English. 4k .X ■ '0 s DEPARTMENT OF NORMAL SCHOOLS SECRETARY'S MINUTES CINCINNATI MEETING OFFICERS President — D wight B. Waldo, president, State Normal School Kalamazoo, Mich. Vice-President — Tbouas W. Butcher, president. State Normal School Emporia, Elans. Secretary — Waiie A. Shoemaker, president, State Normal School St. Cloud, Minn. FIRST SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, February 25, 1915 Joint Conference with the City Normal School Association The meeting was called to order in the Auditorivmi of the University of Cincinnati at 9:30 A.M. The following program was given: "The Place and Scope of Sociology in the Normal School" — John A. H. Keith, presi- dent, State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis.; W. S. Dearmont, president, State Normal School, Cape Girardeau, Mo.; W. H. Parker, assistant professor of social science, Uni- versity of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. "The Relation of the Practice School and the Normal School — The Practice School as the Laboratory of the Normal School" — ^John H. Withers, president, Harris Teachers College, St. Louis, Mo. ; Abbie Louise Day, College for Teachers, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio; Charles A. McMurray, director of Normal Training School, DeKalb, 111. SECOND SESSION — Thursday Afternoon, February 25, 1915 A conference of the members of the Department of Normal Schools and those inter- ested in normal-school work was held in the afternoon at two o'clock, and the following program was presented: "The Question of Federal Aid for Normal Schools" — William C. Bagley, director, School of Education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. "Normal-School Extension Courses in Education" — Charles H. Judd, director, School of Education, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Under the topic "Normal-School Extension Courses in Five States" the following papers were read: I. "History of the Extension Movement in Illinois" — Walter P. Morgan, president, State Normal School, Macomb, 111. a. "Extension Service for Iowa Teachers" — ^Homer H. Seerley, president, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. 3. "Extension Courses in Michigan" — Robert M. Reinhold, director of extension service, State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich. 4. "Normal-School Extension in Ohio" — Clement L. Martzolff, director of extension service, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. 5. "Extension Courses in Virginia" — ^William R. Smithey, director of extension service. State Normal School, Harrisonburg, Va. DwiGHT B. Waldo, President 763 764 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Nonnalj PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE PLACE AND SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY IN THE NORMAL SCHOOL JOHN A. H. KEITH, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, OSHKOSH, WIS. Inquiries made by a committee of the American Sociological Societj received replies from 65 universities and colleges of which 30 had coUegesl or schools of education. Of this 30, 6 made sociology required, 24 made itj elective, and 10 had a special course in educational sociology. Of thej other 35 institutions, 27 reported that sociology is taught and 7 reqi it of students intending to become teachers. F. R. Clow, of the Oshkosh State Normal School, found in 19 10 thati about 40 normal schools were teaching sociology and most of these in the north-central states. The questionnaire sent out in 1913 by the Mississippi Valley Historical Association increased the number to about 55. It may be well to inquire into the reasons for the study of sociology and the values which such a study, if properly pursued, has for those intending to teach. It is evident that the process of education as a process is one of social- ization. It is not merely a process that goes on in an individual mind. The reference preceding the individual's mental process and his subsequent reference are alike social. In a broad way, the process by which one grows into a civilization is synonymous with the process of education, and the aim to be sought thru our educational machinery and particularly thru the school part of the educational agency is the production of individuals who are socialized. Again, society supports the school and it does this, not so much for the benefit of the individual, as for the advancement of what it. conceives to be its own interests. Society recognizes that only thru the agency of the school can it retain its present level of civilization and only thru the schools may it hope for substantial advancement for the futiu*. The teacher ought, therefore, to understand the structure, the modes of acting, the ideals, and the processes of society, and these should be under- stood, not simply as matters of knowledge, but sympathetically and con- cretely. It is only on this basis that the teacher can both feel and know that the courses of study with which she deals in the schoolroom are in reality society transplanted to the schoolroom. Any one subject or any one section of a subject now taught in schools will, if examined, reveal its social connections. It grew out of the social situation and its value lies in the possibility of its functioning in a serviceable way in a social situation. This does not mean to imply at all that the child is not an important factor in the process of education. The teacher ought to study the individual child and should Department] SOCIOLOGY IN THE NORMAL SCHOOL 765 never forget that it is the individual mind that acts and that learns and that becomes. But on the other hand, the teacher ought to have such insight that she sees in what she is teaching, not merely knowledge, not merely information, but the real material which when constructed by the individual child makes him progressively social. It seems to me that with this insight the teacher can awaken the proper motive in the child. She can not only find the point of origin in the child's experience which will have greatest value in enabling the child to under- stand the new which she wishes to teach, but she can also find the incentive and thus inspire the child with the proper motive. Say what we will, when children do things because of an appreciated value, because of a feel- ing within themselves that they need to know, they are rapidly transformed thereby. When the child works with a broad socialized motive, he lives in a school as well as learns. For these reasons, it seems to me highly desirable that the subject of sociology in the normal school should be studied from the genetic stand- point. The teacher needs to know not only the analysis of a highly devel- oped society, but she needs to know society in its development, in its cruder forms, in those stages in which it is moving from a lower to a higher form. There can be no more fruitful field for this than is found in the study of local history. I mean the study of local history from the standpoint of the development of the community rather than from the standpoint of isolated historical facts such as when the first house was built, when the first hotel was built, when the first railroad was built, when the first opera house was built, and so on thru the dreary catalog that sometimes passes for local history. If one really gets concretely and individually in mind such a genetic view of what has happened in a society of which one is now a member, he has the concrete background in terms of which to understand and appreciate many of the terms of social analysis that would otherwise be largely matters of abstraction. It seems to me also that the stressing of topics in the study in the normal school should be paralleled by a study of local conditions and the educational aspects of the social movements current at the time and place. To study what textbooks have to say about the labor problem without knowing anything of the labor situation in one's town is a kind of abstrac- tion of which the normal schools should have long since been freed. I do not believe that any two schools should select exactly the same topics or stress these selected topics in the same way, but I do believe that the study of local conditions and of current social movements should become a part of the work in the normal school. I shall very briefly indicate what in my mind should be the topics taken up in sociology in the normal school: (i) the factors of society, including location, population, human nature, communication; (2) social organiza- tion, including primary groups, the social mind, social classes, institutions, 766 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal government; (3) social progress, including man's career, variation, natural selection, telic selection; (4) special institutions, including the family, the state, industrial, cultural; (5) the relation of sociology and education, including sociology as a science, education as an art, and the teacher's social relations, as well as the social character of the school. TEE QUESTION OF FEDERAL AID FOR NORMAL SCHOOLS WILLIAM C. BAGLEY, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA, ILL. In this country, it cannot be said that we neglect the factor of education. We spend from our public treasuries upward of five himdred million dollars annually for educational purposes. But of this amoimt less than teii million, dollars annually is given to the specific purpose of training acceptable recruits for the educational service, and a proportion that is infinitesimally insignificant is devoted to purposes that might tend to make maximally attractive the teacher's career. Happily the situation is improving, but the rate of improvement at the present time is not at all proportionate to the necessity for improvement. It is the purpose of the present discussion to raise the question. Would federal aid to the teacher-training agencies in the several states facilitate this improvement? Some light on this question may perhaps be geiined by comparing the state normal schools with the state colleges and univer- sities that receive federal aid. I should not assert, of course, that the present condition of the land-grant colleges and universities is due entirely to the fact that they have been subsidized by the national government, but it may safely be assumed that this is one factor in their prosperity, and for reasons that I shall discuss in detail a little later. First, then, to compare the normal schools with the state colleges bene- fiting by the Morrill acts and other federal legislation in favor of agricul- tural and mechanical education. The most striking contrast between these two types of institutions is the relatively low maintenance cost of the normal schools. For a rough comparison, I have divided the annual maintenance budgets of a number of typical schools by the figures representing the annual enrolment. In the case of the normal schools, I have included in the enrolment only those students who are reported as normal students, omit- ting students of secondary grade and pupils in training schools. I have also reduced summer-session enrolments to terms of annual enrolment; that is, if a summer session is one-sixth of the regular year, I have added to the yearly enrolment one-sixth of the summer registration. The figures representing the normal-school enrolments, then, are much smaller than they would be if the numbers usually given in published reports and cata- log were taken as a basis, and the ratio of maintenance to enrolment is Department] FEDERAL AID FOR NORMAL SCHOOLS 767 consequently higher than it would be otherwise. Nevertheless, with all these allowances, there are wide discrepancies between the normal schools and the state colleges. To give you a few illustrations: In California the expenditure for each student enrolled in the land-grant university is more than double the corresponding figure for the normal schools; in Montana, the land-grant college spends annually more than three times as much as the normal school for students enrolled; in Massachusetts, education in the agricultural college is also more than three times as expensive as in the normal schools; in Wisconsin, the discrepancy is not quite so wide, but the land-grant university still shows more than double the per capita cost of the normal schools; Iowa and Minnesota reveal a much wider discrepancy, the difference in each case being practically fourfold; Michigan shows a closer approximation of the two types of institutions, but the balance is still decidedly in favor of the agricultural college; in Oklahoma, if my figures are correct, the expenditure at the agricultural college proportion- ately to the enrolment is more than five times that of the normal schools; Illinois again shows a closer approximation, but the university still has a comfortable lead; Colorado presents the closest approximation that I have discovered, but even here the balance is in favor of the agricultural college. The question at once arises. Are these discrepancies justified? It would be absurd to maintain that the land-grant colleges are too liberally supported, but it is fair to ask whether the normal schools are not too parsimoniously supported. The justification of these wide discrepancies may be sought in differences in function. The state colleges have a wider field; they provide a large amount of extension service; their essential equipment in the way of land and laboratories also entails expenditures that normal schools do not have to meet; and a portion of their teaching is on the senior college and graduate level, while the normal schools in the main confine themselves to the junior college level — that is, to the first two years after the high school. In many cases they do a great deal of secondary work. It is axiomatic that the per capita cost of instruction will increase very rapidly as we pass from the lower to the higher levels. Whether one or two years should make differences so wide as these is another question, but there is no doubt that one or two years do make these differences under present conditions. I am convinced, however, that all of these factors combined — the wider field, the broader extension service, the higher cost of equipment, and part of the work upon a higher level — will not justify the wide discrepancies between the public support of the land-grant colleges and the public support of normal schools. The normal schools have a narrower range of work, but the work is of the greatest significance to the welfare and prosperity of the country. Anything which tends in any way to discredit normal- schooljservice, of to make the normal schools anything less than maximally 768 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal attractive to the very best type of students, is unfortunate and short- sighted public policy. And yet what else can result when we find such discrepancies as the following: the median salary of 8i normal-school presidents is $3,500; the median salary of 41 presidents of land-grant colleges is $5,400. Next to the presidency, the most responsible position in a normal school is that of director of the training department. The median salary of 72 directors of training is approximately $1,900, which is just about the average minimum salary of full professors in 46 land-grant colleges. Thus, in terms of salary, the most important and responsible post in a typical normal school is reckoned as no more significant than the least responsible and least important chair in the typical land-grant college. Taking heads of departments in normal schools (other than heads of train- ing departments), and comparing them with full professors in land-grant colleges, we find that the best paid normal-school department heads in 55 schools have a median salary of $2,125, while the best-paid full professors in 46 land-grant colleges have a median salary of $3,015, or nearly 50 per cent higher. Even more significant than these contrasts are the differences in the amount of classwork allotted to teachers in the two types of institutions. It is impossible to find comparable data for most of the institutions, but I can contrast in this respect four normal schools, which are I am sure quite typical, with the eleven state colleges also quite typical. The average allotment of classwork in the normal schools is 24 hours each week to each teacher; corresponding figures for the land-grant colleges show 11. 4 hours a week. Teaching-programs totaling 30 hours a week are not unknown in some normal schools. Programs of 24 and 25 hours a week are very common. Programs involving more than 14 hours of classwork are very rare in the state colleges. Other contrasts could be drawn, but enough has been said to indicate the striking difference between these two tj^jes of institutions, both of which are supported by the public. Someone may be able to justify these discrepancies. I cannot do so. Public-school service already suffers under severe handicaps. If Mr. Coffman's conclusions are correct, one-half of our five hundred thousand public-school teachers have had only high-school edu- cation or less. Our schools need close to one hundred thousand new teach- ers each year, or five times as many as all of our normal schools, public and private, state, city, and county, graduate from their professional courses. There is every reason why normal-school education should be cheap to the student, but it is aa unwarrantable conclusion that it should be a cheap sort of education. Money invested there can be made to return to the public the very largest dividends. If I were a dictator with absolute power, the very first thing that I would do would be to make normal-school teach- ing the most attractive kind of teaching. I would have it so attractive that the very best men and women would seek its service. It is needless to say t Department] FEDERAL AID FOR NORMAL SCHOOLS 769 that many of these seek its service now and remain in this service thruout their lives, but they do it at a sacrifice, and they do it at the price of certain privileges and emoluments that no one to whom this great responsibility is delegated ought to be asked to pay. No one who puts his life and his soul into his teaching can afford to carry a program of 25 hours a week, or of 20 hours for that matter, when he is working with students on the level of development that has been reached by most normal-school students. The public should not ask him to carry so heavy a teaching program. It effectually precludes in many cases the work that is essential to keep one's teaching materials fresh and stimulating. It effectually precludes anything in the way of individual research and investigation, and this research and investigation is nowhere more sadly needed than in the field which the normal school represents and toward the development of which it should be contributing more than any other type of institution. Salaries and emoluments may easily be overemphasized in theory; there is little danger of their ever being overemphasized in practice in our field. You cannot underpay and overwork a group of people without disastrous consequences to the regard in which those people and the work that they represent are held by the public. This, I believe, is where the influences of the low scale of normal-school salaries are most unfortunate from the point of view of sound public policy. The individual, here as elsewhere, may be negligible, but the work that this individual represents is the most significant item that affects public welfare. If you will tell me of the elementary schools of any nation, I can give you a pretty fair estimate of where that nation stands in the scale of progress. It is the universal ele- mentary school that bears the closest relation to a nation's welfare and a nation's progress. And, by the same token, the institutions that train the teachers for these schools should be the most significant factors in their efficiency. What would be the probable result of the granting of a federal subsidy to the state normal schools? To answer this question, let us first ask another, namely, What were the results of federal subsidy in the develop- ment of state colleges ? This question, in the absence of an extended his- torical investigation, can hardly be satisfactorily answered, but one may at least find out what have been the accompaniments of this federal sub- sidy, whether one assumes a causal relationship or not. I have been unable to find complete statistics prior to the year 1896, but taking the growth of land-grant colleges from that time to the present, several important facts are revealed. In the first place, the appropriations from the state treasuries to the land-grant colleges have increased eightfold in nineteen years; the appropriations from the state treasuries to the normal schools have increased during the same period only threefold. In the second place, the enrolment in the normal schools has just about doubled. In the third place, the ratio of public appropriations to enrolment has increased in the state colleges from 770 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Normal i 64 to 146, or 128 per cent; the ratio of public appropriations to enrolmentij in the normal schools has increased from 56 to 89, or only about 60 per cent. It would be idle to assert that the federal subsidy caused this remarkable growth of the land-grant colleges, or that lack of federal subsidy caused th« retarded growth of the normal schools; but it would be just as idle to assei that federal subsidy has been entirely without an influence. Any type oi education that is recognized by the federal government as especially worth] of national aid will be given a sanction that cannot be without a decide influence upon public opinion. EasUy the most significant legislation ever enacted in the interests oi higher education was the first Morrill bill in 1862. The arguments in favoi of that legislation were based on the need of vocational education. But the passage of the bill stimulated not only vocational education, but every of education. I believe that a recognition by the federal government of the imperative and fundamental need for trained teachers would stimulate the growth and heighten the efficiency of the normal schools in a measure out of all proportion to whatever federal subsidy might be granted. It woulc give the nation's sanction to the calling which is of first importance to the nation's welfare. Education is vastly more than a matter of merely Ic concern. I personally have no sympathy with any plan to build up ai elaborately organized national system of education with a central director of authority. But we do need a national system of education anartment, State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, August 24, 1915 The meeting was called to order at 2:30 p.m. The following program was given: "A Decade of Progress in the Training of Rural Teachers" — Ernest Bumham, tor, Rural-School Department, State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich. "Library Training in the Normal Schools" — Carroll G. Pearse, president, Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. "The State Normal Schools and the Training of High-School Teachers" — Homer H. Seerley, president, Iowa State Teachers College, Cedar Falls, Iowa. THIRD SESSION— Tuesday Evening, August 24, 1915 The meeting was called to order at 8:00 p.m., and the following papers read: "The Peciiliar Problem of the City Normal School" — William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal School, Chicago, 111. "The Possibilities of Research in the City Normal School" — William M. Gregory, head of the department of geography, Cleveland Normal School, Cleveland, Ohio. G. S. Lashes, Secretary pro tempore PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS TOPIC: PREPARATION OF TEACHERS FOR THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS A. THE RELATION OF THE HIGH SCHOOL TO THE NORMAL SCHOOL ALLISON WARE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, CHICO, CAL. In considering the relations of the high school to the normal school, I shall have in mind the t)^e of normal school that sets the following standards: (i) its admission basis is high-school graduation; (2) it main- ' tains a minimum course of two years for elementary teachers; (3) this course trains for service in all grades and subjects; (4) it seeks recognition as a strictly professional school designed solely for the efficient training of teachers. Two fields of normal-school work are distinctive, and the normal schools cannot shift responsibility for them upon any other institution. These are the development of professional skill and the establishment of profes- sional ideals. But in the field of academic knowledge of subject-matter, particularly in so far as that subject-matter consists of elementary grammar, arithmetic, history, spelling, writing, and the rest, there are certain demands that the normal school may justly make upon other institutions. Department] THE HIGH SCHOOL AND THE NORMAL SCHOOL 787 One hope, then, that we have for a better normal-school product is that ultimately we may get as candidates for training those whose academic preparation is already strong enough to sustain the weight of professional training. In plain terms, one of the most pressing problems of normal- school efficiency is this: What may be done to improve for our purpose the students that we receive from the high school ? In California, 16 per cent of the high-school graduates enter normal school and 29 per cent the university. The latest figures from the com- missioner of education show a similar ratio thruout the land. Upon this basis, the normal school should have at least half as much to say as the university. Consider the matter from another angle. Approximately only 5 per cent of all students who enrol in high schools later go to college or the university (in California 10 per cent), and yet the course of study of all has been made in the alleged interest of this small fraction. That is to say, the university requirements, founded upon an organized com- pulsion so strong that it has not been necessary for it to give reasons, has set the training not only of the 5 per cent but of the 95 per cent as well. A different situation confronts us. If the preparation we ask were a peculiar thing to be used only in normal schools, it would be iniquity for us to demand it at the expense of life-preparation. But as it includes the staple world-used and world-demanded things, vital in any walk of life, our failure to demand it must be not only our loss but the world's loss as well. Every day that we neglect to urge our claim upon the high school for a sound elementary education we are recreant, not merely to our own needs, but to the educational needs of all the people. I would not be thought in this connection to be in an attitude unfriendly toward or harshly critical of the American high school, but, without dis- cussion or comment, I simply state here as a fact demonstrated by every survey and test that has been made that the average high-school graduate is not prepared to pass fair tests demanding a standard of world-efficiency in the common-school essentials. Your schools and mine have proved it again and again. In fact, the actual entrance conditions enforced by normal schools generally recognize the present impossibility of demanding high standards in the subjects that most count. In the Wisconsin survey, 125 out of 192 normal-school instructors reported their students as very weak in the fundamentals of the common schools. In answer to strictly elementary questions set by the survey commission the average grade of high-school graduates was: Arithmetic — 65 per cent History — 60 per cent Grammar — 67 per cent Geography — 56 per cent General Information — 57 per cent I believe these results are at least as good as and probably better than the national average. 788 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Non Before I outline in brief the details of the plan that I propose as a coi stnictive remedy for this situation, let me call your attention to the scheme* now in general use in normal schools as a makeshift for the improvement o^ the elementary education of our students. Roundly speaking, one-fourth to one-half of our time is spent in elc mentary patchwork and repair. I know of only one normal school tha does not set aside at least one-fourth of its course for elementary revie\ In that school an elaborate series of tests is given to entering students and those who are deficient in any respect are remanded without credit courses of study and reading and are thereafter retested. Substantially, this school has increased the burden of normal-school work one-third, but it has maintained at the same time a two-year course. Much of this academic review is inevitable, and much is strictly professional in its char- acter. Such parts we should not seek to fasten upon high schools. We should not seek to shift upon any other institution the necessary study of emphasis and arrangement of subject-matter and its division into lesson units, for these are professional problems, the problems of teachers. The courses that I now refer to, however, we should resent as an intru- sion into normal-school work. Their presence there is a reflection upon every part of the public-school system, for they deal with elementary knowledge of common-school subjects. Consider the subject of English. What we need in our students and what the world's culture demands of all is, first, an intelligent and inter- ested appreciation of the durable things that have been written in prose and verse. A true appreciation of the virile literature of life is what we want, and to get it the content must be built up of those things that still serve to shape the ideals and move the hearts of men. Such results in literature as we desire cannot be secured by the method of formal analysis such as has been introduced in high-school classes in imitation of the method of advanced research scholars in English. Methods of post-graduate research in a university that may have high potential value there, become mere pedantry in the high school, a reproach to those who use them, and an injustice to every student upon whom they are visited. I would see the normal schools urge a four-year course in literature: liberal, modern, world-serving, founded upon appreciation, and resulting in sound reading tastes and habits. But this is not enough. The English class should be charged justly and inflexibly with handing on imimpaired the elements of all allied English branches. The world still demands that people of good intelligence should be able to spell commonly written words. It still demands that everyone shall write a legible hand. It still requires, at least among those who claim a fair standard of culture, the use of correct oral English. It still prizes the ability to write sentences in the English language with the proper attention to persons, number, case, subject, predicate, capital letters, and periods. Department] THE HIGH SCHOOL AND THE NORMAL SCHOOL 789 In addition to these, the schools demand an elementary understanding of that system of rules, classifications, and language relationships known and commonly studied under the name of grammar. The business world will join with us in the demand for accuracy in the simpler operations of arithmetic. In history, we need in our students what the world requires of every intelligent man, namely, a knowledge of the main lines of the story of human progress, with an understanding of the principal forces that have been involved, and with an appreciation of the great names and episodes with which it has been marked. Particularly do they need to know the main lines of our nation's growth; and most of all they need a knowledge of the world as it is today: its institutions, its enterprises, its social, eco- nomic, and political problems. They need, too, a dynamic national civics, a civics that has to do with active citizenship, not unacquainted with the realities that are about us. In science, we would ask for an understanding of the great principles that rule the natural universe, such as evolution, conservation of energy, gravitation, indestructibility of matter, geologic change, and all the mighty ways in which the cosmic energy ebbs and flows thru its varied manifes- tations. In one field of science peculiarly does the teacher need the training that no one can safely be without. I refer to that department that has to do with hygiene and health and the physical care of the body. We have good high schools in this state, according to the standards of uni- versity preparation, but there is not one of them that I know of in which it is necessary for a graduate to know anything about the care of his own body and the defense of his neighborhood against disease. Some definite preparation, also, is needed for life no less than for work in the classroom concerning the ways of other lands and other people. Whether it be called descriptive geography, current events, or modern history, the horizon of common culture has been pushed back to include the whole world and we can count no one well informed who is ignorant of the circumstances xmder which other races live, the problems which affect them, and their relations to us. As long as drawing is a required subject in the elementary schools, teachers must know how to draw. I can see no reason why we should not expect a student who has had a year of high-school free-hand drawing and color work to be as skilful in it as he would have been had he, instead of the high-school work, taken one-half a year of work in a normal school. We need to this end, however, an intelligent minimum standard. In music, the situation at present is chaotic. In the normal schools and in the world as well, the musical education of our people is lacking today, not so much because music has not been taught, as because it has not been taught upon any standardized plan. If this assemblage should go no farther than to outline the purpose and content of a useful high-school 79© NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Nor course in music, it would have justified all the time and energy that gone into its making. The following outline, taken from a recently published normal-schc catalog, seems to me to state in plain English a sensible standard for sue a course: Imitation: To repeat accurately the singing of any ordinary phrase of gra school songs. Use of voice: (a) to sing in original key for at least sixteen measures; (b) to fe degrees of emphasis and contrast, and to express them by changing voice qualit (c) to sing primary-school songs with taste. Rhythm: (a) to discover the measure of music played upon the piano; (6) to Ic primary stress; (c) to tap correctly notes used one to a beat, then beats divided by two three, and four. Melody: (a) to recognize common melodies sung without words; (6) to find the key- note, its third and its fifth, of simple songs sung by teacher or the class; [c) to distinguish between major and minor tonality; (d) to read from the staff melodies in one key selected from any textbook of common use in third primary grade; (c) to apply the syllables do, re, me, fa, sol, la, ti in singing a simple melody at first hearing. The results of this work are tested solely by individual answers, expressed by singing, reading, writing, and the expression of musical judgments. No literary product, i. e., definitions, theory, history of music, or second-hand information, is of the slightest value if offered as a substitute for personal power. Students who prove, by test, that they have qualified to meet the standards required for the completion of this course will be given credit for the work and will be excused from taking it. It is very much to the advantage of high-school students who expect to attend this normal school to take work that will cover the simple essentiab of this preparatory course. K I have been at all successful in my presentation of the foregoing facts, I have made at least one point, namely, that there is a fund of prep- aration, vital for the welfare of the elementary teacher and vital to the educational welfare of every individual, which should be the product of the schools of general training; that up)on this product the normal school should expect to build; that it is our duty to stand for the increased effi- ciency and service of all educational institutions of general training in a demand for this result. If this point be clear and acceptable, then as practical men the question before us is: How can we get the high school to perfect this work that should stand as foundation training for teacher work and at the same time that serves as a genuine cultural foundation for all the work and play of life ? First of all, we can be good natured about it. We should proceed, not as faultfinders, but as fellow-workers interested in a common problem. Secondly, let those of us who maintain preparatory departments of oiu* own set model standards of preparation and results in these lines. Thirdly, let us in all ways, jointly and severally, urge model courses of study upon high schools thruout the land. Each catalog, each bulletin or pubUcation, all public utterances that we send out or control should set forth the normal school's standards, which are at the same time the world's normal standards Department] THE HIGH SCHOOL AND THE NORMAL SCHOOL 79I and demands. Fourthly, let us, with the courage of our convictions and acting in line with the straight logic of the situation, frankly offer advanced standing to anyone who enters our doors with knowledge that now must be secured as part of the normal-school required work. That is to say, if we teach grammar, just plain academic English grammar, and give a half-unit of normal credit for it, and if we find that nine-tenths of our beginners must take it in order to learn later to teach grammar, it seems to be per- fectly just and fair for us to give the same half-unit of credit to anyone who enters the normal school already possessed of the particular prepara- tion that the normal-school grammar course is designed to give. Such a principle, properly applied, would place not less than two and one-half units of the standard twenty-unit two-year normal-school course in the realm of work that might be done in any sound high-school course. That the relegation of such preparatory work to the schools of general training will benefit normal schools, setting them free to do work strictly professional, there is no doubt. That it will benefit the high school, defining for it true standards of living culture, there is no question. It will prove a force to give to all the graduates of high schools a better prepa- ration for life and incidentally for the work of the teacher. Some may say that such an offer of advanced standing would be a lowering of the normal-school standards, but such is not the case. If we could thus in a few years establish a new standard of academic fitness for our matriculants, the time would soon be ripe for a further step forward. That is to say, when 50 per cent of those who enter normal schools show themselves to be prepared in the different subjects substan- tially as outlined, then these subjects may be made at once the minimum standard for matriculation into a two-year course without any advanced standing at all. In such an event, those who might thereafter enter without such prepartion would be required to make up such deficiency by outside study or by special work in classes organized for the purpose, but without normal-school credit. I have proposed this method of offering advanced standing for academic work properly done in high school, not as a permanent status of the whole matter, but as a plan to start the introduction and emphasis of such work in the secondary school. Let us give as much credit for work of this sort done before students enter normal school as we now give to them after they enter. In regard to special credentials in manual training, domestice science, agriculture, music, and art, and for all forms of departmental work, we may establish even more advantageous relations with the high schools. In training teachers for these special fields a special underpinning of knowledge is required. As a result, much of our special training is frankly academic, of exactly the sort that is given in high schools and colleges. 792 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [NonnalJ If we compare the cases of the academically prepared and unprepared] special students, we find that the latter greatly compUcate our problem.' The prepared student is already well taught in the subject he desires to teach. The unprepared teacher has to make a hurried cram of it. The prepared^ teacher may be given professional problems and technical training from the moment he takes up the normal work. The unprepared has a year of academic work ahead substantially no more like real professional trainingj than any of the other general work he may have taken. The prepare student may be made ready for successful work in a year. It may take two years to get the other into shape. In one year we can train into a master teacher in music or French a student who is already master of the subject. But who will undertake in two years or even in three to turn out high-grade teachers in either of these subjects from those who enter without special academic preparation ? If we know this to be true, and we do, why is it that we still make so much ado over the time element in special training ? Schools boast that they have a two- or a three-year course in this or that and laws and rules prescribe our standard in terms of time. Such time standards rigidly enforced ofteno perate to keep out the best prepared. Let us have stand- ards in terms of work done and results secured. In any case, let us freely recognize and encourage academic preparation made elsewhere. I suggest as a practical means toward this end that we start in by writing all our special diplomas in terms of the actual work done rather than in terms of time spent in the normal school. We should indorse on the back of each diploma a detailed statement of exactly what work, both academic and professional, the holder has done in preparation for his work. Such a course, frankly recognizing worthy academic preparation made in high schools and colleges of general training, will do much to set us free for professional work. It will incidentally save the money, time, and energy that are now being spent in normal schools upon unnecessary duplication of work done in high schools and colleges. We cannot get results imtil we know very definitely what we want. The university gets what it wants, no matter how astounding it may be or whether it be what the world wants or not, because it has the sense to make a plain and definite demand. First, then, as a practical proposition, we must frame a reasonable and specific statement of what we need. We must set a standard to which we will all agree and which we will all urge by persuasion, rules, advanced standing, or whatever proper methods are available. I propose, therefore, that a committee of five be here appointed to outline the basis for a better academic relationship between the normal schools and the high schools; that it state in specific terms the academic preparation that should be demanded for normal-school work; that it consider the best available plans for the establishment of such academic Department] THE PREPARATION OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS 793 standards; that it secure the widest possible discussion of its findings; and that it report at the next meeting of this Association with recom- mendations for further action. Do not misunderstand me. I am not one who believes that all normal schools should be operated with the same program clock. Each should be free to make discoveries. Each should have before it the constant objective to do things better tomorrow than they were done today. At the same time, I will not do my profession the discredit to believe or to say that after a hundred year's experience in the normal schools of America there is still nothing definitely known or knowable; that there is still no stand- ard, no guideline, no safety zone established beyond the power of any individual or institutional whim of caprice. If this is a working body, can it not now begin to form and enforce some academic standards that will set us free to do the work for which we have been established ? Shall we not earnestly undertake this work that for high schools and normal schools alike lies straight in the path toward better service ? B. WHAT TO STRESS AND WHAT TO SLUR IN THE PREPARATION OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS A. J. MATTHEWS, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, TEMPE, ARIZ. In treating this subject I shall take a comparative position and refer chiefly to such subjects and principles as in my estimation should be stressed more than at present. It is conceded that the elementary teachers should be well prepared in general academic education, but it is more essential that they should be well prepared in the art of teaching and in scientific knowledge of the physical and mental development of the child, even if some forfeiture has to be made along other lines. This fact has been so generally accepted that the growth of normal training and summer schools and departments of education in colleges and universities within the past twenty years has been almost phenomenal, and at the present time in some states it is impossible to secure a position in even the smallest rural school without presenting credentials that the candidate has had some professional preparation. I would not give the impression that it will ever be considered absolutely necessary for elementary teachers to be graduates of a college or university, but I do desire to emphasize that in their preparation it is as necessary to stress all subjects relating to the art and science of teaching as it is for the'doctor or the lawyer to pursue strictly professional courses. Neither would I be understood to affirm that the assiduous study of psychology, pedagogy, methods, child study, and the history and philosophy of education, etc., must necessarily produce a successful teacher, but I do affirm that, everything else being equal, a broad and thoro knowledge of these professional subjects is more necessary than a broader academic or 794 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Nonnal collegiate training. Some elementary teachers seem imbued with the idea that their chief duty is to acquire knowledge of a general character, and as a result they neglect the professional side entirely or consider it of secondary] importance, whereas they should realize that their greatest work is that of j imparting knowledge to others, an accomplishment which is the very founda- tion of the teacher's profession and one which requires the most intensivel preparation. George Herbert Palmer, of Harvard University, altho a| university man, puts the idea tersely when he says: One who is interested in laying hold of wisdom is likely to become a scholar; and while, no doubt, it is well for a teacher to be a fair scholar, that is not the main thing. What constitutes the teacher is the passion to make scholars; and again and again it happens that the great scholar has no such passion whatever. Teachers must be trained to discover and eradicate as far as possible all frictions of the individual child mind which are a hindrance or a per- plexity to gaining perceptions, without being continually obsessed by any thought of method or child study as such. Their training should be so complete professionally that they will automatically adapt their teaching and methods to the varying conditions confronting them. It is such prep- aration and the subjects and courses leading to it that should receive the greatest stress. Not only should teachers be so trained as to direct their energies to the best advantage, but the training should prepare them for the equally important and scientific ability of spontaneously recognizing the constantly changing physical, mental, and social conditions of the same child during different periods of development and unconsciously adjusting their efforts to meet the same. This principle of pedagogy is as old as Comenius and is recognized by all educators, but recognition means nothing without the ability to practice it. As Froebel puts it, "The full and complete development of each stage is necessary for the development of successive stages." When elementary teachers are confronted with the vastness and the possibilities of preparation necessary to meet these con- ditions, I believe that no further argument will be required to convince them that the knowledge of most worth to them is that knowledge which pertains directly to the mental and physical development of the child. There is no danger of overtraining in this direction, for, as one writer says, "So deep and intricate is the problem that it is almost beyond the comprehension of the human mind." This statement is eminently true and is borne out by the fact that in the history of the world but few really great teachers have been developed. I have thus far dwelt mostly with the strictly professional side of the preparation of the elementary teacher because I am firmly convinced that it is the side that should be most emphatically stressed, at least as com- pared with the extensive preparation in the subjects to be taught. It is generally conceded that teachers have a sufiScient knowledge of the subject- matter of the elementary schools and to designate any special subjects as Department] THE PREPARATION OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS 79$ being more worthy of special consideration than the others would be to come in conflict at once with the various ideas of individual teachers. There is but one subject that all seem to agree should be stressed, and that is English, with arithmetic, reading, and writing as close seconds. These elementary branches seem to be considered fundamental, with history, geography, nature study, agriculture, manual training, domestic science, and all other subjects as secondary and auxiliary. I cannot, however, resist the temptation to dwell on a few subjects that to my mind should receive more stress than is given them at the present time. In doing so, I will first repeat what I have already said, that teachers cannot be too well prepared in what are termed the "three R's," especially English. Then I shall mention the training of teachers in elementary library science that they may be competent to instruct all pupils above the sixth grade in the library methods applicable to each grade. The courses of study are making greater demands upon the school and to such an extent that it is now as much the function of the elementary teacher to direct the reading of children as it is of the library school to train professional librari- ans. The teachers of today should be prepared to instruct their pupils in the use of the periodical index, card catalog, table of contents, dictionary, reference books, and other library facilities. They should be competent to make selections of children's books suited to the various grades and should have definite ideas as to how to establish a standard of selection. There is a crying need for reform along this line and normal schools should not consider their work complete until all prospective teachers graduating from their schools have received such training as will properly qualify them for this important work. It should also be considered a reflection on the work of elementary teachers if pupils who complete the grammar schools are not equipped to make intelligent use of such instruction. Another subject is receiving more attention than formerly but is still slurred too much in the preparation of elementary teachers, namely drawing. Its importance as an educational factor is recognized by all educators and it is emphasized more or less in most of our city systems, but there has been but little if any movement toward uniform requirement. Elementary drawing should be as generally taught in all our schools as arithmetic and writing, and this can never be accomplished until it is an absolute require- ment in the preparation of elementary teachers. The subject is generally under the direction of supervisors, while the teaching itself is done by grade teachers who know little about the subject. Supposing that we undertook the teaching of English or geography in the same way, what could we expect the results to be? And yet, from the standpoint of comparative impor- tance of the subjects, it is not denied, in fact it is frequently asserted, that drawing is not excelled by any subject in the curriculum. Time will not permit of any extended argument to substantiate the claim that drawing is entitled to equal consideration with fundamental subjects in the school 796 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal curriculum. I will simply quote that "instruction in drawing gives to every child, no matter what his life-work, a better sense of form, proportion, and symmetry, of harmonious grouping of things, of neatness and cleanliness. It gives dexterity and deftness to the fingers; it trains the hand, eye, and! mind in those habits of co-ordinated activity which are a constant advantage to the individual." In drawing there is constant application of the two educational movements of seeing and doing, which gives fulness andj completeness to educational processes. It is a substitute for manual training in the lower grades and the best preparation for it in the higher grades. It is high time that these advantages be possessed by every pupil in the public schools and I repeat that all teachers should be a3 well prepared to teach drawing as to teach the three R's. School music should also be stressed more than at the present time and aU elementary teachers should be prepared to teach it. Like drawing, systematic instruction in school music is confined to a few of our larger cities and is under the direction of specialists, but the rank and file of the grade teachers who have to do most of the real teaching are not competent to teach it and are not required to include it in their preparation for teach- ing or the requirements for a diploma. Music should be taught in every school in the United States and every teacher should be competent to give instruction in it. Why should we hesitate to advance music to a stand- ardized place in our educational curriculum and require all our elementary teachers to qualify in it ? It need not be a matter of time so much as one of adjustment, proper gradation, and continuity of the subject. The entire time allowed me could profitably be given to the presentation of evidence that proficiency in school music should constitute one of the factors in the preparation of teachers and that it is only thru such a system that the wonderful influence and educational value of music can be secured for the children of American schools. In enumerating thus briefly a few of the subjects to be stressed in the preparation of teachers, there are many others that should be mentioned and their not being mentioned is not intended to indicate that it is the writer's opinion that they should be slurred. Only such subjects have been noted as in the writer's mind are not sufl&ciently stressed. Teachers' responsibilities in looking after the health of their pupils, their duties relat- ing to the religious, moral, civic, social, industrial, and patriotic phases of education must all receive attention and be nicely adjusted by securing the co-operation of pupils, parents, and school officers if teachers would become the important and influential factors in the community that they should be. But perhaps more important than the teacher's education, culture, spe- cial professional training, and skill in methods are the preparation and training of one's personality for the greatest work in the world. Person- ality has to do with one's character, morality, leadership, enthusiasm, and sympathy for and love of children in a general way. It may seem that the Department] THEY WHO SIT AT OUR FEET 797 possession of these characteristics constitutes the ideal teacher, which few can hope to be, and that many of them are impossible of attainment, as they are innate factors of our own individuality not susceptible of change thru any amount of training. Therefore they should not be considered under the preparation of a teacher. Granted that the possession of all these characteristics in a high degree would represent the ideal teacher, should not all teachers have in their mind's eye the ideal teacher when they decide to take up the work and prepare themselves for it ? Without the ideal well fixed, they cannot hope to achieve any real success. I am inclined to take issue with the theory that most of these characteristics cannot be achieved, if not naturally possessed, by earnest teachers with the proper ideal established and knowing wherein they are deficient. I have known beginners who taught with harsh, disagreeable voices, with discontented, unhappy faces, with a nervous irritability when approached by children, and with an impatience at any boyish disorder, but, having these defects brought to their attention by a kind and tactful critic teacher or principal and having a real desire to become successful teachers, they overcame the deficiencies and the interest taken in the process of overcom- ing them developed an interest and enthusiasm in the whole work which led them on to success. The Scripture says, " They that instruct the youth unto life shall shine like stars in the firmament." Newman says of the teacher, "He is a professor eloquent, a missionary and a preacher displaying his science in its most complete and winning form, pouring it forth with the soul of enthusi- asm, and lighting up his own love of it in the breast of his hearers." In this great work personality weighs more than methods and more than pro- found scholarship. A personality, then, that includes character, morality, sympathy, love for children, and a sincere love for teaching is the acquisition of greatest worth to the teacher and no matter what qualifications or special preparation may be stressed or slurred it is worth whOe to stress at all times along such lines as will not only make better teachers but that will inspire them and their pupils to become better men and women, better fathers and mothers, and better citizens. C. THEY WHO SIT AT OUR FEET M. MADILENE VEVERKA, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, LOS ANGELES, CAL. We have collected a body of scientific knowledge concerning the teach- ing of children. This knowledge is adequate and easy of access and com- prehension. We know that young and inexperienced teachers guided by this knowledge may proceed definitely and correctly; we feel the ne- cessity of testing. all agencies, old or new, which make claims for education, because the normal school is undeniably the leader in the experiment. Its 798 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Nomud business is to know. It is strongly indicated that in order to furnish teachers for the ever-increasing new fields the opportunity for preparation must be increased. It seems to be quite definite that, since the school is constantly reaching homeward to the years of early childhood, and since we are becoming more concerned about these years, women are sure to constitute the large body of elementary teachers. These then are some of the questions which concern us normal-school people: How shall the teacher best exchange the traditional tools of learn- ing with so much of race heritage in them for the pressing demands of today ? What sort of a pedagogy must we give her that the children may become good, intelligent, and happy, able to utilize the heritage of the race to this end, and yet fit into life now and here with a specific work in the direction of highest natural endowment ? We of the normal schools are new in our knowledge. We feel our insecurity in this complicated scheme of training teachers. We have had so little time and there has been no one to teach us. We are rather self- made. Even now, we hardly hold an imdisputed place for ourselves. It is not strange then that we make meager and indefinite demands upon the students coming to us. The requirements vary almost as do the schools themselves. And yet good teaching is good teaching the world over. Teaching of children calls for no small or obscure powers, and those will reveal themselves to him who is bent on discovery. But what shall those characteristics be upon which a normal school may build, and which warrant the time and preparation ? I must see something behind the effervescence of youth. There must be a real promise more than a sentimental liking for children. I must look for something in these young students that will assure me the time and toil will be worth while. What are these specific marks of promise, that rare quaUty or sum of qualities that make a teacher ? When I think of the classes of young women who come and go thru my department and when I come to classify these young women, in the order of excellence and promise, they spring at once into classes, and the class that stands out most clearly is made up of wholesome young women. When I imagine these young women with groups of children, they all seem strangely happy and I am conscious of a warmth of relationship. There is a pecuhar atmosphere that they create about themselves. I wonder what it is that enables this teacher to throw herself so completely into the children's business; and I conclude it is because she is so human and motherly. This kind of teacher is at home with little children. She is a little deaf and a little blind to childish impulses. She knows how to forget and yet how to remember all that is vital. She is close enough to her own childhood either in years or in imagination that she has not forgotten how to play. She can do so many things without being told. Her life has been hved largely in Department] THEY WHO SIT AT OUR FEET 799 ordinary situations where a fund of common-sense counts for most. She is not afraid of hard work or responsibility. She has a keen sense of human values. She takes time to live and in living helps the children close to the simple experiences belonging to childhood. The American people have great need of this kind of teachers. We are coming so fast to be a nation of urban people, and the modern conditions of life use up our childhood too fast. We like to say that schools should provide experience. We might far better say that schools should shield the children from too much experience. Then a teacher-to-be must have personality — that elusive will-o'-the- wisp that defies analysis and definition. The gods seem to bestow it on the favored ones only. There seems not enough to go around. Surely it is a gift much to be desired. But we are looking afar off for something quite at home. If a young teacher can teach children, you may be sure she has personality, for anyone who can do anything with people has personality. My student gives promise when she radiates health. Teaching is proverbial for the inroad it makes upon our daily allotment of energy. But so long as our system continues to break both students and teachers, let us start our teachers well and later we may learn how to keep them so. Shall we not have learned people to teach our children? Too much education may incapacitate for teaching. We must have a high-school and and should ask for a college preparation if that does not kill the wholesome curiosity and love for study. Let us, for the joy of it, and the necessity of it insist on greater academic preparation than we now demand, but let us have nothing beyond the point of open-mindedness, where all knowledge still allures us. The necessary condition of first importance to bring out whatever of teaching ability a prospective teacher may have is the presence of children. Unless a normal school has its school of practice teaching, it is compelled to go away from home to give its students this opportunity. There must be a place where the timid effort of the novice may have every chance pos- sible under the most favorable conditions. Teaching is an art to be sure, and as such it has its technique which is to be seen and heard. The student must see teaching first of all to become familiar with children and their various responses and interests. Here she sees teaching by experienced and trained teachers so that class organization and schoolroom procedure and routine become familiar. Here the theory of her other educational courses is converted into actual doing. We need not be fearful that our students will imitate our teaching. We shall teach them principles so well that they will outgrow imitation long before they have left us. And too imitation is a handmaiden to progress and most of us in our early teaching were fortunate if we had something worthy to imitate. When our school of practice becomes in reality a place where every course given may be interpreted and where every theory must stand or fall upon its merits there, 8oo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Nonnal then will our normal-school professors realize they have much to learn from their own schools of practice. They will be more cautious about what they say lest they be asked to demonstrate with children. Indeed, when our normal-school faculties get into the habit of teaching children they will be better able to teach teachers and not violate their own peda- gogy. If they attempt to teach children, they will grow vastly in sympa- thy and respect for the little novice who is just beginning. The practice school is a marvelous laboratory, but let us not ask students to test out new theories and devices. That kind of work must be done and must be seen, but let us leave it to the mature teacher with more or less expertness of judgment. It is enough that the student gain confidence and relative skill and habit in doing work along definite lines of accepted doc- trine. If she can master a few things well, we must be satisfied that she will master others, because we aim to do little more than to give a good foundation. In our training school she must convince herseK that she can teach, not that she is a finished teacher. The best must be made to seem very possible and desirable. If we can awaken in her a confidence that makes her impatient to teach and test her power, we have done well. But who is it that must unify all this experience and all these school activities for the young teacher ? Her training teacher must ever be the unifying spirit. She is always the mother-pedagogical to some group of children and a big sister to her student group. First of all she can teach. Her work is at the fine-art point. It is good to look at, and, best of all, she makes teaching look so easy and attractive that it has a sort of invitation about it. It gives you the feeling that you want to begin at once, for you feel that you can do it too. She can bring the volumes of pedagogical principles into actual schoolroom conditions. She knows her children both Uttle and big and does not forget for a moment that they are all chil- dren. She is more human than scholarly, but her scholarship must rank well with that of any professor in the school. She has common-sense enough to fill in all the places for which books do not provide. She has confidence in her department so that she can make demands for it. She disciplines just because she is there. She has a sympathetic ear for all griefs that seem so big. She has time for everything because she knows what things are worth while. She minimizes difficulties for her students. She takes time to live, because she has a big share in all hmnan interests. Most of all she has a big philosophy of life, which is not taught or preached, but suggested in her coming and going. Somehow when you go you take this with you more than even her method or pedagogy. She criticizes you in such a way that you come away chastened and strengthened. You seem clothed in a new vision and purpose and greater confidence. She can do all this because she has been thru the dark places herself and understands. She has had a large teaching experience and knows the work far on each side of her own grade. If she is a primary teacher, she knows the kindergarten just as well. Department] PROGRESS IN THE TRAINING OP RURAL TEACHERS 8oi and if she is a kindergarten teacher, she is at home in any of the lower grades. Her specialization has not made her narrow, but it has made her deep. She can interpret to her students the ideals of the American school, because she is an American and knows the peculiar genius of this glorious people. The place where she is throbs with life and reality, a picture of which the young student carries away with her until she can make of her own school just such a place. Now what is it this young teacher is that she was not ? What have we added to her which she did not have when she came ? First, she has con- vinced herself and her faculty that she can teach. The normal school has added to her a knowledge of a few pedagogical principles, rather than a vast hazy mass of theory and detail. If there are sixteen methods of teach- ing reading, we have seen to it that she must know at least one of these well. She has a lifetime to study the other fifteen. Can she organize a lesson ? The training school has not only fortified her with knowledge, but it has given her skill. She can teach writing, no matter what a fund of knowledge she may have about penmanship. She does not lose her psychol- ogy in a maze of device. She can assign a lesson. She can ask questions. She may know much or little about literature, but she has a fund of stories which she can tell. She views education in larger and larger terms. She does not cling to the idea that all children are angelic and therefore that all error must be in herself. She recognizes that parents do have a right to concern themselves about their children, even if that concern does not meet our approval. We must have made her acquainted with those educational leaders of this time and other times who have thought out big thoughts for us, so that she may learn early to look in their direction. She is on her way to knowing children. She knows the value and limits of a textbook. If we have fully realized our responsibility to the public, we will have sifted out during the course, hard tho the task appears, so many that we can guar- antee these few things concerning those we do send. A DECADE OF PROGRESS IN THE TRAINING OF RURAL TEACHERS ERNEST BURNHAM, DIRECTOR, RURAL-SCHOOL DEPARTMENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, KALAMAZOO, MICH. The Committee of Twelve pointed out in 1895 that normal schools were originally intended to prepare teachers of the rural common schools but were doing little for these schools and explained that entrance require- ments had risen rapidly and thus set the normal schools too far ahead of those whom they were intended to serve; that many rural teachers could not aflford the expense of two years in the normal schools; that salaries did not remunerate for such expense; and that attendance at normal schools 8o2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Nonnal is in inverse ratio to the distance between these schools and the homes, a fact especially true for short courses. This committee suggested summer terms for rural teachers in every normal school in the United States and the use of agricultural colleges and high schools, with model and practice rooms attached, as supplementary sources. The Committee on Industrial Education in Schools for Rural Communities ten years later, in 1905, added the suggestion that the com- pulsory introduction of industrial subjects must not outrun the preparation of teachers in such subjects. These fundamental considerations and the constantly revivified ideal of a teacher as an individual of personality, education, and specific training have formed the foimdation for such institutional evolution as has char- acterized the progress of the past decade in training rural teachers. In a personal questionnaire study, conducted during the past two months, out of 18 state departments of education responding to the inquiries, 16 were doing no special work in high schools or in county training classes to prepare rural teachers ten years ago; and 12 out of 20 state departments reported no special work for rural teachers in normal schools at that time. Of 18 of the same states there are 11 which have special courses in high schools and 4 which have special county training classes for rural teachers at present, while 20 out of 21 states reported special efforts by their state normal schools to prepare rural teachers. These items show in the past decade an approximate advance of 450 per cent in the use of high- school classes, of 100 per cent in the use of county training classes, and of 140 per cent in the use of state normal schools for the training of rural teachers. This same research revealed that 6 out of 18 states have not advanced the minimum requirements for beginning teachers in ten years, while 4 out of 18 have advanced the certification requirement academically, and 8 out of 18 have added an entrance requirement of professional training. Twenty state departments of education show that a median estimate of 15 per cent of rural teachers had some professional training in 1905 and a median estimate of 50 per cent of rural teachers had some professional training in 1915, an advance of 230 per cent. A comparative study of several hundred state statutes on education passed in 1905 and a comparable niunber of the statutes of 19 15 showed a shift in emphasis from the certification to the preparation of rural teachers. In a questionnaire research directed to state normal schools, out of 38 states responding, 29 offer special courses for rural teachers and 9 do not; 3 began to differentiate courses for rural teachers before 1905, 6 between 1905 and 1910, and 20 have begun such differentiation since 1910, while 7 have begun in the current year. Out of 35 states 28 replied that differen- tiation is increasing, while 29 out of 36 states offered evidence that there is a demand by local school authorities for specially prepared rural teachers. Department] PROGRESS IN THE TRAINING OF RURAL TEACHERS 803 Seventeen of 36 states had normal-school courses for rural supervisors and superintendents in 1905, and 29 of 36 states had such courses this year, a gain of 70 per cent. Nine of 30 states had courses for rural supervisors and superintendents in higher institutions of learning in 1905, and 21 out of 30 states have these courses now, a gain of 130 per cent. The results of the two questionnaire studies are presented for what they are worth as approxi- mations of the facts. Normal-school activities in training rural teachers in the year 1913-14, as summarized by the federal Bureau of Education, showed: Out of 121 normal schools reporting, 36 have distinct departments for rural teachers; 19 others offer special courses, altho not equipped with distinct depart- ments; 28 offer instruction in some subjects for rural teachers separate from general courses; while 41 of 121 normal schools make no special pro- vision for rural teachers. The 19 14 report of the United States com- missioner of education mentions one state which had 7,000 rural teachers attending summer schools in 1914, and reports one state teachers' college which has established 50 student centers to enrol 3,000 active teachers for Saturday instruction. The foregoing paragraphs clearly indicate the types of institutional agencies which have emerged as the training of rural teachers has pro- gressed. These types are the high-school training course, the county training class, the department of rural education in state normal schools, and courses, mostly for advanced students, in such higher institutions as agricultural and teachers' colleges and schools of education in universities. Progress within the high-school and county-class types turns upon practically the same considerations, namely: financial resources, entrance and completion requirements, academic and professional content of courses, articulation with the school system, and the selection of qualified instructors. The local classes are now subsidized by the states, or the states and counties, to the amount of from $500 to $1,500 annually for each class. Entrance requirements are now two and in most cases three years of high-school work completed and many high-school graduates are already enrolled. In one state after September, 1917, the requirement for admission will be the completion of a four-year approved high-school course. The one year of work is distributed among academic reviews of the elementary-school subjects, courses in psychology, management, and method illuminated by observation and practice, and special instruction including method in the content subjects recently introduced in the rural-school curriculum. Articulation with the school system involves adequate provision for observation and practice, the definite evaluation of the year's work for use as entrance or advance credit at normal schools and universities, and the appointment of the graduates to teaching positions. Such progress as is reported in these respects does not lend itself readily to a summary. The preparation of the instructors employed in these local teacher-training 8o4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Nonnal agencies exhibits variety and wide disparity. Some instructors have had but one year beyond the high school, the majority are normal-school graduates, and some have completed four or more years of work in teachers' colleges and universities. The selection and training, including the inspira- tion, retention, and adequate remuneration of the instructors of these local seed beds of rural teachers, is a sensitive and promising point of progress at present. Departments of rural education in state normal schools are a growth of the past decade. The chief internal progress made by these depart- ments is evidenced by the number and kind of students enrolled ; by care- ful, not rapid nor yet too slow, elevation of the academic and professional standards enforced for admission and graduation; by such searching analysis of the materials of instruction used as will sensitively eliminate the obsolete as well as judiciously incorporate new subjects and methods; by developing the most convenient observation and, if possible, practice opportunities in real rural schools; by finding the proper place of dignity and importance for this newcomer among the long-recognized leading depart- ments of the normal schools; and by the participation within the depart- ment of instructors of equal training, capacity, and power with the best workers in all departments of normal training. Progress in the foregoing particulars is as yet much more a matter of observation than of definite and summarized records. Close familiarity with several departments of rural education in state normal schools gives facts sufficient to justify the following statement of progress for the past decade: The number and, as a rule, the qualifications of the students in these departments have shown a sure if not spectacular advance altho temporary setbacks have affected the numbers when some too long step ahead has been taken in academic standards, a movement which has been slow but constant. Sixty state normal schools have been equipped for instruction in agriculture, which is the largest growth in new instruction materials, and also in the field and other demonstration work in this and related subjects possibly the greatest advance in method has been made. Twenty-one normal schools and two agricultural colleges are equipped with observation or practice rural schools or with rural schools used for both observation and practice. This is a recent and a very significant growth, which has taken two forms: the building and complete equipment of a one-teacher school illus- trating every physical possibility of such schools, and the use of this model school plant for the best demonstration of the human excellences of such a school for the observation and in some cases the participation of pros- pective teachers. The other form is developed by sympathetic and financial affiliation by the normal school of one or more outlying rural schools (one normal college has 20 such schools) in which the community initiative, quickened by the leadership of an exceptionally able teacher, selected by Department] PROGRESS IN THE TRAINING OF RURAL TEACHERS 805 the district and the normal school and paid jointly by them, is allowed to take its course in the realization of an adequate school plant and other modern teaching equipment. This afifords, for the observation of teachers in training, a current demonstration of the possibilities of leadership by teachers in the community as well as within the school. One of the most subtle and difficult progressive adjustments for depart- ments of rural education in state normal schools to make is that of finding a recognition in the institutional life which is in equilibrium with the relative importance of the work. To overemphasize or to minimize disproportion- ately in comparison with what is being done in other important matters is the ready pitfall of new departments in old institutions. The rural depart- ments which have been directed from the start by men of training, maturity, and salary equal to those of heads of other departments have been most successful in outgrowing mere novelty and becoming inconspicuous as they have grown in strength and influence within the unity of the larger insti- tutional life. The recognition of the men and women employed in normal- school departments of rural education as measured by the salaries paid and by the responsibility given them in the institutional polity has in most cases been encouraging. That the commanding importance of these positions is not fully recognized in salary and in type of person selected is no doubt due in part to limits of available funds, in part to the undeveloped vision of the work, and in part to the scarcity of adequately prepared and experienced persons. The fourth type of institution which is beginning to lend its facilities and thought to the study of rural education directs its effort to the prepara- tion of county and special supervisors, of teachers in the types of rural teacher-training agencies already mentioned, and rural supervisors in state departments of public instruction. To revivify the situation, which has already been presented in general and somewhat unsatisfactory terms, a definite illustration of progress in exact particulars of each of the four agencies now in service in the training of rural teachers is added. One state began with 13 high-school training courses in 1905. This state had in 1914, 106 high schools giving this course and 1,129 teachers were graduated. The number of these high schools is now 120, and the enrolment last year was 1,256. Special teachers for these courses are as a rule normal-school graduates with successful experience and strong personality. They are paid from $600 to $1,000 annual salary and are supervised by a woman of most unusual ability and accomplish- ments who is paid an annual salary of $2,000. This state's commission on education, after a thoro study of the high-school training course, last year recommended that the state subsidy of $1,000 annually be increased to $3,000 and that $1,200 salary be paid to worthy teachers of these courses. The commission said that these courses were in the way of developing to a point where it will not be necessary for any rural school in the state to do without a trained* teacher. 8o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Normal j Several states have already safeguarded progress from the future; retardation which the rapid influx of teachers of only secondary-school; preparation might involve by statutes requiring a graduated increase in preparation. And notably in the South, growth in service is insured by thej rural supervising teachers, really traveling normal-school instructors, who] are training the rural teachers by demonstration and suggestion in the own schoolrooms as they are confronted with their difficulties and are in aj receptive frame of mind. In another state there were in 1905, 8 county normal-training classes, | which graduated 84 prospective teachers. In 1915, this state graduated 667 teachers from 48 county classes, and in the ten years the admission to the classes has been raised from two years of high-school work completed to three years. In the ten years, a total of 5,925 teachers have graduated from the county normal classes of this state. There are two special teachers in each of these classes who are normal-school or university graduates and are paid from $700 to $1,100 annual salary. The number of these classes is slowly increasing in this state, but as yet there is no adequate state super- vision of them. In this state approximately 63 per cent of the teachers in one and two-room schools have now had some professional training and approximately 40 per cent of these teachers have had at least one whole year of such training. One state normal school in 1905 graduated from its department of rural schools 4 teachers from a course which was academically equivalent to two years of high-school work, and in 1915 this school graduated 36 teachers from a rural course which was equivalent to four years of high-school work completed and 24 from a rural course which requires one year and a summer term of work after the completion of the course of an approved four-year high school. In the past decade this department graduated 480 teachers. The director of this department of rural education has had three years of university graduate work in education and he is paid an annual salary of $2,700. The teacher of method and supervisor of observation and practice has had one year of normal-school graduate work and she is paid an annual salary of $1,300. The teacher of the rural demonstration school is a Phi Beta Kappa graduate of the state university and she is paid an annual salary of $1,200. In 1904 there was one such normal-school department and there are now more than fifty such departments either in operation or to begin their work this fall. An illustration of a higher institution working in rural education is found in a large teachers' college which gave its first distinctively rural course to a handful of students in the summer session of 1912. In the sum- mer of 1913 there was an enrolment in rural-education courses of 35 students from 24 different states. During the regular year of 1914-15, two courses and a practicum in rural education enrolled in all 75 students, and this summer 128 students were enrolled in eleven distinctively rural courses, Department] LIBRARY TRAINING IN NORMAL SCHOOLS 807 namely, social institutions, productive organizations, curriculum, super- vision, administration, training of teachers, high schools, household arts, agriculture, cookery, and carpentering. There was also a well-attended weekly evening conference of rural students. The director of this work says that in personal character a goodly number of the students give promise of taking unusual positions of leadership. LIBRARY TRAINING IN THE NORMAL SCHOOLS CARROLL G. PEARSE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS. Into the hbraries of the world is garnered the stored-up wisdom of the world; whoever would be free of this wisdom must have the "open sesame" to the treasures these libraries contain. After the art of reading, which not only gives the key to libraries, but opens all other literature which has not yet found its way into hbraries, no art is more certain to be constantly useful and usable than the art of finding in libraries the information which is desired. But, important as this art is, few topics receive less attention in our schools. We insist upon the use of the gymnasium and provide an instructor who sees, not only that the gymnasium work is done, but that it is done in the proper manner, and that students not only know the use of the various pieces of apparatus, but are trained to use them in the best way. The use of the science laboratories and their equipment and the manual- training tools and machinery and materials is carefully explained and demonstrated, and the instructor follows up his instruction by watching over and coaching his students to the most advantageous use of both materials and tools. But how many schools are there which, as a regular part of their work, first instruct and then train their students in the use of this, potentially, the most valuable of all laboratories — the mental laboratory of the school ? The pupils in our schools, from the time they can read well enough, should be taught to go to the library for the answers to many of their questions. If teachers keep this in mind, the habit can be quite well and firmly fixed even in the elementary school. But to lead pupils in the way they should go, and to train them to walk in it, teachers must themselves have been trained and must have formed the habit. Few teachers have had this training given to them, and few of those who are coming to the normal schools now to be trained for teaching have received it. Hence, if the teachers of tomorrow, and the next week, and the next year are to have it, the normal schools must proceed to give it. An especial reason for placing this responsibility upon the normal school exists in the fact that in those schools the work will be done with reference to the student's future use of the knowledge in his teaching work. In no other institution is this Ukely to be the case. 8o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Nor An additional and strong reason for assigning this work to the norma schools exists in the fact that, at present, and for such time as we can see into the immediate future, only the larger public high schools will be able to bear the expense of a trained person to devote all the time to the Ubrary* and its work; for all the smaller high schools and for practically all ele- mentary schools, it will be necessary to employ a teacher who can tak( charge also of the library and the training of pupils to use it, or a libr; who can also devote a part of the time to teaching. Library training is not all given when the use of books has been taught; the librarian must not only be able to show and train pupils to use and enjoy the treasures of the Ubrary, but he must be qualified to select and install and care for and keep up the school's collection of books. The general principles on which books should be chosen, the art of selecting for the special needs of the particular school the librarian is serving, the mechanical work of cataloging and accessioning must be taught to the embryo librarian, as well as the manner and places for buying to the best advantage. The responsibility of the normal schools is increased because the pubUc schools must be depended upon to give this appreciation of the value of books and some skill in their use. A few persons learn at home the use of a library; a small number acquire the art from some library or under the suggestion or guidance of some librarian; a few pick up the art unaided; but all these constitute a small minority. The public schools get practically everybody; and it is to the public schools that we must intrust the formation and fostering of this library habit. It is true with this, as with so many other imp)ortant things: "What you would see in the life of a nation, you must put into its schools." Some agitation to bring about this desirable end has been done. The Library Section of the National Education Association has been most active and earnest in advocating that the normal schools begin to include library training as a part of the regular normal-school course. A committee of the department has reported more than once, and a uniform course of study in library work has been reported. Some progress has been made. The state of New York, long a leader in library work, provides by law for library training, which, Ln that state, must be given in pubUc schools of certain classes, and the state helps to pay the expense of giving the instruc- tion. In Wisconsin the state law requires that applicants for teachers' licenses pass an examination in library methods. These advance steps may very weU be imitated by other commonwealths. But the speediest and the most efifective way to arrive at the result will be for the normal schook in all the states to make library training a part of the normal-school course of study, and to insist that all the students sent out by them with diplomas entitling the holders to teach in the schools of the state shall be able to guide their pupils in the use of the library and train them until such use becomes a habit. I Department] NORMAL TRAINING OF HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS 809 THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS AND THE TRAINING OF HIGH- SCHOOL TEACHERS HOMER H. SEERLEY, PRESIDENT, IOWA STATE TEACHERS COLLEGE, CEDAR FALLS, IOWA Teacher training. — During recent years much differentiation in the plans of training public-school teachers has been adopted by the state normal schools of the United States. This differentiation has taken place in the attempt to give practical and efficient preparation for the kinds of work that individual teachers are, by personal qualifications and fitness, best able to do. The specialization adopted is exhibited in the organiza- tion of the courses of study and in the standards of scholastic and pro- fessional training that are accepted as essential to meet the public need. This change in public policy has abandoned the notion that the education and training of teachers is general in character and has established as a result the special teacher as the necessary product for the teacher-training institutions to develop. In such a condition it becomes necessary for the students of state normal schools to determine early in their career to what particular kind of educational work they will devote their public services and to seek by specialization to reach superior capability and strength as educators. This solution of the teacher-training problem has developed from economic and professional reasons rather than from theoretical and philosophical reasons, since the preparation of a teacher is limited in time and in subject-matter to a few years, and quality, skill, and efficiency are the standards that are the evidences of success. The function of the normal school. — State normal schools have their functions decided by statutes made by legislatures rather than by prece- dents, customs, or experience possessed by generations of educational philosophers. They are regulated by grants made by general assemblies and respond with readiness to the public demand of common-school author- ities who purchase their output. They are not created by official boards of management or by faculties of instruction, as their mission and their service are easily changed and their endeavors quickly remodeled. They are authorized to accomplish a specific work in a notably efficient manner and they are compelled to find their way over a new and untried field of progress. While undertaking a new enterprise, they are public institutions and every movement and expenditure must be accounted for in formal public documents printed and distributed by the state. While given unusual freedom of action, they are still subject to biennial reviews by state officials and to sundry investigations and surveys by regularly constituted author- ities. In addition, they are visited, inspected, studied, and discussed by students and administrators of education who recognize the problem of training public-school teachers as the one live topic in educational move- ments and the differences of opinion that exist as furnishing abundant 8io NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Nor material for investigation and discussion. These potent influences anc disturbances make such schools the most aggressive and vital organizations that exist in modern civilization with a future as to prospects and to out4 comes that cannot be defined, anticipated, or conjectured at the presentj Such institutions, having originated from the public attempts to satisf existing conditions, unmet by other established institutions, represent opportunities and privileges that are unlimited in their possibilities foij wisdom in plans and for skill in execution while they are surrounded bj difficulties and by emergencies that are created by popular demand fo^ superior results and by public exigencies of enormous consequences. Specialization as a means to an end. — The developments that have comd from three-quarters of a century of normal-school activity have resulted in the adoption of a policy of specialization as the means to an end for secur- ing decided efficiency in the training of individual teachers. Out of this growth of the conception of how best to give capability thru training has originated the classifying of teachers-in-training according to their particu- lar adaptability for the service they are to perform later into kindergartners, primary teachers, grade teachers, rural teachers, teachers of public-school music, art teachers, manual-arts teachers, home-economics teachers, physical-education teachers, commercial teachers, and department high- school teachers. When this entire field of training is not covered by a state normal school, the work that it is assigned to do partakes more or less of these differentiation characteristics by its endeavoring to train each student for notable efficiency in some one line of teaching service. The success that this system of specialization has reached has attained such a high degree of acceptability that it is rapidly becoming the plan of organization that is approved as the most effective in its possible results and in its economic benefits. This specialization has not been sufficient when it has been applied to the planning of the courses of study and of training, as its purpose must be emphasized equally in the spirit of the management and in the personal developments of the right attitude of those who are to represent the motive and the aim of such endeavor in the service they render society. The creation of this wholesome atmosphere of helpful service rendered by the soldiers of the common good is fundamental to all the enterprise and to all the work that originates and is maintained in the life and accomplishments of a true normal school. The high-school teacher. — ^There is no good reason why the training of high-school teachers is not the proper fimction of a state normal school. It is true that some of the states have not made any provision at all for the training of high-school teachers. It is probably true that some of the states assume that high-school teachers do not need special training. These states have done without such a plan so long and are so well satisfied with their accomplishments at the present that they are not interested in such a proposition more than they would be in the founding and maintaining Department] NORMAL TRAINING OF HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS 8ll at public expense of a state university or a state school of law or medicine. It is also true that where training of high-school teachers has devel- oped in states thru the service of state normal schools, it is in these very states that colleges and universities are most active and most progressive in undertaking this kind of work. So important and so prominent has become this service in a large number of state normal schools that the lead- ing members of the faculties of such schools are expected to make extended preparation in educational and technical courses beyond the regular college standards and to have in addition notable experience in teaching in order to have competency to do the exceptional work demanded. The state normal schools have the environment and the training facilities to the highest degree, they have experience in training students to be teachers that is notable, and they are so affiliated with the public schools of the commu- nities where they are located that the work to be done is never subordinated by the presence of other educational endeavors that are commercialized and self-centered. Becoming a high-school teacher demands of a student an attitude toward life that is difficult to get where teaching is not repre- sented as a great vocation and as possessing opportunities sufficient to satisfy the truest ambition and the greatest personal talents. This condi- tion must exist at a genuine normal school and it is in such an atmosphere that the training of high-school teachers can reach its best and most productive development. The high school as a part of the system. — Since the high school is a part of the public-school system, since high-school teaching cannot be divorced from other public-school teaching, and since principals, supervisors, and superintendents are safely selected from experienced high-school teachers, it is of the greatest importance that high-school teachers in their training should have the largest opportunity to become thoroly acquainted with the work of the elementary and primary grades and thereby be better able to fit their instruction to the attainments of their pupils and at the same time be able to appreciate the limitations and the difficulties of the ele- mentary and primary teachers as will be shown in the pupils they prepare for the high school. Such acquaintance and experience while in training would abbreviate the time that must be spent in actual service before the teacher can be well qualified for the more prominent undertakings in man- agement and supervision and would give efficiency and strength in the personal and executive endeavors to be maintained without experimenta- tion or delay, giving initiative and intelligence and security such as would otherwise be unrealized and unappreciated. Possessing authority conferred by appointment to executive work and responsibility does not guarantee the necessary wisdom or the power of success. Despite the fact that many of the most lucrative positions in educational work are still classified as non-professional and as not depending upon standards of scholarship, quality of personal attainment, or quantity of acquirement, the individuals 8l2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Norma SO appointed being ranked side by side with the local politician and the ^ ordinary public official, yet it is evident that there is a gradual improvement in the popular conception of the need for more recognition of capabiHty and efficiency as factors in administration, so that promotion from thi ranks of the well educated and the well trained is more and more the custo Right standards of training. — That high-school teachers should havi definite qualifications as to general scholarship as well as to special scholar- ship is universally recognized. General scholarship must mean an elemen- tary knowledge of college-grade English, mathematics, physics, chemistryj earth science, biological science, history, political science, and drawing, while special scholarship must mean an advanced knowledge to superior degree of some one kind of scholarship, such as English, foreij language, social science, physical science, natural science, or mathematic; To make this special scholarship truly effective requires the addition of some second kind of knowledge which so co-operates with the expert attain- ments of the first as to add strength and breadth to the instruction that can be given by the trained teacher. In addition to these majors, minors, and elementary courses there must be notable and thoro knowledge of education as a science and as an art. The state normal school that plans properly to fit high-school teachers for successful service cannot afford to subordinate scholarship of the best grade in any respect. It must do better work rather than poorer work than the standard college because of its professional status and ideals as an institution. It must meet the highest conceptions of quaUty and quan- tity, but it does not need to be bound by tradition and by pride to standards that are more academic than effective. While recognLzing the value of academic standards, it is possible to go so far in legislating on these elements of the training of the high-school teacher that other important and more vital things may be omitted or overlooked. There is a possibility that a college student can specialize so much that he may not be quaUfied to do effectively the elementary work that is necessary in high-school courses. In fact, it is no uncommon thing to find a teacher so infatuated with his attainments in scholarship that he cannot come down to the level of the pupils he is employed to teach and hence makes a failure to do for the school what is essential in every case to be done. In a similar way, it is equally com- mon to find a teacher so overwhelmed with his attainments in the professional studies of his college course that he fails to adapt his instruction to the mental capabilities of his class or to recognize the necessity for simplicity of language and concreteness of illustration, and hence suffers from lack of appreciation and popular favor so essential to professional growth and personal happiness. The state normal school's duty to the state. — ^When the imiversities and colleges as now organized have contributed all they can to prepare well- educated and well-trained teachers for the high schools, yet there are then Department] NORMAL TRAINING OF HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS 813 not half enough recruits to fill the ranks of the army of teachers that are needed. With the advent of the village and the country high schools, which new institutions promise to surpass in numbers even the city high schools themselves; with the increasing demand for a more practical and more complete secondary education for the vast majority of boys and girls; with the development of normal training in high schools in many of the states; with the expansion of educational opportunities for the masses demanding multitudes of supervisors, principals, and superintendents; it becomes the duty of the state normal schools to be active factors in help- ing the people to realize their rights and their obligations. If the uni- versities and colleges could double their capacity for output by increasing their immense expenditures, yet the results could not be reached, since the teaching class must be recruited from the ranks of those who cannot afiFord to add any expense to their present sacrifices of time and money. It is true that college and university life is continually on an ascending scale and that many would-be teachers are obliged to seek institutions where living expenses are on a cheaper basis, if they are to get their education and train- ing. In such conditions as these, the state normal schools can meet the emergency, as they are the one class of institutions conducted on a basis of great simpUcity and of rigid economy, such as is not now equaled any- where in higher educational administration. In addition the legislatures of the several states stand ready to provide the means necessary to place the work of these popular institutions on the highest standard of efiiciency in order to prepare competent and capable teachers for their common schools. With such a situation and with the problems of popular education not half solved, the duty of the state normal schools is that of meeting the obligation in full by undertaking the task of thoroly preparing teachers for all grades and kinds of public-school work. When this conception of duty has been accepted and the fruits of the endeavor have been fully reaUzed, then the education and the training of high-school teachers will have reached a proper standard and the public schools will be unified in purpose and enlarged in scope so that they are able to meet the full demands of the masses. 4 DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND PRACTICAL ARTS SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Arthur H. Chamberlain, secretary, California Council of Education, San Francisco, Cal. Vice-President — Martha Van Rensselaer, president, American Home Economics Association and professor of home economics, Cornell University. . . .Ithaca, N.Y. Vice-President — Carl N. Werntz, president, Chicago Academy of Fine Arts. . .Chicago, III. Corresponding Secretary — ^Florence Marshall, principal, Manhattan Trade School 'J for Girls .... New York, N.Y. Recording Secretary — ^Wilson H. Henderson, Extension Department, University of Wisconsin Milwaukee, Wis. ^' FIRST SESSION— Thursday Forenoon, August 26, 1915 The meeting was called to order by the president in the Auditorium Theater, Oakland, Cal., at 9:00 A.M. The following program was given: "Art in Its Relation to National Growth" — Frank A. Parsons, president, New York School of Fine and Applied Art, New York, N.Y. This paper was discussed by Florence E. Ellis, art director, American Crayon Com- pany, Sandusky, Ohio. "Home Economics Applied to Life" — Martha Van Rensselaer, president, American Home Economics Association and professor of home economics, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. "The School Shop and Breadwinning" — James Collins Miller, provincial director of technical education. Department of Education, Edmonton, Alta. ^> SECOND SESSION— TmmsDAY Afternoon, August 26, 1915 The meeting was called to order at 2:30 P.M. by President Chamberlain and the following program presented: "Vocational Education and the Labor Problem" — Carroll G. Pearse, president, State Normal School, Milwa\ikee, Wis. "Vocational Education, Its Wider Implications" — Thomas M. Balliet, dean, School of Pedagogy, New York University, New York, N.Y. "The Social Phases of Vocational Education" — Richard G. Boone, School of Edu- cation, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. These papers were discussed by Edwin R. Snyder, commissioner of vocational educa- tion for California, Sacramento, Cal. "Some Social Phases of Vocational Education in the Philippines" — John S. Potter, chief clerk. Bureau of Education, Department of Public Instruction, Manila, P.I. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: For President — Frank A. Parsons, president. New York School of Fine and Applied Art, New York, N.Y. For Vice-President — A. H. Chamberlain, secretary, California Council of Education, San Francisco, Cal. For Vice-President — ^Leonard W. Wahlstorm, head of manual training depart- ment, Parker School, Chicago, 111. For Secretary — Florence E. Ellis, art director, American Crayon Company, Sandusky, Ohio. Wilson H. Henderson, Secretary ' 81s 8l6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Vocational PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS ART IN ITS RELATION TO NATIONAL GROWTH FRANK ALVAH PARSONS, PRESIDENT, NEW YORK SCHOOL OF FINE AND APPL: ART, NEW YORK, N.Y. il To be fruitful of any concrete results, a limited discussion of this sub- ject must impose certain elemental and fundamental premises to which, for the time being at least, those concerned can all subscribe. The mean- ing of art is the first of these. Art, more than any other term in the EngUsh tongue, has been mis- understood, juggled with, and misappUed, until a clear conception of its real meaning is well-nigh impossible. Art, so far as it relates to our sub- ject today, "The Plastic Arts," is a quaUty, and, like other qualities, is subject to certain limitations and qualifications depending upon the prob- lem with which it is associated. Art is that quality which results from certain combinations of color and form which are in perfect harmony with the idea which they express and with each other in the unit which they represent. These combinations of color and form, which I shall, for want of a better term, call "significant forms," occur in man's work in materials only when they are first present as a mental state. The habitual condition of consciousness in which a state of harmony in these combinations is present is an artistic state, and a person possessing this state of mind is said to be artistic. Art is first of all then a state of mind and may be cultivated in exactly the same manner as any other state of mind and by the same educational processes. Man in all stages of his development instinctively craves beauty, which is the natural stimulant for the universal aesthetic sense. He also, by the fundamental laws of life, strives to express beauty. Naturally he attempts this in those fields in which his most intense interests Ue. This is the reason for the art expression in Greek temples, Gothic cathedrals. Renaissance palaces, frescoe paintings, colonial houses, and modem touring cars. The amount of concentrated interest present and the kind of interest determine the quality and kind of object. There is one art only, but as many mani- festations of it as there are life-interests, and the emphasis of its excellence at any time is directed at the particular thing most strongly focal in human consciousness. This is true both of the nation and of the individual and is the reason for the "periods in art." It may be well to discuss for the moment here some of the things which art is not, that a clearer vision of what art is may appear. First, art is not nature. Every element in nature's plan has its place in material, texture, form, and color in relation to the stupendous whole of which it is a part. In its place, undisturbed by man, each element in nature plays its part in the sublime beauty of the universe. Remove an Department) ART IN ITS RELATION TO NATIONAL GROWTH 817 element from its natural environment, adjust it with unrelated materials, forms, and colors, make it do the work for which it was not intended, and it is no longer nature or art, nor has it beauty. The supreme effort of the past one hundred years in this country seems to have been directed against art by a gigantic effort to compel students to copy or represent nature on and in every known material from the hair wreath to the bent iron animal kingdom. Instead of adapting nature's suggestions in suitable form and color, expressed in suitable material, nature's characteristics have been made to play the part of false representations in every field. Art is not nature nor the representation of it. It is creation and should be used as the expression of creative ideas adapting nature's suggestions, like sugges- tions from other sources, for particular use under the laws of decorative treatment only. A more intimate intercourse with Italy and France in the last quarter of a century has aroused an abnormal interest (born largely of curiosity) in the antique. For this reason and in this way our mental attitude has be- come one of labels, dates, and costs, instead of one which can react normally to that which is beautiful, be it old or new. Art again is not antiquity, curiosity, nor cost. It is quality, and I must possess that quality personally if I am to react to it in objects which possess it. Still again art is not necessarily associated with the painted picture. The insistent belief on the part of painters, teachers, and the public in general that an art exhibit is necessarily a picture exhibit has led finally to making the picture idea an essential element in all- decorative art. This mistake is responsible for the seemingly impossible situations that exist when one sees roses in the carpet "as natural as life," lilies and grapes upon the walls withering and wilting before one's eyes, and fish, fowl, and beast "hand-painted" on china which should arouse in the human mind visions of the aquarium, the natural-history museum, and the primeval forest, but never, never can this touch the aesthetic sense. Never can it be art, nor can it by any chance be a help to the appreciation of what art really might be. Education is the adjustment of the individual to the time and the environment in which he finds himself. Times change. Every change brmgs new needs. From these, new demands are made and new creations appear. Art remains the same quality and must be an element of the objects in which we now have interest to make its true appeal to modern minds or to be of lasting service in modern life. It is the business of educa- tion to meet new demands, and now the demand is for better food, better homes, better furnishings, better clothes, better implements for use, and better advertising signs. In short, it is our business to adjust man to his activities and his conditions as we find them now. This is certainly as true of art education-as it is of any other field of work, and the problem must be solved in the same scientific, sensible, and sympathetic way as any other I 8l8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IVocaUonal efficient educative work. We must consider the individual, the principles governing the subject, and the subject-matter or materials we shall use in bringing the subject to the mind of the individual himself. The power of environment as an educative factor is too well recognized by this body to need comment, and yet may I ask you to realize with clearer emphasis than ever before its essential bearing on the subject of art educa- tion. A national art means art in the national consciousness. The quaUty of the national consciousness can be no finer than the average of its indi- vidual elements. The solution of the problem of the nation's art is answered in the quality of the intimate environment in which the individuals of the nation Uve. This environment in which we are bom, grow up, and learn to feel at home will find its reflection in the consciousness of all. Think not for an instant that a school which owns a few good pictures, a home housing an onyx statue of the Venus de Milo, a city with a sculptured fountain or two, or even a museum of art objects can take the place of this art environment. Any effect they might have had is quickly neutralized by the house, the shop, the imcanny park, the billboard, and the moving- picture show, each a moniunent of supreme ugliness in itself. Clearly there are some quite definite things to teach even in art. First, let us teach what art is; that it is a quality whose two elements are use and beauty; that perfect fitness to use is the fundamental consideration in so-called "applied and industrial arts" where personal ideas of beauty and sentimental impulses must not be allowed to destroy one's intellectual judgment of what is fit. Secondly, we must not confuse the art quality with its visible language of expression, which is such combinations of color and form as will excite the aesthetic sense. This language, like other symbols of expression, is subject to specific laws of structure and ornament both in choice and in arrangement, and, to become operative, must be taught scientifically as well as intuitively. Thirdly, we must teach that the use of an object is generally the reason for its being; that we may not when decorating it interfere with its usf quality, but rather by decorating it we call attention to its structural and use qualities by the application of a decoration to it. Further, we should let it be known that we are decorating the object to satisfy our natural desire for beauty, being certain that our standard of what is beautiful is; clearly conceived, that is, that we have a conscious concept of what beaut} is. We must bear in mind, too, that decoration exists to make more beauti- ful the thing which it decorates and not to exploit itself. When this unit}- and sequence are not observed between the object and its decoration, the decorative idea itself is thereby destroyed. Fourthly, manual skill and the knowledge of processes must not b. called art, but recognized as essential elements of good technical expression only. Not that the importance of them should be minimized; but the> Department] ART IN ITS RELATION TO NATIONAL GROWTH 819 should not be mistaken for what they are not. Much of the so-called cor- related work in art and manual training, in the arts and crafts, and in domestic art recognizes the necessity of their technical facts only and believes this to be art. This work is chiefly notable for its absence of the art quality. Finally, we must teach the facts and principles by which and thru which the symbols of this language (color and form) are expressible in such "significant forms" as shall stimulate the action of the aesthetic sense. In the use of these symbols first insist on expression of fact and truth, then on an individual imaginative use of them. This is teaching art, and its habitual practice is training in good taste or art appreciation. The growth of a nation is the sum of the growths of the individuals who make it. The directions in which the activities of a nation manifest themselves are the same as those in which the activities of the individuals express themselves. Viewing the matter in the simplest possible manner, we must choose between a development which has for its avowed object the growth and expansion of a people whose sole aim is material power, wealth, and national material aggrandizement or we must accept the truth that man has a spiritual nature which is the master, not the servant, of the material world. Whichever of these views is taken, art is a mighty factor in the realization of what is called a normal national life. It has often been said: "We can have art here in this country. If we can't produce it, we can buy it." Unfortunately art is one of the things one cannot applique on to consciousness, nor is a rudimentary aesthetic sense any more capable of digesting and assimilating a subtle aesthetic concept than is the most elementary digestive system able to accept and use a ten-course French table d'hdte dinner. Because of this, even if we accept purely the material viewpoint, the nation can ill afford to ignore the money value of an art education which is a natural element of our industrial life. In this art quality lies the difference in value of most of our imported materials. On the other hand, if we accept the view that man's material expression is influenced by his mental or spiritual self, the argument for a fuller knowledge, a higher standard, and a more profound respect for art becomes clearly of vital importance to us, both as individuals and as a nation. Art is truth or harmony expressed. In whatever way or in whatever material it is expressed, it is a constant reminder of the eternal fitness of things and is a silent urge to better thinking and better living. Quite apart, however, from the normal problems of national evolution is the special one with which we are grappling today. With the civilized world engaged in a life-and-death struggle for political and commercial supremacy, this nation is confronted with the most stupendous commercial problem in its history. Our social and industrial fabric is rent asunder by the forces of materialism as they grapple with man's inherent demand 820 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocation for standards of beauty and spiritual ideals. We must, in the near futureJ not only supply ourselves with textiles, furniture, carpets, wall papers,| clothes, and other necessaries furnished by Europe, but we shall, in manj instances, be asked to supply South America and even Europe itself wit these same things. In matters of natural resources, mechanical skill, anc physical energy, we are ready. In matters of art, we are crude, uncertai and, worst of all, in many instances, satisfied. Until there is a change attitude as to what art is, as to its proper values as an element in life, we cannot compete, even in matters of commercial rivalry, for art is as essent to man's perfect satisfaction as any material quality can be. The solution not only of this special problem, but of the problem of art^ in its relation to our national growth, lies in a frank acknowledgment and a clear understanding of what problems present themselves, and in what state of preparedness or unpreparedness we find ourselves to meet these problems. The solution demands an awakening to a keener sense of the power and natural function of art as it relates to man's normal activities and to the educational system of which we are a part. We must cancel dead traditions about our teaching and approach the subject in the same fair- minded manner in which all other subjects are approached. We must denounce the idea that art is a fad or a frill and accept it as man's natural, normal, necessary inheritance. We must educate more art teachers and fewer drawing teachers, keeping in mind that art is a quality of conscious- ness, that understanding of it, appreciation for it, and personal reaction to it by a nation mean individual possession of that quality in personal consciousness. DISCUSSION Florence E. Ellis, art director, American Crayon Company, Sandusky, Ohio.— One point I wish to emphasize in Mr. Parsons' talk is that environment is the strongest, surest, and quickest force in furnishing art appreciation. The home, the first environment of the child, makes a strong and lasting impression. If the home serves best its children and the nation, it must furnish art environment. Art must be lived to be really appreciated, and in the kitchen as well as in the parlor; in the back yard as weU as in the front yard; in the furniture as well as in the pictiire on the wall. Art as related to the home has, until recently, received but meager attention in the schools. Teachers of art had little preparation along practical lines; teachers of domestic economy and manual training had little or no art training. Art for everyday living, the subject of greatest importance in art teaching in elementary and high schools, received little consideration. This can no longer be |x>ssible in any progressive school. Art in the home signifies simplicity, harmony, beauty — everything done in the best possible way. Art has banished over-decoration, imnecessary furnishings, things whose only superiority is cost, and elaborate entertaining which renders hospitality often impossible. Art has a place in even the most ordinary duties of living. A lady showing with pride her kitchen said: "Even dish-washing here is a pleasure." Over the sink was a long horizontal window commanding a wonderful view. To wash dishes looking at that Department] HOME ECONOMICS APPLIED TO LIFE 821 scene of ever-changing beauty wotild be a pleasure. The kitchen was light, airy, and opened on to a porch and garden. The woodwork was a soft gray. The curtains were blue and white of inexpensive Japanese linen. The cooking utensils were white with a band of blue. A few flowers were pleasingly arranged on a table. Everything was simple, inexpensive, harmonious, and beautiful. Even the vegetable garden was an expression of love of beauty and joy of living. Amid such surroimdings, an appreciation of beauty would become second nature, fewer daughters would dislike home duties, fewer mothers would be nervous and broken in health. Beauty is as necessary in the home as sunshine. Art is a spiritual quality. In the place of crude materialism it brings idealism. The appreciation of it opens the mind and sovl to a larger vision, loftier aspiration, and greater achievement. Art reaches out into a realm limitless in possibilities. There is a vast difference between drawing and art. Art is an outward expression in material form of the beautiful within. Beauty must be felt before it can be expressed, and a mere representation of objects does not develop such aesthetic sense. A state superintendent of schools in looking thru an exhibit of drawing came to a group of still- life studies. "Those are fine," he said, "but of what practical service will that be to the girl after she leaves school?" The supervisor of drawing replied: "It teaches grouping of objects and good color combinations, and that will be of use in the home." He said, "But I have watched that for seventeen years and it has not done it yet." If a little time had been devoted to color combinations as related to the furnishings in a home, the placing of furniture in a room, to the hanging of pictures, to the arrangement of fruit and flowers in receptacles best suited to them in color, size, and shape, such a criticism could not have been made. Accurate drawing is not sufficient in art study; good construction is not sufficient in manual training. A feeling for beauty is equally important. To deprive the boy or girl of an appreciation of art is to limit enjoyment, achievement, and earning power. The ideal is the practical. To the individual it brings satisfaction, greater efficiency, higher aspirations, and larger financial returns. To the nation it means better manufactured objects, a larger commerce, a more capable and happier people. Indeed art determines largely the happiness, the prosperity, and the standing of the nation. HOME ECONOMICS APPLIED TO LIFE MARTHA VAN RENSSELAER, PRESIDENT, AMERICAN HOME ECONOMICS ASSO- CIATION AND PROFESSOR OF HOME ECONOMICS, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N.Y. The purpose of home economics is to improve home standards thru applying the principles of art and science to home problems. Since the home is the nucleus of all social groups, home economics will more and more play a part of fundamental importance in establishing right commimity ideals as well as home ideals. In a general way, the statement may stand that education will advance only so fast as education in home economics advances, for progress ultimately rests on home standards. We are emerging from one view of home economics as a subject dealing altogether with certain phases of cooking and sewing. We are advancing so fast in our conception of education that we even see educational value in mere cooking and sewing. We are recognizing them as tools of impor- tance in solving some of our large educational problems. Not only is the 822 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocationall educational value of home economics being accepted, but its professional aspect also is gaining for it a place of first rank. So home economics must be conceived as something which is very inclusive and which will include in its definition the arts and sciences as these are applied to home betterment. Both secondary schools and colleges are thus grad- ually beginning to contribute education which concerns itself directly with I upbuilding the home, and this will inevitably act as a stimulus to alll forms of education. It is strange that we have waited thus long to realize the value of giving training thru that channel of greatest interest or experience — the home. Music, art, literature, and history have seldom been taught thru the home ^ point of view. One home-economics expert has suggested the use of the Odyssey as a poem of thrilling interest in home economics. Adam Bede, Lorna Doone, and other standard novels depict home life in a way to stimulate the imagination. It has been of absorbing interest in one of our states to note the effects of an appeal to change the music in the home and to substitute "songs that live" for cheap ragtime and vicious popular tunes. From changed home ideals of music will come improved community ideals. Art may find its first expression in some of the simple problems of food, shelter, and clothing. Art will never permeate the masses and artists will starve if it begins and ends in a studio. Something must create the feeling for art in the common mind if it is to be felt in the larger community. The home may give ample opportimity to open the minds of the people to an appreciation for art ideals. The children whose standards at home are determined by plush albums and wax flowers may walk thru parks and picture galleries with minds and eyes closed to beauty. We are living in inartistic surroundings because we have no common, workable ideals of art. The artist's soul is troubled and the real teacher of design is here and there making an impression for better things. Formerly domestic art in the school program meant sewing. Now as fast as the schools will turn out teachers of design, principles of design will be applied to house furnishing and house planning, to sewing and dressmaking, which will change the face of our dwellings and secure a new art in dress. A simple rose in a glass bottle on a window ledge may be a more hopeful sign of appreciation than the creation of an inferior picture. There are few who cannot appreciate art principles if they may be applied to the necessary events of life, as the purchase of the right necktie or hair ribbon or colored socks and fancy shoes, or a good design and color for a dress, or beautiful and simple lines of furniture. Now so poorly trained are we in the home application of art principles that the people behind counters guide us in our purchases with remarks so commonly heard in department stores: "It is very becoming," "Every- body is wearing it." These remarks are made too often by those who have no principles to guide them. ii^ Department] HOME ECONOMICS APPLIED TO LIFE 823 What are the art ideals of the homes from which have come the painters of houses, the decorators of rooms, the carpenters who in small villages and on farms are also the architects of country houses, the designer in the fac- tory who determines the color and the form of articles which we commonly handle ? Home economics is concerned with the expenditure of the dollar to derive from its spending the greatest good for the welfare of the family. Many women are not trained in bookkeeping, and family accounts are a burden. Boys are trained to earn money and girls are spenders without training. The result is a lack of business system in housekeeping; kitchen tools are often understandardized; time studies are not made for the performance of duties which consume an endless amount of time. A large proportion of the family income is spent for food, shelter, and clothing. Earning money has become standardized; spending it is more or less haphazard. Girls must know the value and the feeling of money in the pocket, the value of commodities, what to buy and what not to buy. An eastern city has at its entrance the words, "Upon the women of this city depends its financial success." It was a department store advertise- ment. Whatever the women demanded, this store and others must produce. Home-economics education generally begins with a study of food. The vivid appeal that it makes to the large majority of students is not because of something "good to eat," but because of the opportunity to make some- thing; the ability to express even in a simple way creative force. That the result is good to eat is important, not only practically in interesting the student, but ethically because of its effects on human welfare. Nowhere is science more busy than with the problems of conserving human life and almost every day something new is added to the body of scientific fact which makes the subject of foods and nutrition, of sanitation and hygiene of tremendous scientific as well as vital interest. The educa- tional value of a study of foods and nutrition, hygiene and sanitation is not only obvious but the effects upon the home and the community of ignorance of these subjects are apparent to the blind and the deaf. The teaching of the principles of food preparation and nutrition, of hygiene and sanitation, will not only affect the health of the members of the community but will give an incalculable stimulus to interest in science. It will take time to weld into the home the high standards of food preparation, nutrition, and sanitation which will be needed to reflect them- selves back thru the young people who become the teachers of home economics, bakers, stewards, dietitians, inspectors, and homemakers. The problems of public health indicate that there is a lack of respect for science. Connecting science with the home will have a salutary influence upon those who are required to quarantine and keep clean for the public good. 824 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational The public has a reverence for the label on the bottle because blind faith is a common human trait. Science must teach the lesson of question- ing the label before the demand will come for wholesome surroundings, clean milk, clean water, clean workers, and clean streets. Public-health laws will take care of food adulterations and quarantine, but the home must aid in prevention, and may teach public sanitation thru such homely problems as clean refrigerators, clean clothing, and clean personal habits. Home economics is the meeting-place of the sciences and the arts. It is the medium of carrjdng into the home the principles of both science and art whereby to establish high standards of living. These standards will create a healthful demand for whatever makes this world a better place to live. When any vigorous force is untrained, society is jeopardized; when guided by instruction it helps to lay the foundation-stone of social progress. THE SCHOOL SHOP AND BREADWINNING JAMES COLLINS MILLER, PROVINCIAL DIRECTOR OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, EDMONTON, ALTA. It is to the development of science that we owe the appearance of the shop in the school. Fields of activity formerly of a simple and relatively undifferentiated character have become complex and highly specialized. The old system of personal apprenticeship has passed away to be replaced by a new and longer apprenticeship in which the school plays a most impor- tant part. If for political, religious, intellectual, and cultural motives the potential breadwinner is taken from the shop, these same motives as well as the requirements of the new apprenticeship demand that the shop be incorporated in the school. If the shop is to be in the school, it must of necessity be influenced by, and bear a relationship to, the functions of the school as an institution. Briefly stated, the school is asked to perform three major functions. Its educative function is that of fostering the growth of a child's personality and developing its capabilities in such a way as to enable it to meet successfully the demands of life and to attain to a realization of itself. In its protective function it safeguards the child against the unfortunate tendencies of his own nature, unworthy parentage, avoidable physical unfitness, and the economic pressures which bring adult responsibilities before maturity. In performing its selective function the school must provide a sufficient range of experience to enable the variations in abilities to reveal themselves. It must foster the development of the special abilities so revealed and assist the youth in finding the place where his particular abilities will bring the greatest return for himself and for his fellows. To what extent does the shop contribute to the attainment of these three central functions of the school, all of which are basic in the problem \ Department] THE SCHOOL SHOP AND BREADWINNING 825 of winning the bread of life ? To the performance of the educative function of the school it may be said to contribute the following: 1. The experience, appreciations, and sympathies of those who in after- years will not be directly related to the activities in the shop are broadened by participation in the shop activities in the schools. 2. The experience, appreciations, and sympathies of those who in after- years will be directly responsible for carrying on and directing the activities of the shop and factory will be broadened by participation in the activities of the school apart from those of the shop. Social cleavages will thereby be less marked and the possibilities of co-operation in after-life increased. 3. The shop experience if rightly organized should greatly foreshorten the period of apprenticeship which would otherwise be necessary. Not only should the period of apprenticeship be shortened, but the quality and range of experience during that period should show an enrichment in intellectual, social, and technical values which would unavoidably be absent in the ordinary experience of the trade or craft. 4. The shop provides also the practical objective experience with materials and processes that is fundamental for those who go forward into the more advanced fields of applied science, technology, and art. 5. The shop outside of the school as now organized fails to provide, and cannot properly provide, for adequate apprenticeship. To the performance of the protective function of the school the shop contributes the following: 1. It protects the child from too early participation in the work of the shop in the industrial world. 2. It protects the youth from inadequate preparation for active par- ticipation in the activities of the shops of the industrial world by providing shop experience in the school itself. 3. It fortifies him against the deadening effect of the repetition and routine, inseparable from the experience of the workers in modem industry, by giving him wider knowledge, appreciations, and interests. 4. By so doing, it helps to keep the vision of life's varied possibilities, both within and apart from the particular field of skill in which he may be occupied, clearly before him. To the performance of the selective function of the school the shop may be said to contribute in the following ways: I. The presence of the shop assists the school materially in discovering the range of abilities in each student and in its student body as a whole. The great majority of those who attend school will be either directly or indirectly engaged in solving the problem of dealing with materials and of arranging and controlling natural forces. It is of the greatest importance that the school discover those whose ability and interests lie in these direc- tions and that those abilities and interests be fostered and developed. The welfare of both the individual and the society will profit thereby. Apart 826 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [VocatiSS from the shop the school offers little to stimulate these interests and develoj these abilities. 2. Having discovered and developed the special abilities of the students,| the school should assist them in finding their place of service on leaving school. If the youth is to win the bread of life and not merely the bread oi physical necessity, he must not be a misfit but must find himself in a fiek of service that lends itself to an expression of his strength. Granted that the shop iu the school is to contribute in these ways toward the fulfilment of the school's function, we at once face the problem] of the teachers who are to be the schools' special agents in this work. Ii many centers the difficulty in securing instructors technically qualifiec is rapidly being overcome. In some centers it has been possible to do af great deal toward strengthening those technically qualified along the educa- tional line and those partially qualified educationally along technical lines. I know of no center where the problem of adequately trained specialists for the school shop has been solved. Courses in the history of education and psychology, in school adminis- tration and management, in sociology and economics are being required of those who would qualify as special teachers, but to what extent have those administering these courses kept in mind the field of responsibility into which the specialist is to enter ? The point to be made here is very well illustrated by the following incident in a imiversity: Those responsible for the applied-science courses wanted their students to receive some training in English, particularly with the view to stimulating in them an interest in good literature. The department of EngUsh arranged to receive them into one of its classes. To the surprise of the applied-science faculty, they were admitted to the class that was making an intensive study of Chaucer's works. Before the school shop can meet its full responsibilities, those who are to be responsible for its activities must be more fully equipped. Upon the basis of adequate technical knowledge both of the shop within the school and of the shop outside of the school, there must be developed a real pro- fessional course which will give us a group of educationists able to share in the responsibiHties of the school as a whole and to appreciate all the varied bearings, not only of the work of their own department, but of all departments and of the school as a unit, upon the life of the children and the welfare of the community. The so-called professional subjects, history of education, psychology, sociology, school administration and manage- ment, after a general preliminary study, must be closely related to, and draw their concrete material from, the fields of the specialists concerned. The problem of the school shop and what it implies has been one of the most difficult that the educational administrator has had to face. The reasons advanced for the introduction of the shop in the school have been so many and so varied and have changed so much from time to time and Department] THE SCHOOL SHOP AND BREADWINNING 827 place to place that the administrator has been at a loss to know what to do. The expenditures and organization involved are considerable. If incurred for purposes suggested today, will they be of value in the light of purposes suggested tomorrow? This element of indefiniteness as to function and purpose has affected the organization of the work itself, the quality of the instruction, and the results obtained in the training of the student. With the developments which are now taking place in the field of school administration we may hope for more satisfactory results. When the authorities of the state and municipalities undertake to adopt as careful a system of educational and financial accounting as is now adopted in good business practice we may hope for more clearness regarding both the immediate and the ultimate purposes of these as well as other branches of educational work and for more definite standards of measuring results. The analysis of the student body by age, grade, and sex classification, the prevocational guidance and training, the vocational guidance of the more mature whether in school or out, the careful study of the social and economic situation outside of the school into which the graduates must go, all of these are contributing to an analysis of the situation which will make it possible to determine purposes more clearly and therefore secure more adequate organization, better qualified instructors, and better methods of instruction. Then the shop may be in this institution or in that, but in either case the public, the administrator, instructor, and student will know what it is there for and be able to determine whether it is accomplishing the purpose it was designed to accomplish. For religious, political, cultural, and economic motives, the potential breadwinner has been brought into the school. The developments in applied science have made it necessary and economically possible to hold him in the school for a lengthened period. The nature of industrial and commercial organization eliminates the possibility of a satisfactory appren- ticeship of the old type and the other educational demands now made upon all for future citizenship also contribute toward making the old apprentice- ship an impossibility. The school must therefore provide a new appren- ticeship which shall be an apprenticeship for life, a life that involves labor, work, recreation, and leisure. It must train the boys and girls for the race in life if the bread of life is to be won. While education for leisure is important and increasingly important as man's productive power increases perhaps the greatest need on this continent today is the education for labor and work, for the winning of the bread of life, not merely the taking of what appears to be the bread of life. The leisure class is in greater need of an education for labor, work, and service than are those whose circum- stances compel them to labor. The mere appropriation of what nature has so abundantly provided will soon be over and the real problems of breadwinning as it has been faced in Europe for generations will soon be felt 828 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (VocatJonal) with sufficient keenness to make us conscious of them. As this change' becomes more and more complete, the relation of the school to breadwinning will become more and more fully realized. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND THE LABOR PROBLEM CARROLL G. PEARSE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, MILWAUKEE, WIS.J The discussion of this question naturally separates itself into two parts: first, vocational education as it concerns the supply of qualified] labor and as it concerns the opportimity of the youth to qualify himself' for a skilled trade or mechanical vocation; secondly, vocational education as it concerns the workers, present and prospective, in skilled mechanical employments. For more than four thousand years, vocational education has been given. Until comparatively recent times, it was the custom that such education should be given by the practitioners of it. The lawyer was trained by another lawyer, or by a group of them; the doctor learned his business in the same way. The silversmith was apprenticed to a silver- smith; the would-be maker of gloves, to a glover; the armorer, to a master of that craft. In this way not only the trades but the professions were passed on from generation to generation; the skill of the practitioners was kept alive, and the practice of the vocation was generally improved. But for a few generations, preparation for the learned professions has been quite generally taken over by schools, which have given a knowledge of the law and of medicine and of engineering and of other employments of similar character to those who were in future to make a livelihood in those lines of work. But it is only in very recent years that schools have felt any responsibility for, or attempted to give any training in, those employments which are recognized as skilled handicrafts or trades. There are, perhaps, a number of reasons for this. The removal of so many industries from small shops, operated by their owners, to large factories, where the tools are owned by an employer whom all the workers serve, has taken away the places where boys formerly learned trades, and has taken away also the conditions which made it pos- sible for the master of the shop or his journeymen to give personal attention to the apprentice and train him up in all the knowledge and usages of the craft. Each worker has become a unit or cog in the system of the factory. The owner does not know his workmen, especially the least important (to him) of all — the lads who are just beginning to learn the work. Neither can the workmen know each other, nor take an interest in each other as they could do in the small shop. The journeyman must hustle along with his part of the work or with the machine he tends, and the boy has no one to take an interest in him and in his progress, or to show him. Department] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND THE LABOR PROBLEM 829 The changes in plans of manufacture have also had a great effect on the chance which the boy has to learn a trade. Formerly all the processes necessary to complete the finished article went on in the same shop, in the same or in adjoining rooms; the apprentice saw them all and helped about them all, and, as he progressed in his trade, he had to do them and learn them all. Now very likely the lad works in a factory with many acres of floor space, with more huge rooms in it than the number of years which will span the years of the boy's life. He learns one or two, or at least a very few, of the processes which go on in the plant; he becomes the tender of a machine, or an expert in turning out a single part of a machine or an article. He has no chance at all to get a general knowledge of all the processes of the trade, or to understand the underlying principles. It is true, also, that certain skilled trades which once flourished have almost passed away. The work of the molder is tremendously influenced by new machines which have been invented; the trade of glass-blower is almost obsolete; the shoemaker, the wagonmaker — the crafts of all these are shrunk like the stream that is almost dried up. But a new trade, that of plumber, has come in during two generations; the electrical worker has come upon the scene in two decades; the chauffeur has come of late in swarms; and many new and highly complex employments are now demand- ing trained workers. It has become necessary, therefore, that workers trained in the elements of the new and in many of the old trades be made available for the indus- tries. Workers who have had careful drill in the use of the hand tools and other tools and in all the processes of the crafts must be made ready to meet the demands of industry, which has almost ceased to train its own workmen. For generations the conditions of life among us have been such that skilled craftsmen have come to us from abroad; but this stream has now almost dried up. If our race of expert, all-around mechanics is not to be extinct, our educational system must now be prepared to supply this demand. This can be done in two ways: The day trade school can take youths, girls or boys, old enough to enter upon apprenticeship, and give them a thoro grounding in all the knowledge and processes of the craft, sending them out graduate apprentices, and fit to take up the work of journeymen in practically all respects, their lack of speed, which is soon acquired, and of practical knowledge gained in the work, being offset by their more thoro training in all the elements and processes, and the use of all of the tools of the trade. Or, in evening, or "special period" classes, the school can take the youth already entered upon an apprenticeship or the young man or woman who has already become a "journeyman," and give to such a one the knowl- edge of those principles and processes with which he has not had an oppor- tunity to become familiar, or train him in the use of those tools with which his exDerience in the particular shop where he works has not brought him 830 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational into touch. Thus the schools may either become a substitute for, or supply the deficiencies of, the older type of vocational "trade" training. The school may also supply a sort of training which has become more necessary as trades, formerly skilled vocations, are more and more broken up into separate operations or parts of trades, or, as they are sometimes called, trade specialties. Training will be needed for parts of trades, or for special processes, as well as for complete trades. It is doubtful if the schools have any call to give such training as this in any other way than in "continuation" classes, organized for those who have left school and gone to work, and who, to acquire greater efl&ciency and usefulness, find that they need instruction and training in the particular work which they have to do. This training to give immediate greater efficiency and so greater value to these occupational workers is probably a proper responsi- bility of the school. It should not, however, have any place in the school training of youth who are still of an age when the law requires their con- tinued regular attendance at school. For such boys and girls, the school should aim to give, or guide toward, a complete and thoro, rather than a partial vocational education. Turning now to a consideration of vocational education from the stand- point of the worker, the first question is perhaps that of a possible over- supply of trained workers. The regulations as to apprenticeship were, in some cases at least, intended to guard against too large an increase in the number of craftsmen. Is there serious danger that industrial vocational training will overstock the market with skilled workers? It is no doubt true that in some cases and for a time this might result. It is true also that there are at times and in places too many lawyers and doctors and engineers. Yet the schools still train for these professions and are likely m to continue to do so. "fll This danger of oversupply can be guarded against in various ways. " No community ought to go into a scheme for such vocational training imtil ^ it has made a thoro survey of the needs of industry within its borders and ■■ can act intelligently in establishing training for those vocations which the - community most needs. Such a study should show also the quantity of the demand, and the capacity of the school can be regulated, in a reason- able degree, to provide about what is needed. The supply of trained labor thus produced will never, either, be wholly a local matter; there will always be more or less scattering into other communities and other states. And while this overflow wiU probably never be enough to glut any outside market, it will frequently bring about local relief when that is required. It must be remembered, also, that the youth trained for these vocations in schools such as we are considering will not be without some general educa- tion and will be better able both to rise into the higher grades of positions in his vocation, or, if necessary, to pass over into a somewhat different but allied line of work, thus permitting another method of relief from overcrowding. fi Department] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND THE LABOR PROBLEM 831 The fear that the schools cannot give a good education and thoro efficiency thru their mechanical vocational education is, I believe, no longer entertained. There was reason for this fear once; certain private so-called "vocational" or "trade" schools, many of them carried on by persons themselves not well versed in the trade, and interested chiefly in the fees they could get from their students, who were often pushed out half prepared to make room for more students from whom more fees could be collected, gave trade schools and trade education in the beginning a bad reputation. But in the past decade public trade schools like those in Milwaukee and Springfield and New Haven and Boston have established the quality of their product upon so high a plane that the capability of their graduates is no longer open to question. The fear that the public trade schools might breed "strike-breakers" seems to have been equally unfounded. These schools have given to their students and graduates a wholesome self-respect which has usually kept them out of enterprises of this character; the graduates have seldom been without desirable and well-remunerated employment, their wages often being better than the most tempting offers made on occasions of the sort referred to. It is also true that the number of young people attracted to these schools by the prospects offered in the various trades has not been large enough to occasion alarm as to what might be the result even if they should show a different disposition from that which has so far been noted. There has been some apprehension that the students trained in schools of this sort might not be ready to consider themselves on the same basis as other members of the craft and so might bring in a discordant element; but this does not appear to have been true. A good many of them have worked up soon into better positions, carrying more responsibility and better pay; almost any father who is a carpenter would be glad to see his son, who had followed his father's trade, do this. But there does not seem to be any body of testimony to show that those who remain in the work of their crafts as journeymen have any very different attitude toward their trade, or the trade organizations, or the interests of the craft than is shown by those who enter it thru the door of the old-fashioned apprenticeship. No doubt the source to which these schools have looked for their supply of teachers of trade subjects has had much to do with this. Sometimes the men who teach the shop mathematics or the drafting or the science as related to the trade have not served a regular apprenticeship or worked as journeymen; but, on the other hand, very often they have had trade experience as well as the training of the schools. For instance, the head of one trade school with which the writer is very familiar served an appren- ticeship of five years and worked as a journeyman; he is also a graduate of Worcester Polytechnic Institute and of Cornell University. But prac- tically every teacher in the trade subjects in such schools has had the regular 832 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational trade training and experience. Usually these are men who stand high in their unions and very often are men recommended by their unions or by the union officers. With a supply of teachers drawn from this source, there is little reason to fear that the students, when they graduate and are them- selves ready to become journeymen, will have "hifalutin" notions, or will be above their business, or will consider themselves better than their fathers or uncles or older brothers into whose trades they have entered. From the needs of industr}"^ and the needs of our youth who can no longer get industrial training as their fathers and grandfathers did, it would seem that industrial vocational training has come to stay. From our experience so far, it does not appear that there is any great danger of an oversupply of skilled mechanical labor; it also appears that the danger of such an oversupply can be guarded against and minimized. Further experience seems to show that there is no danger of inferior craftsmen thus trained, and that there is little or no reason to fear that graduates of such schools will constitute a dangerous element or one which cannot be assimilated into the trades which they choose. I VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, ITS WIDER IMPLICATIONS THOMAS M. BALLIET, DEAN, SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY, NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, N.Y. It is not my purpose to discuss vocational schools. I am profoundly interested in the movement to establish them; I myself established the j&rst public, or municipal, trade school in this country in 1898 at Spring- field, Mass. It is my purpose to point out the significance of the vocational ideal or motive for what we call general education. Vocational education is often regarded as having a mercenary motive, as having for its aim merely to prepare the pupil to earn his daily bread. It is sometimes stigmatized by the representatives of "hberal education" as "utilitarian," and therefore as a lower type of education than general or liberal training. Much might be said even in favor of vocational education on this basis. To earn one's Uving is surely not an unworthy motive. Thrift, the sense of independence, the honest accumulation of property, are not usually looked upon as serious faults. On the contrary, they are imiversally regarded as virtues fundamental to character and to our social life. But vocational education means far more than this. A man's vocation is not merely his means of securing a livelihood, but it is his most effective means of rendering to society the life-service which every man owes to his kind. It is his chief means of realizing his life, its aims, its ambitions, and its duties. Surely the physician, the minister, the teacher, the lawyer, and the engineer would be unwilling to have their calling regarded as nothing Department] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, ITS WIDER IMPLICATIONS 833 more than their means of earning a livelihood. As a mere means of acquir- ing wealth, these professions are confessedly a failure. Their significance lies in the fact that they open to a man opportunities for rendering a service to society of the highest value. No more should we regard the trade of the carpenter, the machinist, the electrician, or any honest calling, as solely a means of earning a living, but we should consider it also a means of render- ing a service to mankind. Vocational education, so far from appealing only to mercenary motives, makes its appeal to the highest ethical motives as well; and as an educa- tional ideal expresses more adequately the highest meaning of a human life than the ideal of "harmonious development" which it is the professed aim of "liberal education" to realize. There are many types of mind, and we are just now learning that schools must be differentiated to meet the needs of all types. But for my immediate purpose these types may all be grouped under two — the scientific and the practical. The scientific type is characterized by broad and deep intel- lectual interests; it is interested in knowing truth because it is true; it has almost a universal curiosity to know regardless of any practical appli- cation of the knowledge acquired. The highest representative of this type is the man of pure science, the philosopher, and to a certain extent the liter- ary man. The practical type, on the contrary, is chiefly interested in knowledge as a means of doing, of achieving some practical end. To this type of man, knowledge is interesting only as a means, and unless it can be applied to practical ends it has no interest for him. While the scientific type finds its deepest interest in pure science, this type finds interest only in applied science. Our schools and colleges until recent years have imfortunately been organized to meet only the needs of the scientific type. The aim has been "general education"; in the colleges, "liberal culture." The teaching of trades, more particularly, was supposed imtil about fifteen years ago to be outside of the function of the public-school system; and our colleges even now credit rather grudgingly any professional courses toward the Bachelor's degree. Our whole educational system is even now ill adapted to meet the needs of the practical type, and every step taken in the direction of broadening our courses and differentiating our schools so as better to meet its needs has invariably resulted in a rapid increase in attendance. This has been the case in our secondary schools since we have developed the different types; it has been the case where higher technical schools have been established; and the differentiation of courses and the elective system have been in large part responsible for the rapid increase in attendance in our colleges. Our whole educational system from the college down must be recast so as to meet the needs of both types; and as the large majority of the human race belong to the practical t)^e, very considerable readjustment will be necessary. 834 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational The fundamental significance of interest is today universally recognized by students of education. A curriculum which does not appeal to the student's interest is for him an ineffective one; and all knowledge acquired which does not interest is soon shed by the mind and fails to affect char- acter and life. The chief source of interest is the racial instincts. We may therefore say that education to be effective must be grafted upon the racial instincts. In a large majority of pupils in the public schools above the age of twelve, and in a majority of students in the higher institutions of learning, the vocational interest is the deepest interest which they have in the studies of the curriculum. This interest develops at the beginning of adolescence and remains strong all thru middle life. In the case of this large number in which the purely scientific interest is weak or virtually wanting, educa- tion to be most effective must be based on the vocational interest. Vocational education must, however, not be narrow; it must include all the studies, both practical and academic or scientific, which have a close relation to the vocation and render the pursuit of the vocation more successfid, the essential thing being that the student realize their intimate connection with his future calling and feel in them a vocational interest. The teaching of a trade must include instruction in all the academic branches which have an important relation to the trade. A knowledge of the com- mon branches is essential in all trades; in many of them physics, mechanics, and mathematics are essential; in others, chemistry; in all, a certain amount of conunercial instruction and the ability to write a business letter, instruction in the economic aspects of the trade and in its social and ethical aspects. By grouping these so-called academic studies around the specific instruction in the trade, and relating them closely to this instruction, they become invested with an interest which they do not otherwise have for the student. It is under such conditions that he can be interested even in studies for which he has no natural taste. The learning of a trade in this broad way is, for at least one-half of the human race, the broadest and most effective general education which their minds can take on. To keep pupils of this type of mind on a general curriculum after the age when the vocational interest awakens is to waste their years in relative idleness in school and to lead them to form bad intellectual habits if not bad moral habits. We must recognize that voca- tional education is, after all, education; that it makes men as well as mechanics, doctors, and lawyers; and that an aimless general education for minds of the practical type continued too long fails to make men. We must free our thinking of the fetters of the traditional distinction between what is "cultural" and what is "practical," at least to the extent of not denjring a high culture value to practical studies. It is often argued that pupils should be kept on a general curriculum until the upjjer teens in order that they may make the choice of their Department] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, ITS WIDER IMPLICATIONS 835 life-work more intelligently and with a more settled purpose. There is force in this argument; and yet if a pupil at the age of twelve has lost virtually all interest in the studies of the general curriculum and must be kept in school by law and the truant officer, it is better that he should follow a course which will appeal to his vocational interest, even if he select a voca- tion which he afterward decides not to follow. In such a case, the learning of one trade, taught in the broad way suggested above, is the very best preparation for the learning of another later. This is a point which is not yet recognized in our thinking on the subject of industrial education. To hold such a pupil to a general curriculum in which he has no interest is the poorest preparation which a school can give him for the learning of a trade. So far as secondary education is concerned, the vocational ideal has already given us three types of high schools, the literary, the technical, and the commercial, with the agricultural in process of rapid development. It is this broadening of the scope of secondary education by recognizing the vocational ideal that is the chief cause of the phenomenal increase in attend- ance which we have been witnessing for the past two decades. What effect will the vocational ideal have upon the college of arts and science ? The college confessedly stands for general culture in distinction from professional education, and it evaluates studies on the basis of their sup- posed "culture value" in distinction from their practical value. In most colleges, there is strong opposition to crediting toward the Bachelor's degree any practical study unless it is supposed to have also a high culture value. Moreover, the college continues general education, or liberal culture, for four years beyond the secondary school, which is two years beyond the course in general education in any country in Continental Europe. Thru a mistaken policy of raising the conditions of admission instead of increasing its own efficiency in teaching, the college has, during the last forty years, thrown upon the secondary schools virtually the equivalent of two years of work and pushed its own curriculum by about two years beyond the proper limits of general education into the domain of university training. In consequence of which, it carries on secondary instruction for the first two years and makes an imperfect attempt to do university work the last two years. This prolonged course of liberal education must necessarily embrace many studies which are so closely related to the professional courses of the university that they could be much more effectively taught in such professional courses where their close rela- tion might be clearly brought out and would be appreciated by the student. Linked closely with his professional studies, they would appeal to the stu- dent's vocational interest as they do not when taught in a general course in the college. While many students in our colleges do faithful work, a large minority are wasting their time and are forming bad intellectual 836 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [VocaUonaij habits. The course to this latter class seems aimless and to have no! connection directly with their future life-work. This situation makes a reorganization of higher education only a ques- tion of a comparatively few years more, by which the college in its present j form will be eliminated and the first two years of its work assigned to the ! strong high schools and the last two years incorporated in the professional schools and the graduate school of the university. The first step toward this reorganization was taken more than a dozen years ago by the University of Chicago when it divided the collegiate department into "junior" and "senior" colleges, the first two years form- ing Junior and the last two the Senior College. In some states, especially in California, a number of the stronger high schools are now doing the first two years of college work and are fitting the pupils to enter the Junior year in college. In some states, especially in the South, some of the smaller colleges are giving up their Junior and Senior classes and are converting themselves into junior colleges. The medical schools, the law schools, and various other professional schools are very generally fixing upon two years of college work as the maxi- mum standard for admission desirable. Only a few professional schools venture to make a Bachelor's degree a requisite for admission. With this standard of admission to the professional schools, it is obvious that the colleges will not be able to maintain many years more their Junior and Senior classes. The present expedient of crediting the first two years of the professional school toward the Bachelor's degree is a temporary one. There will, no doubt, evolve from this reorganization a new type of high school, and also a new type of junior college which may drop the word "jimior" and retain simply the name college. In this way, we shodd change the institution and retain the name, which is not an unfamiliar result of an institutional reform. The new high school will itself consist of two t)^s, one having a six-year course, including the present two years of college; and one having an eight-year course, including also the last two years of the elementary schools. These two tj^pes would correspond roughly in organization to the secondary schools of Europe. The new type of college will probably incorporate in its curriculum the last two years of the present high school and the first two years of the present college. In the smaller communities, there is likely to develop a third type of high school embracing in its ou-riculum two years of the present elementary school and the first two years of the present high school. Department] SOCIAL PHASES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 837 THE SOCIAL PHASES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION RICHARD G. BOONE, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL. In a cursory consideration even of this thing we are calling occupational preparation, certain primary theses stand out as important: first, all educa- tion, including modern efforts at vocational training, is social in its origin; secondly, while individual on the surface, the results of such education have characteristic group meanings; thirdly, the method and processes of vocational education are sharply distinguished from the individualistic methods of the traditional school; and finally, the attitude of the student predisposes him to the following of social purposes and to work with a social spirit. Charles W. Eliot, with his fine analytic discrimination, says: "The real cause of the American tendencies in education is the new and complete dependence of modern industries, commerce, and government on applied science, working thru mechanical power, machinery, the wider utilization of natural resources, and the varied skills which human beings must possess in order to direct these agencies." Not for industry only in the economic uses, but for what, wanting a better term, we call culture, as well, new standards for valuing results and new modes of achieving them must be recognized. Education is a social as well as an individual fact, and in a particular manner is that education a matter of social concern which aims to fit for the vocations. If it be true, as has been estimated, that more than nine-tenths of the social energy of a people is directly applied to the prob- lems of getting a living, there is needed a knowledge of industrial materials and industrial processes, and an efficient skill, and co-operative social habits, on which this dominant life-activity is based. Under the existing conditions, the school seems to be, if not the only agency, at least the most available one, for providing this knowledge and skill and these habits. If it be necessary [says Egerton] for the welfare of the nation that each man in it should be prepared to take his part in the work of national defense, it is at least equally necessary that he be able to aid in the work of building up the greatness and strength of his country, which depend, not on wealth, not on armies, but upon the lives and char- acters of its men and women; upon the nature of the work that is done in it, and the spirit in which that work is done. Only the vocational school can supply a due apprecia- tion of the ethical, spiritual, intellectual, and moral value of work, whether it be industrial, commercial, or something else. If ignorance is dangerous to the state, idleness is not less so. And untrained faculty in competition with skill and intelligence tends, if not to indolence, then to idleness, unemployableness, and its inevitable bitterness, suspicion, and brood of hates. There results an incalculable loss to any people in the manifold neglected, or untaught, malformed capacities of its members. As reflecting the new and comprehensive demands of society upon the schools, Dr. Kirchensteiner, of Munich, who has done as much as anyone to 838 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocation make real a conception of the socially regenerative influence of an educa-^ tion for the vocations that shall reach all individuals in a community,] ascribes to the public schools three obvious duties: (i) the duty of education whose specific function is the preparation for a vocation; (2) the duty of teaching the ethical (social) value of a vocation; and (3) the duty| of teaching the essentially ethical character of a community within whic the vocation is to be carried out. It will be apparent how much more included in such a program than inheres in any narrowly conceived trade- school, agricultural, or commercial training. But that the newly covered need is primarily social in its origin and in its realization is also obvious. Once more, as bearing upon the ethical character of this demand for definite occupational training, I venture to refer you to Dr. Snedden's recent work on Educational Readjustment (chap. viii). Under the caption "Six Debatable Issues," he names: (i) the desir- ability, the forms, and means of articulating vocational and liberal educa- tion; (2) the callings in which vocational education is possible under school conditions; (3) the type of such education that can best be furnished for both boys and girls from fourteen to sixteen years of age; (4) the relative emphasis to be placed upon productive work (a salable product) in day vocational schools as compared with the collateral studies and practice that seek to enlarge industrial intelligence; (5) the desirableness and the opportunity for part-time work between industries and the school system; and (6) the character of evening vocational education. All of these, except possibly the first, have, as basic determining conditions, well- defined social meanings. Such discussion reveals, again, how widely educational thinking has departed from the once dominant conception of education as merely personal culture. Equally with the causes and the occasions, the results, also, of voca- tional education are social, or find their excuse in commimity uses. While individual on the surface, they are primarily of group significance. Skill, constructive intelligence, economic interest, productive effort, mechanical ingenuity, resourcefulness, the habit of industry, all find their issue and their meaning in the group life of which one is organically a part. In the vocation, no one lives to himself. "The precise relation," says Charles Ham, "of the useful arts to social and economic conditions is that of creator." It is a commonplace with social welfare propagandists that "poverty is the chief scourge of society." Of poverty, ignorance and incapacity are the twin causes. With wise forethought and an intelligent fitting of each individual with some wage-earning skill and with a knowl- edge of the related arts and sciences, much might be done to eliminate both ignorance and incapacity. A right vocational education, too, should have a wholesome stimulative effect upon certain conflicting social conditions. The antagonism between Department] SOCIAL PHASES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 839 the prevalent more or less selfish objects of industry of both employer and laborer might be appreciably lessened, it is believed, by an education thru such training as would reveal occupational skill as a means toward right living. "The moral and religious reformers," says Hobson, "should never forget that, in order of time, material reform comes first." And a sound vocational education that looks beyond a particular skill to the dignifying of labor and to fixing a habit of thinking each employment as one phase only of public wage-measured service, and that regards a vocation, not as one's choice of activities merely, but as expressing or satisfying a need of the consumer class, must be included among the recognized means of social reorganization. In a recent memorial of half a million representatives of organized labor in New York on vocational education, it was urged upon the board of education that this phase of the work for schools be made the object of critical investigation, to the end that it be such as to meet real economic needs. It was pointed out, and rightly, too, that "education which is not applicable to genuine social needs is a luxury," that vocational training misapplied is as much a cloy and extravagance as, to many persons, is a study of Greek or Latin. To fit anyone for an occupation, or for any stage of an occupation to which industrial society has no open door is so imjust to the individual and so fruitless to the community as to furnish youth hav- ing faculties for the concrete only and who are dependent upon daily toil, with abstractions, the embellishments of culture, and the ideals of leisure. The movements for both vocational training and guidance force upon the school questions of an articulation of the school with the occupational world. Incidentally, the problem is a social problem of the classroom. It involves both what shall be taught and to what end, and the school must here find important incentives to new adjustments in both curriculum and method, and, more clearly than heretofore, come to regard its product as brought to the test of public need and measured by its economic standards. Here is the final test. Both knowledge and intelligence, as well as their incidental skill, not only grow out of the conditions of standard productive work, but fit their product to that need. Correspondingly, the method of vocational instruction is sharply distinguished from the individualistic methods of the traditional school. In all manual-arts instruction, since its introduction a generation ago, the schools have been subject to the inevitable temptation to use this work as so many additional "subjects," to be organized and standardized and valued as other subjects in the curriculum and to be presented after much the same methods. Any real productive effort of the individual even does not lend itself to external dictation and doctrinaire uniformity. Initiative ceases to be initiative if the action be prescribed or ordered. The inde- pendent resourcefulness needed by society, in civic or economic interests, in ethical organization or in the market, comes by altogether different ways. 840 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Vocational Bl The self-started, self-ordered project of the shop has its own virtues and they are neither few nor unimportant. Its execution is crippled by the intrusion of an alien will and a different purpose. The shop director may prescribe standards of excellence in the work and insist upon them, but the original will to do and the ideal of the student must not be too much inter- fered with if self-helpfulness is to be stimulated. But self-set problems in the shop are the ABC only of socially pro- ductive effort such as true vocational education contemplates. Industrial interests are co-operative in conception and aim. Industry is, at bottom, a social institution. The industrially minded youth is so far socialized; and the really socially minded person will, therefore, interest himself in some sort of productive effort. School exercises that are merely con- structive— the manual arts, school gardens, cooking, sewing, scientific experimentation — are all valuable in their way, but their flowering is in doing with the vocation motive. All vocational training looks toward co-operative effort, which is the framing structure of the industrial and economic order. Creative work that is infused with the life-motive is social as neither academic effort nor the individual manual arts can be. The method of vocational education, therefore, is the method of partici- pation, of mutual sharing and responsibilities. Production finds its excuse in consumption, and it must come to be so in the school, if we hope to acquire the vocational attitude. The need of the production of one is limited by the production of all and by the want of those who would be consumers. The vocation motive that regards this mutual dependence of occupations and parts of each occupation, of things made and things used, of goods and markets, of materials and processes, is the true social motive in learning, and must determine the method to be used, the mode of pro-J cedure, in the school's training. No academic proficiency can begin to measure up to this as a fruitful means in the process of socializing the individual and effecting group solidarity. The modem tendency in educa- 1 tion, then, is best exemplified by the inclusion in school programs of' exercises to satisfy and stimulate the creative instinct in the individual. Vocational training, as it is coming to be recognized, adds the forward look and farseeing motive; it is creative, but with a life-purpKDse, an abiding interest that transcends the particular project in hand. It means working from and realizing purposes, creative purposes, under established social codes and after occupational standards of time, efficiency, the adaptation of materials and products to social needs, the market, competing skills, and manifold wage-earning limitations. "If such schools are to be effective, therefore, shop, or office, or market conditions must prevail. Instruction cannot be definitely industrial imless it is designed so as to meet industrial conditions; and the only effective test of the material product is the place it can take in fair compe- tition in the open market." Between a school where boys and girls are Department] SOCIAL PHASES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 841 making things for themselves and a workshop where the same things are being made for others and for the general market there is all the difference between pretense and reality. The one is personal, with a fringe of social advantage in the product; the other is social, with scarcely less of individual benefit. An education that is intended to be incorporated in the common life and in the daily economic and social behavior must have social condi- tions in mind in the process. The social aspects of vocational training are manifold and determining. DISCUSSION Edwin R. Snyder, commissioner of vocational education for California, Sacramento, Cal. — The first topic suggested by the papers which I wish to discuss is that relating to the attitude of organized labor toward vocational education. In the past, two fundamental reasons have been set forth for the anticipated introduction of a system of vocational education in the public schools of this country. One of these reasons has dealt solely with the economic aspect. It has been pointed out that, owing to the fact that we are not producing skilled workmen, the United States is suffering in its competition with European countries, that the apprenticeship system has practically disappeared in this country, and that we have established no adequate substitute therefor. In Europe, generally speaking, wherever the apprentice system has broken down, the state has provided special education to train the youth for the industrial occupations which it desires to nurture. That the individuals who present this phase of the subject establish their case cannot be questioned. However, there is another and a more important con- sideration which should precede this. In a democracy we should think first of what an anticipated educational system is going to do for the individual. We would be untrue to our ideals and to our educational practice were we to allow the economic idea to cause us to establish a system of education that failed to take into consideration the individual needs of our children. It has been my experience that organized labor is not only willing but anxious to co-operate with the school authorities in establishing any form of education so long as it is designed for the purpose of bettering the opportunities of the children who are to receive it. In the state of California, organized labor is co-operating fidly with every movement that wiU make the children of this state economically, socially, and morally more efl&cient. It is true, however, that an education which fits the individual best for economic production will also provide best for the economic welfare of the state, because if all the youth are so educated as to enable them to produce their maximum contribution then the state itself will be in a position to produce its maximum product. A second topic which was suggested and which I wish to discuss is that of the content of vocational education. For many years we have been struggling to establish in our schools an educational content composed not alone of current knowledge of political and social events, but of current knowledge of commercial, industrial, or other human occupations. We have largely failed in securing a body of knowledge which deals with the economic life of the community because of the fact that we have never been able to organize the content of the various occupations. When we shall have solved the problem of vocational education, we shall have acciunulated a thoro detailed content of all of the common occupations. This material will make a wonderful source of knowl- edge, not alone for vocational training but for general CTilture as well. Another topic suggested deals with the problem of grading and graduation. Mr. Balliet pointed out the fact that the universities and colleges have, as a rule, established at least a junior-college requirement for entrance upon the professional courses. This ^42 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION l\'ocadonal suggests the question as to why our school courses should be adjusted in such a manner as to provide that one group of individuals shovdd graduate only after four years of train- ing and another only after an additional four years. It seems reasonable that the length of time that an individual spends in school should bear some definite relation to his total productive capacity after the school period. Many individuals have spent years in a school, have ended a long course of training but have acquired little or no productive capacity as a result. Without doubt when we shall have established an educational system that fits each individual leaving school to enter into some occupation, we shall be graduating individuals not alone from the four years' course in the high school or the four years' coiu^e in the imiversity, but from all of the years of the secondary and collegiate period. It is not improbable that in the future when we establish a system of education which will give boys who are going into blacksmithing an opport\mity to learn the rudiments of their trade, we shall graduate them at the end of the tenth year, and perhaps those who pursue a course preparing for one of the building trades may complete their school work at the end of the eleventh year, while those individuals who are preparing for wood manufactur- ing may complete their course at the end of the twelfth year. In fact so long as individ- uals are dropping out of school as young as fifteen years of age, we should provide courses in our system which will enable the children of any given group better to fit themselves for the occupations which they enter, and they should be permitted to enter upon this instruction before the school loses them. When we have brought about this situation, we shall cease to graduate individuals from schools and shall graduate them from courses that fit them into occupations or into special courses in higher institutions. The problem which interests us most vitally as an administrative problem in Cali- fornia is that of having established in the technical high schools of the state courses that are distinctly vocational in character. We have in this state, as we have in the United States, many splendid technical high schools that were originally established for the pxupose of preparing individuals for practical occupations. These high schools have not succeeded in preparing individuals for industrial occupations, but they have succeeded in preparing, exceedingly well, individuals to enter the technical courses at our universities and colleges. The main difference between a technical course and a vocational course, in so far as they relate to high schools, is that in the technical coiirse the major subjects are to be foimd in science and mathematics, and these major subjects are usually interpreted thru certain limited experiences in laboratory or in field; while in the vocational courses the main and controlling subjects are the practical shop courses, and only such science and mathematics is given as is essential to the intelligent interpretation of the practical experience. A similar distinction may be made in the different types of agricultural courses given in our high schools. The most common type is that in which we have science taught agric\Uturally. What we need in the secondary school is farming taught scientifically. The aims and purposes of farming in a high school are entirely different from the aims and purposes of agriculture in the university or in the college. The product of the high-school course in farming should bear the same relation to the technically trained agriculturist as the trained nurse bears to the physician. It is the fimction of the agriculturist to diagnose and prescribe: it is the business of the farmer to nurse plant life. The other topic is suggested by the paper of Mr. Pearse, which profoimdly impresses one with the immensity and complexity of the vocational educational problem. There are very few large centers of population in this country where it woiild not be absolutely safe to establish vocational courses of an industrial, commercial, and agricultural char- acter. After we have solved the problem of establishing courses in a few of the more important occupations, the establishment of courses in those occuparions which employ the smaller groups can be brought about with accxiracy and ease. Department] SOCIAL SIDE OF PHILIPPINE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 843 SOME SOCIAL PHASES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES JOHN S. POTTER, CHIEF CLERK, BUREAU 'OF EDUCATION, DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MANILA, P.I. The problem of vocational training in its special forms in a country like the Philippines may differ somewhat from the problem in this country; but the general aims everywhere are about the same and the methods will be more or less similar. Vocational training is a general term; many of its branches have long had attention, particularly the professional lines which have trained our supply of lawyers, doctors, and clergymen. It is the industrial branches which employ manual labor that have furnished our most recent and most animated educational controversies. Whether we like it or not, plain figures show us that the very great majority of boys and girls do not get more than an elementary education. In the Philippine Islands, they do not get more than the four years of primary education. Early dropping out of school is not always from necessity, but often, I venture to say, from choice. For the great army of children who must be the masses, the laborers of the future, the primary unit of four years gives the usual academic work and emphasizes hygiene, civics, good manners, and right conduct; plays and games, and home industries for both boys and girls, plain sewing, cooking, lace and embroidery, hats, mats, baskets, bamboo and rattan furniture, woodwork, and gardening. At the end of this unit, the pupil may to advantage drop out of school and go to work with a preparation for work and with a feeling that something definite has been accomplished; or he may to advantage continue with his studies. In the intermediate unit of three years, the pupil may take up a general course — a course for teaching, a course in shop work and the trades, a course in farming, or a business course. At the end of this unit, the pupil again has the choice of dropping out and going to work with something definite accomplished, or he may from any of these courses continue to advantage in higher education. The secondary-course imit of four years provides a general course, a normal course for teachers, a course in nursing, a course in shopwork and the trades, an agricultural course, a commercial course, a course in surveying, and a nautical course — the last named of great importance in this island com- munity. The last unit, the university, provides from two to seven years' work in the following colleges: liberal arts, law, medicine and surgery, veterinary science, agriculture, engineering, fine arts. Without a doubt the biggest social phase of our vocational work is the special training we are giving Filipino girls for home service. I wish I had time to picture to you something of the home conditions which have existed and which still exist to some extent — poverty and disease and neglect of affairs just because these people do not know. And we cannot expect any 844 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Vocational complete change of affairs iintil the girls who are being trained in the schools take over the management of homes. The little mothers in their early teens are still to be foimd, the result of the early marriages customary in tropical countries; but the special training for girls may be counted upon- to remedy this. Even the little work given in the third and fourth grades ; of the primary course in hygiene and sanitation, good manners and rights conduct, care of the home, cooking, and plain sewing is having a wonderful influence upon home standards. The intermediate grades give a special course for girls in housekeeping and household arts. Here is further work I in cooking and housekeeping, hygiene and home sanitation, plain sewing, and a course in ethics specially appropriate for the Filipino girl. In addi- tion to this, provision is made in all grades for teaching lace and embroidery and sometimes hand weaving, so that all girls may have a knowledge of a craft which will net something toward their own or the family support. Many girls are given the advantages of a dormitory life under school super- vision in the intermediate and higher grades, certainly a potent factor in molding their characters and an experience which will make them leaders in social and domestic affairs. Women have always had a prominent place in the Filipino home, for it is the housewife who holds the purse strings, and she will know how to apply other home measures effectively as fast as she learns them. Standards of morality are largely economic. Our courses in good man- ners and right conduct for all children, and in ethics for girls in the inter- mediate grades, are teaching Filipino girls what is right and appropriate; but it is the new independence which the Filipino women feel on account of their needlework and other crafts which gives them the greater moral strength and security. Infant mortality from neglect and ignorance has always played havoc with Philippine population figures. In several ways the schools are aiding to change this. The instruction of girls in the care of infants; the course for trained nurses; the general instruction in home sanitation; in personal hygiene; in cooking, and particularly in the boiling of water, have all their effects. Improvement in mortality figures for the past few years are con- vincing argument. The school instruction given in hygiene, sanitation, and similar lines has been a big factor in bringing about the change in health conditions which is one of the real achievements of the American government in the Philippines. Smoking a few years ago was universal for women and girls in tobacco sections of the Islands. This vice will not be found among girls who have been in the public schools. About two years ago the Bureau of Education issued its bulletin on plain sewing; today the effects of that course are evident on the streets of every town and village in the Philippines. The course for nursing is a vocational course which is just beginning to be felt. It was imdertaken only a few years ago and already many of the Department] SOCIAL SIDE OF PHILIPPINE VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 84$ provinces can boast of several Filipino trained nurses who are doing their country more good than they ever dreamed of. Remember that some of these provinces until in recent years have not had a resident doctor of medicine — not a single doctor among hundreds of thousands of people. This great service of doctors and trained nurses for the provinces is the direct result of vocational training and guidance. A few years ago prevalent traditions required a sick person to be locked up in a room and absolutely shut off from light and air until he got well or died. The second big influence which affects vitally the home life of the people — the food supply — is gardening and farming. Besides some three thousand school gardens, we have approximately forty thousand home gardens cultivated by the pupils at their homes and supervised by their teachers. We have settlement farm schools for regions inhabited by roving mountain peoples. These schools are most peculiar and interesting. Establish a school in the territory of these roving people; get their children into it, where they may be properly housed and fed upon the product of the school farm; teach them and their parents the advantages of living in permanent settlements where the food supply is sure the year round; invariably such a school becomes the nucleus of a permanent settlement which will win these people from their nomadic life. The food campaign embraces activities looking to the increase of foods auxiliary to rice, which is the staff of life. During the past school year some forty-three thousand boys were engaged in corn-production contests and eleven thousand girls in corn demonstrations. In three years of the campaign, the total corn harvest of the Islands has increased 61 per cent. During the same period, for some reason or other, the rice importations have decreased 62 per cent so as to save to the FiHpino people several millions of pesos. I cannot say that all of this change has been due to the corn campaign, but the coincidence looks significant. The school girls have their opportunity in teaching the people how to prepare corn foods. In the past, corn has been generally despised as a human food. Corn demonstra- tions are arranged for all towns and villages during the year. Besides corn exhibits, machine exhibits, and similar country fair propaganda, girls form themselves into a corps to cook and serve palatable corn foods in simple dishes, to explain the merits of these foods, and distribute recipes. The whole countryside is invited to participate and the corn demonstration becomes a corn festival. We have our arbor days, and we have garden days and exhibits of garden stuff. The farmers participate in them and get great benefit from them. We have an annual series of popular lectures for the instruction of the adult masses in civic and other topics. At the close of the clean-up week held last December the Philippine Islands were cleaner than ever before in their history. 846 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Vocational Under the general caption of household industries, we are teaching thruout the schools the making of lace, embroidery, crochet, basketry, hats, slippers, mats, macrame, light furniture, and many similar lines which may be called minor industries. These are each year becoming more and more important in the home life of the people, for they, more than any other lines, present almost unlimited possibilities in the economic development of the country. They are taught in all the schools and a big task now before us is that of extending them into the homes generally. In them is employed to advantage the natural skill of the Filipinos in the handicrafts, and they take up the spare time of boys and girls and men and women which is so plentiful in a tropical agricultural region — in past years, leisure or idle time. It is these industries which will provide the ready money for the purchase of articles not otherwise obtainable. In connection with this industry, the task of the school has been to make economic surveys of the Islands and locate the native materials, for the handicrafts are to be based as far as possible upon the materials available locally. Next from the central office are decided the industries which shall be taught in each town of the archipelago based upon information obtained from the surveys. From the central office are issued also a series of designs and instructions as to suitable forms, sizes, etc., these designs based as far as possible upon native Philip- pine design motifs so as to give a typical Philippine mark to the exported product. An industrial accounting system has been organized to adjust the matter of cost and selling price and to provide for the pupil's share in the profit of his labor. Next comes the more difficult problem of providing a market for the product, not only of school children but of those outside of the schools, and of handling the product in a big commercial way. Most of this product is for the export trade. For the light furniture this is not so. From the bamboo and palms which grow everywhere, at practically no expense, and with the simple knowledge acquired in the primary grades, the boy is able to furnish his own home with furniture which is attractive and comfortable, a great step forward when we consider that in the past the more homely dwellings have had few of these comforts. I shall only mention the normal school which is provided for the prepara- tion of teachers; the commercial course for business; the college of medi- cine and surgery, veterinary science, engineering, and fine arts; the several courses in the trades, provided in the eighteen trade schools operated in the provincial capitals and in many other shop departments. All of these haye a direct bearing upon the home and social conditions in the Islands. DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Lucy K. Cole, supervisor of school music, instructor in music. University of Washington. . . .Seattle, Wash. Vice-President — ^Wn.1. Earhart, director of music, public schools Pittsburgh, Pa. Secretary — Heruan E. Owek, director of music, public schools San Jose, Cal. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, August i8, 1915 The department was called to order by President Cole in the Auditorium Theater at 9:00 A.M. The following program was given: " Forces at Work for the Betterment of School Music " — Frances E. Clarke, chairman, Committee on Public-School Music, National Federation of Musical Clubs, Camden, N.J. "Elementary Music Education as a Basis for Secondary and Higher Music Educa- tion"— ^J. Lawrence Erb, director. School of Music, University of Illinois, Urbana, HI. A short discussion participated in by A. E. Winship, editor. Journal of Education, Boston, Mass., and others, brought out the fact that a number of colleges and universities thruout the country offer extended courses leading to the degree of Bachelor of Music. Also the fact that in many of these schools a student may major in music in a regular college course and receive the degree of Bachelor of Arts. "The Teaching of Harmony in High Schools" — Alice C. Bumbaugh, John C. Fre- mont High School, Oakland, Cal. "College Preparation for Teachers of Music in Secondary Schools" — Irving M. Glen, professor of music and dean of the College of Fine Arts, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash. "Uniformity of Standards in Secondary Music Education" — Gertrude B. Parsons, head of music department, Polytechnic High School, Los Angeles, Cal. The paper on "The Teaching of Harmony in High Schools," by Miss Bmnbaugh, was followed by a class demonstration by students of the John C. Fremont High School, Oakland, Cal. After some written work upon the blackboard, the following songs, written by students of the school, were sung: "Tomorrow's Land," by Marie Whitmore; "June," by Edgar Thorpe; "Fate," by Irene Granlund; "Fate," by D. Lyle Gould; "Love Divine," by Connie Keefer; "Still, Still with Thee," by Edgar Thorpe. Edward Berwick, of Pacific Grove, Cal., spoke of the importance of music in the establishment of a world-peace. In order to stimulate the writing of such songs, Mr. Berwick offered a prize of one hundred dollars for the best peace song which should be written for a contest to be conducted by the Department of Music Education of the National Education Association. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Afternoon, August 18, 1915 The department was called to order in the Auditorium Theater at 2 : 30 p.m., with President Cole in the chair. The program was preceded by a number of selections on the giant victrola. Several peace songs were sung by the audience under the direction of Glenn H. Woods, director of music, public schools, Oakland, Cal. 847 848 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music The following program was then given: "Instrumental Music and Instnmient Study in the Oakland Schools" — Glenn H. Woods, director of music, public schools, Oakland, Cal. "The Eurhythmies of Jaques-Dalcroze" — Grace Smith, Berkeley, Cal. The paper on "EurhjiJimics" was illustrated by many exercises from the Dalcroze system. Owing to the absence of Charles H. Miller, director of school music, Lincoln, Nebr., the paper assigned to him on " The Accrediting of Private Music Study by High Schools" vyas thrown open to general discussion. A large number of supervisors and others took part. The general consensus of opinion was that credit should be given for outside study, but that reasonable demands shoxild be made of the student before such credit be granted. Some definite standard should be established by examinations and thru the co-operation of the private teacher and the teacher of music in the high school. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: For President — Hollis E. Dann, professor of music, head of Department of Music, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. For Vice-President — T. P. Giddings, Minneapolis, Minn. For Secretary — Constance Barlow-Smith, assistant professor of school music, School of Music, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. TfflRD SESSION— Wednesday Evening, August 18, 1915 The meeting was called to order at 8:co p.ic., in the Auditorium Theater, with President Cole in the chair. The topic under discussion was "The Music of the Orient," and imder this topic a series of short papers were read, illustrated by native musicians using native music, instruments, and language, as follows: "Music of Japan" — K. S. Inui, the Japan society of America, San Francisco, Cal. "Hawaiian Music" — Helen Grace Cadwell, Oahu College, Honolulu, Hawaii. "Music of the Philippine Islands" — Josefa Jara, City of Iliola, P. I. "Chinese Music" — ^L. Shew. Herman E. Owen, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS FORCES AT WORK FOR THE BETTERMENT OF SCHOOL MUSIC FRANCES E. CLARKE, CHAIRMAN, COMMITTEE ON PUBLIC-SCHOOL MUSIC, NATIONAL FEDERATION OF MUSICAL CLUBS, CAMDEN, N.J. No subject in the curriculum is more important than school music. Twenty years ago no one had dreamed of the possibilities that existed in school music or of the development of the subject that has really been accomplished since that time. Schools are now reading standard choruses and operas as well as simple hymns and chorals. It has fallen to my lot to touch hands with both the old regime and the new. These reminiscent moments take me back to the time when I began teaching. I found a set of books in the schools when I first took up school music in which the method used was that of taking up one line of the staff at a time. As the tones on one line were learned, a second line was added, and then a third. After continued practice and study the classes were allowed to sing from all five I I Department] THE BETTERMENT OF SCHOOL MUSIC 849 lines. One of the first movements toward improvement was the introduc- tion of motion songs, in which the crudest motions of the hands and feet were indicated by footnotes at the bottom of the page and they were usually carried out without any idea of grace. However, there was a principle lying back of these motion songs. About this time William L. Tomlins came forward with his call for proper interpretation of children's songs and a splendid method of tone- building. This work had a great influence in the schoolroom and it was followed by a movement to base the study of music on song singing. Out of this developed two factions in public-school music, one standing for song singing and the other for music reading. I am glad to say we have passed thru that period now and have arrived at a development where we have both song singing and music reading and also tone quality and proper inter- pretation of music. We have also come to take the position that music in the schools is not only education in music but the education of the whole child. Music has indeed become the servant of education, and more forces are at work for it and more people interested in it at this time than ever before. I shall mention several forces which have been influential in giving music the important place it now holds in the educational system. First, there was a real demand for better school music and the supervisors themselves became aware of the broader conception of their work and of the important place music held in education. Out of this feeling came the organization of the Music Supervisors' National Conference, which has become a large and influential body. At the meeting held in Pittsburgh last spring, over three hundred members were enrolled. The annual meeting of this body has become the forum for the discussion of the questions of school music and the clearing-house of all the ideas which have grown out of experience of the members as they have experienced new visions of the increased importance and usefulness of their subject. A second influence was a call for supervisors who were better prepared. It is a sad fact that in the early days of school-music supervision very many of the supervisors were not musicians. This was partly due to the fact that there was no place for them to go to get a special drill in the supervision of school music. Many of these supervisors were doing excellent work in the schools in spite of that fact. If we will look over the field for twenty-five years, we shall find that only two schools making a specialty of training school-music supervisors existed in this country — the Thomas Normal Training School at Detroit, Mich., and the Normal School at Potsdam, N.Y. In this connection it should be said that schools conducted by the book companies have done very valuable work in giving supervisors better equipment for their special work. Today we find that every state has a number of important schools that have established courses for music supervisors,'so in the future there will not be the^ excuse iQx poor prepar9,tiQii 8so NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music which has existed in the past. In the third place, in fonner years many superintendents and leading educators of the country did not recognize the music supervisor as a musician or as an educator. In recent years this attitude has changed and public-school music is now recognized as one of the livest propositions of education. The supervisors themselves have largely brought this about thru their national organization and thru the fact that a great many supervisors are now in the work who have very wide training both in education and in music. In the fourth place, there has been a general awakening in all lines of music in this country. America spends six million dollars every year for various performances of music in public. Another indication of this general interest is the fact that both the National Federation of Women's Clubs and the National Federation of Music Clubs several years ago adopted a definite policy of encouraging the development of music in the schools, and appointed efficient committees to carry out that purpose. As chairman of the committee appointed by the National Federation of Women's Clubs, I have printed and circulated circulars calculated to increase the interest of the local clubs and have sent them out to the women's clubs of the coun- try. In many cities the women's clubs have acted upon the suggestions of the committee and have been active in bringing music into the schools. Reports have been made showing that the members of clubs have appeared in the schools on two hundred occasions, thus bringing a high class of music to children who otherwise would not have heard it. They have also invited the supervisor of music to bring school music into the club meetings by having classes sing at some of the meetings. In Rochester, N.Y., they have given a series of concerts of one each month, some of which were chronologi- cal, the course ending with the presentation of American compositions. Other women's clubs have raised money to buy orchestral instrmnents to be used in the schools. This is a most commendable activity. Still other clubs have created a sentiment in favor of music in the schools by having papers read and by having the organization give special programs in the schools. Another reason that interest has increased in music in the schools is that a number of prominent educators have been very pronounced and effective in proclaiming the value of music as education and in advocating its general use in all the schools. President John W. Cook, of the State Normal School at DeKalb, 111., is one of these, and it should not be forgotten that at the Denver meeting when a committee recommended that the Department of Music Education be dropped from the National Education Association he appeared on behalf of the music supervisors and succeeded in having the committee change its recommendation. President John R. Kirk, of the State Normal School at Kirksville, Mo., has also been outspoken in his support of school music. Two others have been extremely active in behalf of public-school music and their influence cannot be overestimated. United I Department] ELEMENTARY AND HIGHER MUSIC EDUCATION 851 States Commissioner of Education P. P. Claxton and A. E. Winship, editor of the Journal of Education, have been traveling all over the United States making addresses in which they have spoken in the most urmaeasured terms of the value of music education and have urged its general use and its better teaching. It is a great satisfaction to those of us who have been a long time in the work to realize that we have lived to see many of our dreams of a great development in public-school music come true. ELEMENTARY MUSIC EDUCATION AS A BASIS FOR SECONDARY AND HIGHER MUSIC EDUCATION J. LAWRENCE ERB, DIRECTOR, SCHOOL OF MUSIC, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA, ILL. It is sad but true that even the so-called educated classes are too often skeptics and deterrents the moment one approaches them with a proposition which is out of their particular line. Now musical education in particular being considered for years as a thing apart from the general educational scheme, has felt the effect of this tendency. First it has been the object of a profound indifference on the part of educators and people in general, because it has been out of their line. People who would blush to think that they had not kept apace of the latest book or the latest play on the one hand, or that they were deficient in their knowledge of Latin roots or conjugations on the other, show not the slightest interest in music, its history, or its literature. Or there are our "highbrow" friends who insist that music never was and never can be of any real educational value, that musical educational systems are absolutely unscientific, that they involve no genuine intellectual discipline, and, at any rate, that you cannot make farmers and laborers see the value of music in an educational scheme which is primarily designed to help the children earn their bread and butter. The present slipshod methods must continue, therefore, and music must be forever doomed to remain outside the fold of the Elect! One hears this sort of talk all too often from men and women who ought to know better. Then, too often pointing the very moral which the "highbrow" would draw, the members of the music-teaching fraternity either are careless in their choice of material and methods, or else they sacrifice educational validity for the sake of the advertising value of a novelty or of some high- sounding but meaningless rigmarole. Left alone all too long by the serious- minded educators, the music-teaching fraternity has evolved some fearful and wonderful "methods," so called, which may have been sincerely believed in by those who were responsible for their inception, but which soon degenerated into a trademark, an advertising slogan, whose whole use is to befuddle the public and to entrap the unwary. Such terms as "Italian 852 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music method," "pressure touch," "Leschetizky method," "Liszt pupil," and a host of others illustrate what I mean by terms which meant something originally but which have been robbed of all or most of their value except that of dazzling the unsophisticated. Now I suppose nowhere has the wool been pulled over people's eyes more repeatedly or more successfully than in elementary musical education. The wave of interest in primary education which swept over the land a generation or more ago, and which took on, for the moment, all the force of a fad but fortunately had enough vitality to persist, did not fail of its effect in the music-teaching world, tho in the main the response was slower here, as it always is, than along the usual literary lines. Soon methods for children began to appear, some of them good, many of them childish, and some almost grotesque, and each, of course, because the spirit was in the air, taken up by the teaching fraternity because it was new. And the great outstanding feature of most of them was that they were the product, not of pedagogically trained minds, or minds alive to the principles of psychology, but of men or women whose education was often absolutely and entirely technical in some musical specialty, without any broad funda- mental basis, and with no real outstanding success even in their own specialty to justify their posing as authorities. The fact of the matter is that the proportion of music-teachers, until within a quarter-century, who had any general education beyond a high-school course was woefully small; so that the number of persons equipped to speak with intelligence and authority upon any educational question was so insignificant as to be pitiful. There were fortimately a few great leaders to whom all honor is due and upon their foundations we are proud to build. Now in considering the subject of the primary musical education in its relation to secondary and higher musical education, it is exactly this funda- mental fact that needs to be borne in mind. A great amount of material has been accumulated, the bulk of which is purely conmiercial and only by sheerest accident really educational. It is not the intention of this paper to go into the technical details of any plan, but rather to outline in a broad sort of way what should and may be done, particularly in and thru the public schools, in this matter of primary musical education. As the general education of the child begins long before the specific, and as the process is oral long before it is written, so should the musical education begin in a general way and orally. That is, the first step in musical education must be the creation of an atmosphere. Much of the most important part of a child's development results from the absorption of early impressions, especially such as are reiterated or persist for some time. Of course, we are all aware that in many cases the impressions are not such as make for the best development of the child, and their effects must be cor- rected or combated. That is largely why we need schools. But making allowance for a vast amoimt of ignorance or for the half-knowledge which is Department] ELEMENTARY AND HIGHER MUSIC EDUCATION 853 almost worse, the fact remains that a tremendous residuum of true educa- tional worth is the product of the environment, the unconscious and unpre- meditated forces which produce impressions upon the receptive minds and nervous systems of children and are there recorded. The first step in music education, therefore, should be and must be to a considerable extent the education of the grandfathers and fathers, the grand- mothers and mothers, the aimts and uncles and cousins who, being older, produce the environment of the child. Here is where the pianola and victrola and other mechanical music-makers in the home are creating an atmosphere that is tremendously favorable to the development of musical culture in the coming generation — this in spite of the undoubtedly crude taste of a host of famiUes who possess such instnmients, tho it is always encouraging to remember that no matter how crude music may be it can never be an injurious moral force. Every influence which will encourage the members of the family to make and support music — the town band, the church choir, the Sunday- school orchestra, the singing school, and, of course, all concerts — will also increase the interest and intelligence of the child in music and matters musical. It is usually easy to sense the interests of the family by observing the sort of things about which the children talk. It is not only great endowments but favorable environments which produce Bachs or Mozarts or Beethovens or Mendelssohns. So I place first in the educational factors the environment, and I commend it to the music-teaching profession as their most important work to see to the creation of a proper environment. And if some should demur, contending that they are not paid to do that sort of work, I would remind them that neither is the business man paid to advertise but it pays to advertise, and the best advertisement is generally that which includes an element of free service to the community. The music-teaching profession might well ponder this fact and act upon it. The mere use of printer's ink is not in itself advertising. But of course environment is not all. There must be a deliberate process of education based upon scientific pedagogic and psychological principles. It is already recognized that the musical education should be- gin with the study of music, rather than the study of notation or technique, that the first thing to do is to interest the child in music and then to help him to make music. The environment will perhaps have supplied the interest and even the beginnings of expression. In such case the work of the teacher is easy. Otherwise the learning of easily comprehended melodies, with later the singing (or whistling) of them, is necessarily the first step. Personally, I believe that this is the first step in the study of an instrument, just as in singing, just as I believe that the difficulties of the teacher of instrumental music will be much lightened if the pupil be encouraged to siftg the obscure passage. Certainly the understanding will be quickened by such means. I 854 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music But I am stating only what is already the practice of many teachers. The choice of the actual material must always be largely a matter of personal opinion and preference. Folk songs have been and should remain an important feature of this phase of the work, tho I would rather see the universal, time-honored ones used than that the remote corners of the earth should be continually scoured for new ones of less merit. Remember they are new to the children, if not to you, and that in the piano world we have not yet outgrown the Bach Inventions and the Clementi Sonatinas and the Mozart and Haydn Sonatas, even tho they were old to our grandfathers. The next step, it would seem to me, would be the study of the elements of expression, rather than the study of notation, tho if one element be taken at a time there is no particular reason why its notation may not profitably be studied at the same time. But it is undoubtedly true that a form of music education which is so haphazard that it attempts to teach melody and rhythm at the same time can hardly claim to be pedagogically sound, and many teachers try to teach even more than that to beginners. Here, I think, is where most current "methods" sin. Their choice of material is most attractive, but their method of presentation is not always sufficiently detailed. For instance, in the presentation of rhythm the first work should not be musical at all except as the beat of a drum is musical. It ought to ■ consist of tapping first simple and then more compUcated rhythms in unison. ■ The motion songs and marching songs and dances supply this element in part, but there is no question in my mind that the deplorably universal rhythmic deficiency which one finds in music students is due to the fact that they have never taken the time and trouble to study rhythm for its own sake. Working out the values of notes in fractions is not enough, for that is merely a mathematical problem. Nothing short of the actual tapping of the rhythm in strict time will accomplish the result. I know of no better cure for rhythmical imcertainty than the combination of a metronome and a pencil for tapping, backed by a persistent teacher, "behind the gun" as it were. In the same connection, the rhythmic signa- ture should be studied first with regard to the niunerator of the fraction, and then the denominator, before the entire fraction is considered. Of course nothing of this is new, but we need sometimes to be reminded of what is such a commonplace that we have forgotten to include it in our calculations. The ordinary elements of musical education should be taken up in the same way, one by one. Voice culture, a much discussed but as yet little understood element, cannot possibly at first be combined with anything else. I have heard housekeepers say that if a particle of dirt be ironed into a fabric, it becomes almost impossible to rub it out. So, if a misconception be allowed to accompany the presentation of a truth, or if a wrong condition be allowed to accompany an educational process, it becomes vastly difficult Department] TEACHING HARMONY IN HIGH SCHOOLS 855 to correct the misconception or wrong condition. Therefore, each element needs to be presented alone in its pure unadulterated form if the resultant blend is to be perfect. Now, with regard to reading, there is only one thing to be said. The person who cannot read is forever dependent upon others for his informa- tion. Occasionally one with an unusually bright mind will acquire a fair education without the ability to read readily, but we never hear of a person of any prominence who is not a ready and accurate reader. That goes without saying. It is fundamental. Just so it is difficult to conceive of anyone as a musician who is not a ready and fluent and accurate reader. Therefore, every school child ought to be able to read music just as readily as he reads print. Do not scoff. He ought to be, and he would be, if he had had the proper training. It is a significant fact that ready, rapid reading of English was much facilitated by the introduction of the "word-method," whose principal virtue is that it focuses the attention upon the reading itself, not upon spelling or some other extraneous thing. So music-reading will be vastly improved when we do much more of it, leaving the harmonic analysis by syllables and whatnot to take its proper place with spelling and grammar — elements of education, it is true, but of vastly less impor- tance than the reading with which they interfere if introduced in connection with it. Reading first, then solmization and harmony, as English reading first, then spelling and grammar. Just where in the educational scheme to introduce each element I would not presume to say, whether in the first or second year, whether in the primary or secondary grades. I believe that the public schools — including, of course, the high and normal schools with their capstones the colleges and universities — ought to furnish a musical education complete in all its details; that a person ought to be able to pursue at the expense of the state every phase of his musical training from the C-scale to the concert stage or the composer's desk. In this connection, I am willing to hazard a prophecy. I believe that the time is soon coming when the public schools will accept freely every phase of practical musical education. What is more, I believe the public schools will furnish facilities for practice, just as now they furnish laboratory facilities in the study of science. They do not expect each high-school or college student to purchase his own apparatus, but for a small laboratory fee they furnish the best which the community or institution can afford. THE TEACHING OF HARMONY IN HIGH SCHOOLS ALICE C. BUMBAUGH, JOHN C. FREMONT HIGH SCHOOL, OAKLAND, CAL. It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss at length the status of music in the general educational scheme. From present indications we mav conclude, however, that the day is not far distant when it will no 856 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music longer be considered a thing apart, reserved for the favored few, but will be included in the curriculum of all high schools as a major subject. When the high schools of the country have well-organized music departments, as they now have history, EngUsh, mathematics, and science departments, harmony will be taught as a matter of course. Because the subject has not been offered in such schools until recently, harmony teachers have faced a serious problem caused by the lack of suit- able texts. The standard texts were not written for high schools, and tho sound theoretically, bear much the same relation to our work as do the dictionary and encyclopaedia to the teaching of English — valuable as aids, but impossible as texts. As substitutes for these older books, a number of others have been offered, but in most cases the subject is treated in such a superficial manner that the student's knowledge at the end of the course is correspondingly superficial. With efficiency as the educational watch- word, such results are not to be tolerated. No phase of music is more suited to students of high-school age than harmony. As a matter of fact, experience both with high-school students and with adults has convinced me that the former master the subject more readily than the latter. But it must be treated as a serious educational subject to which are applied methods found successful in the teaching of other branches. A prominent musician writing of the work as frequently presented said: "These are the results obtained by that class of school musicians who, tho they do excellent work in other respects, have so little knowledge of harmony that they place the apex of achievement at the point of abiUty to attach a few chords to a tinkling time of obvious reminiscence." In the larger high schools of this state, where well-organized music departments exist, a two years' course in harmony is given. I have been asked to outline the method used in a number of these schools — a method which has aroused the enthusiasm of teachers and students and has won the approval of musicians who have visited the classes. Since it is mani- festly impossible to discuss the subject in detail in a paper of this length, I shall confine myself to the most important points of departure from methods with which most of you are famiUar. From the nature of the subject the statements must, to a certain extent, be technical. Little reference need be made to the preliminary stages of the work, the very thoro drill in writing scales and intervals, except perhaps a mention of the treatment of the minor scale, which differs from most methods in that the normal minor scale is taught without reference to those chromatic alterations which are necessary for harmonic and melodic purposes. Thru- out the work, which is cumulative, effort is directed toward the mastery of one thing at a time; and for this reason chromatic alterations of the minor scale are not taught until the student has occasion to use them. At the outset exercises are worked over a given bass, but early in the work melodies are introduced with very definite rules for harmonization. Department] TEACHING HARMONY IN HIGH SCHOOLS 857 and thruout the course both phases of the work are presented. A three- point harmonization is employed, by which is meant the inclusion of all harmonies used by the classic composers in the famihes of tonic, dominant, and subdominant chords. The result of this classification, which we hold to be theoretically sound, is greater facility on the part of the student in the use of dissonant chords, as well as an increased power of analysis. A most important feature is the writing of melodies from the three upper voices over a given bass; the harmonization of basses thus becoming a study in melody-making, as the harmonization of melodies is a study in the appHcation of chords. An extensive classification of non-harmonic tones is adopted, and these are freely used in all voices, both for melodic and for rhythmic purposes. Modulation is presented both from the melodic and from the harmonic standpoint very early in the work. Another valuable feature is the use of intensifying chords in extended cadences, and their employment for the formation of harmonic structures from which original melodies may be evolved. When students are able to write good melodies from harmonic successions of their own choosing, there is little danger of those "tinkling tunes of obvious reminiscence" to which I have referred. The subject of imitation is given unique presentation, and, as in other cases, is approached both from a given melody and from a given bass. Near the end of the course, attention is given to the writing of chorals after rhythmic figures selected from hymnals, the melodic and harmonic elements being supplied by the students. These are some of the most prominent features of the work, which I have selected for demonstration by the students present this morning. I am frequently asked these three questions: What about ear- training ? Do not students find such technical work uninteresting? What is the ultimate aim of the teaching of harmony? As to the first question, every lesson is a lesson in ear-training. Students are required to state at the end of each exercise submitted that they have played it or heard it played. They are advised to do both. They are taught that rules of harmony are the result of the established practice of the great composers, and that the ear is the court of last resort. By this is not meant, however, the untrained ear of the immature student. As to the interest of students in the subject, I refer you to anyone who has visited classes in schools where this course is followed. Students delight in any subject in which instruction is definite. The study of harmony is found uninteresting to the student only when he is left to flounder amid a confusion of hazy ideas. The ultimate aim of the teaching of harmony is, to my mind, what should be the aim of all music teaching in the public schools, the enrich- ment of the life of the student thru an increased power of music appre- ciation. For those students who plan to make music their profession after 8s8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music leaving school, the study of harmony is essential; the future composer, if by any happy chance he is found in our classroom, will be given a language in which to express himself, but our work is not designed especially for these. Any student who has sufl5cient foundation to undertake the work will have done more to escape from that state in which listening to music is "a drowsy revery relieved by nervous thrills," to quote Thomas W. Surette, thru a study of harmony than by many so-called courses of musical appre- ciation. COLLEGE PREPARATION FOR TEACHERS OF MUSIC IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IRVING M. GLEN, PROFESSOR OF MUSIC AND DEAN OF THE COLLEGE OF FINE ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON, SEATTLE, WASH. In a conversation with a superintendent of city schools this summer, he complained of the difficulty that he invariably experienced in securing teachers of special subjects. He desired instructors who were trained broadly enough to work sjonpathetically with the other teachers of the high-school staff, all of whom were college graduates. His experience, he regretted, represented a general condition. Now as these special subjects included music, our interest was at once enlisted in ascertaining the causes for this condition and in seeking a possible remedy. While the situation may be, in a measure, due to the American tendency toward haste, toward economy of time and effort in preparation, it would be manifestly unfair to attribute it entirely to this desire for "short cuts." The general attitude of the "body pedagogic" evidences a desire not to escape preparation but to acquire it. By thousands, teachers are enrolling each year as students in the summer sessions of colleges and imiversities for the purpose of enlarging their preparation for work. The average teacher possesses the desire for the best equipment possible. If school officers desire broadly trained teachers, then, and the teachers themselves desire more liberal training, where is the difficulty ? Why are there com- paratively few liberally trained teachers of music available for our secondary schools ? The principal difficulty seems to me to be that of opportunity. There are many special schools and conservatories of music, but their courses lead primarily to performance rather than to culture. They are largely lacking in the academic elements necessary to a liberal training. On the other hand, the curricula of colleges and universities generally are so organized that if one spends four years in working for a Bachelor's degree in arts or science, there does not remain to the average student enough either of time or of physical energy, which if applied to the study of music would be sufficient to enable him to acquire adequate preparation technically. That would necessitate five years or even six years, and while Department] PREPARING SECONDARY-SCHOOL MUSIC TEACHERS 859 that amount of time could be well spent, it is, I believe, an unjust demand and absolutely beyond the reach of the majority of those who desire to become teachers, since it defers too long the earning period. What then can be done ? Where can the opportunity for liberal and technical preparation for music teachers be offered? The conservatories cannot be expected to furnish it. They have their own field, which is valuable and not to be neglected. Our hope lies in the colleges and uni- versities. They must act more generally in our behalf. The American university, imtil very recently, has possessed the con- servatism of a dead man. Only recently, fearful of acquiring too many of the characteristics and perquisites of inanition, it is responding to the demand of industrial and vocational forces, and is beginning to vitalize its influence. It must respond also to our demand. I am not out of sympathy with classical training and classicism gener- ally. The more largely one comes into intelligent contact with the glorious past, the more keenly can he appreciate the present, the practical present, palpitating with unput questions, perplexed for plain paths that will lead away from the possibility of an inglorious future. Today demands, however, from our colleges and universities men and women who not only can appreciate the present and realize its problems, but who have in their possession the agents for the solution of these problems — men and women who have not only liberal but technical training as well. The universal desire for improvement demands this. The universities are beginning to respond. They responded to the demand of the medical profession by introducing premedical courses. The bar demanded better trained lawyers and again the universities adjusted their courses. The structural industries and scientific vocations raised their voices for more workers, well equipped, and ancient and honorable tradition "moved over" again to make room for engineering — civil, mechanical, electrical, mining, chemical, hydraulic, architectural, sanitary, even political. In the interests of other activi- ties, we have departments of journalism, schools of commerce, schools of forestry, schools of pharmacy, and extensive courses in home economics. All of these evidence the growing recognition of the universities that they must serve the needs of the age. But what have the universities done for music ? What are they doing to supply the demand for effective musical leaders ? The attitude of the American mind toward music has changed amazingly during the last ten years. Children in the grades are acquiring a knowledge of music and things pertaining thereto that their parents, in many cases, never possessed, and which in their public-school days were considered nonessential. As high-school students, these children have the best opportunities that school boards now can provide for continuing their musical study. What are the universities doing in the way of providing opportunities that may enable these students to pursue further this work as they may their study of 86o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music mathematics, or history, or the modern languages, or science ? What are the miiversities doing in preparing better equipped teachers for these high- school students? The attitude of the popular mind toward music is no longer one of irri- tated or amused tolerance. Music is not so often a subject that testifies only to the limitations of the humorist. The laugh is not nearly so spon- taneous now, and it is just as likely to be at him as it is with him. The colleges and universities, as leaders in the development of cultural influences, should be quick to recognize and serve the demands that this increased interest in music is making upon them. It is time for them to recognize music, as they have various industries and professions, with the dignity of an academic status, and they are moving in this direction so slowly. Probably the fingers of one hand would be sufficient on which to count the universities in this country that are doing musical work, well organized on an academic basis. In a few more institutions music is taught thru affili- ated schools or conservatories, but not as real university work. In other colleges, practically nothing of importance is done. A senior dean in one of the largest and best known universities of this country ex- pressed to me great surprise recently, when, in response to a question, I answered that our University of Washington chorus and orchestra, in spite of practically changing their membership completely once every four years, were steadily improving in quality. He asked how I ac- counted for this. My answer was that every year brought superior material from the high schools. Again he was surprised, for he said: "I have considered the money spent on music education in the schools less productive of results than probably any other similar expenditure, and that it was largely money wasted." His university reflects his attitude. It is doing practically nothing to improve the condition musically in the com- munity that it seeks to serve — nor are colleges and universities generally. What lethargy, when the constituency of these universities — the people — desire the work, and the secondary schools furnish an increasing nimiber that demand it, and school boards are seeking men and women with the kind of training that would produce still more effective results in the public schools! Modern sociologists are seeing in music a material aid in solving the "leisure time" problem; they recognize the same solution advocated by the Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle, centuries ago. Music is being recognized as a human necessity. The central labor council in a large western city recently adopted unanimously a resolution addressed to the state federation demanding legislation that would result in the increased development of facilities in the state university for the study of music and the other arts. Why? For the sake of the homes and the children of the laborer. The demand upon the higher institutions of learning is genuine, not fictitious, and the Department] PREPARING SECONDARY -SCHOOL MUSIC TEACHERS 86i longer they delay in recognizing their responsibilities in this regard, the longer will be deferred the day of American music. With the universities as contributing factors, we have developed Ameri- can finance, engineering, scientific achievement, letters, diplomacy, that have won international recognition. Where are we in the way of develop- ing an American music? What American music expresses this country as Grieg's expresses Norway, as Wagner's reflects Germany, as Verdi, Donizetti, and others represent the characteristics of their countries ? We speak of French composers, and a procession of immortals passes before us. Germany, Italy, Austria, Russia, England, each has its group of great composers, and some of them are of our own day and generation. What of America ? We have had a number of composers in America who have done wonderfully good work, but only now and then is there sounded a different note, one that might be characterized as American. The spirit generally reflected is that of their European models. We have lost time, and we must work the harder. What the universities have done for law, medicine, engineering, and other professional work, it is their duty to do for music. They must recognize it as worthy of study; they must provide courses that will be designed to produce teachers of broader attainment, and to beget enthusiasm, clearness of vision, and catholicity of interest that will increase their possibility of leadership. The resulting confidence and respect on the part of the student and community will lead to an earnest consideration of music as a study to which one may honorably devote his entire energy, his life. When this general condition prevails, then we shall hasten with strides toward the goal which should be one of the definite objects of the American college and university — ^American music. What kind of college course then should be offered to meet the require- ments of those desiring to become teachers of music in oiu- secondary schools? As general a course as can be provided without sacrificing the main interest, music — a course, roughly speaking, half non-musical, half musical. It should, however, be designed to stimulate the impulses that lead to independent study and research, to make a habit of desiring to know. All the academic work desirable cannot be required until the high schools themselves send to the colleges students who have ahready had train- ing in the fundamentals of music, so that the time now necessary to devote to the pursuit of these courses can be applied to the election of other college courses not directly musical. But pending the arrival of that condition, a course such as we have at the University of Washington works very satis- factorily. This course requires, in addition to high-school graduation or an equivalent for entrance, four years of study of the piano and the require- ment of physics as the high-school science. This latter requirement is because of the later course in college in acoustics. After entrance, in addi- tion to English, there are required courses in French, German, and Italian. If any part of this work has been done in high school, the student is credited 862 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music with it and is allowed to elect courses in other subjects to the extent of these credits. A course in physics (acoustics), political or social science, in philosophy (psychology or aesthetics), with six hours elective, which the I student is advised to devote to European history, completes the non- musical requirements. The work in music is treated as nearly as possible like the study of the languages. It is a language, eloquent beyond the eloquence of human speech, with accents that liu-e like tresses of tangled sunshine, with measures more melting than the eyes of love, with cadences softer than the notes that "coo the rapture of the wooing dove." As a language then the student should be able to interpret music, be able to express himself thru some musical medimn (voice or instrument), and be able to create or compose. His courses fall into two general groups, theoretical and applied. The theoretical group includes harmony, history, appreciation, counterpoint, canon and fugue, form and analysis, and com- position. His apphed courses consist of four years of work in his chosen medium of musical expression. It is possible for students to do intensive work in either group or in music education, public-school music. It is not the purpose of this paper to attempt to prove that college training will insure success in teaching music or anything else. College training can never substitute for lack of personality or good breeding. It can never put an edge on pot metal. But other things being equal, the teacher having the more liberal college training should be in a greater degree an inspirational force. He should be more prone to recognize in music a culture influence, kindred to other culture influences, and so present the subject for the student's consideration. High-school courses in music should at least stimulate appreciation and desire. Both are the result of quickened imagination. How can it fail to stimulate the imagination of the student if, instead of presenting Bach in a detached way, simply as a maker of music, he be presented in connection with his times as a man in the world of men, doing a man's work in his chosen field of endeavor, as were other men? How can a student grasp appreciatively the statement that Bach composed wonderfully unaffected, severely classical music, imdistiurbed by the activities of the outside world, unless he knows some- thing of Europ>e outside of Eisenach ? It could only increase the interest of the student to know that while Bach in his simple surroundings in Germany was composing his immortal music. Pope, Addison, Steele, Dryden, Swift, Samuel Johnson, and DeFoe were making their immortal contributions to the field of English letters; that John Wesley was beginning a reUgious movement that should encompass the earth; that in America, Benjamin Franklin was carving his niche in the Hall of Fame; that Mira- beau in France and Goethe in Germany came into the world to shake it and shape it, just before Bach passed out, and that in the year in which he left the world Gray wrote his wonderful Elegy. Department] UNIFORM SECONDARY MUSIC EDUCATION 863 Again, many of the forces represented by these men just named may be cited as causes of the marked difference between the music of Bach and Handel, his contemporary for sixty-five years, who was affected by the ornate artificialities of external conditions. This is only one example, but it will serve to show how the study of music may be vitalized, how music may be brought into contact with other culture influences; how inspiration may be kindled in the student. But these things can be done only when the teacher desires to make his work vital. This is the type of teacher that colleges should send forth — not teachers of musical performance only, but apostles proclaiming a new creed: I believe in music, molder and maker of hiiman mood and inspiration, beautifier of waste places, restorer of despairing souls; I believe that thru music can be brought about the salvation of man from many misspent hours, from unworthy impulses, from premature spiritual decay, thru greed for gold and lust for ofl&ce; I believe in music as a channel of commimion between man and his nobler self, between man and nature, between man and God; I believe in and shall labor to hasten the day when our country's music shall be deemed more valuable than its merchandise, more potent than its coiirts and tribunals, more distinctive and excellent than its letters. UNIFORMITY OF STANDARDS IN SECONDARY MUSIC EDUCATION GERTRUDE B. PARSONS, HEAD OF MUSIC DEPARTMENT, POLYTECHNIC HIGH SCHOOL, LOS ANGELES, CAL. It is with great satisfaction that we witness the widespread interest in and growth of music in secondary education during the past few years, and altho advancement has seemed much too slow we still congratulate ourselves that some recognition has been obtained. Now that a foothold is estab- lished, we can expect further impetus to come by leaps and bounds. Gradually public-school music is coming into its own, and just so fast as we can show results of merit just so fast will we be given recognition. In a recent issue of a well-known musical magazine, our weakest point, to my mind, was forcibly expressed in an article on "Flaws in Public-School Music." The writer concludes as follows: The authorities do not consider music a suflSciently important subject to require specially trained teachers in that branch. Hardly one teacher out of ten in the elementary schools is fitted either by training or by inclination to teach the subject and the same in a somewhat lesser degree holds true of the music instructor in the secondary schools. The reason for this is that the profession is not considered sufficiently attractive by the better type of musician who enters the more lucrative employment of the concert stage or private teacher. It is evident that the writer is not prejudiced, that he is perfectly justi- fied in his statements, and that his experiences with public-school music in certain localities' at least give him the right to speak in no mincing terms concerning its worthlessness. But, on the other hand, I wish to quote 864 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music from a well-known musician, a teacher of piano and expert accompanist, who asked for a position in a high-school music department, stating as her reason that the majority of her studio pupils were imreliable, that, barring a few instances, they lacked power or inclination to work, their lessons became an uncertain quantity, and she preferred identifying herself with an organized body and an assurance of a definite salary. We must look the matter squarely in the face, however. We can have no standards in the music education of our secondary schools until our teaching body becomes, first of all, a corps of musicians. It is true we have a pitiful sort of standard, that of examination, but the sort of examination given has not thus far proved real musicianship. We hear much about standardizing the music profession and in several states (I know of nine) an adoption in some form thru state music teachers' associations has been effected. Last February a general body was organized made up of officers, present and past, of the Music Teachers' Association of America, its purpose being to bring all the bodies together for systemiza- tion of examinations. Reports have not yet been received concerning the final deUberations of this body. Those who oppose examinations argue that art cannot be standardized, but without question the teaching of it can be. The authorities permit no other subject in our pubUc schools to be pre- sented in so inadequate a manner or with so little careful preparation as that of music. But with opportunities offered for more thoro training, either thru our colleges and universities or thru musical institutions of real worth, followed by proper certification, the first step in the improvement of our teaching force will be attained. Granting that we have the well-equipped teacher, the next step is to convince the powers that be that the subject of music is a dignified one, worthy of a dignified place in the curriculum, side by side with English, history, mathematics, or whatever, and that it should receive due considera- tion. How to accomplish this is, in many cases, a difficult question. The National Federation of Musical Clubs with its various branches is doing commendable work in this line. During the recent convention in Los Angeles the work of a music club in a middle western town was brought especially to my notice. The superintendent of schools absolutely opposed all music work, especially in the high school, but the music club, composed of prominent women, was strong enough to defeat his opposition, and thru the insistence of its members the work was organized and a teacher employed, and altho her musical pathway was a thorny one and she was anxious to resign, she was prevailed upon to remain for the good of the cause, and is receiving the loyal, unswerving support of the town's musi- cians. The women's clubs of this country are becoming very strong factors in dvic life and with their co-operation we can effect many needed reforms, and, rightly presented, the public-school music problems will receive due attention and support. Department] INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC IN OAKLAND SCHOOLS 865 I question any formal, definite uniformity of standards in music educa- tion in secondary schools at this time. Conditions vary so materially in different parts of district and state, and even different localities of a city have such varying problems, that uniformity is not desirable. The great problem constantly before us is the child, and, altho we may have most idealistic standards, we must approach him according to his condition, both mental and physical, his temperament, his environment, his particular needs. However, there is a common ground of purpose upon which we can with certainty agree. We are of one mind, I think, first, last, and always, in endeavoring to cultivate a sense of musical appreciation, tho each may choose his particular method or scheme for developing that sense. With unceasing, never-tiring effort must we foster a desire upon the part of the student to know something of the musical world; inculcate in him an enthu- siasm for music study; create a demand for certain phases of music life; organize singing clubs, instrumental clubs, clubs for study, interpretation, and creation; and, most important of all, inspire a motive for music study. INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC AND INSTRUMENT STUDY IN THE OAKLAND SCHOOLS GLENN H. WOODS, DIRECTOR OF MUSIC, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, OAKLAND, CAL. No phase of education in music in the public schools of the United States has received such a sudden impetus in the last half-decade as the study of instrumental music. Instrumental music refers directly to the instruments used in the orchestra and the band and omits the piano for the present. The large number of symphony orchestras thruout this country has awakened the public to a much keener appreciation of orchestral music. Every large city and nearly all communities have their regular season of concerts; the homes have their victrolas and pianolas; all of these are good agencies for promoting the desire for good music among the people. If successful orchestras and bands are to be developed in the high schools, it demands preparation in the grades, else it were impossible for the more difficult and unusual instruments to be represented in the complete instru- mentation desired in the high-school organization. While it is rarely possible to secure complete instrumentation in each band and orchestra in every school in the city, it should be the aim of the community at least to assemble one complete orchestra or band from various schools by selecting the best players, thus securing, not only complete instrumentation, but a balance of parts as well as a balance of tone. Instrumental study in the Oakland schools. — ^There are forty-two grade- and five high-school buildings in Oakland. In the grade schools there are twenty-nine bands and twenty-nine orchestras, including the combined high-school orchestra, the combined high-school band, the elementary-school 866 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music combined orchestra and combined band. The membership in each organi- zation is from six to fifty. Many pupils "double" from the band and orchestra, particularly those pupils playing brass and reeds. To instruct these organizations, the board employs and pays two teachers for band and orchestra in the high schools and two in the grade schools. Six other teachers not employed by the board are permitted to give lessons in the school buildings during school hours. The pupils pay these instructors twenty-five cents a lesson for a twenty-minute lesson once a week. The pupil may be excused from his class, recitation, or study period, as the principal indicates, provided he keeps up in all his other studies. If he begins to fail in any of his classes, the special privilege of taking his music lessons during school hours is irmnediately denied him. This plan has proved very satisfactory in the grades, with the result that most of the boys are regular attendants in the bands and orchestras, and very few of them fail in their studies. Inventory in the year 1913 showed that $13,870 worth of instruments were owned by pupils then enrolled in the schools. These instruments were, of course, good, bad, and indifferent, and mostly solo instruments, such as comets, clarinets, altos, baritones, trombones, flutes, etc. At the time of this inventory, few orchestras were organized, so no violins or strings were included in the estimate. It was found that parents were generally willing and ready to purchase solo instruments that could be used in the home, but were decidedly imwilling to spend money on string basses, tubas, drums, oboes, bassoons, and altos, or mellophones. In order to complete the instrimaentation of the various organizations, the board of education decided to purchase such instrvmients as were either neglected or omitted because of their large, awkward size, their expense, or thdr inavailability as a solo instrument in the home. For the high schools, the following instrmnents were purchased: From Carl Fischer, New York City: 4 f-size string basses; 3 buffet oboes; 3 buffet bassoons; i set of tympani; i set of deagan bells. From Wunder- lich, Chicago, 111.: 4 French horns, single. From Aschon, Oakland, Cal.: 3 cellos. For grade schools, the following were purchased: From G. G. Conn, Elkhart, Ind.: 25 E flat basses; 13 E flat altos; 14 mellophones; 6 Fluegel horns; 2 trumpets; 6 French horns; i piccolo, D flat; 2 quartettes of saxophones, soprano, alto, tenor, baritone; 2 string basses; 2 oboes; 2 bassoons; i trombone. From local dealers: 12 sets of drums, including bass, snare, and cymbals; second hand: 2 trombones; i string bass; I tuba; I baritone. This year have been added: 8 violas; 4 mellophones; 1 baritone; 2 ^-size string basses; 8 sets of drums. The retail price of these instnmients is close to $10,000. These instruments are loaned to students free of charge, but they must give bond for the full amount of the instrument and case, signed by the parent and a property owner, and are liable and must pay for all damages Department] INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC IN OAKLAND SCHOOLS 867 and repairs. All of the instruments are in use and the demand for more instruments in the grades is greater than can be supplied. The slowest progress has been made on the oboe. An erroneous idea has gone forth concerning the injurious eflfect attending the study of the oboe. It is quite unfortunate that this fine solo instrument should suffer from such a report. The fingering is quite easy, but the control of the reed and the breathing presents a very difficult feature to master. The intense grip of the jaw and compression of the facial muscles is quite fatiguing, and at first very painful. The wind pressure is generally quite intense, as the lungs are overcharged for the amount of wind necessary to produce a tone. These features are difficult to overcome, and, as a consequence, oboe players are very scarce, but I have never heard of any- one who has suffered any mental derangement occasioned by the study of the oboe. The bassoon is more frequently studied, as the reed is not so hard to manipulate, but the fingering is more difficult. If one's fingers are all thumbs, then the bassoon should be studied without delay, for success is assured without a written guaranty. French-horn players are absolutely necessary for both band and orchestra. Expert players are very rare, but a great many average players can be easily developed, provided students have had previous experience in playing brass instruments, either alto, mellophone, or comet. Americans, unfortunately, have recognized only four instruments: the piano, voice, violin, and cornet. Only in recent years have conserva- tories had sufficient demand to employ expert teachers upon the unusual instruments of both band and orchestra. It is strange that such necessary instruments as the flute, cello, oboe, bassoon, viola, and the double bass should be so lamentably neglected. The flute is a very easy instrument for girls to learn to play. The cello is a little awkward to carry, but it is one of the most noble solo instruments. Parents should consult with the instructors in the schools when choosing instruments, for they will give advice concerning certain instruments, their adaptability to the child's needs, and the child's physical adaptability to the instrument chosen. Instrumental study in many cases is preferable to vocal study. The performers are generally more accurate and are better readers, which con- dition is occasioned largely by having to play with other performers. This necessitates keeping accurate time and learning to count measures correctly. All boys should be compelled to have band experience during the time they are in the grade schools, for at that time their musical appreciation is more easily appealed to, and the vigor of the tone of the brass band later resolves itself into a keener appreciation of the refined orchestral tone. It is strange to note how anxious the band boys become to acquire orchestral experience as they are promoted into the high schools. 868 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iMn In 1915, including grade and high schools, the June Survey of Instru- mental Music in the Oakland Schools reports the number of students asl follows: violin, 183; viola, 10; cello, ii; string bass, 8; piccolo, 14;^ flute, 13; clarinet, 93; oboe, 5; bassoon, 6; saxophone, 16; comet, 202; trumpet, 3; Fluegel horn, 10; alto, 53; mellophone, 25; French horn, 12; trombone, 40; baritone, 39; tuba, 37; snare drums, 37; bass, 13; total studying, 912; total in bands, 519; total in orchestras, 389. In scrutinizing programs given by various high schools thruout the country this year, I have observed with some amazement the acknowledged incomplete instrumentation in many of the orchestras, yet they were play- ing selections in public that demanded complete instrumentation and of necessity were omitting many of the parts. While the parts are cued in for other instruments to play as a substitu- tion, yet these very instruments that were to be used and could be used as substitutes were not listed in the instrmnentation of the orchestra giving the programs. I cannot but avail myself of this opportunity to censure the all-too-prevalent practice in the majority of high schools of playing for public performance music which looks well on a program but which sounds entirely diflFerent to those who are unfortunate enough to have to listen to its performance. If only six different instruments are in evidence in the orchestra, then only such music should be played as can be played and sound well with a six-instrument arrangement. Most of the selections given in the programs under question demanded full symphonic instru- mentation, twenty parts, and were played by fewer than ten different parts. The best and surest results will be attained by having teachers in charge of the work who can perform upon some orchestral instnmient, preferably the violin, and their work would be much more successful if they knew something about brass and reeds. Moreover, these same instructors could learn enough in one year's study of the cornet and clarinet with competent teachers to make their efforts much more effectual. But any teacher having ability to lead and direct can organize and conduct a band or an orchestra and so make a creditable start. If we expect to make America musical, instrumental study will accom- plish it more quickly than vocal study, and the more numerous the instru- mental players, the greater the musical activity of the community. A community is judged musically not so much by its vocal and choral societies as by the standard of its symphony orchestras. With music started in the grades, continued thru the high school, "^ furthered in those universities where music will be recognized and taught with reverence, the way will be paved for American performers in our symphony orchestras, for American composers with orchestral experience acquired in the schools, and for American music developed, produced, and appreciated by Americans. Department] THE EURHYTHMICS OF J AQU ES-DALCROZE 869 THE EURHYTHMICS OF J AQU ES-DALCROZE GRACE SMITH, BERKELEY, CAL. The word "eurhythmies," recently coined in England, is intended to cover not only rhythmic gymnastics, but the whole system of musical edu- cation invented by Emile Jaques-Dalcroze. This system includes also ear-training and improvisation based upon practical harmony. In the regular Dalcroze schools the method is always taught in its entirety. But ' in this country conservatories and schools already have established methods of ear-training, and usually teach rhythmic gymnastics alone as prelimi- nary or supplementary to the other music studies. The term eurhythmies is still used, however, to distinguish the work from methods whose sole aim is physical training. In his work as professor of harmony in the Conservatory of Geneva, the attention of Jaques-Dalcroze was drawn to the fact that a large majority of students technically far advanced were lacking in the ability to give musical expression to their simplest thoughts and feelings, and that a great many were deficient in a sense of rhythm and pitch. He felt such a state of affairs to be radically wrong and began a series of experiments discovering the cause of each musical defect and proceeding to remedy it, until he had evolved the wonderful system which now bears his name. It was at first devised as an aid to music students, but now its quickening influence makes itself felt in the field of general education because it trains the powers of apperception and of expression and, by co-ordination of the faculties thru the help of rhythm, establishes a rapid communication between brain and body. It creates an alertness invaluable in any study, and gives the power of quick thought and prompt decision and action. In the United States the work is so new that it cannot yet be accurately judged by the results obtained especially as we have at present only a few qualified teachers in this country, but in Europe, where Jaques- Dalcroze has been well and favorably known as a musician and composer, his new system soon won for him a reputation as an educator of the first rank. He has made many brilliantly successful lecture tours, and has presented his pupils to large and enthusiastic audiences in all the great cities and music centers, where the value of his work, both musical and generally educational, has been fully recognized. It is taught as an obliga- tory subject in many of the most important conservatories and schools of Germany, Austria-Hungary, England, Russia, Switzerland, France, Bel- gium, and Holland, not to sp)eak of classes in Sweden, Italy, and Spain. Last year the children of the king and queen of Belgiimi were stud)dng it, as were also the royal princes of Saxony. The method is divided into three parts, rhythmic gymnastics, solfeggio or ear-training, and improvisation, all of which are, however, so closely associated that they should be inseparable, tho the first part, the foundation 870 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music for the whole, the rhythmic gymnastics, is invaluable as a preparation for all music study. It is not a method of physical training — it is a means of self-expression thru rhythm. In the rhythmic exercises, the pupil usually beats time with the arms, and moves the feet according to the note values taking one step for each note. The quarter note being accepted as the unit, the different values are expressed by either one movement, or, for notes of longer duration, as whole notes, half notes, and dotted halves, etc., by a combination of movements. For instance, in a measure of 4-4 time composed of a half note, a quarter, and two eighths, the pupil marks four with the arms, takes one step on the first beat, on the second slightly bends the knee, on the third takes one step, and on the fourth two quicker steps. This can be varied by clapping the rhythm and taking a step for each beat. By this comparatively simple exercise the child begins to gain the control over his muscles that makes them act in quick response to the dictates of his will. The pupil soon learns to recognize and execute short rhythms, and his memory is cultivated by listening to a phrase of a few bars and then executing it without the accompaniment of the piano. The teacher also plays a few bars with changes of measure, for example, one bar 2-4 time, two bars 3-4 time, and the pupil shows his understanding by correct beating of time, and accentuation of the first beat of each measure. He soon learns to recognize the end of a period in simple musical forms and shows this in different ways. For instance, by turn- ing and marching in the opposite direction at the beginning of a new period. Different ways of phrasing are also taught, and accelerando and ritenuto, crescendo and diminuendo, legato and staccato are expressed by physical movements and degrees of contraction and relaxation of the muscles. There are exercises for instant arrest or interchange of movement at command, the object being to enable the pupil to check or alter any move- ment at will with rapidity and ease. A simple exercise of this kind is to march forward, and at command take one step backward, then go forward again. The change is instantaneous and the control perfect, for the com- mand is given only to the second haK of the beat preceding the one in which the change is made. Another is to march and clap quarter notes, and when "hand" is called, omit one movement of the hand, when "foot" is called omit one step. Other exercises are for the development of independent muscular con- trol and dissociation of movement. The arms may beat in canon, say 4-4 time, one arm beginning one beat later than the other. The head may beat 2-4, the left arm 3-4, the right arm 4-4, and the feet march 5-4 time. These exercises sound very difficult, but they soon grow easy, and are executed by the children without any feeling of strain. Two against three, and three against four are taught by marching one and marking the other 1 Department] THE E^URHYTHMtCS OF JAQUES-DALCROZE 871 with the arms, always changing at command. The sudden changes keep the pupil alert, and prevent the exercises from becoming mechanical. The following is a simple exercise, for teaching the division of time. The teacher plays a whole note which must be divided by the pupil, first in two parts by taking two steps, then three, four, five, six, or more. Then six notes will be played and the pupil takes two or three steps. Another exercise is called a chain. The teacher plays a succession of measures, in any given time, each measure having a different rhythm. • The pupil listens to the first measure, which he executes while the teacher plays the second, which is realized while the third is being played, and so on thruout the exercise, the pupil always realizing the measure preceding the one that is being played. Consequently he is doing two things at the same time, listening to a new rhythm while he executes the previous one. This exercise is later made more difficult by realizing the rhythm backward instead of forward. Here rhythmical feeling and concentration are culti- vated to a very marked degree. In fact, all the exercises, of almost infinite variety, are of immense psychological value. The system is a combination of work and play, which educates the muscles and nervous system in such a way that they are capable of executing any rhythmic movement. It teaches values, contrasts, and relationships, and develops a high degree of concentration, power to think quickly and definitely, mental and physical self-control and self-confidence, which are of such great value in every walk in life. The following I will quote from a lecture by Jaques-Dalcroze: My pupils themselves began to realize that they were not merely being taught music, but were being generally educated. They were imdergoing psycho-physical transfor- mations which widened their horizon. Students came for various reasons — some to obtain the teaching diploma, others to become conductors, others to prepare for the stage. Each of these coming to train for his special object soon realized that involuntarily and unconsciously he had put his whole being to school. These results are due entirely to the fact that the method educates from within, developing the sense for music, innate in all mankind, and is based on the educative value of rhythm, of that force which rules in all manifestations of life, beginning with the first heartbeat; and these results justify my contention that rhythmic exercises should not only be the basis of education in music, but should have an important part in the training of all children. Much stress is laid on original work, and the different pupils take great pleasure in improvising during the lessons short rhythms, which are then played by the teacher and executed by the class. This leads to the sing- ing of improvised melodies in the classes for ear-training, and later, when the pupil has become familiar with the chords and cadences, he is taught to apply this knowledge to the piano. Jaques-Dalcroze claims for his special method in ear-training, that thru it, not only relative, but absolute pitch can be cultivated in the child sufficiently gifted t»y nature to be able to distinguish infallibly between a whole and a half tone, provided the study of ear-training is begun before 872 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Musk that of an instrument. To a child thus trained to distinguish tones and rhythms, and to form mental images of time and note values, the study of an instrument means simply the surmounting of the technical difficulties] peculiar to that instrument, and music lessons become a pleasure to both] teacher and pupil. Jaques-Dalcroze always says of his rhythmic gym- nastics that it is not a theory but an experience, that no one can pass] judgment on it who has not tried it himself. I have shown today merely some of the elements of the plastic side of eurhythmies, the simple converting of time and note values into steps and arm movements. The system thoroly developed leads to plastic dancing, as it gives the power to interpret thru bodily movement any music suited to plastic expression. Tho plastic expression is not the goal of the study of eurhythmies, it is necessarily one of the results. TOPIC: THE MUSIC OF THE ORIENT A. MUSIC OF JAPAN K. S. imn, THE JAPAN SOCIETY OF AMERICA, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. The history of music in Japan is an old one. It is as old as the history of Japan itseK. It goes as far back as her legendary age. Japan has tra- dition. She has her Adam (Izanagi) and Eve (Izanami) who are supposed to have come down to earth from heaven. They had three children. God- dess of the Sim, God of the Moon, and God of the Seas. It seems that the baby of the family was naughty and spoiled. He offended his sister, the Goddess of the Sun, who retired and hid herself in a stone cave. Where- upon the world became entirely dark. Now the family became excited; they put their heads together, hung a mirror on the tree of wisdom (this corresponds no doubt to the biblical apple tree) and a crystal ball, and performed some sort of ceremony with music and dance. This pleased the Goddess of the Sun so much that she reappeared from the cave and thus the world began to have light again. It is also said that some sort of music was played on the occasion of the foimding of the Japanese Empire by the first emperor, Jimmu, 2,575 years ago. The speculation is that the music of this age consisted of a very primitive dnmi. Altho in the latter part of the third century, Japan started intercourse with the three ancient kingdoms of Korea, their contributions to the arts of Japan were very limited until the latter part of the sixth century, when their people brought with them their science and their arts including their music and musical instruments. It was, however, the latter part of the Heian period, which extends four centuries beginning with the last part of the eighth century, when the contributions of the Asiatic continent reached their highest mark. Japan was then having supposedly a peaceful and Department] MUSIC OF JAPAN 873 nominal reign of an imperial family, but in reality was under the progressive and stern dictatorship of the Fujiwara family, which encouraged the pur- suit of literature, science, and arts. It was at this time that Japan developed the No dance of impressive dignity and solemnity, which is often, however, fantastic and humorous but full of humanitarian interests. It is an operatic crystallization of the essence of Buddhism and Confucianism. This dance is accompanied by singing and recitative rendering of drum and flute music. They even developed orchestral music which was used on different state occasions such as the reception of foreign guests. Truly those were good old days! They welcomed foreigners with music, while today they are first entertained at the immigration station and custom house. Football was also instituted by the courtiers and suitable music was played during the game altho there is no record of the rooting section. But the use of music was confined to the higher classes and the people in general had no share in the enjojrment or production of the Japanese music in this period. This period was followed by a series of political struggles between the Genji and Heike clans, which gave rise to a feeling of restless dominance, of self-seclusion, and of the instabihty of society, and, because of that, to an aversion to society as such. A sort of tune, known as the Keike tune, was created at this time, which characterized this feeling as your ragtime and comic operas do today. This was naturally melancholy and plaintive, expressing the spirit of the age. The music of Japan suffered a serious setback and was compelled to give way to the clash of swords in the period following, characterized as the Dark Ages. This was ended when lyeyasu Tokugawa, the first Toku- gawa shogun, came to reign. Meanwhile, however, in the southern part of Japan intercourse with China was renewed, and trade with the Dutch and Portuguese began. It was at this time the jamisen was introduced from Lu Chu Island, which owes its origin either to China or to Malay. This was improved upon until it has become the most popular Japanese instrument of today and is called the samisen, resembling a banjo. With the intro- duction of this instrument, came a school of recitation which gave unique performances by dummies manipulated by strings in place of real actors, accompanied by samisen players and reciters. With the opening of Japan to occidental countries about half a century ago and the adoption of the Western civiHzation and institutions, especially the army and navy, there came the miUtary band and with it came the decline of the old line of music except for some court and Shinto functions. Now instructions in elementary music according to Western ideas are given in every school. The Chinese flute and the banjo are quite commonly used by students. The most popular" instruments, however, are the Japanese harp, bamboo flute, and samisen. The Japanese harp originally had seven strings, now 874 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Musicj it has thirteen. It typifies Japanese taste and refinement. The shaku- hachi, whose resemblance is found in China as well as in Egypt, is a bambc flute of a foot and eight inches in length from which it derives its name.! It has five holes and gives forty-two sounds. The most widely used instru- ment of all is the samisen, a three-stringed instrument which gives forty- seven sounds. There are three types according to different kinds of recitation. Of course either an organ or a piano is seen in almost every Japanese public school today. Students of music and art wonder at the reason for the present status of Japanese music from a Western standpoint. Why is it the country where birds sing and nature smiles, the country where painters are charmed and sculptors are hypnotized with the beauty of the land and harmony of the atmosphere, why is it then that Japan has not developed great musicians, from the Western standpoint ? There seem to be several reasons. 1. The language has been one handicap. While it is musical, all Japanese sounds are gutteral and are formed mostly in the throat and with the lips. Therefore they have not the carrying power and volume which come from abdominal breathing, so essential in the speaking of the English language and especially in singing. 2. Self -culture has been the keynote of both Buddhism and Confucian- ism. Meditation and reserve were considered the noblest virtues, conse- quently the art of expression did not make its natural progress. 3. Simplicity and close economy were encouraged and that is another of the reasons for the Japanese not developing complicated and elaborate music. 4. Side by side with this is another reason. Different shoguns dis- couraged or even prohibited the indulgence of music by the common people on the ground of extravagance, tho the real reason seems to be in the fact that they were afraid of the power of expression. They feared that the rule of reason might replace the rule of swords. To summarize, Japanese music has developed as an art of self-culture and refinement rather than as an education to others or as an entertainment to society. But as such it has served its purpose. This gave rise to a three-stringed instrument used by professional entertainers, which, how- ever, is shunned by the very high class of Japanese to the injustice of the instrument. But in spite of these handicaps, the imperial family, whose miUtary and administrative powers were virtually taken away by the shoguns, encour- aged the pursuit of art and science. So while the shoguns were discourag- ing the growth of music, the emperors and courtiers were encouraging it; they kept up what they had and developed the new — so much so that, at the beginning of the restoration of their power, even the common people had developed a taste for music. Today there is great awakening in the power of expression and edu- cation which is beginning to supersede the privileges of birth or rank. Department] HAWAIIAN MUSIC 875 Together with these, there is a great craze for Western civilization, its arts and modes of expression. The Japanese are adaptable and they will no doubt assimilate the Western music as they have some other lines of civilization. In conclusion, Japan is bound in titne to develop music and musicians, for she is blessed with that wonderful natural beauty which has produced artists and artisans. However, music is also subject to supply and demand. It is easier to create supply than demand. It is easier to produce the musi- cians than the audience. Japan heretofore has developed the music of self-culture that needs no audience. This development, however, is unnatural, and the Japanese are subject to the same law of nature as are other nations. Their hearts respond to true love, their senses respond to true beauty and harmony. If music represents love, beauty, and harmony, it is bound to develop in Japan, for it is then a universal language and •Japan too speaks and understands that universal language. B. HAWAIIAN MUSIC HELEN GRACE CADWELL, OAHU COLLEGE, HONOLULU, HAWAH It is to be regretted that some musician could not have visited the Hawaiian Islands during the reign of Kamehameha the First and preserved the music in some authentic score. Kamehameha lived from 1736 until 18 1 9 and during his reign united the Islands into one kingdom. The Hawaiians are a part of the whole Polynesian family and some of their oldest chants record the voyages to and fro from Tahiti, or Samoa, the voyagers traveUng in fleets of canoes and steering by the stars. In an article in the Hawaiian Annual for 1904, B. L. Marx speaks of Fornander's attempt to prove an Aryan origin of the Polynesian family and quotes the Greek word tnelos, a song or strain, the music to which "a song is set," as being identical with the Hawaiian word mele, "a song or chant." The mele included all forms of poetical composition intended for chant- ing. They have been classified in four divisions: the religious chant, prayer and prophecy; inoa, or name song composed at the birth of a chief, in his honor, or recounting the heroic deeds of his ancestors; kanikau, the dirge or lamentation for the dead; and ipo, or love song. The history of Hawaii can be traced only thru these ancient meles, poems without rhyme or meter, but strictly accented, often several hundred lines in length, and handed down orally for many generations. Rhythm of 2-4 and 4-4 seemed most natural to the old Hawaiians and the ancient meles were characterized by remarkable changes of time and syncopated effects. They were greatly lacking in melody since, before the arrival of the missionaries in the nineteenth century, the Hawaiians had no acquaint- ance with the full range of the intervals that make up the diatonic scale. 876 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Music They had a Umited use of intervals that might be compared to the third, fifth, and fourth, and, like the Arab and the Hindu, they appreciated inter- vals smaller than our half tone. This ability to recognize and use intervals more diminutive than our half tone is an interesting fact and has been found a possession common to all Polynesian races. This fine distinction of intervals gave a certain quality of tone color to their chants. Hawaiian poetry surpassed Hawaiian song in power to move the feelings. The rhythmic chant was only an accompaniment to the poetry. As has been said: The hallmark of Hawaiian music is rhj^thm, for the Hawaiians belong to that class of people who cannot move hand or foot or perform any action except they do it rhyth- mically Not alone in poetry, music, and the dance do we find this recurring accent of pleasure, but in every action of life it seems to enter as a time-keeper and regulator, whether it be the movement of a fingerful of poi to the mouth or the swing of a kahili thru the incense-laden air at the burial of a chief. Musical phrasing was arranged to fit the verse of the mele, not to express a musical idea. The cadencing of a musical phrase in Hawaiian song was marked by a peculiarity all its own. It consisted of a prolonged trilling or fluctuating movement in which the voice went up and down in an interval somewhat less than a half tone. The phonics of Hawaiian speech lack the sounds represented by our alphabetic symbols, h, c or s, d, /, g, j, q, x, and z, a poverty for which no richness in vowel sounds can make amends, tho the predominance of vowel and labial sounds does give charm to the language. The uppermost vocal cavities are not called into play to modify and refine the tone and therefore a certain characteristic which has been described as a "gurgling throati- ness" often appears which is "suggestive of ventriloquism." This is caused, possibly, by an effort to give a distinct and rapid utterance of differ- ent vowel sounds or a repetition of the same vowel. The vocal execution of Hawaiian music, like the execution of much of their poetry, showed a surprising mastery of a certain kind of technique which required the chant- ing of many lines to the end of a certain period on one breath. The per- former then breathed anew and started on another seemingly endless phrase. This appears to have developed from the old religious style of prayer- recitation in which the priest was required to repeat the entire prayer on one breath. His ability to do this was supposed to make the prayer effectual. The hula was a religious service which combined pantomime, poetry, music, and the dance. It was enacted in honor of the goddess Laka and furnished entertainment for the chiefs and their retinues. It included the mysteries of Polynesian mythology and the history of the nation, and in other countries imder certain circumstances would have developed the drama, opera, and literature. The dance in ancient Hawaii was not in- dulged in informally. It was given by trained and paid performers as the Department] HAWAIIAN MUSIC 877 hula was a diflScult accomplishment which required long and rigid training in both song and dance, and was a religious service which must be guarded by priestly rites, A hall called halau was especially constructed for the performance of the hula and, in contrast to the bloody offerings of the heiau, or temple, garlands and awa (a bitter root from which drink is made) were brought as emblems of light-heartedness and joy. During the erection of the halau, the strictest rules were observed. The members of the company were required to deny themselves certain articles of food and to refrain from all impropriety of conduct. In every halau there was a bower of green leaves which was supposed to be the abode of the deity whose presence inspired the performance. The devotees of the hula worshiped many gods, but the Goddess Laka was the patron of this service and was offered their special prayers and sacrifices. The leaves and flowers decorating the altar were S3nnbolic of her beauty, for she was a sylvan deity who might be compared with Terpsi- chore and Euterpe, the muses, respectively, of dance and song. In ancient times the hula was maintained largely by royal support. At the king's court were gathered the bards and musicians, whose minds were filled with tradition, genealogies, and poetic thought, from all of which came the songs of the hula. There were also present the sons and daughters of the king's henchmen and people seeking pleasure. From these the kumu, master and teacher of the hula, selected those fitted by grace and beauty of form, by quick wit and keen imagination, to take part in the service. The performers were divided into two classes. In the first class were the more graceful members who sometimes posed and gestured in the dance, and used the lighter instruments to enhance their song and action. In the second class were the older men and women of greater experience. They used the heavier instruments and played their parts while seated or kneeling. They joined in the chorus of certain songs and often sang alone while the others devoted their attention entirely to the dance. The teacher instructed his pupils in such matters as accent, inflection, vocalization, gesture, and bodily action, and the members of his school stored in their remarkable memories the nation's traditional songs and lore. Graduation from the hula involved an elaborate ceremony which included the laying of hands on a porkling which was afterward prepared for the oven and served at the feast. The graduates were admonished that if they were sincere and consecrated to their work memory would abide, and the training received would always serve them well. Hulas varied in dignity and rank and the character of each was influ- enced to some extent by the musical instrument that accompanied it and gave it its name. From the ancient hulas, accompanied by the primitive instruments, to the modern songs, which many Americans think are t3^ically ; Hawaiian, is a wide step, yet one reached by a gradual process. 878 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1 [MusajT The American missionaries arrived in 1820 and began the study of the Hawaiian language that they might give it back to the people in a writteiOL. form. The original alphabet adopted by them contained twelve letters— Ml the five vowels a, e, i, 0, u, and the seven consonants h, k, I, m, n, p, and w. The first Hawaiian spelling-book was printed in 1822 and as fast as possible the Bible and hymns were printed in the native language. These mission- aries taught the Hawaiians the diatonic scale and named the notes of it pa, ko, li, ha, no, la, mi. The use of more melodic expression for their poetic natures was readily adopted thru the means of the diatonic scale, and the new music of the foreigners appealed to the people greatly. Their feeling for harmony was remarkable and in the last century part singing has afforded them much pleasure. The modem Hawaiian songs are nearly all love songs. They are usually of simple, flowing melodic construction, and at times one notes a similarity to the old German folk songs. This may be due somewhat to the influence of Captain Berger, a German musician who for over forty years has con- ducted the Royal Hawaiian Band, which has been a great factor in the musical life of the Islands. Captain Berger has been enthusiastic in his interest in the musical growth of the Hawaiian people and is known as the composer of the music of the national hymn "Hawaii Ponoi," which trans- lated means "Hawaii's Own True Sons." The words of this song were written by Kalakaua, the last king of the Hawaiian Islands, who reigned from 1874 to 1 89 1. Kalakaua was a lover of music and greatly encouraged the art among his people. It was in the early part of his reign that the ukulele was introduced. This is an instrument of Portuguese origin, shaped like a small guitar and strung with four strings. The name ukulele translated is "jumping flea" and supposedly refers to the rapid movement of the fingers plucking the strings. The use of the ukulele has become wide- spread in the Islands and the instrument affords an effective accompaniment for the deep rich quality of the Hawaiian voices. On moonlight nights, and particularly on an evening before a holiday, one can hear groups of students and Hawaiian youths serenading. The beauty of the night in that tropical land lends an indescribable charm to the plaintive notes of their love songs. Queen Liliuokalani, who is well known as a modem Hawaiian composer, lives quietly at George Washington Place in Honolulu, and, tho frail in health, at the age of seventy-six still takes much interest in the life of her people. In a visit to her home recently, I found her seated between two royal kahilis with her lap full of roses, which enhanced the beauty of her white hair and the simplicity of her black holoku — a form of dress intro- duced by the early missionary mothers. She was most gracious, and told with animation of her love for music, of the inspiration a composer feels, and of the meles that were written in honor of her ancestors according to the ancient customs. 't- Department] MUSIC OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 879 Upon my inquiry about the few English words that appear Lti her bes^ known song, "Aloha Oe," she said that at the time it was written it was merely fashionable to introduce a few English words and that they had no special significance. This fashion is noted in other songs of that period when sometimes such words as "mountain breeze," "dew drop," and "sweet dahlia" were inserted. Music in Hawaii has departed greatly from its primitive characteristics and now savors largely of the influence of the outside world, yet it issues from the hearts of a simple kindly people who still love nature in all her beauty and various forms. They still hear her voices in the gentle winds, the waterfalls, and the waves lapping on the shore. They feel her warmth in the sunshine of eternal summer and see her touch in the rainbows and the flowers. Nature is glorious in Hawaii's peaceful isles and such lavish gifts in any land could inspire only poetic thought and offer a romantic influence to the musical expression of its people. C. MUSIC OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS JOSEFA JARA, CITY OF ILOILO, P.I. I shall try to describe the primitive music of some of the different hill tribes of the archipelago, as well as a few of the folk songs of the Filipino people. These will imdoubtedly be more interesting to you than anything I could tell you about modern Filipino music, which bears the clear stamp of European influence and so far has shown no great amount of originality. Perhaps the most primitive type of music in the Philippines today is to be foimd among the hillsmen of Northern Luzon. The gansa, or bronze timbrel, is in common use among them. The Negritos use a primitive flute made of bamboo which they often play with the nose instead of the lips. It has a most weird sound. They strum, too, on a jew's-harp made of the ever-useful bamboo. They indulge in a monotonous crooning varied with loud shrieks which passes for singing. For hours they keep up a monotonous circle dance, each dancer hooking his forefinger into the waistband of the person in front of him and walking, stamping, leaping into the air, or really dancing, according to the pace set by the leader. The Igorots sing very pleasantly and sometimes use bamboo flutes to accompany the voice. The commonest dance among them is the "bird dance," the music for which is furnished by two long-barreled wooden drums with skin heads, two gansas, a stone, and a bit of iron or steel. Each drummer squats on the ground with the barrel of his drum held under his left arm. He beat's its head with his open hands and gives a surprising range to its musical notes by fingering its head and pressing on the barrel. The .usi^^ 880 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Mi Other musicians dance around in a small circle while they play; the gansa men beat their instruments with sticks; while the man with the steel and stone clicks them together. Into the circle formed by the musicians steps a man. His arms are outstretched and from them hang blankets reaching to the ground. He is supposed to represent a bird, and hops and swoops about in bird fashion, occasionally letting his arms drop and walking. He is followed by a woman draped in a long blanket. Her dancing is usually - stiff and ungraceful. Both musicians and dancers go thru their paces very solemnly. The circle dance is also common among the Igorots. It is a more cheerful dance and is pecuHar to festive occasions. Any number of persons may take part in it. The men line up with their arms about one another's necks. The women form a similar line immediately back of them. The men sing and the women answer. The voices of the men are harsh and guttural; those of the women are soft and musical. The lines sway forward and back, then move slowly to the right or the left. The dancers sidestep and do a good deal of stamping. The two lines weave in and out, forming circles and straightening again. This continues for hours, the dance some- times being interrupted by shouts of laughter from the dancers.* The Mohammedans of Mindanao depend almost wholly upon the tam- tam for their music. Four or five large tam-tams made of copper are hung on trees or racks, while nine, or eleven, or thirteen smaller ones called culingtans are hung on racks in a row or placed on two strands of rattan. These are graduated in size and vary in tone between tenor and bass. They are played upon with two sticks. Women as a rule are the best players, but both men and women play and sometimes accompany the beat with a low droning sound. The tam-tam is used to summon to council, to incite to fight, and in social gatherings. Its doleful, disquieting rhythm is kept up hour after hour thru the long night, for nights together, when a tribe is disturbed and meditating mischief. They sometimes use a drum made of a hollow log with rawhide stretched over it. They beat it with their hands^ This is somewhat like the drimi in use among the Igorots. The Filipino possesses an acute ear and an innate taste for music. Centuries ago the early Catholic Fathers were quick to discover this. They taught the Filipino to serve in the church, to sing the plain-song, to play the flute, to dance and to sing, and to play the harp, guitar, and other instruments. To the present day, there is rarely a baptism, a marriage, a funeral, or any ceremony of moment that is celebrated without music; and on gal* occasions such as birthday anniversaries and the entertainment of honored guests from afar, two or three bands are often employed and take turns relieving one another that the guests may enjoy an unbroken flow of 'Worcester, "Non-Christian Peoples of the Philippine Islands," Nat. Geog. Uag., September igis; November 19x3. Department] MUSIC OP THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 88l music. I have seen this kept up for thirty-six hours at a stretch, the dancers coming on by relays and sleeping as well as feasting by turns. This is the true Filipino idea of real enjoyment and hospitality. Among the Filipino people proper, each little corner of the Islands has its own folk songs buried in the hearts and memories of the old, old men and women. These old people guard their song treasures jealously. One must live among them intimately and be of them before he can hope to get at these treasures, for the old Filipino is sensitive to criticism and is afraid that the old-time songs may be misunderstood and held up to ridicule by the stranger. These songs consist of lullabys, working songs, love songs, and dance melodies, as well as little chants which blind and deformed men and women still sing while begging from door to door, and an occasional humorous song. These native airs are very simple and to a great extent minor. This often gives the melody a melancholy character'even when the subject is not a sad one. Some think that the minor mode reflects a sad frame of mind, but the Filipino people are not a sad people, so it is probable that they used the minor key freely simply because it was best suited to their voices. The best examples of the old working songs preserved to us are boating songs sung by the rowers in rhythm with the plash of the oars, the fishing songs, the herdsmen's songs sung when'returning home with the carabao herd in the evening. In certain sections during the harvesting season it is no uncommon sight to find a brass band in the field playing lively airs to keep up the spirits and the action of the rice gatherers. I beHeve this device is intended, in a measure, to take the place of some old work song which has disappeared. The love songs consist for the most part of regrets and reproaches addressed to a faithless lover. Sometimes they are of the old cavalier type. These are sung by the young bachelors under the windows of their sweethearts in the beautiful clear moonhght of our brilliant tropical nights. It is quite common for five, or seven, or nine young bachelors to assemble and run about the villages serenading when the moon is full. There are still other love songs which are sung to a dancing accompaniment. One of the most interesting of these is described by Ralph B. Robinson, an American school supervisor, who for a long time lived and worked among the Bicols in the island of Catanduanes in Southern Luzon. This dance is known as the "salampati," and has appropriate music specially prepared for it. It is danced in the streets during the months of May and June and only during the period when the Southern Cross is seen in the sky at a height correspond- ing to the eaves of the house. It is customary to have these dances at the intersection of the streets. Just where they are to be held each night is regulated by the old women. The people living near to the street inter- sections are supposed to provide benches, drinks, and foods as well as mstrumental music. At about nine o'clock all gather near the selected NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION spot and perhaps half an hour will be spent m conversation when suddenly the orchestra will begin playing the music written for this dance and from the surrounding houses come from one to four couples and take their places in the street. All are masked, the girls being dressed as boys and the boys as girls. Accompanying the music is a chorus consisting of at least four persons. The chorus takes up the love story and the dan ce begins. The dancers do not sing. The boy is supposed to take the part of a pigeon living far away in the mountain, and the words of the chorus describe his lonely life and petition the girl to marry him and go with him to his mountain home. During the first part of the dance the boy will dance in most graceful whirls and birdlike swoops to the different points of the compass as tho seeking in all parts of the world for a companion; and the girl dances in the direction opposite to the boy. Suddenly they meet and the dance grows livelier. Always facing the girl he makes circles and rapid approaches toward her, the girl always gracefully evading him. At last, just when it seems that his efforts have been in vain the couples join hands and retire. The spectators amuse themselves by hmnming in a weird way during the different parts and by joining the chorus at times and speculating as to the identity of the dancers. This most graceful, weird, and attractive dance was fast dis- appearing, but an effort is being made by many of the prominent citizens of the Bicol provinces to have it revived as an official regional dance. DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Reginald R. Stuart, head of commercial department. Technical High School, Oakland, Cal. Vice-President — J. A. Bexell, dean. School of Commerce, Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Ore. Secretary — ^Alvah B. Way, head of commercial department. High School Petaluma, Cal. FIRST SESSION— FRro AY Forenoon, August 20, 1915 The meeting was called to order by the president in the Technical High School at 9:00 A.M. The following program was given: "Teaching the Fundamentals of Accountancy in Bookkeeping Classes, or Training Students to Think" — W. S. Stone, director, department of commerce, Tamalpais High School, Sausalito, Cal. "Department Store Education" — ^Lucinda W. Prince, director of salesmanship, public schools, Boston, Mass. "Penmanship" — A. N. Palmer, editor, American Penman, New York, N.Y. "Factors of Efficiency in Secondary Commercial Teaching" — ^John E. Treleven, associate professor of business training, University of Texas, Austin, Tex. "The Training and Field of the Amanuensis" — Robert A. Grant, department of business, Yeatman High School, St. Louis, Mo. SECOND SESSION— Friday Afternoon, August 20, 19 15 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2:30 P.M., and the following program given: Topic: Linking School Work with Business Enterprises " The San Jose Junior Chamber of Commerce" — R. R. McMasters, head, commercial department, High School, San Jose, Cal. "School Savings Banks" — Paul L. Evans, head, commercial department, High School, Alameda, Cal. "Student Finances" — E. W. Bamhart, head, commercial department. High School, Berkeley, Cal. "The Placement Bureau" — L. Gilbert Dake, department of commerce. Manual Training and Commercial High School, Oakland, Cal. "The Student Stenographer" — Clyde Blanchard, principal. Standard Commercial School, Panama-Pacific International Exposition, San Francisco, Cal. "Trade Possibilities between the United States and Australia" — P. E. Quinn, assistant trade commissioner, New South Wales, Australia. "The Night School as a Factor in Business Education" — Daisy Fox Desmond, principal. Evening School, San Jose, Cal. "Personality in Advertising" — Harry C. Spillman, manager, school department, Remington Typewriter Company, New York, N.Y. " Advertising and Salesmanship" — N. O. Shively, instructor in advertising and sales- manship, Technical High School, Oakland, Cal. ^>V THIRD SESSION— Friday Evening, August 20, 1915 The meeting was called to order by the president at 8:00 p.m. The following program was given: "The Commercial Museum" — William L. Fisher, curator, Philadelphia Museum, Philadelphia, Pa. ^ 883 884 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Busine "Farm Statistics and Standardized Accounts" — J. A. Bexell, dean, School of Coi merce, Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Ore. "Report of Committee on Research, Standardization, and Correlation" — ^W. Si McKinney, Englewood High School, Chicago, HI., chairman. "The Latin- American Field and Opportunity" — John Barrett, director, Pi American Union, Washington, D.C. The following officers were elected for the coming year: For President — ^J. L. Holtsclaw, director. High School of Commerce, Detroit, Ml For Vice-President — L. Gilbert Dake, department of commerce, Manual Ti and Commercial High School, Oakland, Cal. For Secretary-^CXydz Blanchard, instructor in business economy, Extension Divisioi University of California, Berkeley, Cal. Alvah B. Way, Secretary 1 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS i TEACHING THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ACCOUNTANCY IN BOOKKEEPING CLASSES, OR TRAINING STUDENTS TO THINK W. S. STONE, DIRECTOR, DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, TAMALPAIS HIC SCHOOL, SAUSALITO, CAL. The business world of today demands a more efficient worker than bookkeeper who can merely perform the mechanical routine of recor facts and preserving records — one who from his set of accounts can tell ho the business stands, what progress it has made since the last period of closing, and one to whom the facts in the balance sheet stand as symbol^ forecasting the success or failure of the enterprise. The modem book- keeper needs to be something of an efficiency engineer and must know the theory imderl)nng his work. It is necessary therefore that we teach the fundamentals of accountancy in our bookkeeping classes. This wiU be one of the best means of training students to think, for without inteUigent thought on the part of the student the subject cannot be taught successfully. The cultural value of such a subject hes chiefly in the fact that it develops rapid and clear thinking. When training beginners to think, memory work should be reduced to a minimum and reason should be developed. The first effort should be to simplify the student's approach to the subject so that he may secure a clear understanding of the principles of debit and credit. Every child knows what it is to receive money and to pay money, to buy something and to sell something. Herein lies the foundation principle of all accounting, the meaning of debit and credit. A debtor receives, a creditor gives. This will supply one simple rule which will serve to determine how to enter almost any transaction: debit the receiving account, credit the giving account. Thus it is seen that a transaction is an exchange of values based upon mutual advantage, involving the giving of something and the receiv- ing of something; the record of the something given and the something Department] TEACHING ACCOUNTANCY IN BOOKKEEPING CLASSES 885 received constitutes double-entry bookkeeping. If the student is clearly shown that every transaction affects two accounts, one debit and one credit, he will have no difficulty in understanding why in the trial balance the total of debits and credits must be equal, and it will be comparatively easy to explain how it is possible to find present worth from the capital account and prove it from the balance sheet, since the two sets of entries of the same transactions, if correctly made, must give similar results. No greater mistake can be made than giving a student a journal to copy and proceeding to explain how each transaction should be journalized and posted to the ledger. The journal is the least used of all the books and is practically never used except for such entries as do not properly belong to the other books. At the outset the only book that need be explained is the ledger; other books have nothing to do with the main principle of bookkeeping. An order of procedure is desirable in some form, and can be made to serve several purposes. It will give a bird's eye view of the book- keeper's work; it will also serve as a guide indicating the order in which the successive steps should be taken by the bookkeeper; it will be further useful as a basis of instruction, as the various duties of the bookkeeper can be explained and illustrated in the order in which he works. Here it may be pointed out that bookkeeping should always begin as well as end with a statement or balance sheet. Such an order of procedure may be thus summarized: 1. Make out a balance sheet. 2. Open in the ledger as many accounts as there are items in the balance sheet. (Rule: Debit assets, credit liabilities, credit capital.) 3. Enter transactions. (Rule: Debit the receiving account and credit the giving accoimt.) 4. Take a trial balance. 5. Close the ledger: a) Enter present value of merchandise called inventory on credit side of merchandise account, then balance to find gross profit. h) Transfer gross profit to profit and loss accoimt. c) Balance other accovmts which show losses or gains and transfer balances to profit and loss account. d) Balance profit and loss accoimt to find net profit and transfer this to capital accoimt. e) Balance capital account to find present worth. /) Balance all other accounts (except those having only one entry). 6. Prove present worth by final balance sheet. The teacher may then proceed to explain each separate step in this order of procedure. Taking No. i, a few simple examples of balance sheets could be given showing that assets minus liabiUties equals capital. Next taking these same completed exercises show how to open a ledger from each one, debiting assets, crediting liabilities, and crediting capital. This will illustrate No. 2. To explain No. 3, take each ledger so opened and enter a few simple transactions (not more than six) showing how to apply the rule to debit the receiving accoimt, credit the giving account, using skeleton ledger, giving amounts only. Under heading No. 4, take a trial balance 886 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Business of each ledger. Then the several steps under No. 5 can be illustrated by closmg each one and proving. After the double-entry principle has thus been demonstrated, it can next be explained that in business it is necessary to keep full particulars of each transaction, which space in the ledger will not allow. Then take paper with journal ruhng and point out that by ■ separating the merchandise account into two parts, placing the debit entries " on a separate page and calling it the purchase book, and the credit entries on another and calling it the salesbook, there will be room to make original entries fully, giving names of purchasers and items of each sale. Next transfer the cash account from the ledger to journal paper showing that this arrangement similarly gives room for entering particulars of each cash transaction. To show the true relation of the cashbook to the ledger, it would be well sometimes merely to total the two sides of the cashbook and transfer the totals to a cash account in the ledger similar to the merchandise account. Then it can be explained that altho every transaction is entered twice, the details need not be repeated, that it will only be necessary at the time to enter it fully once, and that later these original entries will be gone over, checked off one by one, and entered in the other accoimts to which they respectively belong according to the principles of double entry. Point out that this is necessary before closing the ledger and is called posting. Here the following instructions may be given: In making original entries use: 1. The cashbook for all cash transactions. 2. The salesbook for all sales on credit. 3. The purchase book for all purchases on credit. 4. The journal for all other entries. Now will be the best time to explain the theoretical fimction of the journal, giving illustrations showing that journalizing is really a mental process and consists in separating and classifying entries. A good way of domg this is to ask the two following questions concerning each trans- action: Every transaction must involve two of these things: 1. Which two accounts are affected? 2. Which is to be debited and which credited ? In reviewing the order of procedure, it may be said that all that follows the taking of the trial balance pertains more to the work of the accountant than to that of the mere bookkeeper, for while the bookkeeper has his eye constantly on the trial balance, the accoimtant regards every entry in the light of its effect upon the final balance sheet; he regards the balance sheet as the alpha and the omega of bookkeeping. It should be made perfectly clear to the student that a transaction is something which affects the balance sheet, and since the balance sheet consists only of assets, liabiUties, and capital, every transaction must affect one or more of these three, and it can do so only by way of increase or decrease. A Uttle memory picture of all I Department] TEACHING ACCOUNTANCY IN BOOKKEEPING CLASSES 887 the possible ways in which transactions affect the balance sheet could be made as follows: 1. Increase of assets. 2. Decrease of assets. 3. Increase of liabilities. 4. Decrease of liabilities. 5. Increase of capital. 6. Decrease of capital. Assets are always equal to liabilities plus capital, A=L-\-C is an equation which holds good whether C be positive or negative, and which nothing can disturb. It should be explained to the student, therefore, that if he wants to increase capital there are only two ways of doing it: either by increasing assets or by decreasing liabilities, and that any attempt to carry out this purpose by skilful arrangement or manipulation of figures must be as fooHsh and futile as the attempt to discover perpetual motion; furthermore the accountant has at all times a scrupulous regard for the important difference between income and capital. Capital is the sum total of assets minus liabilities. No other item in the balance sheet or in any of the books is so important as this. The most important thing to know about capital is how it increases and how it decreases. Capital is increased by income and decreased by expenditure. When once the student has been shown that every fact of which book- keeping takes notice has a twofold significance, and that the only essential principle of bookkeeping is that the double aspect of each fact should be clearly and accurately recorded, he will begin to see that this may be done in a great variety of ways and that while there is but one universal principle there is an endless variety of applications of it, and teaching the funda- mentals of accountancy will enable him to grasp the principle so thoroly that he may be able to understand the working of any system or even to construct a system for himself. Not more than a hasty survey of the field of accounting will be pos- sible, but the course of instruction should cover, at least in an elementary way, the study of partnership and corporation accounting, income state- ments, controlling accounts, cost accounting, auditing, accounting of social and fraternal orders, executorship and municipal accounting. At any rate the principles and the reasons therefor should be explained and illus- trated; to this end short exercises with a few transactions should be given, enough to implant in the student a desire for further study in this field. No one textbook is entirely satisfactory for this purpose. The following are subjects which should receive some attention: depreci- ation of assets; the prudent custom of making interest on capital a first charge on the profits of a business; the natural tendency to overestimate assets and the corresponding natural tendency to underestimate liabilities; the subject of provision for future liabilities. I /■ 888 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [lusiness Such instruction will require extensive study on the part of the teacher, and a survey of the whole range of the science of commerce accounting and finance. Many teachers are bravely and successfully grappling with this problem. The one thing needful is some better means of comparing notes in the subject-matter of our courses and our methods of instruction, which will enable us to join hands in our endeavor to obtain that greater efEciency which the ever-increasing demands of modern commerce requires, and which will succeed in convincing the educational world of the cultural value of our subjects. PENMANSHIP A. N. PALMER, EDITOR, "AMERICAN PENMAN," NEW YORK, N.Y. Let us get the right focus on this matter of penmanship. There are expert penmen in this country who are confusing the issues; they are trying to make a complexity out of this simplest of subjects in the pubUc-school curriculum. How should we first approach this subject in dealing with any class of pupils, be they first-grade, eighth-grade, or the high-school pupils who have never been given opportunity to learn how to write when in the grades ? We should first teach them how to sit comfortably erect, well back in the seats with arms on the desks, and when in this posture just to rest, rest, rest, or, with the older pupils, we may say "relax." Just the word "rest" brings about the right physical condition when we are talking to the first- and second-grade babies. Tell them that the right arm is their writing-machine and they should just push and then roll, and then let it go, let it go. In fifteen minutes from the time when we begin to teach our first-grade pupils in this way, we shall find three, four, five, or perhaps six pupils who are rolling on the muscle very easily and comfortably. We must not hold them back because other pupils are pushing down onto their wrists and are not relaxing. We seat these progressive pupils in a row where they can best be seen. They will form our first group and will help us to teach the others. Their example will help. The example even of the six-year-old child, sitting with a well-poised spinal column, with the right arm resting on the large muscle near the elbow and making that the main fulcrum while rolling on the muscle, is sufficient in itself to help teach the other pupils. The pupils in the first primary grades should not be required to hold writing instruments in their hands during the first week or possibly the first two weeks of the course. Well-rounded sticks or meat skewers may be used to good advantage in the early stages to teach pupils how to hold and carry the writing instrument. These are recommended instead of pencils or penholders because they do not suggest to the pupils' minds the act of writing. Let me emphasize here that the children of any grade who are just beginning the practice of muscular movement should give Departmentl PENMANSHIP 889 much more attention to motivation than to the formal act of writing, until muscular movement has become automatic to the extent of enabling the pupils to make the simpler drills in healthful postures with that move- ment. Pupils of grades from V to VIII, however, should require no more than three or four lessons before they are able to make one or two simple drills in the right way. We teach pupils at this stage how to rest on the muscle and how to push a little from behind the elbow, and thus we teach them to use those large tireless muscles of the arm instead of the fine muscles of the fingers. Think of the cruelty we practice on a pupil when we ask him to make big letter forms in the first two grades, thus compelling him to hold the entire arm suspended. Consider the fearful strain on the shoulder muscles resulting from such a posture. Assume such a position yourself and see if this is not true. When pupils have been taught that big whole-arm movement writing in the first two grades, we cannot, as a rule, begin actually to teach practical writing to them before they reach the last semester in the fourth year, or the first semester in the fifth year. The intervening time must be spent breaking up the bad habits established in the first two grades. Why not teach them the basic principles of good writing in the first grade ? They need penmanship. Penmanship carries the big burden all thru the school years. Primary teachers say to me: "I cannot take sufficient time to teach my children how to sit, how to relax, how to run that writing-machine, and finally how to hold the pen and how to develop and use the muscular movement. I must have writing right away. I can take time only to teach visualization and let them draw the letters the best way they can." Time in the lower grades is not so valuable as that in the upper grades, and it is in these lower grades that the time should be used in laying the foundation for good writing. In the third drill, we begin to teach the pupils how to write words with muscular movement, using the simplest words first. We have pupils write eighteen to twenty of such words as "mine," "uses," "sell," "smile," "fine," "mind," "men," "man," etc., a minute. That is slow enough to permit the pupils to form the letters well and fast enough to preclude the possibility of making shaky lines. When we have taught the pupils how to sit, how to relax, how to develop the right motive power, how to make the straight line, and the two-space compact oval with muscular movement, we are ready to begin to teach them how to write. We divide this work into three stages. In the first stage, we teach position, muscular relaxation, the development of the right motive power, and the making of the straight line toward the center of the body. We teach this, not because it is an exceptionally good movement drill, but because it teaches direction. We do not want to talk about slant; we do not want to confuse the issues. We want to simplify the process just as much as we possibly can, and when we teach the pupil to make the downward stroke toward the center 890 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business of the body with the paper in the right relative position before him, we have taught him his natural slant, but instead of referring to it as slant, -vre talk about direction. We cannot begin to teach our pupils muscular-movement writing before they are able to sit in good postures and make, with easy-rhythmic motion, the two simple drills I have mentioned, and yet there are teachers who think they have really taught their pupils something about muscular- movement writing when they have taught them to make beautiful ovals. But they have made only a beginning, for those pupils who have learned to make nice ovals with an easy, rhythmic motion are only ready to begin to learn something about practical penmanship. Let us begin to teach pupils at once, when they have learned the preliminary steps, how to use in writing the movement they have learned in the practice of the oval. What are you going to tell the pupil who makes his oval on the back slant? How simple, how easy it is to teach the pupil right here in the beginning stage that the motion preceding the contact of the pen to the paper should always be in the direction of the first stroke to be made, and that there is always a motion preceding the contact of the pen to the paper. Thus, if the oval is on the back slant, it is a true indication that the motion was in the direction of the back slant, and that the pupil had not learned the principle taught in the straight-line drill, viz. : All down- ward strokes made toward the center of the body when the paper is held in the proper position will produce correct, uniform, and individual slant. You should try to help your pupils overcome the tendency to do very much of this "winding up" before beginning to make the letter. That is a waste of time. All that is necessary is just a little motion preceding the contact of the pen to the paper. As I go about visiting classes, frequently I hear teachers say to their pupils, "When will you stop making letters on the back slant?" That is not teaching. That is only calling the attention of pupils to something that they already know. Therefore, we teach our pupils how to hold the paper before them in the right position, and to pull the downward strokes toward the center of the body. The slant of each pupil will then be his individual slant. The slant of no two pupils need be exactly the same. Why? Let us study physiology a little bit; let us study the physical structures of our pupils. How many of them are exactly the same width across the chest ? How many of them have arms that are exactly the same length? Those things control slant. There are some things that are technical: the position of the arms on the desks well out from the side, the paper in the right relative position to the body, and the upright position of the body which keeps the spinal column erect and eyes far enough from the paper for conservation of vision — these are among the important tech- nical things. Department] PENMANSHIP 89I Drop the arm to the desk in a natural position. Do not turn the hand to the right; do not turn it to the left. The arm should not be parallel to the edge of the paper. To make the two-space, straight-line exercise, which is the first drill in the Palmer Method Manual, count at the rate of two hundred downward strokes to the minute until one hundred have been counted. The finished exercise should extend one-fourth the way across a page on which the ruled lines are eight inches long. After this first group of one hundred has been made, the paper should be moved to the left with the left hand, a distance corresponding with the space occupied by the first drill, and so continue across the page, when the paper should be moved back to its original position for the beginning of a new line. Thus, we teach the adjustment of the paper to keep it in the right relative position to the body. In teaching muscular-movement writing, our first step is to teach good position and muscular relaxation. We teach the six-year-olds just as we teach older pupils and teachers. Just as soon as the students have mastered the first steps, we teach them how to write words. At this stage, we do not criticize severely the forms of the letters, knowing how difficult it will be for pupils to control the movement immediately. At this stage in the primary grade work, we frequently send pupils to the blackboard in order to teach them visualiza- tion and the direction in which the hands move to make the different letters. It must be understood that it is a waste of time for pupils to practice oval exercises at the blackboard, since, at the blackboard, the pupils use the whole-arm movement swing from the shoulder which they develop in their play. Indeed, they have ample practice of this movement outside the class- room. With pupils from the fifth to the eighth grade inclusive, the blackboard should never be used as a means of teaching the forms of letters. All the practice of penmanship should be at the desks with muscular movement. When pupils of any grade have learned the muscular movement so well that it is used automatically in all lessons in which penmanship is employed, it will be time to begin to emphasize close visualization of the letters and muscular co-ordination in building up good forms. It is in the second stage that we expect pupils to learn to do all their writing with muscular move- ment and we do not expect the highest grade of forms; but when we change from the second to the third stage, we must then insist that, since the pupils use automatic movement and have good control of it, they should show rapid improvement in the forms of the letters. All of this applies with as equal force to the high-school pupils as to the pupils in the grades. Some of you may be in favor of teaching the little babies in the first grade the big forms which must be made with whole-arm movement. When this is done thes6 children acquire a movement which cannot be used in practical writing, and it is a habit which is very difficult to break up and 892 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Businea] overcome. In my judgment, in the majority of schools where the pupils! have been taught the very large forms with whole-arm movement in the] first two grades, they do not overcome the bad effects of this practice much before they reach the fifth. This means retardation thru two years of school life, a deplorable waste of time which is absolutely unnecessary. Let us teach the children in the primary grades correct habits in penmanship as well as in other things. They may then begin to use muscular movement practically in the third grade and, in the fourth grade, become able to write excellent muscular-movement hands. This improvement continues from grade to grade until the sixth and seventh grades are reached, when students will execute ideal muscular-movement handwriting. Because of the fact that writing must be used as the vehicle to carry all of the other public- school branches, it seems to me that it is advisable to have the running gear of this vehicle built strongly. This can be done only when the work is started in exactly the right way in the primary grades. Perhaps some of you are in favor of putting into the hands of these little children with very small fingers and weak muscles, big, heavy pencils which require the pupUs to grip by main force in order to keep them in the hands. Somebody may have told you that these large pencils help the pupils to overcome the habit of pinching. They do nothing of the kind, but work in exactly the opposite direction. Suppose you take these big, long, heavy pencils, which some think first-grade pupils should use, and test them. You will find that they are so heavy that even in your large hands it will be necessary to hold them by main strength in order to keep them in the hands at all. Just as soon as you stop pinching the pencil, it will drop out of your hand. Why is it that some supervisors of writing who are competent and energetic and who work very hard fail to obtain good results in the public schools in which they supervise the penmanship ? Is it not because they desire to be diplomatic and friendly with all the teachers? Perhaps a supervisor does not like to ask the teachers to do anything which they do not wish to do. It must be self-evident to anyone that no supervisor can teach the pupils, even in a small system of schools, how to write well. He may teach the teachers the mechanics and pedagogy of good writing, but beyond that he cannot go in this work of reforming penmanship. The supervisor should meet the teachers frequently in conferences and he not only should discuss the pedagogy of good writing in relation to elementary- school work with his teachers, but also should drill them on the exercises that they are to teach. He should also go to their classrooms as often as possible for the purpose of giving model lessons to the pupils for the teachers' observation. Whenever these model lessons are given, the teachers should understand that they are not so much for the purpose of teaching the children something about practical writing as they are to teach the teachers how to teach the children. Department] EFFICIENCY IN SECONDARY COMMERCIAL TEACHING 893 The departmental plan of teaching penmanship has been favorably considered recently in many public-school systems. I have this objection to the departmental plan. The teacher in the building who supervises the penmanship cannot teach the pupils how to write well unless the other teachers who are in charge of the written work in spelling, composition, examinations, and all written tests co-operate with the departmental teacher of penmanship by requiring the pupils to sit in healthful postures and to use muscular movement in all of their writing until it has become automatic, I fear that departmental teachers of branches other than penmanship frequently do not consider themselves obligated in the least to help the departmental teacher of penmanship. These, of course, preclude the development of good writing. FACTORS OF EFFICIENCY IN SECONDARY COMMERCIAL TEACHING JOHN E. TRELEVEN, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF BUSINESS TRAINING, UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS, AUSTIN, TEX. The rapid increase in the number of high schools giving business train- ing is a cause for both congratulation and apprehension — congratulation that commercial education has so rapidly won recognition, and apprehen- sion lest too rapid progress result in poorly formulated courses of study and a low grade of instruction. The extension of commercial teaching involves the question: Should business subjects be taught in all high schools? It is safe to say that business training should be given in the high schools of all cities and indus- trial towns. Commercial departments are now found in the majority of such schools. In most essentially rural communities, there is no legitimate demand for a business course in the high school. Some subjects such as bookkeeping and commercial geography may be taught with profit in all high schools, but a complete commercial course is not closely enough related to rural Hfe to justify its introduction into the average rural high school. One question that has been debated repeatedly is: What shall be the length of the commercial course? There are one- and two-year courses, which are what have been termed commercial trade courses, designed to prepare students in certain technical business subjects. They parallel more or less directly the work of the private business schools. These courses are usually found in city high schools to provide instruction for students who cannot complete a full high-school course. The three- and four-year courses combine general training and special preparation for business. The four-year course is the one given in most high schools. An examination of a number of typical business courses will show that three classes of subjects are found in all curricula. These are, first, techni- cal business subjects which deal directly with business principles and 894 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business processes, siich as bookkeeping, stenography, and typewriting. Then there is a group of general subjects which are of no greater or less impor- tance to commercial students than to the general students in the high school. History and geometry are examples of these studies. The third group consists of the subjects which are usually thought of as general but which have important commercial bearings which are brought out in classes of commercial students. Enghsh composition, industrial chemistry, and algebra are illustrations of this group of "semi- technical" studies. Endless combinations of the subjects of the three groups are possible. In the special school, every subject taught can be presented from the business point of view if desirable, for the aim of the whole school is to teach commerce. Many small schools, on the other hand, have such hmited resources that they find it diflScult to offer even a few business units. In many of these schools the mistake is made of attempting to teach too many subjects. It is far better that a few business subjects be taught well than that a large number be indifferently well presented. The schools of medium size and the large schools of cities which have committed themselves to the cosmopoUtan rather than the specialized plan of high-school operation have an opportunity for the better development of the commercial work of which few have taken advantage. By the segregation of commercial students in such subjects as the third half-year of algebra, chemistry, Enghsh, and modem languages, the commercial appUcation of these sub- jects can be indicated as fully as in the specialized high schools of commerce. The objections to the segregation of the commercial or any other class of stu- dents in a general high school are so numerous that the formation of separate commercial classes in general subjects would seem to be best only when necessary to bring out effectively the semi-technical aspect of the subject. Altho there is no agreement as to the subjects included in a business course, bookkeeping is almost always taught, but the time devoted to it varies from one semester with a single period daily to six semesters of two daily periods. This means that the results secured may vary from an imderstanding of the simplest routine to a comprehension of difficult prob- lems in accounting. In most schools elementary bookkeeping is required of all business students, and the advanced work, if given, is elective. The number of schools in which but one semester of bookkeeping is offered is decreasing as the disciplinary and vocational advantages of a full year of elementary bookkeeping are becoming known. Altho stenography is not taught so often as bookkeeping, it is offered in practically all high schools with a full business course. The time allotted to shorthand varies from two to six semesters, with three and four semesters of work standing high in popular favor. The present tendency seems to be toward a two-year course with daily recitations, for, in spite of many note- worthy exceptions, it has been foimd that the average high-school student is but indifferently well trained in shorthand in a single year. Department] EFFICIENCY IN SECONDARY COMMERCIAL TEACHING 895 From two to eight semesters are given to typewriting with either one or two periods of practice daily. Usually it is taught in the same semester as shorthand, but sometimes it is taught either earlier or later in the course. There is a lively debate as to the credit to be allowed for shorthand and typewriting. In some schools but one unit is allowed each year for both these subjects together. In others one unit a year is given for each sub- ject, and in still others one and one-half units for the two subjects. A practice that is gaining ground is to allow one unit for shorthand since this subject requires a daily preparation as well as a daily recitation, and one half-unit additional for each daily hour of typewriting practice required. There is also a difference of opinion as to the advisability of allowing credit for typewriting alone. In view of the usefulness of a knowledge of tj^e- writing to every business man, it seems right to allow students to take typewriting without shorthand under proper limitations. Commercial geography and commercial arithmetic are given for either one or two semesters, commercial law rarely for more than one. Busi- ness English may sometimes be found as a special one- or two-semester course. Penmanship and spelling are listed for one or two semesters or for an indefinite time until the student becomes proficient. Among the other technical subjects sometimes included in business courses are ofl&ce practice, business methods, business technique, advertising, and sales- manship. Needless to say, the variety of combinations of the general subjects given in commercial courses is quite bewildering. There is great diversity of opinion as to the time in the high-school course when the various business subjects should be given. There seem to be good reasons why practice should differ. Bookkeeping, for example, is given in every year of the course in different schools. Many superin- tendents prefer to omit bookkeeping from the first year of the course on the ground that first-year students are not prepared to take bookkeeping with profit. Bookkeeping in the second year has merit in that it gives time for preparation in penmanship and business methods if desired and also permits the completion of elementary bookkeeping before shorthand is started. Bookkeeping in the third year is open to the objection that shorthand students who start stenography in this year begin two technical subjects at the same time. Bookkeeping in the fourth year has the great advantage of giving opportunity for very thoro work, but it has the dis- advantage of loading the later years of the course with technical subjects and of preventing the students from taking any advanced bookkeeping. There is less of a question as to the position of stenography in the course. Since the student should be most proficient in shorthand and typewriting at the time of leaving school, stenography should be taught in the last semesters of the course. The very nature of commercial law requires that it be placed in the latter part of the course. Happily, com- mercial geography is a subject the content of which is such that it can be 896 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business taught satisfactorily at any time in the course. There is a real question as to the proper position of commercial arithmetic. Some teachers wish commercial arithmetic to come in the first year so that the bookkeeping students may have had training in commercial calculation and know something of the use of business forms. Others contend that high-school students do better work in arithmetic if at least a year has passed since their study of common-school arithmetic and they are famiHar with the principles of algebra. These points illustrate clearly the questions that arise in planning a business course. The pedagogy of business subjects has never been carefully developed. Methods of teaching commercial subjects are almost as numerous as the teachers of these subjects. Undoubtedly the most serious problem of commercial education is that of securing efficient teachers. Up to the present time few of the graduates of higher commercial schools have cared to enter secondary teaching. The number of normal schools giving training courses for commercial teachers is pitiably small. The majority of business teachers are graduates of private business schools. Some of these teachers have taken their business course after being graduated from normal schools and universities, but many do not have even the general training of a high-school course and have never studied methods of teaching. University graduates, of course, are sometimes failures as teachers, and the successful teachers of little direct preparation can be coimted by the score. It stands to reason, however, that given similar teaching aptitude, personahty, and initiative, the teacher who has received the most careful professional and technical training and who has the best basis in general education will do the most effective teaching. Until the standard of preparation of commercial teachers is at least equal to that of the academic teachers in secondary schools, either in direct training or in study and business experience com- bined, the highest standards in commercial teaching cannot be maintained. This pictme of the conditions now found in secondary commercial teaching is not given with pessimistic intent. It is the opportimity of the present to sift out of all the ideas and methods and plans that have been developed those that are worthy of continuance and to establish ideals and standards by which the efficiency of commercial teaching may be judged. The agencies by which this sifting can be done and a knowledge of methods of commercial teaching spread are various. First, research and experiment in imiversities and by such bodies as the National Education Association Committee on Research, Standardiza- tion, and Correlation of Commercial Comses. The final report of this committee wiU doubtless do much to unify the ideas of the body of com- mercial teachers. There are already evidences that methods of commercial teaching are to be given greater attention in the investigations in schools of educationaljresearch. 1 Department] TRAINING AND FIELD OF THE AMANUENSIS 897 Secondly, discussion in organizations of commercial teachers. There should be a commercial section of every state association of teachers. It is a reflection on the initiative of business teachers that but a small number of these sections have been organized in the past. The teachers in higher schools are in need of an association for the discussion of their problems. Thirdly, a journal without bias or prejudice for the publication of articles on commercial teaching. If the establishment of such a journal would prove too great an undertaking, a satisfactory beginning could be made by devoting space in some journal already estabhshed to the problems of business education. Fourthly, the estabhshment of courses for the training of business teachers. There should be such a course in every higher school of com- merce, combining the work of the department of education so as to give students technical business training together with professional training for teaching. In every state in which the normal schools prepare for high- school teaching, normal courses in commerce should be established. Such courses are now found in several states. Fifthly, opportunities for the further preparation of teachers now at work. There are at least three lines of preparation which teachers should be encouraged to follow. The first is extension study in commerce such as is offered by a number of the state universities. The second is attendance at summer schools where methods of teaching commercial subjects are taught and where advanced technical business instruction is given. The third is employment in business houses during the summer for the purpose of securing training in practical business methods to supplement the theoretical training of the schools. The sixth agency is the inspection of commercial teaching by state visitors. There is probably no other way in which a knowledge of plans and methods of work can be so quickly spread as by a travehng visitor. The inspection of commercial teaching requires a technical knowledge which the academic inspectors rarely have. Perhaps the most pressing reason why there should be special visitation of the commercial department is that most superintendents and high-school principals do not have an ade- quate knowledge of the problems of the department to enable them satis- factorily to supervise the work of the business instructors. Most school ojQScers heartily welcome visitation by representatives of either the state university or of the state department of education. THE TRAINING AND FIELD OF THE AMANUENSIS ROBERT A. GRANT, DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS, YEATMAN HIGH SCHOOL, ST. LOUIS, MO. It is clear that the chief field for the amanuensis is in the business office. The government service offers a good field for capable young men and women, chiefly young men. Those who have unusual ability along the 898 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business line of stenography may succeed eventually in court or general reporting work. The young man or woman who has tact, judgment, and ability will often be promoted to a position requiring a private secretary where the salary is commensurate with the work performed. In many of our largest hotels and office buildings, we find the pubUc stenographer who has worked up a good business in that particular line. A few months ago, I was talking with a commercial teacher in one of our large cities and he said that he was confronted with the unfavorable attitude that the superintendent had toward shorthand. The superintendent felt that the boy who entered stenographic work would likely land in a blind alley. It seems to me that such an opinion is not justified by the facts. Take a few illustrations that I am able to give you: One of my boys entered the employ of one of the large banks of St. Louis, the State National Bank. He accepted a minor clerical position. He did not come in contact with the officials of the bank. The opportunities for promotion did not seem good to him, when suddenly the secretary to the vice-president resigned. The vice-president wanted somebody who could write shorthand to take down some letters quickly, and he sent out an inquiry as to whether any of the boys in the bank could do it. This boy was ready. He was called into the office, took the letters, did the work satisfactorily, and was made secretary to the vice-president. Now, at the age of twenty-one, he ranks so high in the esteem and confidence of the bank officials that he is sent thruout the states of Missouri and Illinois to call on correspondent banks as their representative. Less than three years ago a young man came to my desk in the Yeatman High School; he had with him a letter of introduction from a friend of mine. The letter of introduction stated that this young man was seeking a position and that if I could give him any aid the assistance would be much appreci- ated. This young man was more than six hundred miles from home and without an acquaintance in the city. I asked him what salary he would require. He said about $60 a month. I told him of a position that would pay him $12 a week, with good chances for promotion if he made good. He said he would take it. In less than a year he was earning over $100 a month. Now he receives over $2,000 a year as the office manager. Why ? Because he went into that office as a stenographer. He took the dictation from the business manager; he learned what the business manager had to do. When the business manager stepped out, the position was open for him. Eighteen years ago this fall a young man entered my first shorthand class. I say a young man; he was about twenty-five years of age. He had completed an eighth-grade education only; he had not been in school for several years. He made up his mind he wanted to leave the farm and seek success in the city. I found him to be a very earnest student, but not exceptionally bright. He was a hard worker and absolutely dependable Department] TRAINING AND FIELD OF THE AMANUENSIS 899 at all times. At the end of about six months, he secured a position in Chicago as a stenographer. About two years later, I learned that he had accepted a position with another corporation and that he had learned bookkeeping and was doing both bookkeeping and stenographic work. Several years later, he had become secretary and treasurer of that corpora- tion— a corporation dealing in iron and steel, having its own mines in Tennes- see and Alabama. His salary was not measured by hundreds of dollars, but by thousands of dollars. Now, friends, it seems to me that there is no question but what the young man who enters upon the career of a stenog- rapher has opportunities for advancement that may not come to him in any other line of work. Now I want to speak of the training of the stenographer or the amanu- ensis. It is impossible to cover this whole field, and I do not want to speak at too great length. I wish to touch upon something which I think may be of definite value to you. I believe strongly in a broad, general education for the young man or the young woman who expects to enter upon a business career — who expects to take up stenographic work — because, without that broad, general training, there is not the opportunity for success that these young people would otherwise have. First, I want to give a little attention to typewriting, because, after all, if the pupil is an excellent t)^ewriter operater and an excellent shorthand writer, and then has this general education, he is well prepared to succeed in business. I find in a great many schools that there is a tendency to put off the speed work until near the end of the course. Our plan is a Uttle different in that respect from what we find in a great many schools, and I want to tell you something about our method, because we think we are getting good results. Table I will be of assistance to you in imderstanding a part of our system. This is the way in which we keep the record. The first exercise con- tains 88 words, the second exercise 84, and so on. The pupil begins work on exercise No. i and is supposed to write at least 88 words in two minutes without an error. No record is entered if the pupil fails to write the required 88 words in two minutes. In every case there must be enough words entered to meet the minimum requirement, but we do not stop with that. The pupil may come back at any time and try to improve his record. These records are kept in pencil, and as soon as a pupil makes a better record we erase the old record and enter the new, and there is the great advantage of this particular plan. This table shows what ten pupils were able to do at the end of the first half-year's work. Of course, there is always keen competition among the pupils. The record sheet is accessible to pupils at any time. They can see just where they stand. If on one particular day a pupil has made the highest record on an exercise, he will be sure to come back the next day to see if anyone 900 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business has made a better record. With this method we are able to get better results than we have ever been able to get thru any other plan. TABLE I Typewriting Record at the End or First Hau-Year No. of exercise , Minimum words required 88 84 74 78 76 88 Vandervoort, Florence. Goldbloom, Solomon. . Camovsky, Gertrude . Dugciale, Helen , McQuilken, Roberta. . . Koci, Herbert Schaefering, Ella Aufderheide, H Holden, Clara McAdams, Viola 186 142 142 134 144 130 no 136 129 ISO 178 146 141 130 124 109 136 116 107 122 136 114 121 134 98 94 III III 104 102 124 108 116 118 118 104 130 no 105 104 163 116 lOI 125 104 120 104 114 93 91 13s 143 no 133 131 107 137 116 122 109 No. of exercise Minimum words required. Vandervoort, Florence Goldbloom, Solomon. . Carnovsky, Gertrude . Dugdale, Helen McQuilken, Roberta. . Koch, Herbert Schaefering, Ella Aufderheide, H Holden, Clara McAdams, Viola 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 88 7a 88 88 74 102 60 144 119 137 140 131 151 86 152 81 133 124 112 139 «3 106 lOI 122 in 95 132 98 "5 72 89 no 82 122 74 no 99 133 89 97 102 88 126 99 88 90 79 102 77 132 91 89 95 77 108 71 129 74 102 92 85 114 62 122 in "3 100 84 104 82 104 75 91 132 «5 no 86 Average Words per Minute 70 61 57 55 55 54 53 52 52 52 Let me tell you something about the nature of the exercises used. I . believe strongly that if we can start our pupils on groups of words between which there is some thought-connection, the work will prove to be much more interesting than the writing of mere groups of words between which there is no thought relation. For this reason, the first lesson, introducing a, s, d, k, I, and semicolon, is as follows: all sad lads all sad lads all sad lads all sad lads all sad lads ask all lads; ask all lads; ask all lads; ask all lads; ask lads; ask all sad lads; ask all sad lads; ask all sad lads; ask all lads; For a like reason, the second lesson, giving practice on all of the letters in the second row of keys, is in sentence form, as follows: jag a flask; Jag a flask; jag a flask; jag a flask; jag a flask; all lads shall jag glass flasks; all lads shall jag glass flasks; a lad had a glass flask; all lads had a salad glass; jag a flask: It does the pupil no harm to practice for speed on these exercises, because they are just as simple as we can make them, and the work has to be accurate. Department] TRAINING AND FIELD OF THE AMANUENSIS 901 We carry the sentence method all the way thru the course. The eighth lesson is composed of a business letter, containing all the letters of the two middle banks of keys, as follows: Dear Sir: We are prepared to sell you a good grade of paper for your trade. If you ar^e ready to take this up vlth us, we will quote you a low figure. We sell to the largest dealers. We fill all orders without delay. Good Judges of paper should get our low ^ figures. It will pay you to see us at our store the first part of the week. Yours truly. This letter contains 72 words — all good business words. There is not a letter introduced from the lower bank of keys. It is elementary work, but in sentence form it closely resembles an actual business letter, and thereby furnishes a much greater incentive for practice than meaningless groups of words. I must now pass to stenography. We have four different persons teaching the stenographic work. It is necessary to have some uniformity in that work, so pupils from the various classes may be promoted to the class of a new teacher and all find the work covered and the standard of eflBiciency to be essentially the same. We have, therefore, a printed outline showing definitely just what each teacher should do. Now, for your infor- mation, let me tell you how these directions are prepared. I write the directions. We call a meeting of the shorthand teachers. We go over the outline carefully, make changes where changes seem advisable, and all of the teachers agree to follow those directions without variation. Then, during the term, each teacher notes carefully where the work, in his opinion, can be improved. When a teacher thinks the work can be improved, we call another meeting. If all agree to it, we make the change; but we stick to uniformity, and no teacher deviates from these directions without first securing adoption by the shorthand committee. In shorthand work, it often happens that after you have passed over to the back part of your text, or are nearing the completion of the principles, many pupils have not really mastered the beginning principles. It is not a case of their forgetting those principles entirely, but the fact is you have in your classes pupils who never did master those principles. We have tried to get away from that, and we have had in effect for the last three years a plan requiring 100 per .cent accuracy, which the teachers vote for term after term. Whenever the teachers find that it is not a good plan, we will change it. Our textbook is divided into 151 parts, known as speed and 902 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business accuracy exercises. The first exercise is composed of 64 outlines. The teacher dictates those 64 outHnes to the class, collects the papers, and enters check marks opposite the names of pupils who make a grade of 100 per cent. If the pupil has one error, if one stroke is made in the wrong direction, he is not excused from that exercise. If an exercise is imperfect, the pupil is given every opportunity to make up the work. The exercise is dictated from time to time, and the check marks are entered as soon as a grade of 100 per cent has been secured. The second exercise is handled in the same way, and so on thru the 151 exercises. Table 11 will illustrate our method of keeping a record of the work on which 100 per cent accuracy is required. TABLE n Shorthand Speed and Accuracy Exercises Number of exercise I 3 3 4 s 6 7 8 9 10 II 13 Number of words required 64 83 6s 59 ss 47 63 60 87 6a 97 114 V V V V V V V V V Grey, George V V V One pupil has finished five exercises by a given time, and another has finished four. The boy, a slow pupil, has finished only three, but he does not sHde thru with a grade of 75 per cent or 80 per cent. We do not hold him back. He goes ahead with the class, getting the instruction and supple- mentary training that we are able to give him. We simply do not enter a check mark until he makes a grade of 100 per cent. Beginning this fall the record will be kept very similar to our record in typewriting. Instead of entering check marks, we will enter the actual time in which the exercises are written. No entry will be made for imper- fect work. The entries will be kept ia pencil and pupils will always have a chance to improve their record. By adding the total number of words in the exercises and dividing by the total time in which the exercises were written, we will get the average number of words per minute. We feel confident that the new plan will work as successfully as the old. It has all the advantages of the old plan, requiring 100 per cent accuracy, with the added advantage of stimulating speed practice, combiaed with accuracy, thruout the entire course. Department] THE SAN JOSE JUNIOR CHAMBER OF COMMERCE 903 TOPIC: LINKING SCHOOL WORK WITH BUSINESS ENTERPRISES A. THE SAN JOSE JUNIOR CHAMBER OF COMMERCE R. R. MCMASTERS, HEAD OF COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT, HIGH SCHOOL, SAN JOSE, CAL. Knowledge is not achievement; it is only an instrument of achieve- ment, and there are too many products of our schools who never make use of their knowledge. Why? Because they do not know what the world wants. It has been said that it is easier for a young man to go thru the eye of a needle with an automobile than go thru life success- fully without knowing what the world wants done. The diversity of views as to the kind of education needed grows out of a diversity of opinion as to what is the purpose and use of life. The first function of knowledge is the expansion of life. It gives us a larger life in a larger world and the worth of it all lies in the possession of two things — a wider outlook and a means of comparison planted in the mind. Now let me ask the question: "How many of our high-school students get this broader view ? " Your answer perhaps is that all of them get a broader view. I admit that perhaps they expand and grow, but are they becoming acquainted with the men of affairs ? Are they coming to know what the world really wants, or is there a tendency to grab credits and beat the teacher on the examination ? If this is the case, then we are teaching them to put the almighty credit before their eyes and rush thru school, which will be followed by a rush for the almighty dollar. On the other hand, a Freshman student comes into our school and thru the course of his studies some outside responsibility is placed upon his shoulders. He immediately begins to broaden his work. He has a broader outlook on life and instead of grabbing credits he finds an interest in the activities of the school and that there is a place for hun in its work. Now we are building the right kind of future citizens. The Junior Chamber of Commerce at the San Jose High School was organized in 191 2. The student body of the San Jose High School represents the members of the Junior Chamber of Commerce. The students have power to elect directors, twenty-four in number, to serve one year. Twelve are elected each semester and with this method there are twelve new members working with twelve old members each semester. This brings new blood into the organization and the officials change each semester. Something Uke two years ago a booster edition of the high-school paper was published by the directors and sent broadcast over the United States. The advertising, which paid for the paper, was secured by the directors from the business men of San Jose. The Junior Chamber of Commerce may also be of great assistance to the principal if handled in the right way. In this work he has a representative body of young men from the school and 904 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Business sometimes the principal will be able to bring before this organization a proposition which, voted upon by the directors, drawn up and submitted to the student body thru the directors, will meet with favor with students. Last year the directors of the Junior Chamber of Commerce assisted th< Senior Chamber of Commerce in a membership campaign to secure funds^ for 1915. Two teams were organized among the business men and the' Junior Chamber of Commerce represented the third team. The boys secured subscriptions and this was another opportunity for the boys to meet the outside world and become acquainted with the business men. Last January, and this is perhaps the crowning featiure of last year's work, the directors made a two-day automobile excursion from San Jose to points around the Bay, visiting some of the high schools and giving a forty-five-minute program. They were guests of the Senior Chamber of Commerce of San Francisco at their weekly luncheon and were escorted in automobiles from the Chamber of Commerce thru the Exposition grounds the last afternoon. This was a great trip for the boys and did them perhaps more good than they realized in becoming acquainted, meeting business men, and knowing more of what the world wants done. Finally, business men are looking for young blood in business. It stimulates. And a city that has young blood in its Chamber of Commerce will have an active organization. Train the boys! Organize them! Get them in touch with the men of affairs and their education will be a broader and better education. They will know something of what the world wants done and they will have an interest in the affairs of their school, their city, and their state. And if they are endowed with a spark of ambition the bankruptcy sign will not appear above their door! Can you, can I, do a greater work than to bring the business man and the student together? B. SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS PAUL L. EVANS, HEAD OF COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT, HIGH SCHOOL, ALAMEDA, CAL. In a country and civilization like ours, education for life must include instruction in the simple principles of economics, training in the use of money, and training in habits of thrift. Have you found in your own life any one factor of human experience more potential of great and lasting value than the practice of thrift and economy ? The use of the school savings banks indicates one simple, easy, and practical method of making this a part of our educational system. And right here I want to give you the name of one who can tell you more than anyone else of the origin, growth, and methods of operating school savings banks — Sarah L. Oberholtzer, Philadelphia, Pa. She will gladly submit complete data and a copy of her pubHcation, Thrift Tidings, for the asking. Department] SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS 90$ The first systematic attempt at a school savings bank plan in the United States was made thirty-nine years ago in Beloit, Wis. After several years' trial, the report came that "the system led to economy of time and energy as well as of money," that "it made better and more faithful stu- dents." The system was introduced in 1879 in the Carhsle Indian Training School. The boys and girls kept an average of $10,000 to their credit for years and later in their western homes no doubt applied these habits of thrift and economy. It was not until 1885 that the school savings system was put on a permanent footing in the United States. This was accom- plished largely by one man, John Henry Thiry. A native of Belgium, he came to America in 1859, and from 1873 devoted the remaining years of his life to the time of his death in 19 11 to the cause of school savings. Coming down to 191 2 in the United States, we have the following from a statistical report on the operations of school savings by Mrs. Oberholtzer. Her own state, Pennsylvania, is first in this work. This report shows that the total number of Pennsylvania towns adopting the system is 51. The total deposits for the year ending June 30, 1913, were nearly $2,000,000. Pittsburgh, so far as I can learn, leads all cities. Two years ago in that city the figures stood as follows: 60,000 grammar-school pupils enrolled, 30,000 of these regular depositors, with a record of nearly $650,000 deposited to their credit. Other cities prominent in the work are: Toledo, Grand Rapids, Long Island City, Lowell, Columbus, Des Moines, Kansas City, Oakland, San Francisco, San Jose, Berkeley, and Alameda. The last report sent out by San Francisco shows in that city over 12,500 pupil depositors with a total deposit of over $165,000. Los Angeles was doing splendid savings work recently and I venture to say is keeping it up. The latest reports covering the entire country (1913) show 30 states represented and over 150 cities, with approximately 1,500 grammar schools in which the school-bank savings system is in use. The 1915 reports will show total deposits thruout the country of over $5,000,000. With such cities as New York and Chicago taking it up in their schools, as reports show they have done within the last year, in addition to the scores of other towns big or little, the results chroni- cled in the reports, say for 1920, will be astounding and beyond the power of prediction at this writing. What it may mean to the United States may be inferred from a recent statement of Lloyd-George that the savings of the peasantry alone will be the financial salvation of Europe at this time of its greatest financial crisis. UntU very recently school savings were confined to the grammar schools. Now they are operating, and very successfully, in some of the high schools. Relative to the work in the high school, I believe it should be operated in connection with the commercial department. The head of the department would logically be the manager of the savings system. High-school pupils should serve as assistants, from whom should be selected the cashier, tellers, and bookkeepers. In my own department as manager I am under bonds 9o6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Busbess of $500, as is ako my student cashier, a boy in the Senior class. The accounts are kept by pupils. The looseleaf or card system is the best, arranged alphabetically, with numerical index. When a pupil makes a deposit, he fills out a deposit tag. These tags are entered upon a receiving teller's sheet, and from that are posted to the respective accoimts. The savings department should have properly equipped quarters, viz., an inclosure with counter and drawer space having windows above for the convenience of depositors. In this office should be filing cabinets, adding machine, tables, typewriters, a safe (fireproof) for books, etc. Over the windows or on the door should be a sign something as follows: "The John Doe High School Savings System Branch of Local Savings Bank." By the banking law of California, the school savings system is a branch of some selected savings bank of the town. This savings bank, or banks having obtained special permission of the state superintendent of banks to receive school deposits, must be responsible for every cent handled by its branch. Deposits may be received at specified times during the day, say from nine to twelve. A daily financial statement is made out showing names of depositors, amoimt deposited, and withdrawals if any. The balance is then taken to the town savings bank collaborating in the work. Whether or not the accounts are to be kept at the high school is a matter of internal arrangement with the savings bank concerned. It must also be by permission of the state superintendent of banks. If the accounts are kept at the high-school branch, it is apparent that no careless work can be done and that the savings bank served must repeatedly audit the books at the school. It is further apparent that if the accounts are kept at the school branch, the main bank need maintain only one account or controlling account and that to the credit of the high-school branch. The total balance of all as shown on the books at the school branch must agree with the controlling account in the town bank. It is not absolutely necessary to keep accounts at the school to operate successfully. If it is done, the difficulty of the work is multipUed a hundred fold. On the other hand, what is afforded in the teaching of bookkeeping, training to do accurately volumes of clerical work in a short time, and responsibility therefor, is worth all erf the theoretical office practice of our bookkeeping systems put together. One day a week may be set aside for withdrawals. Payment may be made either in cash or by draft on the drawee bank. If made in cash the withdrawal may be met from the cash received as deposits. If by draft, it is signed by the teacher-manager and countersigned by the student cashier. The payment by draft is the better way. This draft is not negotiable and must be presented by the holder to the local savings bank to be cashed. The withdrawal is noted in the pupil's passbook at the school branch. The matter is adjusted between the branch and the Department] SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS 907 savings bank that evening when the statement goes in. If the books were not kept at the school, withdrawals would be made only at the savings bank where the accounts are. Equipped as before described, there is no good reason why the high- school force may not handle the grammar-school deposits. We do so at Alameda. Briefly the Alameda system is this: Seven grammar schools and the high school are in the system. To each school is assigned a banking day. High-school students, generally boys, act as collectors, appearing at the grammar school at nine o'clock, reporting at the office of the principal. The teachers in each room from the third grade up take the deposits, see that the deposit tags have been properly made out by their scholars, fill out a blank for the total received, and send all in a heavy envelope to the principal, who certifies as to the total deposits of the school. From the deposit tags — and in case of the primary, first, and second grades, from a deposit sheet filled in by the teacher — the collectors then make the proper entries, first, on the folder belonging to the child which is returned to him at once, and second, on a deposit card for each individual always on file in the principal's office. Should a withdrawal be demanded, it will be made only at this time, the money being deducted from the deposits after the pupU has filled in a withdrawal slip signed by himself, the parent or trustee, and the principal. The grammar-school principal finally certifies the work of the collectors when finished and they depart for the high school with moneys, deposit tags, etc. At the high school, these are checked and the deposit tags are entered upon a receiving teller's sheet, which is in turn posted to the child's individual account kept at the high school. A com- plete statement is then made up and sent to the town bank. In this way, we have at the high-school branch a duplicate of every child's account depositing thru our city-schools saving system. This last statement is rather an important one. At present our school is handling over 1,500 grammar-school accounts and over 400 high-school accounts. When these grammar-school children enter the Freshman year at the high school, their savings accounts will have been started long before in the grades. At the high school such accounts will be continued with this difference, that instead of depositing once a week only as was done in the grammar school, deposits will be taken daily. High-school pupils need to save as much as grammar-school pupils. With us, the average high-school pupil considers a school savings account quite a part of his school routine. All accounts draw interest compounded semiannually at 4 per cent. These interest dividends are figured at the high-school branch. Interest begins to run practically at the time of deposit. We had scores of accounts showing interest accumulations of two cents, three cents, five cents, etc., on last term's business. A school savings system is as logical a part of our educational system as is a course in arithmetic or grammar. One of the most glaring defects 9o8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business of our present educational system is the lack of a general and systematic training in the practice of thrift. Children who have spent the early audi most impressionable part of their lives in aimless and foolish disregard ofi! thrift and economical habits will not at maturity suddenly be transformed into provident and frugal men and women. As teachers, therefore, espe- cially commercial teachers, we should get behind the school-bank move- ment to the end that it become an integral part of our educational system. I C. STUDENT FINANCES E. W. BARNHART, HEAD OF COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT, HIGH SCHOOL, BERKELEY, CAL. In linking school work with business enterprises thru student finances, there is but one way by which you can do it, viz., thru a strict observance of good business principles. All student activities, be they school athletics, class social activities, school plays, school pubUcations, the school book- store, or the school cafeteria, should be handled in accordance with the best of commercial usage. The only way in which our student activity comes in contact with the business world is thru the buying and the selling of things. I believe that you can put your school activity on an honest financial basis. You should get out of the charity class. In every school, there come the questions as to how money will be raised and as to how it will be spent. As to the former, it will be raised thru stu- dents' dues or thru the sales. It is not right to allow boys or girls of the age of our high-school children to collect money and to render no account-fll ing beyond that which they choose to make. I do not say that they are dis- ' honest — that depends upon the individual and upon the conmaunity — but it is not right, and you as commercial teachers have no right in a scho(d> if you do not raise your voice against unbusinesslike methods of handling school finances, be they in the collection or in the spending of the money. This work naturally calls for one thing: business sagacity. This requires that, before any class dues are levied, either class assessments or student- body dues, you know in advance what they are to be spent for. That is common-sense, and so with the work in the high school oiu* plan is based on the budget. There is no money raised imtil it has been announced for what it is to be used, that is in reference to the class dues. There is no class assessment levied until the committee has investigated and filed a report stating that we need so much for such and such a thing. Then the assessment is O.K.'d by the principal. The collectors then report to the school auditor and receive their official number and recorded receipt books. After the money has been collected, every cent of it is turned in to the school auditor and when those books have been used up the stubs are turned in and each and every one is checked up. We have no losses when our school money is collected in that way. Department] STUDENT FINANCES QOQ By the sale of student-body cards we manage to finance our athletic activity. Our cards are one dollar, with no admission to the games. The sale of these cards is equally well checked up. The cards bought are num- bered and are issued in the school by the school auditor to the different students and to teachers who are to handle them and they too are checked up and accounted for. However, the school auditor does not do all the checking up. This next year I expect to have a force of twenty people doing practical bookkeeping work. After the money has been raised and accounted for, the next thing to be considered is the spending of it. There is a rule of the board of educa- tion in our city that there is to be no money collected and no money spent by the classes without the approval of the authorities of the school. No student can go downtown and simply order this or that sent up to the high school by having it charged to the school. We use a requisition blank which is the authority for the purchase by a student. This order blank is signed by the principal because he is the legal trustee for all school money. It is also signed by the individual teacher in charge, and is then turned over to the faculty advisory. After it has been properly indited, the student presents it to the merchant. If he gets the goods, he indi- cates on the face of the order blank the price the merchant has asked him to pay and then requests the merchant to send his bill to the auditor of the high school who takes charge of it. The requisition is made out in triplicate. One copy goes to the merchant, one is signed by the teacher and put in the box of the school auditor, and the third is retained by the teacher. As soon as the auditor gets his blank, that item is at once charged against the appropriate fund. It is audited and treated as an expenditure against that fund until the bill comes in. We never have shortages. No activity gets in debt or goes broke. Indebtedness is limited to the amount of money each activity has in hand. We commercial teachers stand accused and convicted of knowing nothing about business. If you wiU go and talk to your business men, you will find that very few commercial teachers in the state of California are authorities among business men on business matters. If you want to improve your standing in the town, put your school finances on a business basis, show business men that you run them in a businessUke way, show them that you handle them in a way better than they handle theirs. The corporation of the Berkeley High School is quite a good sized one. Our student body annually numbers about one thousand students. Prac- tically every student in the school wants a card. An organization is formed in which the students are shareholders and officers are elected. When the manager wants anything, he fills out three requisition forms, the body of which states only what he wants and nothing more. They are then sent to the purchasing agent, a teacher whose business it is to be posted on prices and quaUty of materials. If bids have not been received before, he then 9IO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business fills in the name of the firm from whom the goods shall be purchased and the price that shall be paid. These papers are then sent to the finance committee of the associated students, where they are passed upon, and a student who is delegated to make the purchase takes one of the slips ancM goes to the merchant, leaving the other two with the auditor. The lattei^ keeps one for his files and sends the other to the manager with the injunc- tion "Watch out for these goods; their purchase has been authorized." The goods are bought, and the bill goes to the auditor. When the goods specified in this requisition have been received and their condition O.K.'d, then the bill is O.K.'d by the manager and sent to the auditor. When all the papers are assembled, the check is prepared for signature and is sent thru to the treasurer. The treasurer authorizes the auditor to pay the bilL The latter then mails a check and in a few days the receipted bill comes back and the incident is closed. In two years we have had but one claim against us and that is four years old. I went to the firm making the claim and asked what it was for. The manager could simply say that it was charged against the Berkeley High School. Once a month the firm reli- giously sends us a bill. This firm had no authority to sell to a student without a requisition, and has no records, and since we know nothing about it I presume we shall continue to receive this bill. What is the teacher's place in all this scheme ? Is he merely to be the watchguard of the treasury ? I think he is something more. I have not told you about the handhng of the accounts connected with our school publications nor with other school activities, but the teacher's place is that of an expert financial counsel. He acts in an advisory capacity. That is his first function and it is a big function. The only permanent person in the school is the teacher and he must be charged with the experience, the knowledge, and the guiding power, as well as the function of the initiative in the things in the school that refer to school expenditure and school finance. D. THE PLACEMENT BUREAU L. GILBERT DAKE, DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, MANUAL TRAINING AND COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOL, OAKLAND, CAL. For some time I was connected with a large high school well equipped with good and efficient teachers, and supervised by an energetic and com- petent principal. The high school had a strong progressive student body, and yet I was constantly under the impression that much of the commercial training offered in that high school gave little result. There seemed to be a lack of definiteness in the work. The students seemed to have no par- ticular object or aim in view. The business colleges of that city were and are today overflowing with former high-school students. The conviction took root and grew in my mind that these pupils needed something more Department] THE PLACEMENT BUREAU 91 1 than just the bare school training offered to them in such generous propor- tioas — they needed guidance of some kind, they needed to be placed. By a placement bureau I do not mean an employment agency. That is but one phase of the work of such an office. There are really three divisions to the work of the placement bureau: (i) educational and voca- tional guidance; (2) placement; (3) follow-up work. Last spring a questionnaire was sent around to some fifty of the repre- sentative commercial departments of the United States. A part of the information desired covered these three points of the placement bureau. The response was gratifying from the standpoint of promptness, but I was surprised to find that so many of our best and most progressive commercial people followed the ideas of the placement bureau only part of the way. I found that the majority of the schools make some effort to secure positions for their graduates and that a large number attempt to follow up their graduates and see if they are making a success with the amount of training given them. But only a very few are making any real effort at vocational or educational guidance. I am willing to grant that the employment bureau is justified in any school that pretends to complete a course in busi- ness training, but I am frank to confess that if choice were given me between organizing an employment bureau for the department and that of giving vocational or educational guidance, I would most assuredly choose the latter. When you go back to your schoolrooms in a few weeks, you will face a motley group of girls and boys who have been lured to school with various ideas and various hopes. They are of all classes and nationalities, but they seem to consider that you are to put them thru the same mill and turn them all out accomplished business men and women. You know to start with that such a thing is impossible — that about half of them are unfit to enter the business world no matter what their training. Yet you, out of pride for the size of your department and thinking that they have chosen you because they think you can do more for them than many of the others, let them remain. They spend a year or two and finally drift out aimlessly — as aimlessly as they entered — and fill up the number of the world's irre- sponsible and short-time-job men. When these pupils enter the school is the time to start them right. It takes tact, it takes judgment, and, more- over, it takes a deep understanding of human nature to winnow out from these Freshmen those who should take the commercial course. No student should be allowed to enter the commercial course, or, in fact, any other course, until he has talked the matter over thoroly with someone competent to advise him. I am well aware that in a way this has been done for a great many years. I recall a small high school where each pupil is very carefully quizzed before he or she is allowed to elect a course. In the large high school, however, because of the great numbers, this has been neglected, or, at the best, done only as a matter of routine. My experience in Oakland 1 912 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Busin< has shown me that, even where a very determined effort is made by the principals of the graded schools to determine the vocational tendencies of their students, many of those same students come to high school and elect courses because their chums elect the same course. These pupils have no thought of the future, no idea of what they care to do, no idea of what they can do best. These pupils need vocational guidance. Just how vocational guidance can best be administered is a much-' mooted question. I might tell what we are attempting along that line. Each first-term student entering the school is obhged to take a course in survey of vocations. For the boys this course consists of a series of lectures delivered weekly covering the needs, chances of advancement, etc., in the various vocations open to boys. A study of each individual boy is made by means of a questionnaire filled out under the direction of the teacher. The last few weeks of the course are spent in personal talks with each boy in an attempt to open up his mind. In addition to this, a number of lec-^ tures are given by practical men from various callings. The whole course emphasizes the stirring up of the mind of the boy to think of what he can best do for a Uvelihood, and directs him toward getting a practical knowledge of the profession or vocation of his choice. A course similar to this has been given to the girls. One result of the work has shown the need of more educational guidance — the parents need training as well as the students. If more parents could be brought to imderstand just what our schools, and particularly the commercial departments, could do for their sons and daughters, there would be a greater number go direct from the grades to the high school, while as it is now a large percentage drop school before the high school. Vocational guidance and educational guidance must be linked together — the students should be led to choose the right kinds of vocation and the parents must be taught what the school can do so that they will insist on their children going on thru high school. When your pupils enter, try to find out if they are taking what their personal quaHfications entitle them to take. If they are not as well fitted for commercial work as for some other course, bring pressure to bear and place them in the other course. Drones should never be allowed to take the commercial work. There are too many slipshod stenographers now. Many of them would make a greater success running the sewing-machine. Many boys elect the commercial course when they should be in the shop learning how to make a boiler. You should see that more of them elect the proper course. Why should the commercial teacher be interested in vocational guidance? Because of all teachers the commercial teacher should be the most widely trained and the broadest minded. I have talked with some commercial teachers who do not beheve that it is the function of the commercial department to place its graduates. I am going to go a little farther and insist that it is the duty of the com- mercial department to place not only its own graduates but also those of Department] THE STUDENT STENOGRAPHER 913 the school at large. The commercial department is gradually becoming the business center of the high school, performing work that formerly either was not done or else cost the school board a considerable amount of money. If the department is to handle other business interests of the school, it should also look after placing pupils at graduation or at any time when necessity demands. There are many reasons why it is necessary to help some pupils get a position. I recall the case of a young lady who had to get a position as soon as school was over. She was a timid, retiring sort of girl — one who would not impress a prospective employer very favorably. After some weeks of heart-rending effort, she took a position as salesgirl in a depart- ment store. She retained this position for some time, but finally managed to creep into an office afterwards to become a very successful business woman. Had she had just a little help she would have been saved the salesgirl experience. Most students are anxious to get some kind of a job at once and many of them drift into positions for which they have had no training at all. A proper kind of employment or placement bureau would place these students in the proper kinds of positions. It is an old adage that "the proof of the pudding is in the eating." This can be well applied to commercial training. We should keep in touch with our old students to be sure that the kind of stuff we are giving them is of some good. A number of commercial men indicated that they were doing just that thing, and I am convinced that the reputation for efficiency of those high schools has been increased a hundred fold by just this one thing. E. THE STUDENT STENOGRAPHER CLYDE BLANCHARD, PRINCIPAL, STANDARD COMMERCIAL SCHOOL, PANAMA- PACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. We are all trying to bring the business atmosphere into our training of bookkeepers and stenographers. We want to give them some practical business to do. I should like to go a step farther and say that there are some fundamentals of business that 80 per cent of us must learn, no matter whether we are going to run a sewing-machine or whether we are going to conduct a lodging-house or be a waiter or a clerk. I believe that our function as heads of departments and organizers of business study is to get together with the principal and the other teachers and see if we cannot get down to rock bottom and say that everybody must know business arithmetic, everybody must know something about commercial law, everybody must know something about salesmanship, the more the better perhaps, and then let our manual-training students take these subjects j along with their manual-training work. So much for the negative side of ' the problem of the 'student stenographer. In identifying ourselves with the vocational movement along the posi- tive side,^the^training of the student stenographer has presented itself to lusineai^ 914 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [B me principally on the office-training side — not so much the shorthand or typing, as the appUcation of shorthand and typing to getting out the day's work and to the use of business information and business appliances. Whenever I have felt that I had something worth while and have tried to put it into use, I have found something just a little better. That is the way I feel about this office training. I have a system at work at the Expo- , sition and I guess its main value is that it is working. It is very simple and it applies particularly to the use of appliances and to the checking of business letters with the least amount of manual labor on the part of the teacher. I have had to meet a great many visitors and I felt that I would not have the time to correct all the papers that ordinarily the teacher corrects, so we organized a business company of which I am the San Francisco manager. I picked my very best student for the chief clerk, the next best for a record clerk, and then for every four members of the class I have a chief correspondent. All of the students take the work. The letters are dictated in the shorthand class and the work is collected and handed out at the typing period. In order to save the waste of paper which is a nuisance in so many departments, we issue only a sheet of paper for every letter that has been dictated. On that sheet of paper there is a num* ber which corresponds with the date on which the letter is written. The minute the student gets his paper he puts a heading on it. He centers the heading, thus getting a valuable exercise every day in centering. Then he goes to a time stamp which is by the machine and which changes every minute. He stamps on the top of that paper the time of starting the tran- script. He does not take the paper out of the machine until the transcript is finished, and then he rims to the time stamp to put below the starting time the time when it was finished. » Just a minute on the value of the time stamp. A five-dollar bill will get you a valuable time stamp. The time stamp not only gives a good . check on the speed of the operators but it keeps them from talking to each other. It also keeps the teacher from giving instructions while the class is at work on the machines. He cannot interrupt the class in the middle of the lesson to tell something that has just occurred to him. When the work is done, it is brought to the desk and put in one of four trays built up on the desk, one for each chief correspondent. After school these chief correspondents come to their trays and take out the letters that have been put in there during the day. They work perhaps a half hour either after school or before school the next morning in correcting the work. The four that I have picked are the four best ones and they think they are getting enough training to give the extra half-hour. It is perfectly logical for them to spend this extra time for the training that they are getting in responsibility and initiative. I do not see any of that work at aU with the exception of the letters of the chief correspondents. The chief correspondents, in correcting the work of the other four students, Department] THE STUDENT STENOGRAPHER 915 use the rough drafts of their letters that I have returned so that I govern the work entirely from my desk. In making the corrections, they use their own judgment. We take off two for every error of any kind. One boy turned in a transcript with absolutely no errors, but it was ten minutes too slow. We took off twenty. He learned once for all that you cannot do acceptable work unless at a fair rate of speed. The minute the letters are dictated there is a standard placed on the board, stating the number of words in each letter, the rate of speed at which they are to be transcribed, and the number of minutes that the transcribing of the letter should take. The rough draft goes back to the student before school the next morning and he and the clerks talk things over. He may think he knows more than the clerks. I have found a good bit of complaint in that respect. I always say: "You must settle that outside of school and you are perfectly welcome to come to me if necessary." They have not been coming to me, because the clerks are being trained in harmony and in giving orders to people who think they know as much as they do, which is very valuable training. After one or two drafts, depending upon the ability of the student, the letters are tran- scribed on letterheads. I see the work of every student when it is finally completed and I can look over the rough drafts by turning the sheets over. The carbon copy is made only with this last draft. If it is correct, I O.K. the carbon copy and it goes into a box for my chief clerk to file. If it is not correct, it goes back to the chief correspondent and then to the original student. Both the chief correspondent and the student suffer. They both have to write the letter over. The work that I have O.K'd, the chief clerk takes to her desk. She places the originals in Shannon files alphabetically by the name of the student. You can imagine the laboratory blanks bound up, each student having a copy. The carbon copies and the en- velopes are placed in our vertical files under the names of the students and those carbon copies and envelopes are used for teachiug incoming and out- going mail procedure and filing. We all get around a table where we learn how to fold the letters, how to insert them in the envelopes, and how to stamp them. Then we tear them open and put them away in the files. But we did not mutilate the original copies because we were saving them for exhibition purposes. The grades are all placed on 4X5 cards by the record clerk. The chief correspondents do not record the grades, be- cause I know that four working on the grades do not do efficient work. Each person has a 4X5 card which bears the nxmaber of the letter, the number of words in the letter, the errors, and the time that he took in transcribing. On my desk is a summary of these card records showing the average of each student by the week or by the set of letters. Now one fault with my plan is that I do not train all students in these positions of responsibility. I use, as I stated, six out of twenty, or about 40 per cent. To be practical you cannot break in new people every week for a position that requires responsibility, as some high-school systems try 3 91 6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Busim to do. You are always teaching them and you have everything in an up- roar. Just as the visitors come to inspect your system you have to say, "This is the system, but we are just breaking in someone and it is not working today." That is ideal, perhaps, but it is not practical and I do not believe that it is of sufficient value to warrant its use. Fifty per cent of any student body is a large percentage to hold positions of responsi- bility. That is true in actual business and by keeping the records of the " officers always before the student body you create a good feeling. F. TRADE POSSIBILITIES BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND AUSTRALIA p. E. QUINN, ASSISTANT TRADE COMMISSIONER, NEW SOUTH WALES, AUSTRALIA I notice that the people of the Western Pacific Coast seem to have their eyes perpetually cast on the Orient. I know that the department of commerce is very active in trying to promote trade relations there, but that market is not for you. It is not for any white race. There will be trade between the Orient and the United States, but trade in which the United States will figure as a buyer and not as seller. After all, what regulates the cost of commodities? Primarily the cost of production. You have here a high standard of living and you pay your wage-earners a good wage. In trading with the Chinese and Japanese you are competing with a people who can live on a mere portion of what the American artisan can Uve upon. You know their skill, you know their imitative faculties, you know the low cost of production so far as their own market is concerned. When China realizes herself, it will be impossible for the products of any white race to compete with the industrial products of the Orient. Of course it may be said that the evolution of machinery and the scientific attitude and the ingenuity of the American people will equalize the cost by cheap machine- made goods. The machine is open to the Orient as well as to this country, and sooner or later the destiny of the Orient will not be only to supply itself. Now it is for you to consider with what country you should trade. Australia is a coimtry of your own type. It is composed of people who speak the English language and who share your Uterary and rehgious traditions. We are only a small people numerically, only five million all told, but that community has possibly the largest buying power in the world. We import goods to the extent of eighty dollars per head per annum. We have an enormous production there compared with the population. We have a territory there as large as the territory of the United States and we have only five million people. We are primarily producers of raw products. This country is gradually evolving from that stage into the industrial stage. Our imports consist mainly of manufactured goods. The larger part of the # ■J:' Department] UNITED STATES AND AUSTRALIAN TRADE 917 imports come from Great Britain and the next volume comes from the United States. We have been buying from the United States more than we have been buying from Germany and France combined. In Australia the balance of trade is very much against us. We buy from the United States about five times as much as we sell to the United States. We desire to bring about avenues of communication and trans- portation which will enable us to tap the great industrial market of the United States with our products. We produce the primary products. Our wool is bought very largely in the eastern states. I suppose you all know that wool produced in Australia is absolutely the finest in the world. The wool manufacturers of the East buy that product in very large quantities. There are other products, as metals and hides and various other things, which we propose to bring into the markets of the United States. I could tell you a good deal about the country of Australia. It can never be as great a manufacturing country as the United States. We have not the mountains that you have here. Austraha has a system of moun- tains which runs around the east coast, dwindling to elevated plateaus on the north coast, running down about the same height in the west, and dipping down in the center portion. That fact is that we have not the water power. We have a good deal of water power not yet developed, but we have not enormous reservoirs of power that you have here. We have not yet found petroleum, tho we have plenty of kerosene. Vast mineral deposits have not been found yet, but we have enormous resources of coal and these supply our industrial operations. We have every mineral known to man. A few months ago we started manufacturing pure radium. I wish that I might have the time to impress upon you the importance of knowing the typography of this country, because, after all, what does it amount to excepting that you must know the people with whom you pro- pose to deal ? I would not wish to intrude upon local poUtics, but the first need of a country like this is to have a merchant marine of its own. I believe that it is needed. America is very badly represented in Australia with regard to shipping. It does not carry over its own goods, but three-fourths of the goods are carried in foreign barges. If I were to give you the figures with regard to the actual trade of America which is carried in its own ships, you would be surprised and perhaps a little humiliated. You might think that, as I belong to a part of Great Britain, I would welcome the fact that she carries most of your goods and that the United States has no merchant marine. There is such a thing as altruism, and I beheve that it would be better for the United States to have a merchant marine of its own sufficiently large to carry the products which it exports. I am going to New York shortly and I propose to take steps there to get a direct line of ships from New York to Australia. The Pacific Coast is very well represented at present. We have two steamship Unes running from San Francisco to New Zealand. We have another line running from Vancouver to New Zealand, 9i8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IBusineas but we have no direct line from New York to Sydney. I do not want you to gather the impression that there are no ships going from New York to Sydney. Those ships that were going down to the outbreak of the war were British freighters. They took your trade and they taxed you. They carried your freight, and, having deposited it in Australia, they loaded up with AustraUan goods and forthwith went to Europe. They did not come back to New York and they never do. That trade is not much good to Australia. We want ships to come from New York to Australia and then back to New York. A trade to be effective, a trade to be wholesome, must be reciprocal. A nation to be secure must be prepared to carry its own trade by its own means of transportation. You must disengage your attention from the Orient. In my opinion the Chinese and Japanese will ultimately take good care of their own trade. You must seek your trade with people of sufficiently high standard of living to pay a price for your goods which will compensate you for the cost of production. We wish to trade with America. We like America and we wish it well. The cutting and building of the Panama Canal has given us easier access to New York. The people of the Pacific Coast are really the nearest white race to the people of Australia. San Francisco in point of distance is the halfway house between the city of Sydney and the city of London. We believe that in the trade upon the Pacific Ocean rests our own future and we desire to trade there in reciprocity and absolute friendship with the people of the United States. 1 G. THE NIGHT SCHOOL AS A FACTOR IN BUSINESS EDUCATION DAISY FOX DESMOND, PRINCIPAL OF EVENING SCHOOL, SAN JOSE, CAL. Success, wherever achieved, is always built upon a high ideal. Let us consider the teachers of our ideal evening school. They should be essen- tially himian and should have that rare ability to meet young people on their own ground. I would rather have a teacher in the night school who has a sense of humor than one who can put M.A. after his name. If a teacher can frolic at a dance or at a picnic with his pupils, he can be a comrade and a help to them in their school work. A twinkling eye and an infectious laugh are the greatest aids to discipline in any school work. I believe that teachers should be selected with regard to their speciali- zation rather than for their general culture and scholarship. This is because the need of the individual is so definite. Nobody goes to night school just to kill time. Those who attend want something far more definite than that. Therefore the teachers who supply these needs must be highly specialized. They must be definite, and they must not teach over these children's heads. \ Department] THE NIGHT SCHOOL AND BUSINESS EDUCATION 919 Lastly, the teachers must have love for their work, for humanity, for the youth of the land. Their love must be so great that they do not even have to cultivate patience, charity, justice. These qualities should be already theirs, should be a part and parcel of their makeup. Now that the teachers are selected, let us consider the housing, equip- ment, and courses of study offered. We in San Jose have the same type- writer, domestic science, and manual-training equipment that the pupils of the day school have. During the past year, we have offered courses in mechanical and architectural drawing, wood-turning, machine-shop prac- tice, cooking, sewing, millinery, band, grammar-grade work, with a special English course for foreigners, and the commercial course, which includes commercial arithmetic, rapid calculation and penmanship, commercial geography, history and law, bookkeeping, shorthand, commercial English and typewriting. At the conclusion of the commercial course, we expect to hold graduation exercises and give regular diplomas. One of the first aims in all educational movements should be to teach good citizenship. When I first became principal of the San Jose Night School, I felt a lack of unity in the general machinery of the school life. In many little ways I had noticed on the part of some students a gradual leaning toward some sort of an organization. Why not establish an organi- zation for self-government, develop leadership, encourage service, teach good citizenship, and pass on some of the small cares and duties, thus leaving me free for bigger things ? I already had a committee of nine who were helping me in various ways, so I called a meeting of the student body, explained the situation, told them of the diflSiculties that were hedging me about on all sides, tried to make them see how much more they could get out of a night school than just class recitations, and asked their permission to let my committee of nine be their representatives in a meeting at which the situation could be discussed. They gave a cheerful and unanimous consent and the meeting was held. These young people were representa- tive of the night school in that they were deeply interested in its possi- bilities, had unusually wise heads on their youthful shoulders, and were the most progressive thinkers that I had to rely on. Before this august assem- blage, I repeated my statement of the difficulties to be overcome and called upon them for their opinions. One of the boys said: Why couldn't we have a commission form of government, have you as general manager, and have the various commissioners to superintend the different lines of activity ? San Jose is now considering the commission form of government and we'll all learn some- thing about it even if it doesn't fill the bill. The committee got up a truly marvelous constitution; the student body nominated fifteen commissioners, five of which were to be elected. The candidates distributed printed cards and made speeches highly commenda- tory of their own moral attitudes, and holding out the usual pre-election promises of great things to be done in his or her chosen activity. On the iness V^P 920 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business night of the election great but subdued excitement prevailed. Two voting m booths were rigged up in the gymnasium. We mimeographed the ballots ■ and numbered them with a numbering machine. We had the clerks and the judges and everything was conducted with an interested, solemn formahty. Our new commissioners went right to work, each one selecting for him- self the members of his subcommission. We divided the lines of activity into: buildings and grounds, publicity, social, scholarship, and attendance. The commissioner on buildings and grounds is a mail carrier, about twenty-three or twenty-four years of age. He looks after the order and good behavior in and thruout the school. He organized a patrol for the corridors and grounds to be made several times each evening. We had been annoyed with considerable hoodlumism from outside quarters which had culminated in a great deal of bicycle stealing. His work very effectually put a stop to all of this. He made speeches regarding neatness and order in all of the rooms, and woe be to the boy who was caught dropping so much as a scrap of paper. We have no extra janitor work done for the night school. The work is done in the afternoon and the night school is supposed to leave no evidence of its presence. Any teacher of the day school who wished to make a complaint wrote a note which I placed on the commis- sioner's file, and he attended to it. I could not begin to tell you the thou- sand and one details which this young man attended to for me. We believe in publicity in San Jose — this means advertising. If you have anything that is good, let the other fellow know about it. So we conduct regular advertising campaigns in which we acquaint the general pubhc with the advantages and opportunities furnished by our evening school. Our commissioner on pubUcity is a graduate of the San Jose High School, a quiet, imobtrusive thinker, a boy skilled in debate, and a bom leader of men. Assisting him on his commission are one of our San Jose grade teachers stud)dng shorthand and typewriting with us in the evenings, and a man perhaps forty-five years of age — by profession a painter. They gave articles to the papers, and will estabUsh next year a series of monthly gatherings to be known as "visitors' nights," to which the public will be given a special invitation to witness the regular work done by their own night school and to help either directly or indirectly with the work. Social affairs were handled by a young lady who presides at a soda- water fountain by day, and thru her initiative several parties and dances were given. Many Friday evenings, after closing hour, all who wished gathered in the gymnasium and the girls taught the awkward, bashful lads to dance, sometimes one lad taught another, and between dances they gathered around the piano and sang. Next year we hope to have a glee club, a mandolin club, and a chorus handled by a real teacher, one who will train them to appreciation of the best. The attendance commissioner keeps a complete roll of the school, gets a report from each teacher each period, has students go to him for excuses I Department] ADVERTISING AND SALESMANSHIP , 921 after being absent, and follows up individuals who are falling down in attendance. As a result of his work our average daily attendance was 22^ for the year with a total registration of about 280. This improvement in attendance tended to adjust automatically the problem of class instruction. With good attendance less dupUcation of instruction was necessary and less individual instruction was required. When the night school with its various activities becomes a part of a civic center, when a large proportion of the population find what they need and want within its walls, there will be no time or interest for the poolroom, the gambling table, and the saloon, and thus one of our biggest problems will automatically adjust itseK. I beheve the day is coming when, in the name of education, the schools will have as adjuncts their own moving- picture houses, their pool and billiard tables, their theaters, their dancing- halls, their swimming-tanks, their gymnasiums, and everything else that will help to make life the joyous thing that it should be to the youth stand- ing on the threshold of manhood. He should have his chance to develop along any line for which he is best fitted and it should be among decent surroundings and under the loving care and friendly interest of the best element of the community. H. ADVERTISING AND SALESMANSHIP N. O. SHIVELY, INSTRUCTOR IN ADVERTISING AND SALESMANSHIP, TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL, OAKLAND, CAL. Salesmanship and advertising will soon be taught in every high school, not because you do or do not want it, but because business will and is demanding it. The call in business today is for men, practical men, men technically trained, men who know how to do things, in the best way, in the least time, and at the least expense, and it is your duty and mine to prepare these men and supply this demand. If the course is such an important one, you may ask why it is not given in more schools. There are two reasons why it is not. First, the subject is new and the teachers are unprepared. Furthermore it is just becoming recognized as necessary. Second, many principals and boards of education are inclined to take a narrow view of the proposition. They are prejudiced against practical education in general; they have preconceived notions that cultural training alone is most beneficial. It took years to make many of them realize that bookkeeping and shorthand should be a part of the high- school curriculum. When we speak of the course in salesmanship, let us not infer that it is the teacher's duty to give a course that will embody plans and schemes for doing the other fellow. Heaven knows the boys will learn that soon enough. The course to be most beneficial must be primarily a man- building course. We want our boys to grow right as they grow great. 922 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business It may do no particular harm to teach something of the cutthroat methods of business merely as a matter of self-protection, but the real purpose of the course must be ethical. A course properly given will be divided into three distinct parts: first, man building; second, ethics in business; third, principles in selling. I have mentioned them in what I consider the order of their importance. Looking at the subjects from a practical point of view, we are still justified in maintaining that salesmanship is a necessity in secondary-school edu- cation in that it vitally interests every man. A doctor sells his services, a lawyer sells his services, the farmer must sell his products. We are all buyers as well as salesmen. Our success depends on our abiUty to create a market for our services by advertising and then knowing how to sell them. When I see young men with a high-school education and in many instances university students, or even teachers, starting out full of hope and ambition to sell their services or a line of goods, and when I witness their crude methods and consequent discouragement and disappointment, it makes me earnest about this. On the other hand, the service rendered by many commercial teachers is well-nigh criminal. Their sole aim is to do just enough to hold their job and draw a pay check. What about the half- baked product they turn out whose young breast is full of hope and ambi- tion but who is doomed before the end of the first round ? This is the age of specialization. The watchword in business today is efficiency. For centuries science has been developing machinery that will perform almost human tasks, but what about the man ? When a man wants to be a lawyer he studies law, when he aspires to be a physician he studies medicine, when he wants to be a salesman he thinks he needs no training. It is our business to demonstrate to his satisfaction that preliminary training is a requisite. We teach a boy cultural subjects, history, mathematics, and literature, we load him up with facts and figures, then start him into business, and yet he knows very Uttle about business. He deals with human nature and human problems, and yet he knows practically nothing about these prob- lems. He invests his earnings and loses because he has never been taught how to make a proper and safe investment. Ninety per cent of the business is done on credit. Yet men fail and a large part of this money is lost because the man borrowing does not know anything about the business. When once we have the boy's future welfare at heart, we will teach him how to protect himself when he leaves the school and enters business. The earn- ing power of the educated man is 400 per cent greater than the imeducated, yet how many of the educated men are getting rich ? It is because they have not learned two things: how to save and how to make a safe investment. Is not this sufficient reason why this course should be given ? Can you put the proposition squarely and fairly to your principal and to your boards of education and prove to their satisfaction that such a course is a necessity ? ! Department] ADVERTISING AND SALESMANSHIP 923 How should the course be given ? It will be necessary to take each phase of the work separately. In salesmanship, there should be two sections if the work is to be given most satisfactorily. The first should consist of boys preparing for specialty and wholesale work only. The second should be confined to girls and will deal with the problems of retail selling only. It is not an absolute necessity, however, to segregate the boys and girls in this manner as the principles of selling are identically the same. The man-building features of the course are identically the same. The teacher who understands her business will take each of these problems and make it applicable to each of the three classes of selling. ' Just to illustrate: Your method of approaching your customers, getting them interested in your line, and the closing of a sale are very similar in retail, wholesale, and specialty work. In the analysis of your goods, the arranging of your talking points, and again in planning your talk there is only one method and this must be used by the retail, wholesale, and specialty man. The advantage, however, in having the students segregated is that it saves time. The wholesale and specialty student is not particularly interested in the retail work, and vice versa. The girls working in a retail store want pointers in dealing with their problems, and care Uttle about how the specialty man will sell a farmer life insurance when his hobby is raising blooded stock. The boys who expect to go on the road, or who are taking the course for general information, do not care a snap about how we would get the irritable old lady in a department store calmed down and sell her a large order. It is essential that in the first lesson you impress upon your students that this course is not designed for the purpose of teaching the students tricks and schemes for taking advantage of their fellow-men, but that there are principles honorable in themselves which if followed closely will in a measure reward with success. The practical side of the course in general selling must show the student how to get an interview under every conceivable condition^ — how to get attention, arouse interest, create desire, produce action, and close the sale; how to analyze goods for talking points; how to build a logical sales talk; how to meet and overcome every conceivable objection; how to classify and handle the various types of buyer and handle them successfully; how and when to use suggestion and argument, weaving their talk around human instincts; how to plan and conduct a mail-order business, as well as a thou- sand other business topics, live, interesting, and important. On the other hand, the cultural side of the course will deal with the analysis of the student himself. It will, show every student how to develop a powerful and pleasing personaUty; how to enlarge and make use of his natural personal magnetism; how to make use of mental telepathy and auto-suggestion in selling; how to develop and strengthen his power of will. 924 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business During the latter part of the course, sales demonstrations will be given by the students. Buyers will be brought in from the outside and many times the students will perform the difficult task of selling to them. I have seen girls with maps and Uterature talk for an hour trying to persuade and convince a buyer that he should invest in a piece of real estate. Many of the boys in a class will already be selling either in the retail or specialty field. Have them bring their problems to the class and there discuss them. Every boy should be encouraged to sell something after school, on Saturdays, and during vacation. It gives them a start in the right direction. It teaches them how to deal with human nature. The majority of the girls in the retail section will be working in the stores on Satmrdays, and you will find that the stores will be glad to co-operate with you in this work. In advertising, the course is designed primarily to secure greater effi- ciency for the boys who leave the high schools and go into business. This phase of selling has grown to enormous proportions within the last few years. Almost the first problem with which the student must deal after leaving the high school is that of writing a "want ad." When a man's services are for sale, he must know how to advertise them for results. In almost every line of hmnan endeavor, advertising is involved to a greater or lesser extent. This course is especially important, therefore, to the yoimg man who has not yet selected his vocation as well as to the girl who expects to go into business, either as a stenographer or a saleswoman, on leaving school. This course does not prepare and cannot prepare for the profession of advertising, but what it should do is to give each student an insight and general view of this particular vocation. Very Uttle time should be spent in the study of the history of advertising. The class probably should start with what advertising men call "from out- side to center work." The class will make a study of borders of every style, how to use and when to use them, and from the outside will work toward the center of the advertisement, taking in logical order the headings, subheadings, price and signatiure, display, etc., and finally the body. One of the first things that it is necessary for the student to learn is the use of printer's terms, such as points, picas, matrices, etc. After having studied the general make-up of an advertisement, local advertising is taken and carefully studied. A number of firms in the city turn their advertising over to the class and it is carefully worked out by the students and submitted for approval. This is continued thruout the entire semester. All the advertisements in the school paper will be written and handled exclusively by the class. After having carefully studied the local field they then take up national advertising. The student will write to eastern firms asking for advertising Uterature. In many instances they also secure letters show- ing just why the campaign was planned in that particular way. As this advertising matter is received it is openly discussed in class. Many local advertising campaigns are brought into the classroom and discussed. Department] FARM STATISTICS AND STANDARDIZED ACCOUNTS 925 Various kinds of mediums, billboard, and street-car advertising are taken up in their regular turn. Each student in the advertising class should be taking a course in com- mercial art. He should know how to letter, paint signs, and write show cards, and should understand color values and color harmony. In giving this work, it is practically impossible to use a textbook inas- much as there are no books on the market so far as I know that are suitable for this work. The International Correspondence School has a book on advertising and another on window display which we use for reference work and which are perhaps the best on the market altho their price is prohibitive for use in the classroom. Business magazines should be taken and used by the class and perused carefully by the members of the class. Practice should be given in writing book reviews. I want you to take this message home with you. Our greatest service to mankind is in the good we can do these boys and girls. Our greatest joy should be found in doing what we can to make their life-problems easier. FARM STATISTICS AND STANDARDIZED ACCOUNTS J. A. BEXELL, DEAN, SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, OREGON AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, CORVALLIS, ORE. Common complaints against commercial education are that it fails to keep abreast of the times; that it fails to connect its theoretical instruc- tion with the practical affairs of life; and that its limit of courses is too narrow. I shall not enter into a general discussion as to the truth of these serious changes. One of the most significant extensions of commercial courses is their introduction into the agricultural colleges and rural high schools. The business side of farming is rapidly receiving its share of attention in all classes of business schools. In this discussion I have taken the liberty of confining my illustrations to the business of farming, both because of the extraordinary interest which is now shown in rural education and because of the special work done in this branch of business training by the Oregon Agricultural College. This audience will have no difliculty in applying my line of reasoning to any field of commerce and industry. While we are spending a vast amount of time and labor in standard- izing our courses of study and in the discussion of methods, we often lose sight of the ultimate aim of commercial training. The graduates of our schools should accomplish some of the reforms which everyone admits are of vital importance in our civic and economic life. But are we training for this larger field of service? Are we giving the pupils the right point of view? This can be done only by acquainting the student with the problems to be solved and by pointing out methods of their solution. 926 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business I shall now confine myself to only a single problem, that of farm statis- tics and accounts. I wish to emphasize again that, generally speaking, what is true of this problem is also true of every other problem of industry and commerce. It is a truism that any business has profit for its ultimate aim, and also that the largest profit cannot be realized without a knowledge of all the details which enter into the business. It is not less true that any business may be made more profitable by a study of the experience of others, by comparing the result of our own efforts with that of our neighbors, thus profiting by their successes as well as by their failures. One of the most remarkable agencies in agricultural education had its origin in the search for statistical information regarding the marketing of wheat. The story runs that David Lubin, when he became convinced that he could not receive a square deal in selling wheat thru the grain brokers of Chicago and New York, began to inquire where the prices of wheat were fixed. He had observed that a mysterious influence caused the rise and fall in wheat prices always to the disadvantage of the grower. He suspected that private interests were the cause of this fluctuation, and he correctly conceived that it was thru the secrecy of their methods that they were able to cause the fluctuation. He started his search at Chicago without results. He continued in New York, but without success. He pursued his investigation at the world's greatest wheat market, Liverpool, but was still unable to find any trace of the mysterious influence. But of this he had become convinced: the real cause of the fluctuation in wheat was a combination of wheat buyers with their ramification of wheat-buying agencies thruout the world. His remedy he proposed to the King of Italy and the simpUcity and effectiveness of his scheme was at once apparent to that monarch. The result was the establishment of an International Institute of Agriculture at Rome. Its object was to gather statistics regarding crop production in every part of the world; to compile and dis- seminate the knowledge so gathered among wheat growers and consumers; thus preventing the artificial rise and fall of prices in the world's greatest staple commodity. The effect was at once noticed to the advantage of both the consumer and producer of wheat, but to the discomfort of wheat speculators. At present, this is only a small part of the work of what has since been called the first realization of the "ParUament of Man." International informa- tion regarding other phases of agricultiure is now gathered and published by this organization in five languages. It includes representatives from every civilized country, and it constitutes as it were a clearing-house of agri- cultural information thruout the world. I have mentioned the establishment of the International Institute for the purpose of showing the importance attached to statistical information. It is evident, however, that tiiis information is unsatisfactory unless its i I Department] FARM STATISTICS AND STANDARDIZED ACCOUNTS 927 source is reliable. Statistical information is dangerous unless secured from reliable data. The most notable illustration of this is found in gathering the United States census. Attempts are made just before census-taking to educate the people into preparing accurate data for the collectors, but it is usually found impossible to secure anything like accurate information on many schedules, particularly in regard to farm finance. It is not so much the absolute lack of records that is found in taking a farm census or survey as the lack of uniformity of classification. Unless the classification is uniform, it is, of course, impracticable to use the data for statistical purposes. Often more labor is involved in classifying and analyzing such data than they are worth. One of the difficulties of a young farmer just starting into business is to know how much capital to devote to each branch of his business: to land, to buildings, to live stock, and to machinery. If he knew the average experience of all the farmers in similar circumstances, he would be just that much farther ahead, and would be able to organize this work to the greatest advantage and efficiency. It is the accumulated experience of others which should be reduced to comparable records and thus be made available to others. Statistical training of a business man is useful, not only for the information itseK, but it is a powerful influence in putting him into the right attitude toward his business, and in establishing a correct relation between himself and his neighbors. In his interesting monograph on The Survey Idea in Country Life Work, Dean Bailey has suggested an idea which should revolutionize the business side of farming. He suggests that every community should take stock once a year and that the results should be incorporated into what might be called a community inventory. Essentially this would be a summary of the resources of a given community. Such a survey would consider each farm a business unit, and would involve a careful study of the general business situation in the region in respect to markets, railroads, taxation, credit, land tenure, markets, and the like. It would consider the farm, not so much in reference to the production of crops on that particular farm, but in its relation to the community and surroundings. It must be perfectly clear to every thoughtful student that such informa- tion regarding the community experience would be very valuable, and equally clear that this information would be of little or no value imless systematized and secured from what might be called a standardized system of accoimting. "The substance of it all," says Dean Bailey, "is that we must see clearly in advance what information we want, and then proceed in an orderly and systematic way in securing this information." This is already practiced in many European countries, notably Austria, Prussia, and Switzerland. A system of records should therefore be adopted which might be called a "standard system," and this should have three objects in view: (i) To furnish adequate and reliable information to the farmer I 928 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Busiix himself as to his financial operations and the cost of production for the purpose of being able to forecast results, and upon which he can base future ■ operations. (2) To furnish complete and reliable data to the general organi- I zations interested in the uphft of rural Ufe. (3) To furnish rehable reports upon which to base agricultural credit. Let us dwell just a moment on this subject of agricultural credit. No single question is receiving more attention today, but few of the enthusiasts for agricultural credit realize that a transformation in our farmers' methods of doing business must be made before rural credit can be built upon a solid foundation. When a commercial house desires to estabUsh a line of credit with its bankers, the first thing required is a comprehensive and accurate report on the financial standing of the institution, and this must usually be certified by some outside, disinterested authority. Such a report, in order to meet the requirements of the bank, must be based upon reUable records, which must demonstrate to the loan committee of the bank that the institution is operated on a safe basis. It may never be required of a farmer to furnish reports in such detail as is required by commercial institu- tions, but the advantage of a satisfactory system of records, a system that will convince the authorities that the farm is being run at a profit, will be of the greatest value in facilitating loans. A uniform system of agricultural credit and a uniform system of rural economic surveys, both having for their object the promotion of agricul^ ture would, therefore, require a uniform system of farm records. This subject of uniform accounting has been greatly agitated by insurance commissions, railroad cormnissions, municipal and county authorities; in fact, this question of standard accounts and reports, which wiU give the pubUc reliable information on vital business questions, has received extraor- dinary attention in almost every line of business except that of the farm. An organization would do the farming business a lasting service by appoint- ing a conunittee for the purpose of formulating a uniform system of accounts and statistical reports. It would be a very large task for the committee and one that would probably require the co-operation of the United States Department of Agriculture, the agricultural colleges, and the banking inter- ests of the country as well as of the farmers themselves. There is already in the United States Department of Agriculture an agency known as the Office of Farm Management which would be the natural clearing-house for standardized information on this important subject. In the preparation of records upon which statistical information is to be based, it should be borne in mind that each locality must be studied as an independent business imit. This is true, not only of the great agricul- tural regions of the United States, but often of the different locaUties of each state, which differ very materially in climate, soil, conditions of labor, and methods of farming. Studies of the actual business of farming gathered in Minnesota, for example, are not necessarily appUcable to the Department] FARM STATISTICS AND STANDARDIZED ACCOUNTS 929 agricultural regions elsewhere. The statistical investigation in Minnesota has this to say: The relation of one part of the farm to another and the relation of the farm to the markets and to other industries have not been brought under scientific investigation. The facts derived from detailed investigations concerning the soils, plants, and animals are of great importance, but they are useful only as the farmer's training enables him to make proper use of these facts. It will be objected by many that since it is extremely difficult to induce the farmer to keep sufficient records for his own use, it will be still more difficult to secure information for others. This would be true if it were not for the growing tendency toward co-operation among the farmers themselves, with the agricultural colleges and societies and with the United States Office of Farm Management. Co-operative cow-testing associations, creamery associations, marketing associations of all kinds, are beginning to solve this problem in a natural manner. It is impossible for a number of men to do business co-operatively without establishing between them- selves a system of records indicating their relations. In some localities, they have been employing a community accountant, whose duty it is to go from place to place, not only to test the cows, report upon crop conditions, and so on, but actually to assist the farmer in systematizing his records, and to work up comparative statistical material. This is a common practice in many European countries. Much is said nowadays on the conservation of our natural resources. There is another hne of conservation even more important than this, namely, the conservation of physical energies and their utilization to the best advantage of both man and beast. There is, perhaps, no subject that could be taken up more profitably on the farm than the study of lost motions and of getting the greatest value out of labor. It is more than probable that in the near future the organization and management of the farm will be placed upon the same basis as that of any other business enterprise, and the large farm will call to its assistance the efficiency expert for the purpose of reducing waste in every branch of the enterprise. Whether this will be effected by the consolidation of small farms into a larger unit, or the organization of a number of farmers into one business organization on the co-operative plan, or by the assistance of an expert adviser for the com- munity, are questions which are not yet settled. Efficiency engineers agree that one of the most important requisites to motion study is an adequate system of records by which it can be determined whether methods are effective or unprofitable from the point of view of the farm manager. It is imperative that he secure reports on every phase of the farm operations so that he can direct them profitably in the future. If these reports were standardized, aud every farmer reported to a certain authority on the same forms, the reports could be reduced to statistical analysis. The information would then be available to the members of the organization and their 930 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Busmess records would show, not only their own operations, but the experience of others. The educational value of statistical work lies in placing the farmer in a critical attitude toward his business, and also in arousing interest in agri- culture in the pubUc schools. It has already had the effect in Oregon, Minnesota, and elsewhere of developing simple and practical schemes of farm bookkeeping and of introducing farm accounting in the courses of agricultural schools of many states. In general, it has aroused an interest in farm finance and business methods which nothing else would likely have accomplished. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH, STANDARDIZATION, AND CORRELATION W. S. MCKINNEY, ENGLEWOOD HIGH SCHOOL, CHICAGO, ILL., CHAIRMAN During the past year, some further research has been made as to the character, scope, and extent of the commercial work being done in various parts of the United States. J. A. Bexell, dean of the School of Commerce, Oregon Agricultural College, and Merritt Davis, head of the commercial department. High School, Salem, Ore., assisted by Don Sowers, University of Oregon, and C. I. Blanchard, Oregon Agricultural College, have arranged, from the data at hand and obtained in response to questionnaires sent out, a pro- posed four-year high-school course, with two schedules. One emphasizes accounting, and the other emphasizes stenography and typewriting, fol- lowed by a grouping of required subjects for several different vocational courses. Each course consists of carrying four subjects per semester during eight semesters of eighteen to twenty weeks, as shown in Table I. The TABLE I Course in Accounting Course in Stenography Required of all students Required in vocational courses. . Electives UniU 14 7 II Units 14 8 10 Total 32 32 _ A unit is a week's work of five daily forty-five-minute periods with an equal amount of home work carried during one semester of not less than eighteen weeks, or five daily ninety-minute periods of laboratory work without home assignment. subjects are grouped first around two main vocational subjects: (i) account- ing, (2) stenography. But within each of these groups there will be one class of students who expect to make their major a life-work (Groups i and 4), and another class which selects it as a stepping-stone to some other occupation (Groups 2, 3, 5, and 6). Hence a system of grouping of the Department] RESEARCH, STANDARDIZATION, AND CORRELATION 931 electives is recommended. It is recommended also that apprenticeship in stenography, salesmanship, or bookkeeping be encouraged and given one semester credit in Groups i and 4, providing the subject is taken under strict supervision of the instructor. StrajECTS REQUIBJED IN BOTH COUESES Units English 8 Bookkeeping 2 Penmanship 2 Commercial arithmetic i Commercial geography i 14 ADDITIONAL SUBJECTS REOOTEED IN THE ACCOUNTING COURSE UniU Bookkeeping 2 Economics i Salesmanship i Commercial law i History and civics 2 7 ADDITIONAL SUBJECTS REQUIRED IN THE STENOGRAPHY COURSE Units Stenography 4 Typewriting 4 8 SUGGESTED ELECTIVE GROUPS Group I. Office training for accountants UniU Accounting 2 Advanced salesmanship i Advanced economics i Apprenticeship in bookkeeping or salesmanship i Select 5 10 Group 2. Mechanic arts Units Algebra II 2 Manual training 4 Mechanical drawing 2 Geometry 2 10 Group 3. Agriculture Unite Chemistry 4 Agriculture 4 Botany and zoOlogy 2 10 Group 4. Office training for stenographers Unite Advanced stenography and typewriting; manifolding 2 Office training 2 Apprenticeship in stenography i ' Select I 6 932 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business Group 5. Domestic science and art Domestic science and art Drawing Select Units 4 I I Group 6. General dectives Modem languages History Science Typewriting Unite 4 4 2 4 14 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION COURSE COMMERCIAL COURSE — ^EMPHASIZING ACCOUNTING FIKST SEUESTES English Penmanship Elective:' *Manual training 5 *Domestic science and art 5 Agriculture S Modem language 5 Algebra 5 First Year SECOND SEMESTER 5 English 5 Penmanship 10 20 Elective:' *Manual training 5 •Domestic science and art 5 Agriculture 5 Modem language 5 Algebra s S 5 10 20 Second Year FIRST SEMESTER English 5 •Bookkeeping S Commercial arithmetic. ... 5 Elective:' $ •Manual training 5 •Domestic science and art 5 Agriculture S Modem language 5 Plane geometry 5 FIRST SEHESTEK English S •Bookkeeping 5 Elective:' lo Stenography 5 •Typewriting 5 Chemistry 5 Physics 5 History S SECOND SEMESTER English •Bookkeeping Commercial geography. . . . Elective:' •Manual training 5 •Domestic science and art 5 Agriculture 5 Modem language 5 Plane geometry 5 Third Year SECOND SEMESTER English •Bookkeeping Commercial law Elective:' Stenography $ •Typewriting 5 Chemistry 5 Physics s History 5 ' See suggested elective groups. * Double periods. All general subjects are treated in relation to commerce so far as practicable, speaking. English includes public Department] RESEARCH, STANDARDIZATION, AND CORRELATION 933 Fourth Year FIRST SEMESTER Business English American history Economics Elective:' Stenography S •Typewriting 5 •Bookkeeping 5 OflSce training 5 SECOND SEIIESTER 5 Business English 5 Civics 5 Salesmanship 5 20 Elective:* Stenography 5 •Typewriting 5 •Bookkeeping 5 Office training 5 COMMERCIAL COUKSE — ^EMPHASIZING STENOGRAPHY First Year FIRST SEIIESTER English S Penmanship 5 Elective:' 10 •Manual training 5 •Domestic science and art 5 Modern language S Drawing S FIRST SEMESTER English S •Bookkeeping 5 Commercial arithmetic. ... 5 Elective:' 5 •Manual training S •Domestic science and art 5 Modem language 5 Drawing 5 FIRST SEMESTER English S Stenography 5 •Typewriting S Elective :' S 20 •Bookkeeping 5 •Domestic science and art 5 History 5 General elective 5 SECOND SEMESTER English Penmanship Elective:' •Manual training 5 •Domestic science and art 5 Modern language 5 Drawing 5 Second Year SECOND SEMESTER English •Bookkeeping Commercial geography. . . . Elective:' •Manual training 5 •Domestic science and art 5 Modern language 5 Drawing 5 Third Year SECOND SEMESTER English Stenography •Typewriting Elective:' Bookkeeping 5 •Domestic science and art 5 History 5 Commercial 5 Fourth Year FIRST SEMESTER Business English 5 Stenography 5 •Typewriting 5 Elective:' 5 Economics S Office training 5 American history 5 General elective.*. 5 SECOND SEMESTER Business English Stenography •Typewriting Elective:' Salesmanship 5 Office training 5 Civics 5 Apprenticeship 5 S S 10 20 ' See suggested elective groups. ♦ Double periods. All general subjects are treated in relation to commerce so fai as practicable. English includes public speaking. 934 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business Forty-two different subjects were included in replies to questionnaires reporting courses of study from various schools. These schedules, based essentially upon an average of these reports, will be foimd to be greatly at variance with the working schedules in many different localities thruout the country. This proposed course with variable schedules and suggested groupings is submitted not as a finahty but as a basis of discussion. It serves to emphasize the urgent need of a clearly defined statement of the essential content of each subject with a logical plan for its development. Consideration also needs to be given to the var)dng conditions of the different classes of schools, and, while offering practical suggestions for brief as well as elaborate study, superficial and desultory treatment should be avoided. In order to utilize this material, also the available results attained by other organizations working along similar h'nes, an effort has been made to secure specialists to make surveys and critical analyses of particular subjects with a view to formulating outlines of the essential content and orderly method of procedure in the presentation of each subject. ^ THE LATIN-AMERICAN FIELD AND OPPORTUNITY JOHN BARRETT, DIRECTOR, PAN-AMERICAN UNION, WASHINGTON, D.C. The greatest problem before the United States today lies not in its relation to the countries across the Pacific but in its relation to the countries south of us. After my appointment as United States minister to an Asiatic country, I spent seven years in Asia in charge of embassies and negotiations in Japan, Korea, China, and Siam. From there I graduated to South America and there I was in charge of four of the legations of the United States. For the last eight years I have been trying to make the American people realize that the very life of this nation, the very life and influence of every school-teacher from San Francisco to Boston, Minneapolis to New Orleans, depend upon the fact that if we do not have the western hemisphere with the United States and the United States with the nations of the western hemisphere, the life of this nation is ended. I want to say to you thoughtful men and women that, when this great war is over, whichever nation conquers or whatever combination of nations conquers is going to be the mightiest force that God has ever known in the history of this world. It is going to have an army, it is going to have a navy of which you and I have no conception, and in comparison with which our army and navy is but a mere bagatelle. Whether the AUies or the Central European powers are victors makes no difference. Whichever side wins in that great European war is going to say that it won in spite of the United States. Whichever combination loses, it is going to say it lost because of the United States. There will be no love on either side for our Department] TEE LATIN-AMERICAN FIELD AND OPPORTUNITY 935 country. I know that from my own personal correspondence with the men today who are directing the affairs of Germany and Great Britain. Yesterday I received a telegram from Lord Nordcliflf e, who owns the London Times, protesting to me against the attitude of certain American news- papers. Four days before I received a telegram from one of the most powerful papers in Germany protesting against the American papers. It is up to the educators of America to make our men and women reaHze that the whole western hemisphere from the Canadian line on the north to the Straits of Magellan on the south, has got to stand together to perpetuate our civilization — for the perpetuity of our American institutions. I want to ask you, as practical school-teachers. How many of you realize that every one of these twenty countries south of us has written its constitution upon the Constitution of the United States ? No other nation of the world has a heritage and a responsibility of that character. How many of you realize that nothing in the life of Washington compares to what Bolivar and San Martin, the George Washingtons of South America, went thru to achieve the independence of their countries ? In a few years there is not going to be a school-teacher in America who is not going to be talking to her boys and girls about Bolivar and San Martin as greater characters than Napoleon or Caesar or Hannibal. We have been living in a seclusion of magnificent isolation. In this country we have gloried in our pride, not realizing that an area three times ours south of us has been developing while we thought we were the only part of the world that was developing. As a result of the efforts of the Pan-American Union, of which I have the honor of being the executive officer of the international organization in America, two thousand colleges, universities, high schools, and technical schools have taken up the study of the Spanish language during the last seven years. As a result of our efforts, seventeen hundred universities, colleges, public schools, and other institutions have taken up the study of the history of Latin America. Upon my desk in Washington are three thousand letters from educators in America saying that they have never known of an inspiration for their students like the inspiration from studies of the heroes and statesmen of Latin America. There is nothing in the history of Europe, nothing in the history of Greece or Rome, that can touch the history of the patriots of the western hemisphere. We are enter- ing at this very moment on the greatest era of American development that we have ever known, and when the other day Secretary Lansing and the ambassador from Argentina and the minister of BoHvia and Chile signed that joint note to Mexico the greatest era in the history of the United States or in the Pan-American Union or in world-affairs was initiated. Probably the majority of you do not know much more about the Pan- American Union, of which I have the honor of being the executive officer, than I did about Siam when I was first appointed United States minister to that country. When I was ushered into the presidential presence in 936 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Business Washington on that occasion, the President said: "Mr. Barrett, I am look- ing for some yomig man who is not afraid of hard work, who wants to make a reputation for himseK, and who does not mind the cholera or the plague in the tropics, to send to Siam to settle a case involving several millions of dollars and the interpretation of our treaty rights in that part of the world." I thought he wanted me to recommend somebody and I began to think of somebody in my state that I would like to get rid of and who would go so far away that he would never get back and who would die of the cholera or something of that kind. While I was trying to think of a man I might suggest for that place, the President said to me: "Barrett, I am thinking of appointing you United States minister to Siam. What do you know about that country?" Of course if I had been properly educated, I might have answered, but to save my life I could not quite make up my mind whether Siam was in Asia or Africa or in the North or South Pacific. Bracing up and looking the presidential presence straight in the eye and remem- bering that he did not want a man who knew too much about the country because he might have prejudices, I said: "Mr. President, I know all about Siam." He said, "What do you know about Siam?" I said: "Mr. President, Siam is the country that produced the irmnortal Siamese twins." Whereupon he shook my hand and said, "I am delighted to get hold of a man with such abimdant information." As a result of that exchange of diplomatic notes, as it were, we finally decided that I should go. I went out and saw Japan evolving from her four or five thousand years of status quo into a modem nation; I saw China with her three hundred millions getting ready for this evolutionary republic that has come; I arrived in Siam and saw there the most progressive country in all Asia, without exception. Down in Southeastern Asia, in the heart of the tropics, was the nation whose king could speak as good English as almost any college president in America and yet who was descended thru three thousand years of tropical ancestors. When I saw there the first woman's college in all Asia with buildings that would be a credit to Wellesley, or Vassar, or Smith, or the University of California, built at an expense of two and three miUions of dollars, and when I saw there the first electric street-car Unes and the first automobiles in aU Asia, way down there in the tropics, I said: " How little we vaunted glorious creatures who teach school and we college professors back in America realize what the rest of the world is doing." As I journeyed up into China and Korea and Japan and back into the hills of the Himalayas, I said, I have been to public school, I have been to the high school, I have been to the preparatory school, and I have graduated from college, but I never knew anything of this. Why wasn't I taught it? Why wasn't I made a citizen of the world instead of merely a citizen of the United States or merely a citizen in the state in which I lived? Why wasn't my vision made to realize my responsibility to these men and women ? There is some defect in our school system back at home. Department] THE LATIN -AMERICAN FIELD AND OPPORTUNITY 937 Here I found seven hundred millions of human beings — eight times the population of the United States — of whom I knew nothing. I decided then that if I ever had the chance I should impress upon the universities, colleges, and public schools in this country that we must realize that the sun does not rise and set upon the United States alone and that there are other nations in the world and other people. They are just as good people as we are, and yet we have been living in a glorious unconsciousness until Germany and Austria and Russia and England and France and Italy have forged so far ahead of us that now, if it had not been for the handicap of the most terrible and cruel war of aU times, God only knows where we would have been in the next ten years. I sometimes think that this war was sent as a godsend to make the American people wake up. We think, because we have one hundred milUons of people, wonderful railroads, marvelous cities, and methods of communication which are the wonders of the world that we are the only potatoes in the patch, but there are great big weeds growing up all the time and they choke us up. The great thing necessary today is for every teacher in this country from the greatest college professor down to the kinder- gartner to remember that we are not merely citizens of the United States. We are not merely citizens of our state and country but of the whole world, and our own existence and our own future depend upon how we stand with the rest of the world. In many respects, notwithstanding its magnificent, wonderful, marvelous energy, our United States is the greatest weakling in the world. Japan has more knowledge of the rest of the world and the power of other nations than we have in this country. There is not a country school — and I visited them in the heart of Japan — where they do not tell you more about international responsibihty than our public schools teach in this country. Down in Argentina, that wonderland of South America, they know a thousand times more about Washington and Lincoln and our politics and our conditions than we know about them. In Brazil they know far more about you and your history and your development than you ever thought of knowing about them. When this terrible war is over, there is going to be a great big line going up and down the Atlantic Ocean with Europe and Africa on one side and the United States and South America on the other. There is also another great big line going up and down the Pacific Ocean with Japan and China and Australia on the other side, and, just as sure as I stand here and you sit there, whether you will become another Belgium or not depends upon whether you reaUze the fact that we have got to have South America with us or die. Supposing that all Europe should combine against us; supposing all Asia should combine against us; supposing Canada with the sympathies of Europe should combine against us; and then supposing South America should join against us, where would we be? We would be nothing, absolutely nothing. If we have South 938 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Businea America with us, with her unhmited natural resources and with her splendid magnificent potentialities which God has given her and her people, then th perpetuity of the western hemisphere is assured. Now I want to get right frank with you. For twenty-two years I hav< been on the firing Une of our foreign a£Fairs — seven years in Asia and fours teen hard years in Latin America. There is not a country in Asia that '. do not know almost as well as I know my native hills, and there is not country in South America that I do not know almost as well as Cahfomiaj^ I want to say to you in all sincerity that the greatest problem and greatest opportunity before the United States today are Pan-Americanis: the sohdarity and the combined action and the attitude of the twenty-o: nations of the western hemisphere from Mexico, United States, and Canada' on the north, to Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay on the south. It has got to come; it will come. There will not be a primary school, an American high school, college, or university that will not in the next five or ten years be teaching this doctrine. In the last year in order to promulgate this idea I have twice visited every state in the Union by invitation of the gover- nors of the states, mayors of the cities, and presidents of the universities. I wish I were speaking to ten thousand instead of a hundred now. Did you ever stop to think what Pan- America means ? Pan- America means twenty-one independent repubUcs. The United States has twenty sister-republics covering nine miUions of square miles, three times the area of the United States, three times the area of Europe, and almost the area of Africa. Pan-America means one hundred and eighty miUions of human beings and the population of Latin America is increasing faster by reproduc- tion than is our population. There is no race suicide down in Latin America. After this war is over and the influence of the Panama Canal and new con- ditions is at work, Latin-American immigration from Europe is going increase faster than ours. When Latin America has the same proportii of population to the area as we, it will have three hundred milhons of hvun; beings. And we think we are the only people on earth! Go over to the Argentine building and see the commissioners there. You never saw a finer looking lot of men from any coimtry, all of them b^ fellows, six feet four, and men who compare favorably with Bryce any tim( Many of the men from these countries can talk nine different languages and know the history of the world. I wish you could know the men and women of Argentina and Brazil as I know them. I have met all over Asia men whom God forbid that I should ever call Americans. You have met similar kinds of South Americans up here and you say "oh, those dago repubUcs!" The Pan-American Union, of which I have the honor of being the executive oflScer, is the organization of twenty-one American repubUcs for the purpose of developing friendship, commerce, good understanding, and peace and acquaintance among them. Just two weeks ago I received a I Department] THE LATIN -AM ERIC AN FIELD AND OPPORTUNITY 939 letter from Winston Churchill, the former first lord of the Admiralty, with whom I have shot tigers and lions in Africa and with whom I am intimately acquainted. I know he would never misrepresent things to me. He said that at a meeting of the cabinet, Asquith said that, if they had had a Pan-European Union in London or Paris or Berlin or Vienna or Petrograd feshioned upon the Pan-American Union in Washington, there never would have been a European war. We think we have reached the very climax of things here in America. Do you want me to tell you where I honestly believe that in the eyes of God Almighty, is the greatest evidence of the real spirit of humanity among men? It is not in this country; it is in South America. Remember that I have told you this and that every one of these countries south of us has written its constitution upon the Constitution of the United States. Think of the heritage! No other nation in the world has it. Every one of these twenty-one countries gained its independence thru the leadership of generals and patriots who, in their own biographies, say that they were inspired to make the fight for Uberty by our own George Washington. Is not that a marvelous thing and a wonderful inspiration ? It teaches one to be sym- pathetic toward these men. Tonight when you go to bed and when you dream, I want you to have this picture in your mind. It has encouraged me a thousand times as showing the civilization of the western hemisphere and of Latin America. But in order that you may understand I must build up a little contrast. If you and I today were to journey in Europe we would see millions of men fighting each other; we would see the destruction everywhere of magnificent cathedrals, beautiful monuments, exquisite cities, the heritage of other ages. That picture of brutahty, the killing of women's fathers and husbands and brothers and sons, sacrificed for the god of war, with the destruction of everything that men for a thousand years have made beautiful and mag- nificent— that is European civilization. Now the parting thought as to American civiUzation. Remember first, however, that two-thirds of Latin America has known no revolution during the past twenty-two years. Remember that there have been ten times as many revolutions in Europe, and that there have been ten times as many international wars in Europe in the last one hundred years as there have been in North and South America together. In that marvelous country of Argentina on the one side stretching away to the Atlantic Ocean and Chile reaching to the Pacific, there sixteen thousand feet above the sea is the most glorious, the most inspiring monument that has ever been erected upon this earth in the history of time. It is a statue of Christ, the Savior of Men, standing there a hundred feet high, with arms outstretched, blessing on the one hand the people of Chile and upon the other the people of Argentina. This monument was built there by those two nations when some twenty years ago there was greater cause for war than has had Germany, or England, or 940 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Businesa France, or Russia, or Italy. They agreed to settle their diflferences by civilized arbitration, and then out of their molten cannon that would have killed each other and destroyed their national integrity they erected this marvelous monimient of the Christ, the Christ of Bethlehem, the Savior of Men. There it stands. The significance of it brings tears to the eyea of any man who looks upon it. Written upon its base are these worda "Sooner shall these Andes Mountains crumble to dust than shall Argentina and Chile go to war." DEPARTMENT OF CHILD HYGIENE SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — ^Linnaeus N. Hines, superintendent of schools Crawfordsvflle, Ind. Vice-President — Lewis M. Terman, associate professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University Stanford University, Cal. Secretary — Ernest B. Hoag, M.D., lecturer and writer on child hygiene. . . Los Angeles, Cal. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, August 17, 1915 The department was called to order in Chabot Hall at 9:00 a.m., with President Hines in the chair. The following program was given: "The Schoolroom Window" — William E. Watt, ventilating engineer, Chicago, HI. "The Mental Hygiene of Exceptional Children" — ^Lewis M. Terman, associate pro- fessor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. "The Teacher's Relation to the School-Health Problem"— Ernest B. Hoag, M.D., lecturer and writer on child hygiene, Los Angeles, Cal. SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Aeternoon, August 17, 1915 The department was called to order in Chabot Hall at 2:30 p.m., with President Hines in the chair. The following program was given: "Some Problems to Be Considered in the Selection of Sites for School Buildings" — F. B. Dresslar, professor of school hygiene, George Peabody College for Teachers, Nash- ville, Tenn.; Milo H. Stuart, principal. Manual Training High School, Indianapolis, Ind. "Standard School Buildings and Grounds in the Philippine Islands" — Riifino Mar- tinez, member. Bureau of Education, Manila, P.I. The following officers were elected: For President — Linnaeus N. Hines, superintendent of schools, Crawfordsville, Ind, For Vice-President — Lewis M. Terman, associate professor of education, Leland Standford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal, For Secretary — Ernest B. Hoag, M.D., lecturer and writer on child hygiene, Los Angeles, Cal. THIRD SESSION— Tuesday Evening, August 17, 1915 The department was called to order in Chabot Hall at 8:00 p.m., by President Hines. The following program was given: "The Problem of Handedness in Education" — ^W. Franklin Jones, head of Depart- ment of Education, University of South Dakota, Vermilion, S.D. "Health Supervision of Schools in a Small City" — Peter Olesen, superintendent of schools, Cloquet, Minn. "Ten Million Dollars for Sanitary School Buildings in Indiana" — W. F. King, M.D., assistant secretary, Indiana State Board of Health, Indianapolis, Ind. (illustrated lecture). Ernest B. Hoag, Secretary 941 942 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Child Hygiene PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS THE SCHOOLROOM WINDOW WILLIAM E. WATT, VENTILATING ENGINEER, CHICAGO, ILL. Two generations ago the school wmdow was a source of light and a ventilator. When blast ventilation came in, the use of the window was for light only. Since this change the Ufe insurance companies have revised their risk tables and have put the teacher into the column marked hazard- ous. We might have become tubercular, stupid, incorrigible, and insane if the school window had been used for ventilation; but when the doctor puts us outdoors for these disorders and directly we begin to mend we suspect the tight window. The standard practice in blast systems is to blow into each room enough fresh air to dilute the air sewage to six or eight parts of carbon dioxide to ten thousand of air. This is as if the city fathers should circulate drinking water thru sewers, putting in enough water to dilute the sewage to eight parts in ten thousand. What we breathe is of more importance than what we drink. We may arrange to skim off the effluvia coming from skin and lungs before it has time to diffuse very much. Fortunately this may be done in such a way that windows may be open all the time without inter- ference with the system. Gases from skin and lungs are warm. They rise. We may have pure air at the breathing-plane all day if we skim off the effluvia while warm. Then we produce health instead of disease, efficiency rather than dulness, good cheer in place of bad thoughts. Good results from open windows have led to experiments with various methods of taking in fresh air in spite of the statements of ventilating men who claim that there is no way to do it. One is known as flushing out. Windows in all rooms are opened on signal, letting in cold air while the pupils exercise. This freshens things up, but cold air is so much heavier than dead hot air that they do not mix, but lie in layers, the dead above the living, and the pupils must sit for some minutes submerged in cold air till it is drawn off at the floor and hot air comes down from above. Having children exercise and then sit in cold air till hot air comes down upon them is questionable to say the least. Those who survive are benefited; deUcate ones suffer. A second method of securing live air in a blast building is to violate rules and open windows at will. This is more common than is generally admitted. It destroys the even distribution of hot air and gives some rooms large quantities and others small. If upper windows are used, the hot air flies out before coming down to the pupils and they sit in cold air with hot dry air escaping overhead making the lower stratum more dead and dry. The thermostats throw dampers for the warmest possible air at such times. t Department] THE SCHOOLROOM WINDOW 943 A third method of opening windows in a blast building is to place across the opening cheesecloth or some material which partially closes it. The cloth window is better than the tight glass window because some live air gets in. But its effect is like that in a room where the window is open and the shade down to prevent the draft. It ruins the shade and a little good air gets past the obstruction. The cold open-air school helps tubercular or anemic children. An abundant supply of clothing is provided — sitting-out bags, foot-warmers, and mittens. Frequent feedings are given and the children pick up amaz- ingly in body and mind. This form of window use is well known. Had it not been for the cost of this expensive use of windows and the difficulty in getting teachers who can endure the cold floor more than a season or two, we should have had a great wave of open-air schools thruout the country. The difficulties are so nearly insuperable that we can hardly expect such schools for all. Wealthy individuals sometimes provide for such cold schools, and occasionally a city undertakes the work in a tenta- tive manner, but the child has to prove himself almost fatally assailed by tuberculosis or anemia to gain admittance and there is usually a hopeless waiting list. After several years of agitation, New York City has 250 cold open-air rooms, bringing a great blessing to some 6,000 children among 5,000,000 people. There is another use of school windows which is without objections and actually saves money. By it live air is sent to the breathing-plane and the foul gases escape at the top of the room thru window, transom, or specially constructed skim-off openings which do not require attention. The air must be given the right humidity and a small amount of moisture so injected as to be carried largely as true steam and not as a chilling fog. This per- mits stopping the fans, if fans there are, and windows are let down slightly from the top so that some natural air may enter and fall gently to the breathing-plane. An objection to any scheme which requires personal attention is valid. Yet the building may be so equipped that if the teacher completely forgets all about the air and does nothing at all she will have better air than can possibly be secured in the best plenum-pressure room. Thus indoors in cold weather may be had the benefits belonging to outdoors in summer. The balance of air supply and temperature in the building is adjusted so that in the room entirely neglected the temperature rises slightly and a slight odor is present until the proper attention is given. The odor is very much like that found in a plenum-pressure building where the air change is about 60 cubic feet per minute per seat. Any building may become a warm open-air school with the benefits found in the expensive cold ones. Several elementary and high schools are so operated. As a by-product they save annually fuel and current enough to repay cost of installation. 944 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene Live air is a new factor in ventilation. It carries humidity rightly and invigorates. Dead dry air depresses and weakens. The tight school produces anemia, adenoids, swollen tonsils, colds, headaches, weakness, tuberculosis, stupidity, and disorder. The warm open-air school with windows open every day in the year has opposite results. Live air will come into a building and go where it is needed with little or no compulsion. Dead air refuses to act. It takes a great fan to drive dead hot air in and out of a large schoolhouse at the rate the engineers have fixed as a minimum. There is no way of telling how much dead air needs to be driven thru a school to obtain adequate ventilation. If 30 cubic feet per minute per seat are sent thru, there is an improvement over no ventilation. But a room supplied with 30 cubic feet per minute per seat does not smell good. So 30 is adopted as a minimum and 40, 50, or 60 is the rule if the people will pay the bills and the teachers can dodge the hot drafts. But the physiological effects seem no better when 90 is reached. With live air properly humified no such air change is needed. In most buildings the need of a fan is very slight. There are several large schools with open windows every school day where the ponderous fans are run a few minutes in the morning to start the air-flow up the ducts. They are then stopped and nm but two or three times for five minutes or not at all during the remainder of the day. Fans are needed for a few minutes daily in most large buildings, but in many small ones not at all. Even the rural school must be rescued from vicious ventilation which keeps windows shut. The adjustment of a large building for warm open air requires special skill. Expert help is necessary. But in the one-room school the matter is not diJficult, and the poorer the school and the less the heating conforms to the standards which have been most loudly praised the more readily may the room be made into a warm open-air schoolroom. Fresh air should not be admitted thru a duct which carries it to the firebox to be killed. Use the dead air from the stove only to warm the school, but let in the live cold air from high so it will fall to the breathing-plane with its natural outdoor vigor in it. This should be a small delivery so no draft will be experienced. The jacket about the stove should be movable. A jacket stops radiant energy from passing to the distant parts of the room to be transformed into heat where it strikes. In warming the room use both convection and radiation. But after the room is warmed, damper the fire and shut off the radiant energy with the screen or jacket. Mistaken men with the vocabulary of science have gone about the country installing heating systems which seem to cause a current of warm air to rise from the stove, cross the room to the farther walls, come down to the floor, and travel back to the stove. They have a trick of placing a ther- mometer near the imjacketed stove, noting the temperature of the air there, and then placing it near the wall farther from the stove. The thermometer Department] MENTAL HYGIENE OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 945 reads higher at the distant point and the explanation given is that the heat comes down the wall at a distance from the stove. This is not true. The heat at the distant wall is produced there by radiant energy shot from the stove. This energy is often spoken of as radiant heat. There is in reality no radiant heat, but radiant energy which transforms into heat at the spot where it strikes. Place a large object where the scientific gentlemen place their small thermometer, give the radiant energy something to strike so as to make a large area of warmth, and you will note that the thermometer stands higher there than at the distant wall, and your large absorbing or transforming object does not need to reach to the ceiling to bring any mythical heat down. Humidity may be provided at no cost by placing on top of the stove an iron kettle and keeping some water in it whenever the stove is in use. This will frost the windows beautifully. Any house which does not have vapor or frost on the windows in cold weather is not fit for habitation. In general, the problems of adapting all forms of schoolroom ventilation to daily use of the open window have been solved. There is no longer any reason for keeping windows shut. THE MENTAL HYGIENE OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN LEWIS M. TERMAN, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION, LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL. The purpose of this discussion is to present some data on the relation of school success to intelligence, and more particularly to raise the question whether the treatment of exceptionally intelligent and exceptionally dull children in the grades has proper regard for the actual mental capacity of such children. The data to be presented are some by-products of a study of the school success of 1,000 non-selected school children who were tested in 19 14-15 by the Stanford revision of the Binet-Simon measuring scale of intelligence. Those tested comprised all the children of all ages within two months of a birthday who were enrolled in the schools where the tests were made, and they were therefore as nearly representative of the different ages as it was possible to secure. They included approximately one-third of the children enrolled, and we have no reason to suppose that if the other 2,000 not within two months of a birthday had been tested the facts for them would have differed materially from those we have found. The mental age of each child was computed according to the Stanford revision of the Binet scale and comparisons were made between intelligence quotient and school success as indicated by three criteria: (i) the quality of the school work as judged by the teacher on a scale of five ("very in- ferior," "inferior," "average," "superior," and "very superior"); (2) grade progress; and (3) the teachers' estimates of the children's intelligence. 946 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Child Hygiene Intelligence, like school success, was also estimated on a scale of five. The present discussion will deal chiefly with the correlation between intelligence quotient and grade progress. We have made this comparison for the entire number of children, but, since there is little opportunity for children below eight years to become retarded, we have included in the following table only those with a mental age of eight years or more. Grade II is regarded normal for mental age= eight. Grade III for mental age nine, etc. The eighth-year mental age group includes all mental ages from seven years seven months to eight years six months, and so on. Table I shows that nine-year intelligence is found all the way from Grade I to Grade VII, inclusive; ten-year intelUgence from Grade II to Grade VII, etc. Twelve-year intelligence, which here ranges from Grade III to Grade VIII, would doubtless have been found in high school also if tests had been made there in any considerable number. TABLE I Showing Grade Distribxjtion of 676 Children by Mental Age I Mental Age Grade I II m IV v VI VII VIII Total 8 (25.5% {A ss S6.6% 24 24-S% 3.8% 18 18.4% 48 49% 30 a8.s% 6 7% I 1% 98 0 19 19-4% 49 46.6% 30 23% 8 8.3% 2.6% 1% IS I4-2% 38 44.6% 19 19.8% k t% 1% 6 S.7% 17 20% 40 41.1% 37-5% 31 31% 14% 16.7% I 1% .9% 3.5% 16 16.6% 34.3% 16 23 5% 10 28% 8.3% I 1.2% 12 12.5% 31 37% 36 38.2% 31 58.5% 7s\ 98 10 105 II 8s 96 i^ . . 78 Id. I 1.5% 68 le 36 16 13 676 Table II shows the number and percentage who, according to mental age, are retarded or accelerated one, two, three, or four years. The table includes only the mental ages eight to sixteen inclusive. It may be pointed out that, after the age of seven or eight years, mis- placement by one grade is not especially significant, as that could easily happen from any one of a number of causes such as early or late entrance, illness, a little more or a little less than average industry, etc. But in 112 Department] MENTAL HYGIENE OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 947 cases, or nearly i6 per cent of all, there is a misplacement of two grades or more. Of these, eighty-five or over 12^ per cent of all, are cases of grade retardation below mental age; and 26, or nearly 4 per cent of all, represent grade acceleration beyond mental age. It is interesting to note that school retardation of two years or more (reckoned on the mental age basis) is about three times as common as acceleration of two years or more. On the basis of chronological age, the proportion of grade acceleration to grade retardation is even less than this. TABLE II Showing Amount of Acceleration and Retardation in the Grades, Using Mental Age as the Basis Grade below Mental Age Normal Grade for Mental Age Grade above Mental Age 4 Yrs. or More 3 Yrs. 2 Yrs. I Yr. I Yr. 2 Yrs. 3 Yrs. 4 Yrs. Total Number Percentage 4 0.5 13 1-9 69 10.3 184 27.8 27s 40.6 106 IS. 6 22 3-2 3 0.4 I 0.1 676 Our present task, however, is to find an explanation of the rather surprising disagreement between grade progress and mental age. Taking up first the 26 children whose grade status is two or more years ahead of their mental age we find that 19 of these are by chronological age over-age for their grade; 10 of the 19 are from two to four years over-age. In other words, those who are accelerated in school on the basis of mental age are usually retarded on the basis of chronological age, certainly an interesting and instructive paradox. The explanation is obvious. The school tends to promote children by age rather than by ability, and altho the very dull are allowed to become somewhat retarded, this retardation is ordinarily less than would be warranted by their actual mental development. For example, there are 6 children of mental age ten in the sixth grade. Two of these are fourteen years of age chronologically, 2 are fifteen, and i is sixteen. Of the 1 1 children of mental age eleven in the eighth grade, i is seventeen years old, 3 are sixteen, and 5 are fifteen. Only 2 are normal age for the grade. Turning now to the 85 children who are retarded two or more grades below the norm for mental age, we find that 23 per cent are, on the chrono- logical age basis, actually accelerated, and that over half of the remainder are in the grade where they belong by chronological age. Only 8 per cent of those who are retarded two years or more according to mental age are retarded as much as two years by chronological age. This again confirms the suspicion that promotion is largely governed by chronological age and helps to explain why children of any given mental age are distributed over such a wide range of grades. There are of course other factors which some- times cause children to be enrolled in grades too low for their mental age. Among these are irregularity of attendance, illness, and lack of industry. 948 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene Comparison of grade status by mental age and chronological age reveals the striking fact that, on the whole, the grade location of school children does not fit their mental age much better than it fits their chronological age. Except in the upper years, children of a given mental age are scattered over nearly as wide a range of grades as children of that chronological age. Plainly the efforts made at school grading fail to give groups of children of homogeneous mental ability. That this is largely due to the incorrect grading of children of inferior and superior intelligence is easily shown by taking those whose intelligence quotient is practically normal, say between 96 and 105, and finding how these distribute themselves in the grades. This method gives the correla- tion relatively freed from the constant tendency of teachers to overpromote the dull and underpromote the superior children. Of the 227 children with an intelligence quotient between 96 and 105, only 4 who are below the age of fourteen are more than one grade removed from the place where they belong by chronological age. All the two-grade displacements are in the direction of retardation. Another interesting comparison may be made by taking the extreme I Q's^ and finding the location in the grades for the exceptionally dull and exceptionally bright children of each chronological age. We have done this for the I Q's above 120 and below 80. We will consider first those with an I Q of 120 or above, and by way of information it may be stated that the child who tests at 1 20 or above belongs with the 5 best children out of 100 selected at random. Of 54 such children, seven years old or above, 15 are in the grade where they belong by chronological age and 3 are even retarded one year by chronological age. That is, 18, or one-third of all those having an I Q of 120 or above, fail to reap any advantage (as far as promotion is concerned) from their very superior intelligence. They are all doing "very superior" to "average" school work and would doubtless continue the same record if accorded the extra promotions warranted by their I Q. The reluctance of teachers to give such promotions is probably due both to inertia and to an unwillingness to part with exceptionally satisfactory pupils. Turning now to those who have an I Q of 80 or below, we find 42 chil- dren with two-thirds to three-fourths intelligence. Of these, only 2 are in the grade where they belong by chronological age. Both of these were doing "very inferior" school work and neither was promoted the following year; 6 of the 42 are only one year retarded. Supplementary data are available for only 4 of the 6. Two of these 4 are doing "very inferior" work, 2 "inferior" work. Of the 18 retarded two years, supplementary data are available for 11, 4 of whom are said to be doing "average" work, 4 "inferior" work, and 3 "very inferior" work. Of the 16 retarded three years or more, we have supplementary data for 10, 3 of whom are doing ' I Q => intelligence quotient. 1 I Department] MENTAL HYGIENE OF EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 949 "average" work, 4 "inferior," and 3 "very inferior." It is interesting to note that 2 of the 3 who are doing "average " work are four years retarded, one being thirteen years old and in the third grade, the other fourteen years old and in the fourth grade. This is what we should expect of high-grade feeble-minded children of thirteen and fourteen years. The foregoing is suggestive as indicating what three-quarter intelligence can do. A child of this degree of deficiency is usually two to four years below grade for his age, and his work is usually "inferior" or "very inferior." Rarely is he found in the grade where he belongs by chronological age and he never does better than "inferior" work there. To summarize our results bearing on the relationship between grade progress and I Q, we have found: 1. That the range of distribution over the grade by mental age, the somewhat less than that by chronological age, is unjustifiably great. 2. The wider disagreements between the I Q and the grade status of the children are confined chiefly to those who are superior to or below the aver- age in ability. The explanation for this has been found in the fact that the tendency of the school is to promote children by age rather than by ability. Those who have an I Q between 96 and 105 are hardly ever more than one grade removed from the location which is normal to their mental age. 3. The child with two-thirds to three-fourths intelligence (I Q 65 to 75) never does satisfactory work in the grade where he belongs by chronological age. After the age of eight or nine years he is usually found doing "very inferior" to "average" work in a grade two to four years below his age. Retarded by chronological age, by mental age he is actually accelerated. 4. The child with an I Q of 120 or above is rarely found below the grade for his chronological age, and occasionally he is one or two grades above. Compared to his possibilities, however, the child of exceptionally superior intelligence is almost always retarded. Wherever located his work is nearly always superior, and the evidence suggests strongly that this superiority of school work would continue even if extra promotions were granted. It is commonly believed that bright children are especially likely to be one-sided, nervous, delicate, morally abnormal, socially unadaptable, or otherwise peculiar. We have secured from teachers rather extensive information on these and other points regarding 31 children having an I Q of 125 or above. This degree of intelligence is possessed by only about 2 children out of 100, and is about as far above average intelligence as feeble- mindedness is below. The facts regarding these children, if we may believe the testimony of their teachers, are as follows: I. Ability special or general. — In the case of 20 out of 31 the ability is decidedly general, and with 2 it is mainly general. The talents of 5 are described as more or less special, but in only one case remarkably so. Doubtful, 4. 950 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [ChUd Hygiene^ 2. Health. — Fifteen are said to be perfectly healthy; 13 have one or more physical defects; 4 of the 13 are described as delicate, 4 have adenoids, 4 have eye defects, i lisps, and i stutters. Of the 4 delicate children, i has kidney disease, i a digestive trouble, and i has been threatened with tuberculosis. On the whole, the health conditions appear to be fully up to the average for non-selected children in the schools. It should be pointed out, too, that most of these children are from superior homes and that for this reason their physical defects would naturally be better known than would be the case with children from inferior homes. 3. Studiousness. — Extremely studious, 15; usually studious or fairly studious, 11; not particularly studious, 5; lazy, o. 4. Moral traits. — Favorable moral traits only, 19; one or more unfavor- able moral traits, 8 ; no answer, 4. Children with unfavorable moral traits are as follows: Very self-willed 2 Needs close watching Cruel to animals Untruthful Unreliable A bluffer Sexually abnormal and vicious The last-named child is the only one with more than one unfavorable trait, and he is described as being sexually abnormal, obstinate, perverted, and vicious. It will be noted that the bad traits of most of the others can hardly be regarded, from the psychological point of view, as really serious. 5. Social adaptability. — Socially adaptable, 25; not adaptable, 2; doubtful, 4. 6. Attitude of other children. — "Favorable," "friendly," "liked by everybody," "much admired," "popular," etc., 26; "not liked," i; "inspires repugnance," i; no answer, 3. 7. Is child a leader? — "Yes," 14; "no," "not particularly," etc., 12; doubtful, 5. 8. Is play life normal?— ''Yes," 26; "no," i; "hardly," i; doubtful, 3. 9. Is child spoiled or vain? — "No," 22; "yes," 5; "a little," 2; no answer, 2. While the above data are not extensive and are subject to more or less error owing to the method by which they were collected, they suggest strongly that there is little if any ground for the widespread beUef that children of genius are more likely than ordinary children to be one-sided, unadaptable, morbid, queer, or physically delicate. According to the testimony of the teachers, such children are fully as likely to be healthy as average children, their ability is far more often general than special, they are studious above the average, really serious moral faults are not Department] PROBLEMS IN SELECTING SCHOOL-BUILDING SITES 95 1 common among them, they are nearly always socially adaptable, are sought after as playmates and companions, play life is usually normal, they are leaders far oftener than other children, and notwithstanding their many really superior qualities they are seldom vain or spoiled. Are we not justified in concluding that it would be greatly to the advantage of such children if their superior ability were more promptly and fully recognized and if, under proper medical supervision of course, they were promoted as rapidly as their mental development would warrant ? Under the present regime, when such children attain their highest possi- bilities it is more often in spite of the school than because of any special help or encouragement they receive from it. Even genius finds it dif&cult to survive when held overlong to tasks that are too easy. Mental hygiene demands such an observance of the laws and conditions of mental activity as will promote the highest functioning which is possible without injury to the mechanism involved. The data presented suggest that these laws are frequently transgressed in the educational treatment of exceptional children. On the one hand, children of low-grade intelligence are promoted beyond their power to do. It is altogether probable that the widespread agitation against the evils of retardation has carried us too far, or rather that it has carried us in the wrong direction. Instead of develop- ing a differentiated course of study which would allow dull children to make steady progress without becoming retarded, we have too often promoted them to tasks which for them are impossible of accomplishment. The inevitable result is apathy and discouragement or else overpressure. Bright children, on the other hand, are almost always underpromoted. They are rarely given tasks which call forth their best ability and as a result they run the risk of falling into life-long habits of submaximum eflSi- ciency. These, too, should be given the advantages of a differentiated course of study. There is probably little ground for the common fear of over- pressure in the training of such children. The subnormals are in danger of overpressure; the supernormals of underpressure. In the interest of both groups, mental hygiene demands that researches be undertaken for the purpose of ascertaining more definitely what performances may rightly be expected of 75 per cent or 125 per cent intelligence at the various age levels. SOME PROBLEMS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE SELECTION OF SITES FOR SCHOOL BUILDINGS F. B. DRESSLAR, PROFESSOR OF SCHOOL HYGIENE, GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENN. Let US try to set forth as clearly as possible some of the problems relating to the selection of sites for school buildings. School grounds should be sufficiently large to include acceptable space for the proper location of the 952 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene schoolhouse and ample playgrounds for the children. This is a reasonable, and it may seem a trite, demand, but it is met in but a small fraction of the cities and towns of this country. Some of the reasons for this apparent negligence on the part of school boards are as follows: I. The people, thru the laws enacted and the ordinances in force, have limited school boards in their power to acquire sites for school buildings until urgent needs make it almost impossible for them to secure at reasonable . rates sufficient groimd, in convenient localities, upon which they may erect such school buildings as are immediately necessary to accommodate the children. School boards should be given the power to acquire sites in advance of inmiediate needs, so that they may have the same advantages with respect to the markets as any private individual or corporation. As it now is they most frequently are compelled to drive hard bargains and pay exorbitantly for land they' might otherwise have secured at a fair market price. High rates for sites almost invariably operate to reduce the size of the groimds upon which school buildings are to be located. In our cities school lots have been whittled down until in a large majority of the cases they are but little larger than the ground plan of the building, and rarely large enough to give the proper setting of the building with regard to fundamental hygienic demands, to say nothing of the serious handicap to the children of the total loss of playgroimds. Possibly sites chosen for high-school buildings represent our failure in this regard as clearly as those of any type of schools, and I wish at this point to suggest a reasonable remedy. In those cities supporting one or two high schools, there is a sort of unwritten demand on the part of the people, and, in general, a ready acceptance of this demand on the part of the school board, that the high-school building should be situated near the center of population, and this almost invariably brings it dangerously near the business section of the city. Here land is expensive and rarely is it possible for the board to acquire more than a block of land, generally less than a block. Hence to our shame and to the great disadvantage of the yoimg people and the usefulness of the school, no playgrounds are possible. But this is not all. Why should we make it necessary for our young people to go during the most susceptible years of their lives into the noise, dust, and danger zones of our cities to do their educational work ? They go on the street cars with the crowd in the morning and return with the crowd. This affords opportunities for moral contamination which as yet few of our people realize. During vacant periods or intermissions while at school, further oppor- timities are afforded for them to be on the streets and to mingle with those who for ulterior motives entice and disturb. High-school teachers cannot keep their students in the school building at all times without stringent rules and regulations, and these frequently serve to generate a spirit of antagonism rather than a spirit of loyalty. The rapid growth of our high- ! Department] PROBLEMS IN SELECTING SCHOOL-BUILDING SITES 953 school attendance and particularly that for our girls has emphasized in the past few years as never before the significance of the moral question involved in the location of high-school buildings. I could cite case after case where students have gone astray, primarily because they were forced to go into the crowd and with the crowd in order that they might have the advantages of secondary schooling. The only remedy I can discover is thru the selection of sites on the outskirts of the city and in this way lead the young people away from temptation. I know of himdreds of high-school buildings situated on restricted sites which represent an expenditure of public money sufficient in amount to buy ten acres of ground in a good locality away from the dangers suggested. But when such a proposal as this is made those who do not understand the needs of young people and are not cognizant of the dangers I have mentioned are likely to interpose serious objections. Some of the pupils will have to travel farther and some not so far. This method sug- gests inequality or discrimination and hence to them is undemocratic. Others, who are often more influential, have some personal gain at stake. I know a high-school building most unfortunately situated, and this site was selected, I have been told, because by locating it where it is plans to erect an office building on the lot were frustrated. In this way the owners of an office building already constructed prevented the possibility of compe- tition. Recently, despite all I could do in the way of facts, arguments, and persuasion, a board of education which had called me some distance to advise them selected a narrow lot with a steam laundry on one side, a noisy street car line in front, a swamp and a steam railway in the rear, even tho a larger and in every way a better site could have been had for less money. Some political debt or promise may have been the deciding influence, tho of this particular case I am not sure. I only know the evidence from the school point of view was all against them. If this board or any other in a similar situation had back of them a well-informed public opinion as to the needs of the children, such a site would not have been chosen. In some way these fundamental needs of schools must be taught to the people as a whole before we have a right to expect much change from the present custom. And I wish here to say that it is very important to do this now for there is in progress a great schoolhouse building movement and millions of dollars are being wasted by the erection of buildings on sites which are destined in a few years to be impossible places for schools. From our point of view such mistakes may seem criminal, but we must not forget that many times mere lack of knowledge is the real reason for these blunders. The remedy suggested needs further explanation. The first question which will occur to school patrons when they are entreated to use their influence in going into the country or the suburbs for a high-school site is that of rendering it inaccessible to the students from all parts of a city. Frankly there will be some difficulties to overcome, but not nearly so 954 ^^ TIONA L EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Child Hygiene many as one might easily imagine. As it is now a large number of high- school students use street cars daily, and it seems doubtful whether this nmnber would be increased imder the plan suggested. But if it were more expense to the few, this would be more than offset by the gains for the whole. Democracy in its essence is concerted action willingly exerted for the com- mon good. The common good in this case is the health, morals, and loyalty of every member of the school. These can be attained better in an environ- ment of quietness, cleanliness, and purity, than under imtoward conditions. We maintain therefore that it would be better and safer in every way for boards of education to transport at public expense those pupils who would be handicapped by locating the building on one side of a city than to attempt to equalize distances. It has been of interest to me to study those maps which progressive high-school principals make, showing the distribution of pupils within the city. The apartment house and business sections make poor showings on this map. Usually other sections such as the railroad and manufacturing districts show very few students, and, when the pins are all located in such a map, they show that the center of high-school population is far from the center of the population as a whole. Such evidence at once makes it apparent that much of the trouble anticipated is imaginary. 2. The difficulties due to noise, dust, and smoke are largely eliminated when a site of sufficient size away from the throng is selected. But it is absolutely astoimding how little thought has been given to such dis- turbances by many of the school boards of this country. It would not be difficult to name scores of school buildings in which one-fourth of the time during recitations is practically lost by reason of noise from without. This loss of time is very serious, but the wear and tear on the nervous systems of teachers and pupils is more serious. It seems pure folly or even worse to be so negligent as to erect a school building either in the center of a city or on its borders where children will be disturbed with distracting noises daily while at their school tasks. Indiana recently passed a law setting a minimum limit of five hundred feet as the distance from a school buDding to a steam railway track. It was a worthy attempt, but I remember an experience with a school board in that state after the law was passed. One of the members, a college professor, was strenuously objecting to the law and really urging the board to neglect it. He knew nothing about schools and was not conscious of his ignorance. It is not general education that is needed on this point, but specific definite information. I have an investigation under way thru which I hope to be able to measure the mere loss of time in some badly situated schools, but I do not yet see how to get exact data on nervous waste and divided attention. These are more serious difficulties than we have dared to believe. If we can get school buildings out of the congested centers, we will gain much; but even then we must not forget the noise and smoke made by passing trains. We must find quiet places and then keep the railways from encroaching. I i Department] SCHOOLS AND GROUNDS IN THE PHILIPPINES 955 3. Other things equal, that is the best lot for school buildings which will permit the location of the building in such a way as to receive the east and west light in the classrooms. North light will do for art rooms; and south light will be acceptable for laboratories, offices, libraries, and all rooms accommodating sanitary fixtures, but south light in the latitude of the states is most trying and troublesome. I have yet to see a classroom wholly lighted from the south which has proved satisfactory. If this simple direction could be understood and appreciated by all school boards in this country, it would do more to save the children from eye-strain than you could dare believe. But suppose, as it happens many times, a lot is selected making it practically impossible for the building to be erected on it with the proper orientation, what can an architect do even if he knows what is right ? I only know what he does do. He does the wrong thing rather than lose the job, and a century of headaches and eye-aches follows. 4. If people knew what an intimate relation there exists between the purity of the air about a school building and the condition of the soil on which the building is placed, there would be fewer calls for help in matters of drainage and ventilation, for there would be fewer poorly drained and wet grounds selected for building sites. A damp or wet soil full of refuse will generate noxious gases and foul odors and throw these together with much moisture into the basements and lower rooms of buildings situated thereon. While it is often impossible to measure these difficulties with any degree of accuracy, we know that they are unwholesome and annoying. Last week a call for help came from a prominent southern city and the burden of it was, How can we prevent the dampness from rising in the rooms of the ground floor of our school buildijig so that we may safely use them for classrooms ? That question should have been asked before the lot was selected, and also before the building was erected. The advice given was of course con- ditional. In conclusion, something needs to be done now to prevent the people from selecting improper sites for school buildings and to teach them what is necessary for them to know for the sake of guidance. STANDARD SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS RUFINO MARTINEZ, MEMBER, BUREAU OF EDUCATION, MANILA, P.I. The Bureau of Education inherited from the Spanish government a number of school buildings most of which were old and of mediaeval t3^e. They were generally one-story structures of stone, wood, or brick, having low ceilings, thick walls, and a very few small windows which afforded insufficient light and ventilation. In many cases they were damp and otherwise unfit for school purposes. In a few centers very good buildings 9S6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Chad Hygiene had been provided. The schoolhouses, however, were in many places temporary structures, poorly built, and of perishable materials. The best of these were large buildings of stone, with earth floors, roofs of thatch or tile, low eaves, and deep-set, heavily barred windows. Most of these buildings were used as barracks for troops during the long period of hostih- ties, and many of them had been damaged and some almost completely destroyed. Frequently buildings were rented or given rent-free by public- spirited citizens. In other cases, schools occupied rooms in municipal buildings where arrangements were at best far from satisfactory or in newly constructed buildings of a temporary or semi-permanent character. Not only were these buildings unsuitable for the uses of a modem school system, but they were wholly inadequate to accommodate the large number of pupils who sought enrolment. The many difficulties encountered in properly housing the schools were multiplied and intensified when the organization was extended to outlying barrios or rural districts. Conditions called for improvement. Most of the buildings were not adapted to school purposes. Schools in many towns were scattered, several houses in various sections of the town being pressed into service. The need for adequate accommodations for the pubUc schools impressed itself deeply on both teachers and superintendents. The support of the people thruout the Islands was enthusiastic. Private residences were freely and generously placed temporarily at the disposal of the teachers and other means resorted to in order to provide immediate shelter for the schools. During this period, experiments were made with several types of buildings with a view to evolving a type which, while employing much Ught material in its construction, might later be transformed into a permanent structure. These buildings usually had a permanent frame of good timber, bamboo floors, and thatch walls and roofs, the intention being to replace the temporary materials later by permanent materials. Other and more urgent questions, however, together with a scarcity of funds made it impos- sible to give consistent attention to a permanent building program during the first years of the school system. The need of buildings was so pressing, and the funds available locally, whether provincial or mimicipal, were so limited that it was impossible for the local authorities to effect the construction of permanent school buildings unaided. It was not until the inauguration of the Philippine Assembly in 1907 that any insular appropriations were provided for the construction of municipal school buildings. It was expected that the construction program would be begun at an early date after these appropria- tions were made, but several difficulties presented themselves. With the advice and assistance of the consulting architect for the Philippine Islands, the buildings division of the Bureau of Education, which was organized for this purpose, prepared plans for standard one- story school buildings of reinforced concrete with iron roofs and timber of t Department] SCHOOLS AND GROUNDS IN THE PHILIPPINES 957 satisfactory grade. A series of plans for buildings of from one to twenty rooms was completed. The unit plan of construction was adopted, the plans making the construction of additional rooms possible without destroy- ing the symmetry of the building. During 1910 these plans were perfected and arrangements were made for the construction of a large number of buildings. In the Philippines, a building to be permanent must be prepared to withstand earthquakes and severe storms and also to resist the ravages of insect pests. White ants alone have destroyed buildings worth thousands of pesos. Only the best timber, stone, or concrete will resist them. Concrete reinforced with steel is the construction material which meets conditions best. In these school buildings, reinforced concrete footings, piers, girders, porch floors, walls, and steps are used in combination with timbers of superior quality for frames, roof trusses, floors, and partitions, and corrugated galvanized iron for roofing. In the standard schoolhouse plans, a unit system of construction has been adopted. Each unit is a class- room of standard size, 7X9 meters (23'X29' 6")> the distance from floor to ceiling being approximately 13 feet. Each end room is provided with 28 windows, and each intervening room with 12 windows, except in plans 3 and 4 where each intervening room has 18 windows. The windows are of two parts, made of shell — a small fixed upper section and a larger lower section which is pivoted. The upper parts of partitions separating rooms from corridors are perforated for ventilating purposes. The classrooms are so arranged in the plans that additions may be made at a minimum cost without prejudice to the original structure. In the six-room and larger buildings, provision is made for an assembly room. These buildings are enlarged by adding units to the rear of the classrooms at each end of the assembly room, forming two rows of connected classrooms. These addi- tions may be extended almost indefinitely without in any way affecting the original structure or interfering with the lighting or ventilation. The largest buildings of this kind that have been completed comprise two wings of six classrooms each, the large assembly room connecting these in front, and four additional classrooms in the rear which complete the quadrangle and form an open court within the structure. This court is faced by open corridors from which doors lead into the various classrooms. Buildings constructed under the standard plans of the Bureau of Educa- tion cost only a little more than 2,000 pesos per room, and considering the life of the buildings they are in the end the most economical. There are now 748 permanent school buildings containing 3,950 rooms, over 400 of which are of the standard type. Altogether, 326 towns have received insular allotments for school buildings. Buildings constructed in accordance with these plans meet the needs of the public schools admirably. Altho they lack architectural embellish- ment, they are neat and substantial. The floor plan is very convenient. I 958 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene These one-story buildings have decided advantages. They are practically open-air schools. Ventilation could be no better, and the lighting is in every respect satisfactory. The adoption of these standard plans has greatly simplified schoolhouse construction in the Philippines. Instead of preparing separate plans and specifications for each building to be con- structed, it is now necessary only to indicate the amount of classroom space needed, and a standard building of the size required can be selected and its construction authorized without delay, if sufficient funds are pro- vided. No attempt was made by the Spanish officials to secure adequate grounds, and the schoolhouses generally stood flush with the street with little or no space in the rear or on the sides of the building. At first the American school authorities gave very little attention to the acquisition of suitable sites. Neither athletics nor school gardening had been greatly developed, and there seemed to be no great need for large sites. Further- more, the public schools were so wretchedly housed that teachers were generally satisfied if they could secure decent buildings. Finally, in 191 1, the director of education decided to make no further insular allotments for school buildings unless the sites met certain conditions. The minimum requirement for barrio sites was fixed at 5,000 square meters (ij acres), and for central school sites at 10,000 square meters (2^ acres). Besides, the lay of the land and the nature of the soil must be suitable for school gardens and athletic purposes. There was considerable opposition to this policy, many feeling that it would so increase the difficulties of securing suitable school buildings that the building program would necessarily be held up. Furthermore, the people had to be educated to the point where they could see that school gardening and athletics required a departure from the Spanish conception of an adequate school site. A great many people, too, felt that it would not be possible to keep larger school sites in condition and that the smaller sites well kept would be far better than larger sites overgrown with weeds and grass. This opposition, however, has entirely disappeared. School grounds are considered as improved when they meet three or more of the following requirements: (a) a woven- wire fence supported by concrete or first-group timber posts; (6) premises graded for lawns and playgrounds; (c) adequate playground facilities; {d) a good lawn; (c) trees and shrubs properly planted; and (/) permanently surfaced walks. As it is not possible to complete all of the necessary improvements on a school ground in a single year, the Bureau of Education has adopted the policy of making permanent plans for the improvement of school grounds in order to avoid the undoing of work already accomplished. Thus the work done each year brings the school nearer to the perfection of these permanent plans. This policy has been carried on with much success. The most attractive and best kept premises in a town are usually those of the public Department] THE PROBLEM OF HANDEDNESS IN EDUCATION 959 schools, and in many towns it is very evident that these improvements are influencing the people generally to give more attention to the improvement of their own premises. THE PROBLEM OF HANDEDNESS IN EDUCATION W. FRANKLIN JONES, HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH DAKOTA, VERMILION, S.D. There is one child in the schools who has been an apparent stumbling- block in education. That child is the left-hander. He will continue to puzzle us until we have studied him enough to know him. Our first problem is to establish our standards for determining (i) born handedness, and (2) adopted handedness; our second problem is to employ these standards in finding and classifying individuals into three groups: (i) pure right- handers— individuals right-handed both by birth and by adoption; (2) pure left-handers — individuals left-handed both by birth and by adoption; and (3) transfers — individuals born right or left and who have shifted to the other arm; so that we can make with these groups such tests for hand and arm skill as will enable us to say whether or not the left-hander should be transferred or made over into a right-hander. It is this double problem that I have been working on for a number of years; and I have come to show you both my methods of procedure and my results. In attacking the first problem — that of devising standards of measure — I proceeded on the assumption that if an individual either is born with or has acquired unequal potentialities on the two sides of the body, there must be some evidences that will be revealed by the tape line, as well as by the weighing and sensibility tests. I therefore set out to measure the paired bones and paired muscles, not only of the arms but of any convenient parts of the body, using cadavers as well as living beings. To assist in making accurate measures of the arms, I constructed a simple instrument which I have called the "brachiometer," the working of which I will show you as I proceed. I soon found differences in the measures of both bones and muscles of the two sides of the body which seemed to indi- cate born handedness in one case and adopted handedness in another. Since my subsequent measures of over ten thousand pairs of arms have justified this hypothesis, I shall now offer these standards to you as a part of my results. MEASURES SHOWING BORN HANDEDNESS 1. Length of *"ulna plus" hand to the middle knuckle of little finger 2. Circumference of palm 3. Circumference of wrist 4. Length of humerus ♦The "ulna plus" is the length of the ulna, plus the hand to the middle knuckle. The measure is used because it is more easily determined than the length of the ulna alone. 960 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene MEASURES SHOWING ADOPTED HANDEDNESS 1. Relaxed forearm circumference 2. Contracted forearm circumference 3. Relaxed arm (biceps) circumference 4. Contracted arm (biceps) circimiference TABLE I Sahfle Arm Measukes, Showing Dextrality (The records are in inches) fi No. Sex Age • •< s 1 S g n 2S < C4 00 M is (4 S <2 p) 0 (4 is RIGH1 r-HAND ED BY! 3IRTH RIGHT-HANDED BY ADOPTION I . . . F. 17 ti4^ 14 6*^ 6*^ 7^ 7-» 13^ 8" 8l« Si t2.8 1.4 8«* 8" 9^ 9 t4.8 2.9 2 . . . M. 18 14* 14* S" s"- 6" 6" 13^ 13^ 8-"- 7" 8J- 8 4.6 3. a 8«- 7" u ?1 3 -.- M. 16 I3»* I all fi 61* 6>9 12^ 12-L 8JL 8«^ 81^ 8^ 45 3.0 gio 9" 9 8.3 4-3 lept-handed by birth LEPT-H AND ED BY ADC )PTION 4 ... M. 34 14" IS 6 J 6* r* 13*^ 13" |i 9» 9" 4-1 S.4 8i* 9^ 10 I0-»- 12.7 13s s ... P. n 13^ I3«^ S»» S" 6i» 6" 12 •- I" 8J 8J- 4.8 6.3 8^ 8A 8J« 81" t:\ 6 ... P. 33 16^ 16-^- 6-»- 6^ 7" 7" IS" IS» 5,19 9" 9" 9I* 0.7 1-3 9-»- 9* 9" 4-1 54 TRANSFERRED 7 ... P. 20 14" 141^ 6 6^ 7^ 7^ 13J 8^ 8A gta 8A 3.0 IS 9*: 9«- 9--- 9" 2.7 3-9 8 ... M. 30 IS" 6i» 6" 8-»- l4-»- 14 9" 10 4.0 SO ^9" 10 S.3 6.S 9 ... M. 40 14 14-*- sJ-- S" 6" 7 I4-»- 14^^ 8-»- 8^ 8^ 8-«- 4.6 IS 8^ 910 9 6.9 59 10 ... P. IS 13^ 7 7-«^ S^« s" '^1 13^ 8-«- 8A gXft 8JL 3.0 IS 88- 8A g" S-9 3.0 Remarks I I Left-handed in everything «• cept writing. Trained to write with right hand. Right arm injured (elbow strain) in childhood, and left ann adopted permanently^ Preferred left arm in childhood, but trained to use right aim. Left ulna fractured at ten yean of age (five years ago). Aon in sling three weeks. * The "ulna plus" is the length of the ulna, plus the hand to the middle knuckle. This measure is used because it is more easily determined than the length of the ulna alone. t The denominators of the fractions are invariably 16, hence all denominators are omitted. Thus the first measoie recorded (14* ) means 14A inches, and so on. X The percentage of swell is found by dividing the gain in circumference during the swell by the circumference of the arm (or forearm) relaxed. I have applied the measures shown in Table I to the arms of ten thou- sand individuals ranging in ages from stillborn to centenarians. The summary of these measurements follows. StTMMASY OF TEN THOUSAND BSACHIOMETES TESTS Out of 10,000 persons: 9,583 are bom right-handed; 96 per cent of the race are right-handed. 417 are bom left-handed; 4 per cent of the race are left-handed. Department] THE PROBLEM OF HANDEDNESS IN EDUCATION 961 Out of 417 bom left-handers: 323 shift to the right hand (that is, 77 per cent of born left-handers adopt the minor arm); 4 are shifted by accident; 319 by purposive interference; and only 94 are allowed to use the major arm and hand. Out of 9,583 bom right-handers: 96 are shifted to the left hand by accident; none by purposive interference. Tra- dition favors the right hand and arm. 419 persons (323 plus 96) out of ten thousand adopt the wrong arm (the potentially minor arm) ; that is, one out of 25 persons is using the minor arm. The significant conclusion drawn from the foregoing data is that the four bone measures as given reveal born handedness; the four muscle measures as given reveal the adopted arm. Proceeding on the basis of this conclusion, it is an easy matter to measure and classify individuals into the three groups: (i) pure right-handers; (2) pure left-handers; and (3) transfers. TABLE II Dextrality in Tapping Rate Time, 30 seconds Boys OntLS Age Right Hand Left Hand Sum Age Right Hand Left Hand Sum 8 10 12 IS 18 fi48* 116 1130 fiS9 1132 I138 [168 J149 U55 [190 ii73 I178 fi95 • 186 [188 115* 146 136 129 153 142 148 168 151 170 182 171 182 193 180 263 262 266 288 285 280 316 317 306 360 355 349 377 379 368 8 10 12 15 18 fl40* 118 [120 fi56 •{126 [136 fi67 J142 U53 ri8o 165 U7I [191 •164 U79 115* 132 123 126 153 144 140 163 155 161 178 169 167 194 175 255 250 243 282 279 279 307 305 308 341 343 340 358 358 354 * The records here given are the averages per groups of 25 children. In each of the groupings, the average for the right-handers is given first, the average for the left-handers is given second, and that for the transfers is given third. I have taken 150 eight-year-old children, 75 of each sex and 25 of each of the three classes, right-handed, left-handed, and transferred, and sub- mitted them to the tests for skill named below. The tests were repeated on a similar number of ten-, twelve-, fifteen-, and eighteen-year-olds. 962 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION IChild Hygiene respectively, similarly divided (half of each sex, and 25 of each class of handedness). The skill tests applied were the following: 1. Rate of tapping. 2. Placing wooden pegs in order in a pegboard. 3. Threading the needle, with bristle substituted for thread. 4. Thrusting at a target with a three-foot wooden pointer. 5. Loading a glass upright tube with buckshot. Without significant variations, these tests on the 375 individuals agree in showing results revealed by Table II. Hence but the one table is given to meet the required brevity of this article. CONCLUSIONS DRAWN FROM TABLE H It is to be noted that the skill of the left-handers is essentially equal to that of the right-handers; this, too, in spite of the fact that it is very difficult to find a pure left-hander (one who has never been the victim of the shift- over ambition of some parent or teacher). Undoubtedly the left hand and arm of the bom left-hander are quite the equal of the right hand and arm of the born right-hander, provided the left-hander is allowed to use his left hand and arm freely. The most striking fact revealed by the data is the low grade of skill shown by the transfers. While the average skill of the two hands of the transfers is not far different from the average skill of either right- or left- handers, in not a single case does the transfer group show the extreme skill with either hand that the other two groups show. The transfer may hardly be said to have a dextral hand and arm, but rather two minor arms. He could hardly hope to compete with the pure right- or left-hander in this day of skilled labor, for skilled labor more and more calls for one arm of extreme skill. The so-called "ambidexter" is undoubtedly the transfer; that is, the "ambidexter" is the individual with two minor arms. He is artificial rather than natural, since he has failed to develop the potentially major arm. While he may have two reasonably good arms, he does not have the extreme skill in one arm which he might have had; and he has been crippled in the field of skilled labor. The parent or the teacher who assimies to make the left-handed child write with, or otherwise adopt, the right hand, must assume the responsi- bility of making that child a transfer in so far as the endeavor succeeds. It may "look awkward" for the child to use his left hand and arm; but that is only evidence of a bad tradition. The left-hander may have to pay a little more for certain left-handed tools, such as scythes, hair clippers, scissors, etc., but that is only more evidence of a bad tradition. Penman- ship teachers may still be unwilling to surrender their traditional practices in dealing with left-handers (the author was once a penmanship teacher, and held to those practices), but that will be only a continuance of a bad tradition. There is clearly but one thing to do with the bom left-hander, I Department] HEALTH SUPERVISION OF SCHOOLS IN A SMALL CITY 963 and that is to see that he uses his left hand. In this hand and arm are found his greater potentiality. The question of whether or not the transfer may not best be shifted back to his birthright inevitably arises at this point. Since I have made some study of the question, I shall devote my brief remaining space to it. Of the four transfers whose measures are shown in Table I, it would evidently be more than folly to attempt to shift back Nos. 7, 9, and 10. Such an attempt is negated by the extreme differences in the established arm swells. No. 8 might make the shift, but his age is against it. So long as the transfer is close to what we may call the "ambidextral line" (the line of equality of muscle swell of the two arms), it is easy to return the individual to his birthright in so far as the arms are concerned. The moment we contemplate the effect in the reorganization of speech-center connections, we must hesitate until we know more about the speech center or centers. The fact that I have found a larger number of feeble-minded individuals and stutterers among the 419 transfers of my study easily causes me to fear any transfer from one arm to another, but we need further studies here. I have made a number of re-transfers with children of the pre- adolescent stage, and I did so on the assumption that the neural paths are not so established as to make it dangerous to unsettle them further. It is probable that we may safely retransfer any individual who has not passed puberty, provided the arm swell measures are not far from equal. I am unwilling to be dogmatic, and I candidly state that this problem needs further investigations. Our educational procedure, however, is not at all doubtful, for we can and should make brachiometric measures of every child soon after birth, and then make sure that neither accident nor pur- posive interference makes a transfer of him. Our problem of re-transfer thus arises from the fact that we have permitted a transfer. Our standards of measure can easily discover the child's birthright, and the hygienic pro- cedure demands that we permit no transfer; that is, our whole problem with the transfer is to see that we have no transfer. If my study has put this end within reach, I am happy in my expenditure of time and effort. HEALTH SUPERVISION OF SCHOOLS IN A SMALL CITY PETER OLESEN, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CLOQUET, MINN. Three years ago the Department of Education of Minnesota, working jointly with the Board of Health, looked about for a specialist in medical supervision to come and promote health supervision in the Minnesota schools. Their choice was Ernest Bryant Hoag, of California. He came, and gave us a year of his time, visiting the larger towns and smaller cities of our state. As this specialist went from room to room in the various schools, he surprised most people when he proved, by actual examination 964 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Child Hygiene in the different classrooms visited, that 15 to 20 per cent of all school chil- dren suffered from eye-strain; that i out of 12 children had adenoids; that 2 or 3 per cent were partly deaf; that 8 per cent had diseased tonsils; that 40 to 90 per cent had defective teeth; that some suffered from malnutrition and skin diseases. Now it is one thing to have a person tell us this or to read it in a book; it is another thing to have the facts actually demonstrated before our eyes. While I had read similar figures before this, the need of special health supervision had not impressed itself upon my mind as when I walked from room to room with the California expert. Being exceedingly anxious to give the children of our schools the benefits of his advice, I asked the doctor to tell our Board of Education about his investigation in our schools and the real value of health supervision. We also arranged for a public meeting in the high school, where our visitor addressed a number of representative citizens. We wanted him to give his recommendations first hand to as many patrons of our schools as possible, for the reason that if we were to have medical supervision it would be a new policy for our schools and we were anxious that the general public should be back of the movement when it was established. Our Board of Education at once realized the value of health supervision. The only question now was, How could it best be done for our city of eight thousand at the lowest cost ? We asked ourselves the question. Should we perhaps have medical inspection only, which would mean an examination of all the children once a year, with an occasional special emergency call, or should we engage a school nurse to give all her time to the visiting of homes, or should we have both? We talked this over very carefully with the visiting specialist, who recommended — what I believe was the best recommendation that could have been made for us — that we secure a full-time woman doctor who had also had some experience as a nurse. In this way we would have a medical inspector and a visiting nurse in one and the same person at but very Uttle higher salary than that of a visiting nurse. We accepted his advice. Now the problem was to get the proper person. We realized that we needed a woman with considerable enthusiasm and still more tact, a woman with sufiicient experience in life to realize her own worth as well as the needs of the very poorest, a woman who would have a good deal of patience and sympathy for those who most needed her. After corresponding with some ten or twelve leading medical schools, we happily secured a young physician who was a graduate of our own state university. Her final report of the year's work shows that all the children in the grades, about eleven hundred, were examined once, and some several times during the year. Each child in the grades has now on file for refer- ence in the ofl&ce of the supervisor a physical-record card, which is a record of the physical and mental condition of the pupil. Another card — a disease- census card for all the children, including those in the high school — was also so al J Department] HEALTH SUPERVISION OF SCHOOLS IN A SMALL CITY 965 prepared. Both kinds of cards are filed in alphabetical order and so arranged that they can be kept up to date. A summary of the contagious diseases was made for each school, and the percentage of probable immunity from chicken-pox, measles, mumps, scarlet fever, smallpox, and whooping cough determined for the school year. Twenty-four girls of the high-school basket-ball team were given physi- cal examination and recommendations were sent to the director. Talks on hygiene were given to the high-school girls and to the mothers' club. Forty-four children were vaccinated at school at the request of their par- ents, many cases of skin diseases were discovered and treated, and about two hundred cases of defects of the throat were seen. These included enlarged and diseased tonsils, adenoids, and cases of acute pharyngitis. Of these a number had operative treatment by practicing physicians. One hundred and eighty-six children were found to have serious eye defects, including astigmatism and other defects, blindness of one eye, conjunc- tivitis, and other acute diseases such as ulcer of cornea. Twenty of these were treated during the year by physicians skilled in such work, and many were fitted with glasses later. It is very often a difficult matter to con- vince the parents about the seriousness of adenoids and eye defects. A great many people cannot understand that they cause much general dis- turbance, such as headache, dizziness, nausea, and a general feeling of lassitude. Thirty-eight children were found with defects of hearing, due to chronic or acute diseases of the middle ear caused by the presence of hardened wax occluding the auditory canal. One child's auditory canal was filled to the brim, and upon grasping the hardened wax with a pair of forceps, a piece of cotton thoroly impregnated with wax was withdrawn. As a result of questioning, it was found that it had been in the child's ear for three months. The presence of this hard foreign body against the delicate drum membrane might have caused very serious damage. Nineteen children whom the teacher had found listless, tired, and dis- inclined to work, when examined by the health supervisor were found to be suffering from chronic heart disease. Many homes were visited and truants sent back to school. Over three hundred letters were sent to parents and during the first year, including the emergency work, such as removing foreign bodies from eyes, injuries, sudden illness, etc., 2,300 cases were cared for. I have asked our health supervisor to give a brief summary of her daily routine. She says: In the morning between 7:30 and 8:00 o'clock I go to my main office in the Garfield Building and work till 8:30 on posting the previous day's work. From 8:30 to 9:30 I am in readiness to receive phone calls from other buildings or parents who may wish to speak with me. From 9:30 to 10:00 I am ready for what may come up in the Garfield Building. A case of pediculosis, headache, toothache, or sore throat may be sent in to me. Of these, the sore throat needs closest attention. It may be tonsilitis or incipient 966 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygier scarlet fever, which must be excluded to prevent contagion in the schoolroom. Fron two to five absences are reported in the eight rooms. These absentees are called upon' in their homes to ascertain if they are too ill to be in school. By 10:30 I arrive at the second building, repeating the work there. In the afternoon I have the same routine work in the other two buildings. This, besides a sanitary inspection of each of the four buildings, is my daily routine. A fairly clear idea of her work may be gained from a monthly report which is typical of the others for this year. It gives daily inspection of the four school buildings, 23 exclusions, 2 cases of scarlet fever, 5 of tonsilitis, I of mvunps, 5 of chicken pox, i of whooping cough, 8 of pediculosis, impetigo, 2 scabies, i acute conjunctivitis, 62 non-communicable disea I defective, 19 treated, 44 untreated, 44 homes visited, 4 written repor sent to parents, 29 children re-examined. The health supervisor worked with the children who were slow and needed extra help and had them transferred to the special-help room. Our school-health supervisor was of great help in stopping the spread of scarlet fever. When smallpox became epidemic, the Board of Education ordered all unvaccinated children to be vaccinated. Our school doctor gave 1,328 vaccinations, including the cases that were second and third attempts before they became successful. All new children were given a thoro physical examination and when they were found to have physical ailments which needed medical attention the parents were notified in writ- ing. All told, during the year which hcis just closed over 2,600 cases were given consideration. Is health supervision worth while ? Looking at it from every conceiv- able standpoint, there is but one answer: "Yes, it is worth while." The children form the habit of having their ills properly cared for. Their reluctance and fear of interviewing a physician are largely overcome and a friendly feeling is created between the child and the health supervisor. In making the calls at the homes, the school physician discovers the causes that often prevent a pupil from making proper progress. She often finds that poverty, ignorance, uncleanliness, and lack of proper food keep the children physically subnormal, so that they cannot do their proper work. This calling often detects contagious diseases and prevents children and even adults from spreading the germs of contagious disease thruout the community. For a small city, of say four thousand to twelve thousand people, I believe that the full-time woman physician, who will also act as a visiting nurse by calling at the homes and thus also care for the truancy, offers a good solution of the problem of how to secure efficient health supervision at a small cost. But be its cost large or small, professional health supervision of schools is essential to public welfare, and it is the imperative duty of all school execu- tives to advocate its introduction and of boards of education to establish it. Department] TEN MILLIONS FOR SCHOOLS IN INDIANA 967 TEN MILLION DOLLARS FOR SANITARY SCHOOL BUILDINGS IN INDIANA W. F. KING, M.D., ASSISTANT SECRETARY, INDIANA STATE BOARD OF HEALTH, INDIANAPOLIS IND. In Indiana, the answer to the question of what should take the place of " the little red schoolhouse" has taken form in four laws, in the expression of which the people of Indiana have answered the question wisely and well. The first of these laws, known as the Compulsory Education Law, was passed by the legislature in 1899. One provision of this law authorized township trustees to pay for the transportation of every pupil who lived two or more miles from the nearest public school. The legislature of 1901 enacted a law requiring township trustees to abandon schools whenever the average daily attendance fell to twelve pupils or below and to pay for their transportation to another school. This law also gave the trustee the right to abandon a school when the attendance fell to fifteen or below if in his opinion better results could be obtained by transferring these pupils to another school. The legislature of 1907 enacted a law requiring trustees to provide transportation for all children attending consolidated grade schools. The legislature of 1911 enacted what is known as the Sanitary Schoolhouse Law whereby Indiana became the first state in the Union to establish a standard of sanitation for school buildings below which no community might go in providing for the health and efficiency of its school children. As a result of these four salutary laws, the doom of the one-room district school has been sealed and the day of the centralized or consolidated school with its superior advantages and blessings to the school community has been established. The first official statement in regard to a sanitary standard for school buildings is to be found in the rules of the State Board of Health adopted July 13, 1900, and represents the first feeble effort on the part of health officials to exercise supervision over sanitary conditions in public schools thruout the state. These rules were four in number and referred briefly to the site, the building itself, the water supply, and the outhouses. Much opposition was immediately encountered, not because the rules were unfair but because the people of the state were not accustomed to official super- vision in the matter of their school buildings. The Supreme Court then decided that the rules and health orders of the State Board of Health, when reasonable and within the purview of the statutes, had all the force of law and the opposition began to disappear. In 1907 the State Board of Health extended its rules to other sanitary features such as lighting, seating, the care of the school building, the use of the common drinking- cup and common towel, the indiscriminate use of pencils, heating, and ventilation. Opposition persisted, however, and progress, while continuous, was slow. 968 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Child Hygiene A sanitary schoolhouse bill was presented to the legislature in 1907 and was promptly rejected. A similar bill was presented to the legislature of 1909 and was again rejected. Again in 191 1 a sanitary schoolhouse bill was proposed to the legislature and this time an overwhelming public sentiment compelled its adoption. The enactment of this law marked the beginning of a distinct epoch in the history of sanitary schoolhouse con- struction in Indiana, the story of which told briefly in statistics for five years as follows seems but little short of marvelous. In the four years, 1911 to 1914 inclusive, 570 new school buildings were erected in the state at a total cost of $7,195,008. In the same period 199 school buildings were remodeled at a total cost of $1,276,440. It may be stated that every new building erected and every building remodeled since the enactment of the Sanitary Schoolhouse Law of 191 1 has complied essen- tially with the sanitary requirements of this law and with the sanitary building code of the State Board of Health. In the present year, 1915, there are under construction in the state 132 new buildings at an estimated total cost of $1,992, 358. Since the enactment of the Sanitary Schoolhouse Law in 191 1, a total of 901 school buildings have been newly erected or remodeled at a total cost of $10,463,806, an average expenditure of $2,092,- 761 per year, and at an average cost per building of $11,642. In the same period the State Board of Health has condemned 203 school buildings thruout the state as being a menace to the health and lives of school children and totally unfit for school purposes. At the close of the school year 1914, there were 665 consolidated rural schools in Indiana with a total enrol- ment of 73,404 pupils, of which 26,403 were transported from districts in which the schools had been abandoned. There were at this time 1,963 abandoned school buildings in the state, and the records show that district schools are being abandoned at an average rate of 200 per year. The modern fireproof building to be found in many school districts today represents the last word in scientific schoolhouse construction. These buildings have fireproof roof, sanitary flush toilets, warmed air or steam heat with eflicient ventilation from outside the building, sanitary drinking fountains, in many cases vacuum-cleaner outfits and every known pro- vision for safeguarding the physical, moral, and mental efficiency of the pupils. The classrooms are lighted from the left side only, adjustable seats and desks are provided, the buildings have comfortable basements, ample playgrounds are secured, and in many cases the school grounds resemble miniature parks with shade trees, shrubbery, artistic walks, and real grass growing instead of the mudholes so commonly associated with buildings of the old type. Practically all these consolidated rural buildings are pro- vided with an auditorium wherein are held the social and literary functions of the school and wherein also are held the community meetings such as farmers' institutes, good roads meetings, lectures, and in many instances Department] TEN MILLIONS FOR SCHOOLS IN INDIANA 969 the meetings of the women's clubs and parent-teachers' organizations of the rural community. The question of the "kid wagon," so called, which at first threatened effectually to bar further development of the consolidated school idea, has been definitely and permanently settled. Instead of the cast-off farm wagon with its homemade top, its sorry-looking team, and sorrier-looking driver in many cases, has come the sanitary school hack with plate-glass windows, leather-upholstered seats, sanitary heater, and ample ventilation. The driver is now selected with as great care as is shown in the selection of the teacher or principal of the school. The rules of the State Board of Health require that "no person shall be employed as driver of a school hack who is not able-bodied, nor of normal mind, or who is addicted to the use of intoxicants, or habit-forming drugs, or who has tuberculosis or other com- municable disease, or who is uncleanly in person or clothing or immoral in habit. The use of tobacco or alcohol in any form in or on a school hack by pupils or driver is prohibited." The rules further require that trustees and the drivers of school hacks shall be held responsible for the sanitary mainte- nance of such hacks and for the moral behavior of pupils while occupants of such hacks. The modern sanitary school building in Indiana has impressed itself upon every community of the state. The modern rural school has become in fact as well as in name the " bulwark of the state." Not only has the school become the civic and social center, but the school building has become the sanitary leader and guide of the community. Wherever a modern sanitary school building has been erected, it has been followed by better roads, better home conditions, and an awakened sanitary conscience. Such school buildings have cost money but they have proved themselves to be, not an expenditure, but an investment, and to the communities making the investment they have returned a thousand fold in all that tends to the betterment of rural community life. DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Baroness Rose Posse, president, Posse Normal School of Gymnastics Boston, Mass. Vice-President — Clara Gregory Baer, professor of physical education, Newcomb College, Tulane University New Orleans, La. Secretary — Mary G. Long, supervisor of physical training, public schools Everett, Wash. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, August i8, 1915 The department was called to order in Scottish Rite Hall at 9:00 a.m. with Baroness Posse in the chair. The following program was given: "Organization and Management of Playgrounds and Recreation Centers" — George E. Dickie, superintendent of recreation, Oakland, Cal. "The Next Steps in the Development of Public Playgrounds" — Edward B. DeGroot, director, physical training, public schools, San Francisco, Cal. "A tjniversity Playgroimd for Women" — Harriet W. Thomson, department of physical education. University of Oregon, Eugene, Ore. "Playgrounds in Connection with Riiral Schools" — P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C. Discussion. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Afternoon, August 18, 1915 The session was called to order by President Posse in Scottish Rite Hall at 2 : 30 p.m., and the following program given: "Athletics in Playgrounds" — Charles E. Teach, supervising principal, public schools, Orange, Cal. "The Distinctive Functions of Games and Gymnastics" — Charlotte Stewart, director of physical education, high schools. Salt Lake City, Utah; S. E. Hagelthom, physical training department, public schools, Oakland, Cal. "Growth and Future of the Playground Movement" — D. R. Hatch, editor, Colorado School Journal, Denver, Colo. "Physical Training in the Philippine Public Schools" — Frank L. Crone, director. Bureau of Education, Department of Public Instruction, Manila, P.I. The following oflScers were elected for the ensuing year: For President — ^E. B. DeGroot, director of physical training, public schools, San Francisco, Cal. For Vice-President — Baroness Rose Posse, president, Posse Normal School of Gjon- nastics, Boston, Mass. For Secretary — Mary G. Long, supervisor of physical training, public schools, Everett, Wash. THIRD SESSION— Wednesday Evening, August 18, 1915 The department was called to order in Scottish Rite Hall by Baroness Posse at 8:00 P.M., and the following program given: "The Educational Value of Playgrounds" — Richard G. Boone, School of Education, University of California, Berkeley, Cal.; John H. Francis, superintendent of schools, Los Angeles, Cal. "Physical Education Essential" — ^Albert E. Winship, editor, Journal of Education, Boston, Mass. Mary G. Long, Secretary 971 972 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF PLAYGROUNDS AND RECREATION CENTERS GEORGE E. DICKIE, SUPERINTENDENT OF RECREATION, OAKLAND, CAL. The recreation or playground department of a city is a business, as well as an educational, institution. Property must be accoimted for and land purchased and improved. The plant must be maintained and operated in the interests of the people so as to secure the greatest good for the greatest numbers. The average person goes to the playground and enjoys one of the activities, perhaps meets one of the supervisors; or he sends his children and they come in contact with only a part of the system. He does not realize that beneath the surface of these things is an organization which plans the playground, sees it built and maintained, and directs or leads in the policy of operation. He does not see the janitors, caretakers, laborers, mechanics. He perhaps does not realize that the supervisor must study and prepare for each day's activities — that he attends special department meetings and classes in order to remain efficient. All this reqiiires effective organization. The recreation department must accoimt for its handling of public fimds. This new phase of municipal activity has come to stay, but it will grow and prosper only in so far as it is placed on the solid foundation of efficiency. Frequently the playgroimd movement has been started in a community by zealous and enthusiastic people filled with the spirit of service. Often, however, in an excess of enthusiasm they have failed to control the loose ends. Individual supervisors have gone off at a tangent on some hobby or other and good effective work for all ages and classes has not been done. Reorganization in many places has become a necessity. We desire and must seek the highest type of supervisor, teacher, or director, and he should not be unduly restricted or hampered in his work, but in order to secure the best results in a large system of playgroimds a definite general policy of activity must be adopted and suitable regulations enforced to carry this out. In looking about for successful and efficient types of management, we naturally turn to the example of large corpora- tions or that great example of organization — an army. Here we find the idea of leadership and co-operation and fixed responsibility thruout. The latest trend in municipal government is to secure fi:xed responsibility thru a city manager with single departmental heads responsible to him. As an example, may I direct your attention to a diagram of the organization of the recreation department of the city of Oakland. As will be seen, several agencies for play and recreation are included imder this one department, such as school playgrounds, park playgrounds, municipal I Department] ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF PLAYGROUNDS 973 boathouse, refectories, and recreational use of school buildings. A brief study of this diagram will show that the recreation department is con- trolled by the Board of Playground Directors. The superintendent of recreation is the executive officer in charge of and responsible for the work of the entire department. The department is divided into three divisions: (i) clerical; (2) maintenance and construction; (3) operative. The chief clerk and the department mechanic are in charge of the first and second of these divisions. The operative department is in three divisions : (i) boys' activities; (2) girls' activities; (3) school playgrounds. Each is under the charge of a general supervisor. Below these are classified the various play- grounds and recreation centers. Under the name of each center is given the staff of supervisors and other employees assigned to each. The operative department is, of course, the important thing, and should be made just as strong and large as possible, and all other departments as small as is consistent with efficient management. The recreation depart- ment may in a sense be compared to an army. The supervisors or teach- ers are on the firing line. They are in daily contact with the children and adults who attend the play and recreation centers. They are bringing the play service directly to the citizens. The other departments, such as con- struction, maintenance, and clerical, may be compared to the quartermaster and commissary departments of an army. They serve to supply the super- visors with equipment, materials, information, and instructions. The Board of Playground Directors, the superintendent, and the general super- visors may be compared to the general staff of an army, which furnishes the inspiration, determines the policy, issues orders, secures co-ordination of the different parts and branches, and generally directs the operation of the whole work. The recreation department of a municipality should keep the following records: minutes of governing board, including copies of all resolutions adopted; careful and detailed account of all funds received and expended; copies of all communications, reports, requests, requisitions, and applica- tions received; copies of all letters, reports, news items, permits, orders, instructions, requisitions sent out; records of all activities, festivals, pageants, athletic meets, leagues, and schedules; inventories of all property and supplies belonging to the department. In order to illustrate the workings of a recreation department from an administrative point of view, let us give the following examples: I. Relation to playground. — Before the land is purchased for a play- ground, surveys are made showing the need of a playground in the district. Prices are secured and several available sites considered, together with petitions that may come in from improvement clubs and neighborhood associations. The superintendent has interviewed members of the city council, members of improvement clubs, and other officials, and has no doubt been called upon to speak to neighborhood meetings on the subject. 974 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical The playground purchase entails work on the part of many city depart- ments. As soon as the land is purchased, or before, plans are thought out and drawn on paper, showing the possible arrangement and equipment of that playgroimd. These plans are discussed and revised and finally adopted. The funds for equipment must be forthcoming or secured. Con tracts for grading, surfacing, fencing, constructing buildings, and apparatus and other equipment must be let, executed, and supervised; all of which mean thought and labor for superintending, clerical, and con structing forces. 2. Relation to supervisor. — Before the playground is completed, many applications are received for the position of supervisor. Candidates are interviewed or examiaed according to civil service rules or otherwise and one is finally employed! The supervisor is ready to begin work in the department. He receives a copy of instructions to playgroimd supervisors. These instructions outline certain general policies of the department and give some specific rules for conduct in certain cases. The supervisor learns that he shall keep a daily record showing the nimiber of persons attending his playground, number of baths taken, nimiber of games of various kinds played, reports of accidents, remarks, etc. He learns that a detailed record of supplies received must be kept; that he shall report all breakages or damage to apparatus. To secure new supplies, improvements, or repairs to the ground, he must fill out requisitions and send them to the office of the superintendent; he must attend a weekly meeting of supervisors for instruction and discussion. He also receives schedules of games and sample programs of play activities which may be conducted on the ground, and a copy of the schedules for athletic games and leagues for the year. All this is a part of the relation of the organization to the teacher. The problem of athletic suppHes, such as baseballs, bats, basket-balls, footballs, and other inflated balls, is ever present on the playground. These supplies, on account of continuous use, wear out quickly and are a source of considerable expense in most large playground departments. It is necessary that all possible precautions be taken against loss and extrava- gance in the use and distribution of athletic supplies. The store of athletic supplies at any playground may be compared to a circulating library, except that instead of having books for children to use we loan them balls and bats, which may be used but not taken away from the playground and must be returned before the close of the day. In Oakland we keep a large stock of athletic supplies in the department storeroom. An allowance of supplies is made to each groimd, depending upon size, attendance, and kind of activity. Before being sent to the play- ground all balls and bats are marked by burning with the name of the playground. In the case of baseballs, both hard and soft, certain definite allowances are made for wear and tear. In the case of inflated balls and bats, the supervisor is required to return a worn article before receiving a Department] A UNIVERSITY PLAYGROUND FOR WOMEN 975 new one. The worn articles are carefully assorted and repaired. Basket- balls, for instance, that are unfit to use can be patched at a slight cost and can be used for practice and rough work on the playground for a consider- able time. The repaired articles are kept on hand in the supply room and returned to the ground from which they originally came. The necessity for strict economy in handling athletic supplies is appar- ent when it is known that in large playground systems expenditures for this item amount to several thousand dollars annually, but, when properly administered, it is an expenditure which is fully justified by reason of the service it gives to the public. The average family may not feel able to furnish the son and heir with a six-dollar basket-ball and a five-dollar football, but the city can buy these articles at wholesale rates and one ball can be used in common by a great number of children. In closing we suggest the following steps to be kept in mind by those organizing for play and recreation in a city: 1. Make a survey of conditions in your community and adopt the organization that best meets those conditions. 2. Promote the widest use of all existing play facilities and exploit all undeveloped possibilities. 3. The object sought should be the development of character, health, good citizen- ship, and increased personal efficiency of the child, the youth, and the adult of our city. 4. A form of organization representative of several recreation agencies is desirable, but no form is truly best unless it brings the blessing of play and recreation to all the people of the community. A UNIVERSITY PLAYGROUND FOR WOMEN HARRIET W. THOMSON, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF OREGON, EUGENE, ORE. Oregon having recently enfranchised its women, the state university has sought to provide for the young women who apply for its degrees the training most helpful to them in becoming useful citizens the while they pursue their chosen lines of work. The part of the training with which this paper deals is the reviving and developing of the group sense and the incul- cating of the principles of co-operation by means of playground activities. At the University of Oregon the girls are rather more immature in their views and aims than one is accustomed to expect in university students. The majority accept and expect constant direction in their work and when asked what they are going to do the general answer is, "Teach, I suppose," or "I don't know." They see no relation between cause and effect, ascrib- ing their inability to do satisfactory work in a subject to the instructor, not to lack of preparation or lack of application. While they do excellent work, the majority are not aggressive students. Their central organization, the Woman's League, is two years old and has accomplished nothing of impor- tance except when under the direct guidance of the women's dean. This 976 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical is because their interest is centered in their different fraternity activities, which are rushing parties, dances, receptions, and picnics. Thus we find them placing emphasis upon social activity rather than upon culture and scholarship, and expending all their energies upon more or less ineffective small groups while their central organization is inefficient. Physically they are inactive except in social affairs and their muscles are soft and flabby. The chest, abdominal, back, and leg muscles are especially weak, few being able to chin themselves once, or lie on thdr backs and with toe support come to a sitting posture. Ninety per cent enter each fall suffering pain at the menstrual period. This is relieved or disappears entirely after a few weeks of regular exercise which is required of all Freshmen and Sophomores three times a week and daily of those majoring in the department. They need more bodily activity, therefore, to maintain health and normal physical development; active interests other than social; activities that will include all on the basis of physical ability in which success is achieved only thru the co-operation of individual skUl. With this in mind, the department is working toward a playground which will furnish every physical activity in any way needed in the develop- ment of womanhood. Beginning five years ago with tennis, basket-ball, and little or no interest in either sport, the curriculum today includes archery, baseball, canoeing, field hockey, folk dancing, golf, swimming, walking, and interest to the extent of a Woman's Athletic Association and lively contests in tennis and field hockey each year with the girls at the Oregon Agricultural College. The work is divided according to the season into indoor and outdoor activities, according to the physical needs of the girls into general and special work which continues thru each semester. The indoor work emphasizes muscular and mental control and the development of individual skill, while the outdoor work, the playground work, emphasizes play for all, democracy, and sportsmanship above all else. Each fall, depending upon the beginning of the rains, the first four or five weeks are devoted to this work. Every girl is required to participate in at least one sport, a physical examination governing her choice. Those requiring special work are restricted to archery, canoeing, golf, tennis, and walking since the intensity of these may be regulated to individual needs. Those taking general work may also play baseball, basket-ball, or field hockey. To increase the interest in games, each girl is urged to perfect herself in one sport, that is, play it fall and spring during her four semesters of required work, and to learn a new one each semester. The play hour comes at four o'clock Mondays, Wednesdays, and Thurs- days. All who are to take part assemble on the dance green dressed in gymnasium suits, or in middies and short skirts, and gymnasium shoes. Folk dancing to victrola music is used for ten minutes to limber up cramped Department] A UNIVERSITY PLAYGROUND FOR WOMEN 977 muscles and stir up the circulation. Two or three dances are given with short breathing spaces intervening; then all proceed to their different sport centers and play their games for forty-five minutes. Each sport is under the supervision of an assistant or of a Senior major in physical training. They play with the girls, as also do a few faculty women who join some of the sports each year. The latter usually have a basket-ball or hockey team of their own by spring and challenge the girls to a game or two and at present they owe the girls a defeat in basket-ball. "^ When the rains begin exercise is taken in the gymnasium and the winter months are devoted to folk and aesthetic dancing, Swedish work, light and heavy apparatus, basket-ball, and elementary group games which necessi- tate much running. About the last of April the playground work begins again, proceeding as in the fall with the exception of folk dancing which is omitted that more time may be had for practice. The hockey and tennis games with the Oregon Agricultural College and the Woman's Athletic Association contests, which are interclass, demand the best skill and teamwork that can be developed. The teams for the two intercollegiate games are made up of girls from all four classes who hold teamwork and sportsmanship dearer than victory. Those who cannot do this do not make the team. The hockey game excites the keenest interest among the girls in both institutions and the real rivalry seems to be an endeavor to outdo the other in sports- manship. They appear quite to enjoy losing that they may show how stoically they can take defeat. The very finest feeling exists between the girls of the two colleges and there has yet to be the first sign of temper or pettiness on either side. Formerly, near the end of May, a demonstration of work was held. This was in the nature of a contest between the Freshmen and Sophomores and was held indoors. This is being replaced by interclass contests in the outdoor sports and the Woman's Athletic Association is gradually assuming control of them, under the guidance, of course, of the physical training director for women. Class games in each of the sports except hockey are played and each girl making her team is awarded a letter by the association, "A" for archery, "C" for canoeing, and so forth. Individual trophies are also offered by the association for the highest skill, as a yew-wood bow for the highest score in the archery match, a pair of paddles to the two girls winning the canoe race, a driver to the winner of the golf match, a racket to the winner of the tennis singles, and a sweater to the girl who walks cross-country the greatest number of miles during the last semester. No letters or trophies may be received by any of the girls, however, unless ! their scholarship grades are 85 per cent or better. Swimming cannot yet be made an elective sport as the natatorium is open to the girls Mondays only. The majors and all who wish to take 978 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Physical canoeing must learn to swim, however, and as many others are taught as the instructors have time for. Walking is used in the special work when needed and in the general work as a class contest spring and fall between the Freshmen and Sophomores as a change from the regular games. This contest varies from time to time in its details but is essentially a simple race. The two classes, under the leadership of one of its own members, leave the gymnasium oi signal and go in opposite directions. Their trails finally meet and ea( returns over the other's course. At the meeting-place delaying each other'i progress is allowed but there must be no holding so there is always mui good-natured pushing and laughing as they pass. The class having the greater number "home" first wins, consequently it requires some general- ship on the part of the leaders to get their best girls together and away again. The physical results of this work are seen in the strength tests and men- strual period records taken each month. Studied in connection with the indoor work, we find improvement beginning almost immediately in the fall and continuing slowly upward until about the middle of May. Then it ceases or falls off a little, owing to the fact that the girls are indulging in much extra social and dramatic activity besides working for final examina- tions. That the regular playground work keeps up their vitaUty during this congested spring season was nicely illustrated this year. Owing to exces- sive rain and construction of new buildings on the campus the regular play- ground work was interrupted for the last three weeks of the term. The records show an almost abrupt drop in vitality whereas always before, if there was a decrease, it was slight and gradual. A study of their standings to discover, if possible, the mental results, has not been completed, but two questionnaires two years apart indicate that the majority of the girls think they do better work because of the exercise. Socially only small things show as yet. The girls have a wider acquaint- ance among the other girls in college as attested by those who graduated three or four years ago. And this year for the first time second-year girb who knew they could not make their teams offered of their own accord to play at the extra practice periods before a game that their mates might have opportunity for teamwork drill. Appreciative letters from parents are received each year telling of noticeable improvement in health, self- control, and carriage. And letters from graduates who have gone out to teach either deplore the fact that they did not take more of the playground work or express great satisfaction in having had it. As one girl expressed it this spring, "Oh, if you can only play while you work you can teadi anything or learn anything!" Department] ATHLETICS IN PLAYGROUNDS 979 ATHLETICS IN PLAYGROUNDS CHARLES E. TEACH, SUPERVISING PRINCIPAL, ORANGE PUBLIC SCHOOLS, ORANGE, GAL. Sensible, clean athletics with the enthusiastic joy that accompanies competition and the natural, moral, and physical training that is sure to follow should be made a part of every organized playground. We have felt for years that the present system of athletics has been valuable for the chosen few of the school. Special coaches have spent much time and energy in producing the speciahzed athlete and have ignored the physical welfare of the great majority of the students. So keen has been the desire to turn out a winning team in our institutions of learning that only rarely in the public schools do we find physical training ofifered for the students in general. The physical-training creed in which I beheve sincerely is found in a few paragraphs of a splendid little book just from the press, by Frederick J. Reilly, entitled Rational Athletics for Boys, from which I am pleased to quote: The movement today that deserves all possible encouragement is to bring athletics and class work in physical training together; to inject into the carefully prescribed course in physical training the vim, the lively interest to be found only in some form of game or athletic contest, and at the same time to make athletics the business of the many, not the few; to bring the benefits of athletics within the reach of all; to cleanse it of its present undemocratic methods and of its "win-at-any-price" tendencies. The definite aims to be sought are (i) health, (2) strength and endur- ance, (3) beauty of form and grace of carriage, (4) a living interest in some form of active clean sport, (5) the team spirit, (6) to gain an intelligence of sport and the rules by which the various games are conducted, (7) to develop character and to give boys and girls an opportunity to find their places as social factors in a democracy. In most cases the following team sports should be selected for the play- grounds: baseball, basket-ball, volley ball, football, tennis, handball. In the track and field events, perhaps the most desirable are the broad jump, high jump, shot put, short sprints, relay races, and exercises intended to develop proper breathing. The director should subordinate himseK as much as possible and use for leaders and officials recognized boy leaders who have shown themselves worthy of the confidence of their respective groups. In the field and track events, contestants should be grouped according to the average abilities of the various grades, while in the team sports weight will tmdoubtedly serve as a guide in the classification. In this way, the individual con- testant will not be discouraged by the contest before him, but will have a chance to gain points in relation to a known standard. Further encourage- ment comes to a child if he feels that athletics is a part of the regular school work and that attainment is to be rewarded with official school credit. 980 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physii Considerable difficulty has been experienced in trying out systems of credits for athletics. A plan has been devised by A. S. Hotchkiss, director of athletics, Hanover College, Hanover, 111., and in the May number of the School Review he suggests a table for scoring the points. In commenting on the system he states: This arrangement tries to take into account that after a certain amount of ability is acquired it should be harder to make points, and also to take into consideration the relationship of the ordinary athlete and the star performer as regards points, and to encourage participation in a new event. The requirement for points is made so low that any normal boy can win points. Team spirit asserts itself and influences every possible member of each team to compete in the various events regardless of his proficiency. The total number of points made by each team determines its standing, and in a series of meets the grand total decides the winner. The points will easily total as high as six hundred for the ordinary individual during three meets, and team scores run into the thousands. This system would work well in playground athletics. What results can be confidently expected ? First of all, if the athletics is properly appreciated the teams develop a fine quahty of loyalty to the members of the team and to the cause which the team represents. Thru the individual subordination accompanying team play, the socialization of the young citizens is accomplished. It is a good thing for a young fellow to learn how to take his place in a group and perform his part in the cause for which the group acts. Jealousies, narrow-mindedness, selfishness, and lack of confidence give way happily to group consciousness. If the conduct of the team game produces loyalty, then it is easy to see that a proper obedience to the rules of the game will follow with a corre- sponding increase in respect for all properly constituted authority. In the non-supervised game, the survival of the fittest prevails and the bully inter- prets the rules of the game usually in a narrow way quite destructive to justice. The disputes which have frequently arisen from such conditions are not unlike the scenes witnessed sometimes in commerciaUzed win-at- any-price baseball. There is a silent benefit that comes from observing a law printed, and to observe rules harmonizes all school life. It has been estimated that only 16.4 per cent of all college students take any active part in athletics. The percentage is no doubt larger in high schools. In the past it has usually been smaller in the elementary schools. Destroy the idea of conducting athletics for the few and standard- ize the work and there is ample proof to demonstrate splendid results for the majority of students. I would not discontinue the selection and training of the most capable in athletics, but these should not be entitled to the important place which they have heretofore held. We should aim to make all physically strong and sanely interested in the best games in America. Supervised athletics should overcome the dishonest practices which so frequently prevail in the commercialized specialized games. In many football games the effort of each team has been directed against the strongest 'F. Department] DISTINCTIVE FUNCTIONS OF GAMES AND GYMNASTICS 981 player in order to put him out of the game. Pushing in basket-ball when the player knew that he was violating a rule has been frequent. Cutting bases in baseball and intentional blocking or spiking have been only a few of the attempts to "get by." With the assistance of the special coach in our schools these abuses have been minimized but slightly. In fact so long as our coaches have learned the art of "getting by " in the college games, little can be expected from them. For this reason, school officers are beginning to feel that the teacher-coach combination has better possibilities. In every state where an attempt has been made to organize competitive school athletics, one of the first things done has been the creation of a more or less compUcated law of eUgibility, and immediately there have been tactful violations in which not only have contestants had a part but their efforts have been approved and encouraged by parents, teachers, and numerous business men of the community interested in the contestant. Surely such continued abuse puts a premium upon falsehood and paves the way for wholesale disrespect for all authority. The kind of athletics suggested by the subject of my paper will not require a set of unworkable eligibihty rules, but being a part of the regular school work will be subject to the same regulations. The general effect upon the school will be good and the entire community will reap benefits. The intellectuaUty of the pupils will be quickened because healthy bodies with enlivened circulation of the blood encourage study, industry, and morality. THE DISTINCTIVE FUNCTIONS OF GAMES AND GYMNASTICS CHARLOTTE STEWART, DIRECTOR OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, HIGH SCHOOLS, SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH The longer we look upon and work within the vast field of human development, the more convinced we become that there can be no final word, even for a short time, that authority in its every detail is merely relative, that every opinion is absolutely predetermined by individual experience, and that safety alone Ues in a concensus of opinion. In the Ught of this viewpoint, let the facts and fancies here considered be dis- cussed and let them be confined in their application to the elementary public school of these United States. Our problem, then, is the public school, and our consideration is to be from an educational standpoint. We can afford in public systems to do some things far in advance of the "mean of pubUc sentiment and pubUc approval" with the assurance that public opinion will be raised to our standards. Those engaged in pubUc, physical education should be edu- cators first and physical trainers second. It behooves those who would keep apace to be as flexible and susceptible to new educational and scientific findings as to keep alive physically. 982 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical Physical education departments today in the schools of this country have organized in their curriculums, as divisions of the big muscle activities, as progranuned subjects, gynmastics, games, dances, athletics, and sports, the acknowledged materials of physical training. Nor have these mate- rials been included without need and justified verification. These are the summarized functions usually apportioned to the physical training department: 1. To maintain the health of all school children during school age. 2. To fiirnish enough physical action and reaction for adequate physical growth and development. 3. To overcome unmoral or abnormal physical conditions and general tendencies both communal and individual. 4. To give general somatic vigor, a power of resistance which the organism shows to the invasion of disease, not only infectious but also chronic diseases, a vigor to meet the conditions of tomorrow. Woidd that we could look ahead and build physically as William Wirt was permitted to do educationally. 5. To create a love for physical activity that may be carried not over into but on thruout life. 6. To give enjoyment in and appreciation for wholesome democratic social activities — an education for leisure. 7. To train in physical economy and conservation and to develop a consciousness for civic co-operation. The problem of physical activities as worked out with a normal child in a normal environment under controlled conditions is the source of our information and our inspiration, but the other children, unmoral, abnormal imder uncontrollable conditions, are likewise to be studied and their needs listed. These various findings must be cast into a melting-pot and welded to arrive at a mean, at an average. If all children were natural and we could place them under natural conditions and prepare them to live a natural life, there would need be no teaching of games or gymnastics or of play. But civilization is living an artificial existence and the only thing to do is to take it as we find it, naturalize its artificialities, and by science and art help to make the physical organism in its neuro-muscular tenacity fit to meet this artificiality and win out. We beUeve in play, we believe that play will be the greatest factor in accomplishing just this. We are also conscious of a wealth of material and we are face to face with the problem of placing this material wisely. All material that is good cannot be appor- tioned out and dished up. Just because I enjoy a thing may determine my doing it, but not necessarily its value. The same is true with other children. It is one function of education to help the child to like to do the thing he should. Neither can we afiford to crowd everything we know, have read about, or seen into an elementary-school curriculum. We must scientifi- cally place material. We must therefore keep our ear close to nature and to the physiology and psychology of play. The totality theory of development is not to be slighted. We are, however, convinced that bodily symmetry is not as essential as bodily 1 Department] DISTINCTIVE FUNCTIONS OF GAMES AND GYMNASTICS 983 harmony and that a resultant totality is dependent upon a periodical specialization. Nature gives the example in physical growth. Let use be made of this periodicity in the placing of material in the curriculum. Games should be included in the curriculum. No one would venture the statements that they will accomplish all the aims in physical training. At some periods they may contain adequate material, may furnish the necessary bulk, may be the proper food for all physical hungers. There are periods when the right games may be the sum and total of physical education activities. A game as an organized or semiorganized form of play with its definite regulations meets general functional need for activity and is a self-generator of joy. Without the spirit of play, games are a ghastly sight, and without the enjoyable spirit of work, gymnastics is a farce. The safety in the former lies in the fact that the natural enjoyable attack that children have toward games carries them often in spite of the teacher. Games are the safest material in physical education if they can be made inclusive without being required, if the duration is limited to the capacity of the under-average child, and if the true spirit of play is there. These presuppose the placing of material properly under as natural conditions as possible of organization and leadership. Games and play often at their best acquire the intensity of work without losing the exhilaration of play. Shall gymnastics be retained with games in the elementary schools? What is gymnastics ? The layman's conception of gymnastics is a series of meaningless repeated movements and his ideal of its value even more absurd than his idea of the value of play. A summary of the gymnastic idea may perhaps best be stated thus: G3minastics is the application of postures and movements in harmony with the conditions and needs of the org£inism and predestined with regard to space and time for the purpose of placing the body under the control of the will. The students of social science should welcome gynmastics for their cry is: "We must strengthen the child's will and his control over his own body; we must give him physical ideals." It is a very general observation that the controlled individual, the one most nearly balanced physically and mentally, enjoys gymnastics. Is it not possible that cause and result interact and that gymnastics will help develop the balance and control ? If the claims made for gymnastics are not true, they should be disproved; if true, they should be given a fair chance in the right place to make good. Gjonnastics is work. It is not mental recreation. It is definite work, definite technique for a definite purpose. If it is not the best technique for the purpose, let us do away with it and find a better. Systems of gymnastics have given us much even if we cast them out. They have given us the idea of physiological sequence and progression and the value of extensive finished movements. Whether gymnastics is retained or not, these conditions in practice are self-evident. We must hold to the best we 984 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical J have and use it to its full capacity until we get something better. When conditions are most nearly those of the old schoolroom with its periods of study and physical training, the Swedish order should be more rigidlyJ adhered to. If the same play is required of a miscellaneous group of] children the idea of sequence will be a safeguard. If the play is free with ' good natural stimulation, natiure will care for herself physiologically. Nor must we omit in this comment the chnical and the remedial value of gymnastics. We have dental clinics; we have medical dispensaries; we have trained nurses. We should have cliniticians to take care of functional disorders. The coming field in preventive medicine is not going to be a battle with germs, but a contest with chronic organic degeneration, one of the new problems of civilization. There are many good curves placing games according to age and development. The play hungers are good indexers of development. Would that in practice as well as in theory we might put more purpose into our play, and more imagination and more subjective content into our gymnastics and games. I am not so sure but that the time is near at hand when the play attack will be the approach to most material in the curricu- lum, when genuine education by play will become a living, palpitating, strenuous reaUty, and young America will play into a knowledge of life. May this bring a knowledge of how to play fairly and squarely the game of life be it win or lose, honestly and bravely. PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE PHILIPPINE PUBLIC SCHOOLS FRANK L. CRONE, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF EDUCATION, DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MANILA, P.I. Physical training is one of the three phases of the balanced curriculum of the Phihppines which embraces also academic instruction and industrial , education. This correlation of the three branches of the work into a single * school system is something upon which we lay the greatest emphasis. Between 95 and 100 per cent of all the pupils enrolled in the PhiHppine Islands are brought under the influence of the athletic program of the pubUc schools and receive physical education in one form or another. This does ' not mean that all the instruction is satisfactory or that the amount of physical training is in every case sufficient, but it does mean that the athletic program of the pubUc schools has vitally touched the vast majority of the pupils enrolled in them. When the present system of pubUc schools was first initiated, it was^ found that Fihpino children had certain pastimes but practically no sports. It was not until 1909 that public-school athletics received the unqualified support of the government. In developing athletics the teachers very wisely studied the customs of the country and employed those methods which would conform most, Department] PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE PHILIPPINE SCHOOLS 985 closely to the habits of thought of the people. The FiHpinos possess in a great degree what may be termed for lack of a better word the "fiesta" or holiday spirit, which almost amounts to a passion for pubUc celebrations and festivities. For this they have often been condemned as being lacking in seriousness of character and purpose. The teachers found that an appeal to this spirit facihtated the introduction of athletics, even among those who would have been slow to accept more abstract reasons for their intro- duction. Besides there was in every locaUty a very narrow town patriotism which in many sections tended to exclude everyone who was not native born. Much use was made of this. By working up town rivalry, teams were organized and equipped and received the support of their towns. As soon as this town rivalry was thoroly worked up for the benefit of athletics it began to be modified until now in most places in the PhiUppines it has become a healthy and sportsmanlike rivalry. It was not until athletics were firmly estabHshed that the question of their definite organization was taken up by the director of education. It was a question whether there should be a separate organization similar to the pubHc-schools athletic league of New York and others of similar charac- ter, or whether athletics should be handled thru the regular organization of the Bureau of Education. In view of the existence of a centralized administration in this Bureau, it seemed neither necessary nor desirable that a separate organization be established. The director of education is in charge of athletics, as he is of all other subjects in the school curriculum. He in turn delegates control to division superintendents of schools who are responsible for the conduct of athletics in their several divisions. The interprovincial organizations are made up of the several division superintendents of the divisions belonging. Each division is divided into supervising districts, in charge of which are super- vising teachers who manage the athletics within their districts. The prin- cipal of an intermediate or a primary school is responsible for athletics within his school and so on down until the last teacher is reached. Since pupils and teachers alike are subject to disciphne on the athletic field as well as in the schoolroom, instances of misconduct on the field are very rare indeed. The rules and regulations governing athletics have been carefully pre- scribed in the Athletic Handbook which was originally issued in 191 1. Later it appeared that a great number of points were obscure and many were not touched upon at all. Two years later a revised edition was issued which explained every obscure point found in the first edition and answered every question that had been asked since the first edition came out. Very fre- quently it is necessary to make minor changes and these are communicated to the field thru general and division office circulars. In each school there is a series of competitive games each year. Schools send teams to district meets. Each district is represented at the provincial 986 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical meet and each province sends its best athletes to compete for honors in an annual meet in which a number of provinces take part. The winning teams in interprovincial meets come to Manila every February where a general meet is held. Here teams meet from every part of the Islands representing all its people. Such a mingling of athletes not only serves as a wonderful stimulus to athletics but promotes in a marked degree the spirit of nationaUsm. To handle the finances, athletic clubs have been organized in the various schools with power to raise and disburse money for athletic purposes. Money is collected thru dues, contributions, school entertainments, admis- sions to games, popularity contests, and in many instances the pupils them- selves earn money thru their own labor. In many schools a share of the profits from industrial operations is sufficient to finance the athletics. The accounts are carefully audited and statements regularly posted so that each and every pupil may know how his school stands financially. Many of the schools deposit their money in postal savings banks in the name of the school. The first athletics introduced into the pubhc schools were necessarily those most famihar to the average American and included baseball, basket- ball, and track and field sports. These had the advantage of being spec- tacular and of attracting large crowds to view them. They were best calculated also to work up rivalry between the various towns and provinces. It was largely thru these sports that the interest of the Filipino people was enUsted. The school authorities came to see, however, that these specialized forms of athletics were entirely inadequate. Only a small percentage of the pupils could hope to make creditable records in them and it was neces- sary to devise some method by which every normal boy and girl could be given physical education in some way or other. This question was solved thru the introduction of group games, the athletic color competition, school- yard games, and calisthenics. The group games selected were as far as possible those in which any normal pupil could make a fairly creditable record and which have some social value. Besides points are allowed for attendance and a minimum is fixed below which no team may compete. The whole idea is to discourage the tendency of captains to bring out only a selected few to compete for honors. The athletic badge contest is very similar to that of the pubUc-schools athletic league of New York City but certain changes have been made to adapt it to the Philippine Islands. Any boy under thirteen years of age who is able to make aU of the following records may wear a red button: 6o-yard dash in 9 seconds; pull-up (chinning on bar) 4 times; standing broad jimip of 5 feet 9 inches. Any boy under eighteen years of age may wear a white emblem who can do the following: 100-yard dash in 14 sec- onds; pull-up 8 times; standing broad jump of 7 feet. A blue emblem is awarded to any boy who can accomphsh all of the following: 220-yard dash in 28 seconds; pull-up 10 times; running high jump of 4 feet 4 inches. Department] PHYSICAL TRAINING IN THE PHILIPPINE SCHOOLS 987 Four or five years ago, it was apparent to those interested in athletic sports that it would be necessary to take certain action to define amateurism and make suitable rules and regulations relative to it. The Philippine Amateur Athletic Federation was formed, which now includes the Philippine public schools, the United States army, the Young Men's Christian Asso- ciation, the Columbia Club, and various other similar organizations. Counting the pupils of the public schools, this federation can claim a mem- bership of nearly 625,000. The central idea of this federation is that each organization shall be held responsible for the eligibiHty of its athletes. The oflicials of the Philippine Amateur Athletic Federation interested them- selves in the formation of a Far Eastern Athletic Association to include all of the oriental nations. The first meet was held at Manila, February, 1913, and China, Japan, and the Philippines took part. The second meet was held in May, 1915, at Shanghai, the same nations competing. Efforts have been made to interest Siam, the Malay states, and French Cochin- China, and, had it not been for the outbreak of the European war, it is certain that some or all of these nations would have participated. Within the jurisdiction of this athletic organization are now found nearly one-third of the human race. At the close of the Second Far Eastern Athletic Meet at Shanghai in May, 191 5, President Yuan Shi Kai invited four of the teams to come to Pekin, The Chinese baseball team from Honolulu, two girls' indoor base- ball teams from the Philippines, and a boys' baseball team from the Philip- pines visited the Forbidden City, where they were shown every courtesy by the president. It is difficult at this time to foresee how far reaching will be the efifects of this official recognition of athletics by the Chinese authorities. The following table shows the present interscholastic records in the Philippines. These records are much better than the collegiate records of 1875, with which they should be compared rather than with the present records, which represent the results of forty years' progress. So-yard dash 5I sec. loo-yard dash io| sec. 220-yard dash 23 sec. 440-yard dash S3 sec. 880-yard dash 2 min. 12^ sec. 220-yard low hurdles 27^ sec. Running broad jump 20 ft. 8 in. Running high jump 5 ft. 5 in. Shot put 45 ft. ii| in. Pole vault 10 ft. 6 J in. Discus throw 93 ft. 9 in. 880-yard relay i min. 37! sec. Mile relay 3 min. 43! sec. The introduction of group games has not detracted in the least from the attention given to specialized forms of athletics and in fact will tend to increase it. This is due to the fact that many are encouraged to begin the specialized forms of athletics thru success in the easier games. lysicSnH 988 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Ph: The greatest difficulty in making the plan of physical education general for both boys and girls was in introducing it among the girls. The old standard of propriety and decorum for girls and young women would not permit of their engaging in any form of strenuous exercises. In fact proper conduct for those who did not have to be out of doors working in the fields or in other emplo)m3ient would keep them within doors during the greater part of the day, and would allow them only evening walks in company with parents or other guardians. Even after these young people had become acquainted with the need for physical training and had become interested in school games, the school authorities met opposition from the parents, who could not readily be persuaded to accept such radical changes from the old to the new. The earliest efforts made among the girls were in the stereotyped form of calisthenics. Then came the game of tennis. Several years ago the first girl basket-ball teams were organized and were making considerable progress when indoor baseball for girls was introduced, and this game, it seems, is the one which school-teachers and school girls alike have adopted as the one which is most fitting and which meets the situation best. It provides healthy exercise in a game which is highly competitive and spec- tacular, and which at the same time allows a large number of participants. Basket-ball continues to have its adherents and is a permanent girls' game, while volley ball and tennis also take care of a large number. The effect of this sort of training has just begim to be felt. It gives girls and young women a new idea of what is healthful and proper in the way of exercise. It gives them a new confidence in their own strength, whether moral or physical, and has brought about a very noticeable improvement in man's attitude toward woman. No mention need be made of the physi- cal improvement which is if anything more marked than that of the boys and young men. Among the primitive peoples athletics have a peculiar place. Thru games between the various districts there will be brought about a spirit of friendliness among peoples disposed to be hostile. Feuds will come to be settled more and more thru the influence of athletic sports. These tendencies are very evident among the mountain peoples in Northern Luzon, the primitive and Mohammedan peoples of Mindanao. An incident which occurred in the mountain province four years ago will serve to show the place athletics has come to assume in the life of the primitive peoples of the Philippines. The mountain province is inhabited by various tribes which until a few years ago were mutually hostile. The school system has been extended to every part of the moun- tain country and in 191 1 three himdred school athletes were brought into Baguio for an athletic meet. The meet was held and the best of feeling prevailed. One old chief declared that it was a wonderful thing that such a meeting could be held without serious trouble. "And just look at that," Department] EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF PLAYGROUNDS 989 he said, "the umpire has just called our batter out. A few years ago no umpire could have called our batter out." The general introduction of athletics in the public schools of the Philip- pine Islands and their extension to practically every class in society has accomplished many things. There is increased regularity in attendance and a practical elimination of tardiness. There has grown up, besides, a school spirit which did not exist before and to which athletics has con- tributed much. Athletic sports have at the same time enlisted the enthu- siasm and support of thousands of people who would have otherwise taken little or no interest in schools. There has been a noticeable change of ideals and a growing appreciation of the youth who are well equipped physically for life's battle. There has been noticeable physical improvement directly traceable to athletics and there is gradually evolving in the Philippines a new type which will be very much superior to the old. Athletics has done much to displace vicious amusements. The cockpit finds in athletics its most dangerous competitor. Athletics is also displacing a number of games formerly played by children which have a gambling element in them and which are objection- able from the physical point of view. There has come into the youth of the Philippines a new spirit of sportsmanship which is turning out as a product a generation of fine upstanding young men who play the game for all it is worth and act like men, whether in victory or in defeat. Athletics has touched the home and town life in nearly all of its phases and the influence has been all for the good. There has come largely as a result of athletics a new conception of the worth of the Filipino. Those who have denied to him the power to develop energy and enthusiasm must revise their judgments. And the Filipino himself, who has for years been accus- tomed to hear his value depreciated, is coming to realize, as he never has before, the true possibilities of his people. Athletics has been used as a means to interest people in other civic movements and when the history of this first half of the twentieth century comes to be written athletics in the Philippines will be given much of the credit for the physical and civic betterment of the Filipino people, and will take its place along with the academic instruction which has brought about intellectual awakening, and the industrial instruction which has practically revolutionized the ideas of the people in regard to education and industry. THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF PLAYGROUNDS RICHARD G. BOONE, SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL. A recent writer characterizes play, in the child, as "the letting loose of what is in him, the active projection of the force he is, the becoming of what he is to be." It would be entirely within keeping of modern doctrine to 990 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical define education in the same phrase. The modern conception is to regard education as a process of maturing thru self-expression, in the use of the richest possible experience; i.e., the letting loose of what is in one, the projection of one's spiritual force into objective form, the eflFort to become what one is destined, by faculty and healthy impulse, to be. The present paper is meant to be an outline presentation of the educa- tion meanings of play, as typified in the American playground movement; the enrichment of life thru the instrumentaUty of the play impulse and play exercises, and using the play motive, not in childhood only, but thruout life. The main thesis of the paper is that "play is the distinctively educative activity"; that all superior work in any field and at any age of the indi- vidual's life is superior as a factor of self-development to the degree that it is a more perfect complete utterance of one's self, an adequate reahzation of comprehensive experience in the product of one's effort; that as the play spirit creates Ufe in the child, work in the adult is never of supreme quaUty, unless it looks to a Uke result. Elizabeth Barrett Browning makes Aurora Leigh say: Mark, there, we get us good By being ungenerous even to a book And calculating profits — so much help By so much reading. It is rather when We gloriously forget ourselves, and plimge Soul forward, headlong, into a book's profound, Impassioned for its beauty and salt of truth — 'Tis there we get the right good from a book. Without other change than substituting the idea of the more compre- hensive school exercises or one's vocation for mere book reading, the quoted phrase will be accepted by any farseeing teacher. It is this losing one's self, so characteristic of play, that makes an exercise an effective means of one's improving. If the inner push be lacking, all is lacking. Play, therefore, and work, if both are free and motivated from within, proceed from the same impulse, have the same method of operation, and yield a like satisfaction. The one need be no less educative and stimulating than the other. It is because what we call work has been debased to crude bread-and-butter uses that its inspirations are imdiscovered; that the soul, no longer in the saddle as in youth, is now driven; and one regards the wage and not the joy of the sweat-of-the-brow privilege. All play rests upon and realizes itseK in interested effort, the doing of whatever is done from an -inner want, not from external compulsion. Train- ing usually follows a requirement outside one's self; education is stimulated by one's own wish, some interest that works itself out. In formal educa- tion this is apparent not in the elementary classes only, but thru the high school and even into college years, where the ideal result of teaching is that learners are made students. The stupidest among us would think it absurd to compel a child to play; but there are many who yet suppose that mental Department] EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF PLAYGROUNDS 991 and moral activities may be taken on and off at another's behest, imder whatever mental protest, and yet produce wholesome effects. Now play has this character of spontaneity that makes it educative beyond any merely required activity. This is evident in the very little fellow's plaj^ul move- ments, the real plays of childhood, the first attempts at games, and the elaborate and rule-controlled contests of mature adolescence. A boy may play lest he become the butt of his companions and be called a sissy if he does not, just as a boy may learn his lessons for fear of the criticisms of his teacher or professor; but imless he comes to find joy in his games, and stimulus to self-initiated interest in his lessons, neither the play nor the study is more than a counterfeit of the real thing. Here, again, play is the distinctively educative activity. Second, play stands for the resourcefulness of willed activity. Anyone who has watched the ease with which children modify their games, change the characters, reverse the order of plays, drop parts and make additions, or drop one set of games and substitute others, and assume very unlike responsibilities, will comprehend how stimulating to resourcefulness is a well-played game. Resourcefulness of mental action and response naturally results from the interested activity constituting play. It hints of creative power. To be able to recognize two ways out, or in, where before was seen but one, or none, is to possess the power of a leader. Once more, play as the primary educative activity involves a conscious- ness of ends to be attained and the discovery and harnessing and use of adequate means to their accomplishment — this is of the nature of real educative effort. Articulate, sequential processes of thinking or doing, where every step is determined by its predecessor and finds meaning in an end to be attained; experiences that hang together and reinforce each other; the habit of thinking relatively and in wholes are coveted for the pupil by every real teacher. In play, especially the game, the end is seen to shape the nter- vening moves; not what the player may like to do, but what the final play requires. Otherwise it is a foul, and so is outclassed. This directive stimu- lus that comes from the attempt to do what seems to need doing, from finding the answer to a question which one wants to use, explaining a natural phenomenon about which one has become curious — the directive stimulus that comes from such self -originated efforts has almost no parallel apart from the plays and games of children and youth. Yet the faculty developed is just the faculty we seek to arouse in our best teaching of whatever subject. But in a larger sense, play, full-lunged, muscle-testing, whole-body play, has a distinct educational significance, in that it lays the foundation for a vigorous and usable energy in adult years. The play of the playground and the track, the excursion and the arena, uses the large muscles rather than the small ones, or the small ones as accessory to the gross movements of the 992 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical body. Whereas the small muscles of the fingers and the face, the mouth and throat and the eyes are the organs of the thinking faculty, specialized as the action system of the cerebrum and under cerebral control, the large muscles of the limbs, the shovdders, the back, the chest, etc., are in immedi- ate connection with the medulla brain, and are the specialized and peculiar organs of the will. These mature earUest, and their education is a pre- requisite to the effective discipline of the cerebral system. Indeed the healthy, domesticated, full-blooded, habitually well-managed, and easily responsive large muscle system is a prime condition of the accuracy and deUcacy and tempered use of the small muscles, and the higher mental functioning of more conventionalized behavior. The importance of play is an obvious conclusion. The relative dependence of the two forms of training must be equally obvious. So having to do with this particular conception, the plays to be con- sidered include the running games in which the whole body is brought into action, throwing, jumping, climbing, wrestling, dancing, field excursions, and hunting, in which, with the single exception of wrestling perhaps, girls as well as boys may profitably be exercised. By such exercises, the entire organism is schooled to act as a unit; easy and direct co-ordinations are estabhshed and made habitual; certain basic reactions, fundamental in later finer responses, become the rule; and the will finds a field that is easily cultivated, in the rich soil of large, responsive organs. Will and choice, purpose and execution find here their earUest and surest schooling. Plan, intention, discrimination, selection, preference, and their expression find a natural first development. Play is the race's primer of lessons in all character evolution and the higher spiritual choices. Natiu-e and instinct chiefly control the basal activities involved in play and all free large movements; while traditional schooling emphasizes the accessory activities and the precision of their employment. A too early development of the small muscles, as in the finger movements of writing, drawing, deUcate needlework, etc., in discriminating intonations, and in facial expression, is hable to leave the larger muscles and more funda- mental parts undeveloped. School work generally, and modem life to an excessive degree, lay premature and disproportioned strain upon movements requiring exactness and brain-controlled activities. The danger from these sources, a danger intensified as population becomes more dense and life necessarily artificialized, emphasizes the importance to the growing genera- tions of playgrounds and free parks in cities, of the pubHc encouragement of body games, and of opportunities for the development of an efficient, broadly sensitive, animal organism. Motor exercises, not subject to too much prescriptive direction, will accomphsh some results that no amount of the most intellectual discipline can achieve. Speaking broadly, then, the chief resource of society for the training of the wiU, and for developing a habit of inteUigently willed activities, and for I Department] PHYSICAL EDUCATION ESSENTIAL 993 an enduring foundation of self-determined choice, and for the inhibitions incident to the experience of regulated behavior, is the playground. Wherever the playground may be, and however it may be managed, it should be under the direction of one who is skilfully conversant with the wider significance of its activities and its educational bearings. Wise directors are needed, and true teachers, who are sensible, stimulating com- panions of youth, who look to find the results of their labors, not in the intellectual possessions solely or chiefly, but in wholesome physical and mental habits, safe and impelling attitudes of mind, a controlled co-ordina- tion of mental and bodily functions. Compared with the responsibility of the director of the plays of youth, the teacher of the traditional lessons has an easy task. Almost anyone can teach a boy to read, or to follow an experiment in the laboratory, or to keep step in a marching line; but only a big-hearted comrade who has at thirty the muscle hunger of youth, whose memory of its joys is clear and healthy, who sees that the disposition and temper with which work is done or attempted are more important than knowledge or even skill — only such a one may hope for even measurable success in guiding the plays of childhood and youth. PHYSICAL EDUCATION ESSENTIAL ALBERT E. WINSHIP, EDITOR, "JOURNAL OF EDUCATION," BOSTON, MASS It appears so trite as to be absurd to say that physical education is essential, and yet there is so little physical education in the public schools that it would seem as tho the statement had never been made. There is no education that is not incorporated into the unconscious life. Physical education means satisfactory care of one's health, uniform activi- ties that increase one's vigor continually and promote grace and physical attractiveness. Teaching about health is of slight importance unless one does the things one learns that one should do, unless one does them until it is second nature. Abundance of fresh air waking and sleeping, almost daily baths of the right kind, perfect care of the teeth, attention to the quantity and quality of food and drink, and exercises that promote health, grace, and attractiveness are highly educational. In how many public schools is there any approach to this standard ? You will never get any appreciable attention to physical education until promotion and graduation depend as much upon what one learns and demonstrates in life physically as upon one's knowledge of the battles in the Civil War, the height of Asiatic mountains, and various kinds of parti- ciples. Where is there an absurdity greater than placing a child's memo- rizing of dates above his remembering to clean his teeth or to take a bath ? We have accepted this ridiculous state of affairs because the dates were 994 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Physical recited in school and the teeth were cleaned at home. But we teach the child in school to take care of his teeth just as we teach him geography and we should hold him responsible for remembering his teeth as definitely as for remembering the population of cities. Exercises for health and grace can be taught and practiced in school and these exercises are as essential as intellectual athletics and they should be insisted upon absolutely as they rarely if ever are. Look over any school curriculum and see how much time is allowed for physical exercises as education. What is the remedy? There is but one remedy and that is to have physical directors for elementary schools and for high schools and to hold them responsible for results in health and grace of movements. If two children above the fourth grade walk across the school yard out of step, hold the physical director's department responsible for their walking out of step. Editors write, clergymen preach, lecturers proclaim that the body is the temple of the soul, that it is sacred. "A sound mind in a sound body" is a time-honored slogan, but we are hypocrites, all of us, if we give no slightest credit for any achievement in physical education. I DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE INSTRUCTION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — ^John A. Randall, Department of Physics, Pratt Institute Brooklyn, N.Y. Vice-President — Ellwood P. Cubberley, professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University Stanford University, Cal. Secretary — £iaiA Comley, state inspector, domestic science Madison, Wis. FIRST SESSION— Friday Forenoon, August 20, 1915 The department was called to order in Scottish Rite Hall at 9:00 a.m., with President Randall in the chair. The following program was given: "Correlation of Physics and Manual Training" — ^M. Thomas Fnllan, professor of machine design and drawing, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala.; George R. Twiss, state high-school inspector, Ohio State University, Colimibus, Ohio. "Correlation of Chemistry and Agriculture" — George H. Black, president, State Normal School, Lewiston, Idaho, and Earl S. Wooster, dean, Rural Department, State Normal School, Lewiston, Idaho. SECOND SESSION— Friday ArTERNOoN, August 20, 1915 The department was called to order in Scottish Rite Hall at 2 130 p.m., with President Randall in the chair. The following program was given: "Project Teaching" — ^J. A. Randall, department of physics, Pratt Institute, Brook- lyn, N.Y. "What Can the Teacher of Geography Contribute to the Survey of Vocational Opportunities for Girls?" — George W. Hoke, professor of economic geography, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. Topic: Deviations for Standardized College-Entrance Courses for Girls a) "Special Science for Girls in the Rural Schools" — Blanche Olin Twiss, Coliunbus, Ohio, formerly state demonstrator of home economics. Extension Division, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo. b) "A Chemistry Course for Girls" — Mary Ethel Jones, head of chemistry depart- ment, high school, Los Angeles, Cal, c) "Applied Science as the Basis of the Girls' Education" — ^Hazel W. Seveiy, State Normal School, Santa Barbara, Cal. d) "General Science for the First Year of High School" — Ida Welch, high school, Everett, Wash. The following officers were elected for the coming year: For President — ^James A. Peabody, head of department of biology, Morris High School, New York, N.Y. For Vice-President — ^William Hedrick, McKinley High School, Washington, D.C. For Secretary — ^John C. Packard, Brooklyn, Mass. 995 996 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science THIRD SESSION— Friday Evening, August 20, 1915 The department was called to order in Scottish Rite Hall at 8:00 p.m., with President Randall in the chair. The following program was given: "The Place of Pure Science in Our Public-School System" — E. P. Lewis, professor of physics, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. "Cultural Value of Science Instruction" — P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C. Emma Conley, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS CORRELATION OF PHYSICS AND MANUAL TRAINING I. M. THOMAS rULLAN, PROFESSOR OF MACHINE DESIGN AND DRAWING, ALABAMA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, AUBURN, ALA. In the high school the science of physics can be successfully correlated with manual training, the arrangement working to the benefit and improve- ment of both subjects. Manual training, in order to fulfil its function properly, should possess three general features: (i) It should be educational itself, that is, should train the brain thru the eye and hand — develop skill in the use of tools. (2) The objects or projects used for instruction should be, when possible, of value intrinsically — as tools, instruments, furniture, etc. (3) The making use of the article thus made should be considered as the most important of the elements going to make up this educational combination. Properly speaking, high-school physics cannot be taught successfully without apparatus, and it is to be regretted that in many of our schools it is attempted without adequate equipment. In every state it is well known that some schools are without any apparatus to speak of. By a statistical inquiry into the condition mentioned in high schools in the southern states and also in some other parts of the country, the situation was foimd to be appalling and many schools with high standing were found to be grossly neglecting this particular part of their teaching work. In most cases, however, the school was working under handicap of insufl&cient funds and some needs which appear more pressing than apparatus were given attention and the science equipment must wait another time. While the greater part of this discussion is prepared for teachers of high schools of the small towns less likely to be favored in point of finances, it may be also applied to those which have a fair equipment. Altho believing firmly in the importance of student-made apparatus, I do not wish to create the impression that I recommend it as being superior to the manu- factured product in every respect. It may be said, however, that it can be used as a supplement to the equipment of schools which already have a Department] CORRELATION OF PHYSICS AND MANUAL TRAINING 997 sufficient outfit and entirely by those whose finances will not admit of purchase of apparatus. The general points in favor of student-made apparatus, which I offer for your consideration, are as follows: (i) This form of apparatus possesses a definite pedagogical value. (2) Being simple, it directs more attention to the principle involved than to the apparatus. (3) It is economical and requires a small amount of money in proportion to the quantity of apparatus obtained. (4) It affords correlation between the science department and the manual-training department of a school, strengthening and adding interest to the work of both. (5) The plan is entirely practical and the designs may be executed by the high-school pupils under the direction of the teacher. Under the first consideration, we find the value of repetition for fixing facts in the mind duly recognized, and while we condemn repetition in the public lecturer, we know it to be one of the greatest assets of the teacher. Those things which we have the least difficulty in recalling to mind are the things in which we have been drilled by much repetition. Hanna Thomp- son, in his Brain and Personality, compares the cortex of the brain to shelves of books, the leaves of which are likened to facts, and the books themselves to certain divisions of our educational training and experience. He shows that we develop and enlarge our library of the memory, leaf by leaf, and book by book, by indelibly fixing these facts thru repeating them to ourselves and hearing others repeat them. The longer our brain has contact with the fact, the more indelible it becomes in the memory and the more easily recalled. A student who has made his own apparatus or who has assisted in its making, no matter how simple the design or crude the construction has, I feel sure, a great advantage over one who has not, for his mind has received a greater impression. He cannot begin the construction without knowing the principle involved, and, altho the making may consume only a few hours, he will necessarily repeat many times the principle. From a peda- gogical standpoint, therefore, the value of student-made apparatus is worthy of serious consideration. In the second case, simplicity in the matter of apparatus always tends to clearness in demonstration. An elaborate and elegantly finished piece may sometimes defeat its purpose, as the student's mind may be more engrossed in the contemplation of the instrument than in the principle involved. It may sometimes be the case of not seeing the woods for the trees. There are many students and some teachers who have scant respect for apparatus which is not elaborately constructed, highly polished, and has not the imprint of some well-known maker on it. This is a false atti- tude, unworthy of a thoughtful mind, for some of the most effective work in teaching can be done with simple, if not crude, apparatus. Faraday, whose scientific lectures were most brilliant and instructive, used very simple devices. Robert Ball, in his lectures on the principles of 998 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science mechanics, made use of nothing of an elaborate nature. Severe simplicity characterized his devices. Cavendish was noted for the crudeness of his apparatus. A story is told of a scientist who visited England and who, wishing to meet the "man who weighed the earth," and see his apparatus, called at Cavendish's home. Cavendish, being somewhat of a recluse, heard of the intended visit, and "was not at home." The visitor was met at the door by the butler, and as he could not see the man, he desired to see his laboratory. He was ushered into a small room, having but one window, and the only furniture was in the shape of a couple of chairs and a rough table. "But," said he, "I wish to see his apparatus." "There they are," replied the caretaker, pointing to the table. On it were a pair of common balances, a meter rule, a couple of pewter spoons, and several dishes. He made his apparatus as he needed it, and likely used the same material subsequently for other pieces. I was impressed by some lectures on high-school physics which I heard some three years or so ago delivered by a most delightful lecturer, a master of the art, at one of our large universities. The collection of apparatus at his command is probably the largest and most complete in the country, if not the world, yet he used to show the most important principles with demonstration apparatus of his own make, or at least constructed under his direction, of simple design. The third consideration, economy, will probably interest many whose funds for such purpose are limited or those who desire to augment their existing outfit and are hampered by a consideration of cost. From the nature of the course in physics as usually given in the high school, apparatus of a high degree of accuracy, while desirable, is often not necessary, and we find that the slight discrepancies in results, due to lack of precision in work- manship in most cases, are negligible. The designs should be worked out with the idea of utilizing material that can be obtained easily. The hardware, when possible, should be of a standard pattern. The collection used as exhibit of this type of apparatus has been made up under the direction of the writer by students under his charge and also partly by the high schools of Alabama. It is in the edu- cational exhibit in the museum of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute at Auburn. The cost was less than one tenth of the market value of such a collection. No attempt has been made to have the apparatus as good as could be with the same materials either in design or in construction; rather has the idea of simplicity been carried out even in the matter of finish. Under the fourth consideration, co-ordination of the work of the depart- ments of manual training and science, will be found a means of increas- ing the student's interest in both branches. Most of the construction of this apparatus properly belongs to manual training and it can be used as project work for the advanced classes. \ Department] CORRELATION OF PHYSICS AND MANUAL TRAINING 999 I feel firmly convinced that more than ordinary interest would be taken in the construction of apparatus, when used as projects in manual training. These exercises could be used to advantage even in the event that the science department was well equipped and had no special need for them. There is no immediate danger of the field for project work in manual train- ing becoming overcrowded. Teachers of this branch are constantly broadening the scope of their work, especially in the nature of projects combining beauty and utility. In discussing the fifth consideration, I hope to show the entire prac- ticability of the designs and that they are within the range of ability of high-school teachers of physics. An ordinary set of carpenter's tools and a few of supplementary nature are all that is needed for most of the work. The designs which I have here require nothing further, but there are a few designs more advanced which require some woodturning which may be done elsewhere at a nominal cost. Teachers in schools which have no manual training are likely to offer the following arguments: (i) The work necessary to produce the apparatus is out of their line and they have no facility with tools. (2) Their schedule is crowded, and they have no time to devote to such work. (3) A plan of this sort presents insurmountable difl&culties, and they prefer to wait until they can get a manual-training department or imtil the school can afford to purchase what is needed. If you have no manual training in your school, hasten the establishment of a department. Start at once and pur- chase a set of tools. It may be these tools will form a nucleus for a future manual-training outfit. The experience of many a school has been that the manual-training department has begim in a humble way. Woldemar Goetze, a prominent German educator, in recommending courses in the normal school has said: It is recommended that instruction be given in the construction of simple apparatus. It is further recommended that practice be given the student (prospective teacher) in making observations with apparatus of this nature, and special attention should be given to this work during the entire course of instruction. In the highest classes in the school, in connection with the lectures, apparatus of advanced nature should be made outside the class hours. Each member of the class should be required to do this work. The plan which has been carried out in the Alabama schools during the past four years and which has worked successfully is briefly as follows: (i) The designs of apparatus together with instructions were sent out by the writer to all the schools in the state, offering co-operation. They were in the form of blueprints and mimeographed sheets, and the teachers were asked to select the pieces of apparatus which they wished to construct and try them out and to report their results. (2) Each piece was to be made in dupUcate or photographs of finished pieces were to be sent in as records and placed in the exhibit collection looo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science showing the extent of work done by the particular school, each exhibit to contain the names of the school, the teacher, and the pupil making it. (3) Each teacher co-operating was to have access to the records, either by visit to the collection or by obtaining photographs of the pieces of apparatus made by the other schools. The plan has worked very well indeed. A large number of schools have little other sort of apparatus, while many have supplemented their collection with pieces they needed. During the last three smnmers, at the session of the summer school at Alabama Polytechnic Institute, the writer has conducted a course in teachers' physics, especially prepared for those whose outfit of apparatus was meager. We followed the text adopted in the state schools, and, beginning with only a bare table, carried out the entire set of experiments in the text with apparatus, much of which was made by the teachers themselves during the summer-school session. I n. GEORGE R. TWISS, STATE HIGH-SCHOOL INSPECTOR, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS, OHIO The psychological basis for correlation of studies is to be found in the principle of association and in the manner in which this principle is related to habit formation and to memory. The most elementary dynamic fact in education is that when an individual is subjected to some sort of stimulus, or finds himself in some sort of situation, he does something as a conse- quence. The act, whatever it may be, is his reaction to the situation or his response to the stimulus. To teach one anything you must provide a situation or a stimulus and get a reaction or a response. That response is the first and fundamentally essential step in the learning process. Therefore getting it is the first and fundamentally essential step in the teaching process. Not any particular response but some response or other is the essential thing. If it is the right response it must be rewarded with satisfaction, so that it will be repeated when the stimulus is next given. If it is not the right response, not one which ought to be connected with that particular situation, or not the one which the teacher is endeavoring to establish, the teacher's task is to substitute the right one for it. He must get the learner to keep trying for the right one until he gives it, and then the right one must be rewarded with satisfaction. When once given as a consequence of a certain stimulus, a response is likely to be repeated, if associated with satisfaction, and the more it is repeated with satisfaction, the stronger is its tendency to become habitual so that it recurs automatically. This is a general law of psychology and is true whether the reaction be a movement or a thought. The development of skill in various manual processes and arts comes thru connecting motor responses to stimuli in the manner described, only instead of a simple stimulus with a simple response, such as seeing a piece \ Department] CORRELATION OF PHYSICS AND MANUAL TRAINING lOOl of redhot iron and striking it with a hammer, we almost invariably have a whole series of stimuli and their corresponding responses woven into a complex reaction to a complex situation — a series in which the response to one stimulus becomes the stimulus for the next response, and so on. Thus, when the first recognition of the situation occurs, the series of responses is set off and the whole process goes on like the falUng of a row of bricks. For example, if the process to be learned is the making of a link for a forged iron chain, the process consists of many complex move- ments, made in succession and resulting in raking up the fire, working the blast, heating and turning the iron in the fire, hammering the iron on the anvil in various ways so as to draw it out, to round it, to "upset" the ends and wedge them out in preparation for welding, and finally to reheat and weld the ends and give the finishing touches to the link. If in doing these things the worker has acquired a high degree of skill, all these processes follow one another very nearly automatically. The whole complex of movements has become an organized habit in which the completion of each part sets off the next, and the mind of the operator may be occupied largely with other matters while the work is going on. The necessary movements are taken care of by the lower brain centers, and the higher brain centers, those in the cortex, are left in comparative freedom so that they may be concerned in some intellectual processes that are going on at the same time. When the association connection is between a situation and a thought or a memory, the case is similar. The habit of mentally recalling a certain fact or thinking in a certain definite way may be formed by getting the thought in response to the stimulus or situation or thought with which it is desired to have it associated in the mind of the learner, and rewarding it with satisfaction, plus getting enough repetitions so that the thought or memory recurs automatically whenever the stimulus occurs. Now it is easily possible to teach a process like forging a chain so that the learner becomes very skilful at it, and also to teach him the verbal statement of certain physical principles that imderlie the shaping and weld- ing of iron; but if the process and the principles are taught separately, and if the methods of teaching are not such that the mental apprehension of the principle is associated with the series of motor activities constituting the process, it may not be at all certain that the ability to state the principle will help in any wise in the perfecting of the motor skill involved in the best performance of the process, or that conversely the activities of the process will help at all in recalling the principle or any other knowledge that may have been previously or subsequently associated with it. On the other hand, when each step in the process is being taught, the teacher not only may show the learner the best procedure and the necessary movements for acquiring the best technique step by step, but he also may cause the learner to associate with them not only the purely mechanical principles that underHe each of the steps, but also such principles and laws I002 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science from the domains of physics and chemistry as are closely connected with them. For example, the physical and chemical principles of heat and com- bustion involved in heating the iron in the forge may be carefully explained, illustrated, and associated with the process of properly heating the iron. The physical and chemical principles may be taught in classes devoted especially to those subjects, while the forging and welding processes are taught by the teacher of blacksmithing. But if no attention is paid to forming association connections in the brain between the processes and the physical and chemical principles that underlie them, the principles may exist as it were in one set of water-tight compartments and the processes in another, and neither one will help in the recall of the other because neither has been previously connected or associated with the other so as to act as a stimulus for its recall. The ideal way to get a principle associated with the process that it underlies is to teach the two together, showing how the process is one of a nimaber of particular cases coming imder the general principle, or how the general principle sums up a certain property or prop- erties that are conunon to a number of particular cases of which the process that is being learned is one. The essential thing is in some way or by some means to get this direct connection between the two facts or the two motor or intellectual processes that are to be correlated. If the two are taught at dijfferent times, in different surroundings, or by different teachers, and no attempt is made to put them together in a definite, clean-cut, and pur- poseful manner, and if the advantage of knowing the connection between them, of recalling it, and of making use of it is not made clear; and if the student is not incited to strive actively to make the connection one of his permanent mental acquisitions, there is little likelihood that the connection will be made. A few pupils having exceptionally keen and active minds may make it for themselves but such cases will be rare and accidental. How then must these correlating cross-connections be made when the case is one of those foimd in almost every school where the manual training is taught by one teacher and the physics and chemistry by another ? It can be done only when there is intelligent mutual understanding, appreciation, and co-operation between the teachers who are giving the work which must be correlated. The teacher of manual training must himself know the principles of physics, of mechanics, and of chemistry that imderlie the various processes that he is to teach, and must thoroly acquaint himself with the methods and the lessons which the teachers of physics and of chemistry are using in teaching those principles to the pupils. Then when he is teaching the processes he must, by means of suggestions, explana- tions, illustrations, descriptions, and questions, assist the pupils in recalling the principles and applying them directly and concretely to the processes that are being learned wherein these principles should be apphed. The pupils will thus be enabled to learn the processes more quickly and to acquire a more workmanlike technique; and they will be able to accomplish 1 I Department] CORRELATION OF PHYSICS AND MANUAL TRAINING 1003 this more easily and more rapidly and with far greater pleasure and satis- faction because of the broad and intelligent appreciation that they will have thus gained of the significance of all the fine points in the technique. They will apply themselves with more zeal to the learning process because their practice has been thus rationalized and placed on an intellectual plane far above that of learning by imitation, trial, and error. They will partake more of the spirit of the artist and the engineer than of that of the mere artisan, because with such correlation from their interests in construc- tion and manipulation they are led up into broad intellectual interests and appreciations ; for good correlation on such a basis as I have indicated would carry them also into the artistic relations of their work, and would also give them some knowledge of the origin of the raw materials with which they are working, and of the commercial and economic relations of the classes of articles that they are producing by their skill. They would thus gain not only an outlook over considerable portions of the domain of physics and chemistry, but also some insight into commercial and economic geog- raphy, industrial history, and art. Thus by correlating manual skill with intellectual interests and effort, strong motivation may be gained for each from the interests existing or awakened in the other, and a many-sided interest may be developed which is the basis for the broadest and richest culture. The best results, however, cannot be obtained if the manual-training teacher alone is held responsible for the correlation. The teacher of physics, both for the success of his own teaching and for that of the teacher of manual training, must be always alert and ready to find in the manual-training lessons particular cases and illustrations of the principles of physics that he is teaching, and he should be particularly careful to show the pupils how a practical knowledge of the principle will help in mastering the processes of construction and perfecting skill in their use. He should make a definite and purposeful effort to establish memory connections between the principle of physics and the process in manual training in which it is appUed, in every case where such connections are useful and educative. He should make himseK acquainted with the work and methods of the manual-training teacher so as to recall and have at hand all the applications of his science to be found in the manual-training course and in the shop, and so as to have a sympathetic appreciation of the work produced by the boys. In this way he can awaken their loyal sympathy and co-operation in what he is trying to do for them. So also the teacher of chemistry should co-operate in the same way. So should the teachers of commercial geography, of industrial history, and of art. Time is gained, not lost, by establishing such cross-connections among the facts, principles, and processes that are taught; for it is a well- known law in psychology that one fact or principle is learned in less time and recalled with greater ease and certainty and with fewer relearnings if I004 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science it is associated interestingly with other facts and principles that have significance in relation to it. A diagrammatic illustration may help to make this law dear. If an association connection is established between a fact A and another fact B so that when A is seen or thought of it acts as a stimulus for the recall of B, it is not necessarily true that B will act as a stimulus for the certain recall of A. Anyone who will try to count or say the alphabet or spell a word backward will readily agree to this. If we want either to recall the other, we must establish the association bonds equally as well from B to A as from A to B. If it be supposed that we have done this, we may represent the psychological condition by an arrow drawn from A to B and another from B to A, indicating that either fact or experience serves as a stimulus for the recall of the other. Now if certain other facts or experiences are related naturally and logically to A or B, we may psychologically connect one C with another D, one E with another F, and so on, and represent the connections or association bonds by arrows just as we did with A and B. If this is all that we have done, we will have made it possible for B and A to recall each other, for C and D to recall each other, for E and F to recall each other, and so on; but altho C, D, E, and F are supposed to be logically related to A or to B, none of them will help to recall A or B because there are only what we may call short-circuit association bonds between the members of each pair, and there are no cross-connections between A or B and C, D, E, or F. On the other hand, if we take care to associate A not only with B, but also with C, D, E, and F, and also, perhaps, each one of the group with every other, we have joined all of them together by a number of cross-associations, which wiU appear in the diagram like a fishnet or a spider web, and the diagram will mean that each fact may serve to recall any other of the group directly. Thus because of the correlating cross- connections that we have established, one fact that may not be able to recall another directly may assist the mind in fishing it up as it were by means of its connections with a chain of other facts, as one might fish up a bit of junk from the bottom of a pond by pulling on the links of a fishnet in the meshes of which it was entangled. There are very many opportunities for such correlation as I have described. I have tried to show that such correlations unless deliberately provided for by the teachers have little chance of being made. In a few schools with which I am acquainted, notably the technical high schools of Cleveland, stated meetings are held from time to time, some of which are attended by all the teachers and others by those of closely related subjects, and the purpose of these meetings is the interchange of information among teachers and departments as to aims, subject-matter, and methods. The purpose is to let each teacher know what the others are trying to do and to let each know what facts and principles of his own subject are needed to illuminate the^teaching of other subjects. These meetings are productive !nce fl Departmentl CORRELATION OF CHEMISTRY AND AGRICULTURE 1005 of much good, for they not only stimulate correlation, but help also to promote loyalty, enthusiasm, and intelligent imderstanding of the larger and broader aims and purposes of the school work. It is a great pity that this type of teachers' meeting does not prevail in more schools, instead of the wasteful type of meeting that is used for announcements and administrative details that might easily be handled in other and more efficient ways. CORRELATION OF CHEMISTRY AND AGRICULTURE GEORGE H. BLACK, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, LEWISTON, IDAHO EARL S. WOOSTER, DEAN, RURAL DEPARTMENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, LEWISTON, IDAHO Agriculture so far as production is concerned is an art that is founded on a group of exact sciences and upon the accumulated experience of the ages expressed as ''rule of thumb" procedures. In all its branches it con- sists mainly of such a control of conditions that the maximum quantities of desirable products will accrue to the benefit of mankind. This industry in common with others follows one course; chance experimentation shows that a certain way of handling conditions produces better results than other ways with no clear understanding of reasons therefor. Succeeding indi- viduals and generations then follow this way until some daring or fortunate individual demonstrates that another way is better, when, in course of time, the better way may prevail, tho frequently the old is too deeply rooted to be thrown out. Finally, inquiring individuals search for causes and build a fabric of scientific facts and theories. These in turn form the foundation of a procedure that comes to be that commonly followed. The primary questions are of result and procedure and only secondarily of cause and relationship. By virtue of its universality and early origin, agriculture has accumu- lated an enormous mass of inherited procedures often accepted without question by each rising generation. Indeed in many cases the situation is such that not only are these practices accepted by nearly all, but any suggestion of any other procedure is at once rejected simply because it is new and therefore perforce wrong. For countless generations agriculture has been largely an inherited occupation and boys have learned to farm as they learned to eat. It has also been to too great a degree a last-resort occu- pation, and the feeling is still very current that those unfit for any other work can farm. In spite of all these facts, because it consists of the control of conditions of growth and maturity of plants and animals, agriculture rests upon the foundation of casual relationships as expressed in scientific laws. It utilizes practically all of the natural sciences in some degree, but upon none does it depend more than upon chemistry and its near relatives biochemistry and chemical-physics. Those familiar with the history of chemistry know of the wonderful additions that the work of the last two centuries has made to the fimd of IOo6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science knowledge concerning both physiological and agricultural chemistry, and those familiar with the work and thinking of the ordinary farmer also realize to what a very slight degree this knowledge has penetrated the thinking or altered the practice of this class. Within the memory of those now living, many farmers rejected the iron plow "because it will poison the soil" and declined to use the reaper because it would crack the grain. The relation of soil acidity to plant growth and the correction of acidity by lime are two pretty simple and plain chemical facts known for more than half a century, but in spite of this it took two years to induce one orchard owner to save a fine orchard by liming. The ratio of food consumed to butter-fat produced spells profit or loss for the dairy farmer but more farmers buy cows by the color of the skin or curl of the tail than by the report of the Babcock tester, A farmer near Spokane was astonished that a slip of a girl rural-school teacher could tell him what was wrong with a poor forty simply by using a bit of blue paper, yet the litmus test for soil acidity has" been published in countless bulletins. Ten years ago farmers of the Palouse country said that corn could not be grown. This year one shipment carried three silos and a California firm is putting an agent at Lewiston, Idaho, to sell Redwood silos. The producer is crying for lower prices and a greater variety of products, while the social demands for better living conditions and other economic conditions make greater returns to the producer imperative. The mass of scientific information that is of value to the farmer is great and examples of its application numerous enough to demonstrate that production per acre could be greatly increased if this knowledge were only in general use. I submit, therefore, that the real problem for the chemical forces is to get the farmer to act on a basis of scientific laws and facts. In order to accomplish this, three things must be done. First, the language of the chemist must be translated so that the individual of only ordinary grade-school training can get the unmistakable meaning. By reason of the seeming intangibility of its unit materials and the extent of its subject-matter, it may be that chemistry deserves the remark of a college Freshman who said that "a fellow has to study the stuff five years to know the alphabet," but the chapters on chemistry in Hopkins' Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture seem to indicate that these facts can be stated in plain understandable language. A tired, indolent man is not inclined to wade thru pages filled with imfamiliar words to get an idea unless he very much wants the idea. Such a thing as using a dictionary is not in his habit of reading, hence the article must be its own explanation and imderstandable from the viewpoint of the man who reads. The problem is to state tech- nical facts in imderstandable language rather than to eliminate necessary technicalities. Secondly, the farmer must be convinced of the economic value of acting on the facts. This can be brought about only by a most careful examina- Department] CORRELATION OF CHEMISTRY AND AGRICULTURE 1007 tion of the material presented to insure that the lines of demarkation between facts, theories, and h3^otheses are clearly and correctly drawn. The statement of conclusions as final when they are based on insufficient data gives rise to much lack of confidence in published material circulated among thinking farmers and is particularly productive of suspicion among the ignorant. One experiment station has, during the last ten years, twice reversed its recommended procedure for treating wheat for smut. Now wheat growers are very cautious in accepting any material from that source. The almost hopeless confusion of fact and theory or hypothesis in much of the material renders it valueless for general circulation. Appar- ently our desire to make the statement get action has led us into the error of feeling that we must always speak with authority and give only positive statements or find ourselves discredited. Some lack of truth appears when the procedure is tried and all that has resulted is a deepening of the conviction that all experts are bluffers and liars. It is not easy for the untrained man, busy with his farm work, to separate the wheat from the chaff in the flood of printed material presented to him, and experience has demonstrated that it is not either safe or profitable to accept all that appears, so he takes the easiest course and brands it all as trash or "highbrow" stuff and goes on his own old way. Even when the material is true, it must be carefully gone over to eliminate all that is not pertinent to the point in hand. Many chemical facts are of great interest to the trained investigator but of little value and less interest to the farmer. The fact that procedures rather than causes are the first interest of the grower should determine the character of the printed matter. As the reader grows in familiarity with the material his interest in causes will increase. The facts presented not only should be true in a chemical or scientific sense but must be of true economic value to the reader. A farmer growing stock almost exclusively will be first inter- lested in the composition of grains and forage crops with but little concern as to the chemical composition of his pasture soils. The fruit grower, on J the other hand, will be early interested in the chemical characteristics of lis soil. Neither of these men will, at first, read the material of major interest to the other and in many cases will fail to read either if both appear in the same publication. The end to be attained is the improvement of procedure as a result of this information, a result widely different from the simple spread of the information. Many people know the right way of tillage and culture and yet do not practice it. Some appeal must be made to the individual farmer that will reach this end. Universities and experiment stations have established demonstration farms for this purpose, but these have, in many cases, failed to secure their desired result. The constant attitude of the ^ general run of farmers has been that these things can be done where ample funds are available and immediate profit not a serious consideration. iOo8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science Demonstrations to be of greatest result-producing value must at least be carried out on the same basis that the ordinary farmer must use in his work, but best of all undertaken by an ordinary farmer on an ordinary farm. One such successful demonstration is worth more than volumes of printed material. The children's com, potato, tomato, and other clubs of the country are powerful factors in changing the procedure, because the work is done imder ordinary conditions by the children of ordinary farmers who are, in many cases, unsuccessful in their own practice. Such a demonstration cannot be successfully questioned by the surrounding people. In one case a fairly successful farmer persistently ridiculed the expert advice as to feeding his calves. His fourteen-year-old boy finally secured very grudging permission to feed two calves the new way. His results so far excelled those of the old system of his father that there was no argument left to the old man. The result was a reformation of the calf-feeding procedure on that farm that has put a good increase on the profit side of the books every year and most of all has forced the farmer to admit that perhaps those college men do know something that he has not yet learned. The citation of numerous cases similar to this constitutes about the only ground for self-congratulation in this work. If we are to secure maximum returns for ovu* effort, these instances of successful demonstration must be multipUed almost indefinitely imtil good practice becomes the accepted popular standard of work. The facility with which people grasp, retain, and utilize new facts is conditioned largely by their desires. These in Xmto. are controlled by numerous factors, prominent among which are pubUc opinion and the indi- vidual will and ambition. These are stimulated and controlled by personal leadership. Because of this I beUeve that the third thing we should do is to look carefully to the personnel of the scientific corps that has the making of contracts with the farmers and the pubUcation of material. The men on the farms are often honestly suspicious, and justly so, of the farm expert. It is charged that he either has had no farm experience or has scored only failures imder the conditions which the average farmer faces. One can scarcely blame the farmer for discrediting the advice of a station manager known to have made a failure of two attempts to run his own farm or for looking with grave suspicion on the recommendations of the chemist who has never worked under the conditions of actual farming. The man who makes the contact must be one who has the right scientific information plus such a thoro working knowledge of local conditions, agricultural, economic, and social, that he can meet men and gain their confidence and stimulate their ambition. No matter how well informed a man may be on general facts, unless he knows the local conditions he must either bluff or admit his ignorance. In either case his work lacks vitaUty to make any lasting good impression. One well-informed speaker in such a Department] PROJECT TEACHING lOOQ situation was honest enough to explain frequently: "I am unfamiliar with your local conditions but this is what we are doing in ". Five minutes' conversation with the farmers after the meeting convinced me that so far as benefit to them or to the cause was concerned he had done more harm than good. If he could have spent a month going thru the country and seeing conditions, his talk would have carried the ring of conviction and his hearers would have felt that he knew their situation. As it was he made it almost impossible for any outside man to come to that district and get a sympathetic hearing. The chairman of the meeting remarked to me: "Never again will we go outside for a man for this work." In conclusion I would sum up by saying that I believe that our pub- lished material should consist of small, compact groups of the facts most pertinent to a given point, expressed in the simplest and least technical language possible. Those facts should in the main be based on demonstra- tions carried out under actual common farm conditions. The personnel of the corps should be chosen first for their abihty to grasp local conditions and make the right kind of contacts with the people of their rural com- munities and secondarily for their proficiency in chemistry. PROJECT TEACHING J. A. RANDALL, DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, PRATT INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN, N.Y. The corn clubs which have been so successful in the South and Middle West are but one well-known illustration of the general application of a new educational principle. Hundreds of teachers have independently devised activities similar to corn-growing in the corn club. In general such new activities have educated the children more efficiently than do the traditional school exercises. To make the results of such educational experiments more generally available, we need to record them with scien- tific accuracy and completeness. In this connection the word "project" is often heard, but so far as the speaker knows there is no generally accepted technical definition for it. It will be the chief object of this paper to pro- pose a technical definition for the word "project," and to expand the idea for which the word seems to stand. The speaker will take it upon himself to invent a second term, "problem-exercise." Both the project and the problem-exercise are special varieties of ques- I tion and problem. A question calls for a statement of knowledge on the part of the person questioned and of necessity only for a repetition of facts. A problem is a question demanding the organization of knowledge and the exercise of judgment before the answer is given. "School project" is now being confused with the generic word "problem" and the term "problem- exercise." lOlO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science, A school project is a problem the solution of which results in the pro-l duction of some object or knowledge of such value to the worker as to make] the labor involved seem to him worth while. School projects may be subdivided into individual school projects andj commimity projects. The corn club idea furnishes an illustration of an individual school pro-j ject. The student is given a piece of land and told to do whatever he wants- with it. He is at liberty to plant or use his land to his own best advantage. The project unmediately becomes a personal one to the child and resolves itself into a question of dollars and cents. How much can he make that land earn for him ? He hears the prospective rattle of the coins in his pocket. An instance of the experiment in the town of Rock Island may be given as a second illustration of an individual project. In this twenty-six girls of the school went to the local orphan asylum; each picked out a child and went to work to fit her out with clothing. The school furnished the money for the material and each girl gave ten cents for the trimming. When the garments were finished it was hard to say who were the happier — the garment-makers or the wearers. The grinding machines made by Pratt Institute may serve as an illus- tration of the commimity project. In this all students worked on a single set of machines, co-operating so that the machines were the product of com- bined rather than individual effort. Another illustration of the community problem was the building of a machine shop for a vocational school. In this the students worked indi- vidually and yet together for a very definite object. This was a com- munity project, but one of less interest for the worker because it was not personal. From these illustrations we may give the following delimiting charac- teristics of a project: The project is a motivated problem and as such its solution requires thought; its completion results in the production of something of value to the student. The following descriptive characteristics of a project may be helpful: it is always concrete; since children's sense of values come largely from commercial sources, it follows that a school project is judged by business standards; the appropriate method of solution is that of commerce; the tools and materials used in the solution should be those adapted to commer- cial production; the project is a small sample of real life brought to school; it is adapted to the development of traits required for a successful vocational career. What can be said of the applicability of the experience gained from project teaching in vocational schools to the instruction in non-specialized schools ? The theory seems applicable and promises immeasurably better results than we have at present. To change overnight would be revolu- Department] PROJECT TEACHING lOII tionary and we cannot consider it. Cautious steps toward a gradual change are therefore to be taken. At once we face real difficulties which cannot be ignored. Efficient school-keeping demands that one teacher keep from twenty-five to fifty students busy either in recitation rooms or in laboratories. We do not know how to do this and leave the initiation of projects to each indi- vidual student. A series of projects must be devised which, thru the leadership of the teacher, the student can be induced to undertake at a favorable time in reference both to his mental development and to his interests, and to the mechanical operation of the class as well. Suitable projects are now scarce. It is your work and mine to seek them. In the field of physics the speaker is trying to find projects suitable for laboratory instruction. Schools are so organized that two hours constitute the longest consecutive period which a student may devote to such a pro- ject. Even when work is extended over several such school sessions, it is exceptional for students to produce a pin, medal, or other object of perma- nent value to himself. Some of the difficulties are squarely met when we consider some common projects. The electroplating problem-exercise has been long operated with the determination of the electro-chemical equiva- lent as an object. Two bright boys whom the writer knows started this problem two years ago as a home project and they are still working on it. In the interval they have successfully plated a large number of objects and they find new branches of the art to conquer more rapidly than they can master them. Wireless telegraphy has been a much favored home project and has commanded the untiring energies of many boys. There would be no diffi- culty about keeping half the boys in the typical high school busy with wire- less projects. A well-known teacher in the Middle West taught his boys to adjust the gas burners and otherwise to introduce gas economies with an average lowering of the gas bills 33 per cent. In relation to the use of school projects in professional and technical schools there are mechanical difficulties in the way of its exclusive use which must be considered: instruction must be given in many fields from which we are not now able to bring projects to the school; problems are too big to be used as individual school projects; problems are too expensive; problems require too much time; the project proceeds too slowly for voca- tional and technical courses in which must be given an irreducible minimum knowledge which the vocation demands; the project is not suited for giving a clear over-all idea of subjects. The individual school project is an ideal method whose chief present value to science teachers is as a standard for comparison. We are now doing many problem-exercises in our vocational laboratories and shops. The nearer they approach the character of the individual school project, the more valuable they become as educational devices. IOI2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science The project is a device to improve school spirit, and the individual student's attitude. The success of an individual school project depends less upon the teacher's art than does any other good school activity about which the speaker knows. The school community project is open to the special objections that it lacks personal appeal and that it does not give complete training to each student. There is conclusive evidence that such projects as have been described are educational activities of great value. Is it practicable to give all of our science instruction the compelling interest that these sample projects have ? Can we gradually readjust our school routine to attain more rapidly the aims of our public schools ? We believe that it can be done and it is our collective duty to try to prove by rational educational experiments that this is so. WHAT CAN THE TEACHER OF GEOGRAPHY CONTRIBUTE TO THE SURVEY OF VOCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR GIRLS? GEORGE W. HOKE, PROFESSOR OF ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY, MIAMI UNIVERSITY, OXFORD, OHIO It is not the province of this paper to report progress along the lines suggested, because, so far as I know, very little is being done. The purpose is rather to point out certain possibilities in the field of geography which have been neglected. The topic for discussion will be treated under three heads: (i) the need for conservation; (2) a field for geographic survey; and (3) the teacher of geography as vocational adviser. We hear much these days about conservation, the watchwords of which are economy and efficiency. The first places emphasis upon the cutting out of waste in the production, distribution, and consumption of goods. The second seeks for better methods in the apphcation of the materials, powers, appHances^ processes, and products of the industrial life. It would more than occupy the time allotted to this paper merely to catalog the various problems involved in the conservation of the material resources of the earth. Another century like the last, with its population increasing more than it did in forty centuries before, and with its reckless inroads upon the stored up wealth of the world, may see humanity reduced to dire extrem- ity. The resources are fixed, but the wants and work of the people may be molded to meet new occasions and new duties. And so, however essential the material resources may be, the need of the hour is for economy and efficiency in the conservation of human life and energy. The recognition of this need is largely responsible for the recent awakening of interest in vocational education. Under simpler conditions men could afford, perhaps, to be self-sufficing, not only in industry, but in judgments. Today, however, we are living in a Department] GEOGRAPHY AND GIRLS' VOCATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES 1013 new and untried world. The problems of life are complex beyond all previous experience. The only hope of salvation from the deluge of a starving people on a bankrupt earth seems to lie in the development, thru education, of a humanity that is "not only good, but good for something, that is fit for responsibility, and that has just estimates of relative values." Nor is it enough to Uf t the men of the world into a plane of higher service. We have assumed too long that we are living in a man's world. It is the acme of monumental stupidity to hope for a high-grade humanity when the mothers of the race are looked upon as a sort of attendant circumstance, to be tolerated as the property of the male hero in the drama. Girls have a right to a career, and the world is not so rich in energy and abiUty that it can afiford to do without them in government and industry any more than it can dispense with their services in school and church. Vocational fitness must be extended to women as sincerely as it is extended to men, and the schools can help most effectively to cut out the waste in human life by giving vocational guidance to boys and girls at a time when they are so helpless to see and choose. In the days to come, careful scrutiny is sure to be made of the opportunities afforded by the various subjects of study in the curriculum for orientation in the work of the world. Among these subjects, geography offers many fine prospects that have never been worked out. Local survey work, and vocational guidance represent two of these prospects. Geography is essentially a survey subject. From the days when Pytheas sailed the northern seas, down to the last brave dash for the pole, the keynote of geography has been discovery and exploration. How- ever, the vocational opportimities that may be revealed by a home sur- vey of the industrial and social situation have been largely overlooked. School geography should be primarily home geography, but it is absurd to suppose that the subject has been exhausted when the discovery of tomato cans in the grocery store has been consummated. The facts are that the food we eat, the clothes we wear, the houses we build, the roads, shops, and stores that seem so obvious, all represent the product of an age-long series of achievements. To see them in the light of other days and ways is to glimpse the great process of evolution by which man has moved from long ago to now. To cultivate such vision is eminently worth while, and has been quite sufficient to justify the study of geography in the schools. In addition, however, the study of home conditions may be employed as a means for training boys and girls to make a practical survey of local oppor- tunities anywhere and any time. The farmer who locates his barn, the officials who locate a bridge, or the merchant who locates his store makes certain more or less conscious appUcation of geographic principles. It looks reasonable to suppose that children might be so trained in the survey and interpretation of their surroundings that they will be able to make conscious application of the principles involved and need not be eternally IOI4 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science waiting, Micawber-like, for something to turn up, but will be able, in a degree at least, to sense a situation, and have a little insight into the prepara- tion necessary to meet it. Such an appUcation of geography to a local survey seems to be in accord with those movements in education which emphasize the practical in addition to the academic aspects of study. It will help to provide the rich with a basis for voluntary social service, and the poor with some standard for the choice of a vocation. The home survey should take stock of the structure, function, and supply of local equipments and activities. The home itself presents a rich field for improved economy and efficiency. Housekeeping and home- making are belated industries into which modem industrial methods are just beginning to enter. The preparation and service of food, the buying and designing of materials for clothing, house sanitation, decoration, and furnishing provide many avenues of social and commercial activities for girls of enterprise and taste. Domestic help, for instance, might command the wages and respect of skilled service if the possibilities of such work were realized and adequate preparation made for it. In nearly every community some of the girls could open commercial kitchens, and furnish many items that would be better and cheaper than most families could prepare them at home, because of the saving afforded by large-scale production. Of course it would not be the province of geography to give the necessary technical training, but it would certainly help some if girls in the schools could gain an insight into the needs for home services and the attendant prospects. To cite another instance. The field of salesmanship for girls is well worth a local survey in towns and cities. Many large concerns recognize this fact and have opened schools for the training of clerks in the buying and selling of goods. A survey in nearly any store of the function of salesmanship as it actually exists in the community, and of the elements for success in the work of a clerk should be a valuable experience for either buying or selling. These two instances of domestic service and of sales- manship must suffice. Anyone who cares to do so can extend the list almost indefinitely. The Women's Educational and Industrial Union of Boston has pubUshed a book on Vocations for the Trained Woman which is a rich mine of facts and suggestions along these lines. Moreover the teacher can get in touch with the industrial situation, learn the needs of the going concerns in the community, find what kinds of service are in demand, and bring the information back to the school. I have suggested the idea to many men of affairs and have not found one who would not welcome such interest. Here and there it is being done with conspicuous success. Someone must do it. The number of incompe- tents is already appalling. When one remembers the increasing inteUigence necessary to make headway tmder our rapidly developing conditions, the call to the schools to get in line, survey the opportunities, and train for the services that are in demand becomes imperative. Department] SPECIAL SCIENCE FOR RURAL-SCHOOL GIRLS 1015 But the teacher of geography can do even more than direct the conduct of the home survey and mediate between the school and the industrial world. By virtue of the fact that he is a teacher he ought to be able to make accurate estimates of character and capacities and give efifective advice as to vocational fitness. But the problem of the vocational adviser involves more than the ability to interpret human nature. He must also know the field of vocational opportunity, and be able to recognize the elements of individual fitness to the characteristic demands of specific vocations. The capable teacher of geography ought to be able to meet these demands better than most others. His professional training and experience is on the whole equal to that of other teachers in the matter of recognizing physical and mental traits. But, in addition, the very nature of the subject- matter with which he deals ought to give him an insight into local conditions quite superior to any other. Moreover, if the home geography is made a survey of local conditions, he is placed at once in a position of strategic advantage. The pupils look upon him as one who knows about such things, and they naturally turn to him for advice. These remarks apply with equal force to the teacher of geography in the grades, in the high school, or in the college. They imply also that home geography does not end with the fourth grade. Thruout the course, home conditions furnish the basis for understanding foreign ones and more remote conditions in turn are brought to throw light upon the local situation. These cross- references between the home and the world are absolutely indispensable to geography teaching at all stages, and the geography teacher must be in touch with both. Here lies an opportunity for vocational guidance, that is almost unique in its application. TOPIC: DEVIATIONS FOR STANDARDIZED COLLEGE- ENTRANCE COURSES FOR GIRLS A. SPECIAL SCIENCE FOR GIRLS IN THE RURAL SCHOOLS BLANCHE OLIN TWISS, COLUMBUS, OHIO, FORMERLY STATE DEMONSTRATOR OF HOME ECONOMICS, EXTENSION DIVISION, UNIVERSITY OF WYOMING, LARAMIE, WYO. In discussing this subject, I wish to emphasize the need of the teaching of sciences for both our boys and our girls. Altho rural life offers an abundance of material for the teaching of all the sciences, it is here that frequently such training is most neglected. In the state of Wyoming, where I have had the best opportunities for studying conditions, the county superintendents report that desultory study of agriculture, physi- ology, and sewing constitute the only scientific instruction given in the the Wyoming rural schools, the average time allowed to such teaching being 90 minutes a week. ioi6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Scienc With Wyoming as with many other states, I feel that the difficulty lies largely with the teachers. Instead of sending well-grounded, finely- trained women of broad experience and ready sympathies to the rural com- munities where the problems are most difficult to handle, it is there that place our young and inexperienced girls, generally without normal training. If by chance they make good under these adverse conditions, they are wel- comed into our towns and cities, where they may have the opportunitie and advantages of careful supervision by principal and superintendent. On the contrary, we should send our strongest teachers to the rural districts where the tact and brains of a mature woman are required. The value of any teaching naturally depends upon the personality and training of the teacher and the method here suggested demands not only thoro training but also the interest, sympathy, and constant supervision of a teacher who is well versed in her subject and has become skilled by experience. The science work for girls in the rural schools should be chosen from the fields of chemistry, botany, physiology, and biology, including bac- teriology, to be taught in close correlation with sewing or cooking. In my opinion, it is quite practicable to teach the rudiments of chemistry, botany, physiology, sewing, and cooking to separate classes. Boys may join in the cooking classes in which they are often interested but never yet have I found any who really cared to do sewing, altho an excellent argument might be made in favor of teaching boys enough sewing to enable them to make the ordinary simple repairs on their own clothing. Physiology and hygiene can never be adequately taught in mixed classes. Intense correlation is necessary and the knowledge obtained becomes far more available if it is obtained in connection with the working out of each topic in connection with a problem-exercise or a project. In a seventh-grade class suppose the project were to obtain information in regard to microscopic plants. The methods may be crude and inaccurate and yet it is surely better to do the work making due allowances for its inaccuracies than to let the matter go by default. For example: The teacher and pupils boil meat broth for a long time until it is practically sterile, add enough gelatine to make it jelly, keep it hot in a water bath for an hour, and then turn the solution iato scalded dishes to cool. Expose the gelatine for five minutes in the school- room, let the pupils expose other of the dishes in the dififerent homes for a given length of time. Then keep them carefully covered on a table near the stove until the colonies of bacteria, yeasts, and molds develop. After studying these colonies under a simple hand magnifier, the children realize, as never before, the necessity for sweeping, dusting, and scrubbing in the great and unending task of keeping the home clean. Countless experi- ments may be made. In all these experiments it is imperative that a duphcate set of dishes receive the same treatment in order to prove that the colonies developed from the germs admitted during exposure rather Department] SPECIAL SCIENCE FOR RURAL-SCHOOL GIRLS 1017 than from the gelatine itself. Perhaps the greatest advantage of such teaching is the fact that the pupils are taught the experimental method, to formulate their own problems, to try and try again, to vary different factors, and to draw their own conclusions regardless of the authority of teacher or textbook. While working with these microscopic forms, the girls should acquire the technique of making bread and rolls as well as the knowledge of the action and growth of yeasts. They should apply the knowledge obtained from the study of yeasts, molds, and bacteria in sterilizing jars and fruits while they learn the art of canning and preserving. They should acquire the knowledge of methods for preventing the growth of molds on concentrated fruit juices as well as the necessary skill for mak- ing acceptable jellies. Let me suggest that every rural teacher familiarize herself with the work of the extension division of her state. The standards used by the extension division for judging bread, jellies, and all canned goods should be those used for judging the pupils' products. Much good may be done thru the raising of community standards by urging that the work of the school girls and boys be exhibited in county and state fairs. In teaching botany, correlation with agriculture is dictated by common- sense as well as by pedagogical theory. Suppose the project be the raising and marketing of corn or any other vegetable. Selection and testing of seeds, preparation of soil, planting and care for both irrigation or dry farming methods can be not only studied theoretically but also actually carried out practically in window boxes or school garden plots. The botanical features of the plant may be studied while the selection of good vegetables and the care of them in storage and the preparation for the table correlates naturally with such knowledge. Here the opportunity offers itself for teaching variety in the preparation of vegetables. Nearly one hundred simple and palatable dishes may be prepared from potatoes alone and yet many households restrict themselves to a possible seven. Tomatoes may be prepared in over three hundred ways and yet in few homes do they appear in more than ten different forms. The teacher in a rural school has an excellent opportunity for improving the diet of her pupils' families and assisting in economical management by teaching the country girls the most palatable and nutritive ways of using the farm products. In the work in chemistry, the study of acids and alkalies is the most important for the needs of this work. Neutralization can be shown by the use of litmus, always obtainable, and a medicine dropper with which to add the acid to the alkali. After several such experiments, it is of great interest to show what part of a teaspoonful of soda is required to neutralize one cup of recently soured milk as compared with the same quantity of old milk. Baking powders can be made to illustrate the action of soda and acids, and the fact that much of cooking is pure chemistry is one of great interest and utility. The careful use of chemical reagents in cleaning lOl8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [SciencT metals and in laundry work serves as an excellent means of illustrating and fixing principles learned with test-tube experiments. The study of the effects of dyes on different fabrics, the manufacture of textiles and of foods, the sanitary precautions required in sickness and in health, all offer oppor- tunities for correlation with daily school routine and life-problems. Our young people in towns and cities with special equipment and extra time allowed are receiving such training. It is only fair that our rural girls be given some of its benefits. With careful correlation there is no reason why this work may not be begun in the fifth grade or when the pupils are about the age of ten. An elaborate equipment is not needed and school boards usually gladly furnish all that is required. Here is the report of one teacher who was teaching in a desperately poor district just outside the Shoshone Indian reservation in Wyoming. In illustration of what may be done under difficult circimastances, I quote from her experiences in carrying out such a plan as suggested. This may be considered fairly typical of our rural conditions, but the teacher is one of those whom I have mentioned, one who has brains. AN EXPERIMENT IN TEACHING SCIENCE FOR GIRLS IN A RURAL SCHOOL (From an answer to a questionnaire by Myrl Skaggs, Riverton, Wyo.) The schools which I have taught have been in no way different from a great ma other one-teacher niral schools in this state. The first schoolhouse in which I taught was a little claim shack with a small lean-to coal house. In this coal house, I saw my opportimity for a domestic science kitchen. We shoveled three thousand pounds of coal out imder the blue sky, scrubbed, sawed out a stove-pipe hole and a window. We borrowed a small camp range from a friend. My sup)erintendent at Riverton had his boys make us two long shelves on which to store oiu' supplies. I made a table out of a goods box and some scrap lumber. Our supplies were kept in Mason jars donated by our patrons. My girls hemmed the dish towels that we used. Our equipment was very meager. We begged and borrowed what we could, and the rest were devised from coffee cans. This certainly was a test of our ingenuity. I estimated that the cost for equipment did not exceed one dollar. Most of our work in our kitchen was the actual preparation of food. I did not teach this in the way I woidd in a graded school, because I thought that I had better teach the theoretical part of the work by means of correlation. Of course I gave the reason for the different steps. Briefly I followed the following outline: Breakfast dishes: friiits, cereals, eggs, worked out menus. Supper dishes: fruits, vegetables, eggs, preparation of white sauce, a few meats, simple desserts. Dinner dishes: vegetables, soups, desserts, meats, salads. Principles of laimdering and cleaning: simple principles, i.e., neutralization of an acid stain, etc. I found that allowing the children to serve refreshments at our little programs put more zest into our work. I found that keeping our accounts added greatly to the interest of my seventh grade in arithmetic. Physiology was the best field for correlation. In this subject we prepared menus and studied the simple principles of nutrition. In home geography, we selected sites for houses and discussed sanitation and other problems of the homemaker. Our compositions were generally on different phases of homemaking. Department] A CHEMISTRY COURSE FOR GIRLS 1019 This last year I have not had a kitchen; but have had my children prepare their work at home. I believe, however, that the actual work followed by a home lesson is the best method. We generally spent about an hour and a half a week on this work. Our sewing was largely pickup work. Sometimes the boys have worked with the girls. I have not required this, however. Other times they did simple work in manual training. As for the results, I foimd that in these simple homey subjects I brought my girls closer to me. They ceased to feel that I and my world of school were apart from everyday life. I do not believe that there has been a single girl who has not been in a degree more interested in homemaking. I remember one so-called lazy and selfish girl, who at the end of the term was twice as thoughtful and capable. I do not credit the change to any skilful teaching. It was simply a case of latent possibility. Another very marked result I have seen and that is the kindled interest of my girls' mothers. They begin to want to know more of this subject which has for its purpose the lightening of their burdens and the increasing of their efficiency. B. A CHEMISTRY COURSE FOR GIRLS MARY ETHEL JONES, HEAD OF CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT, HIGH SCHOOL, LOS ANGELES, CAL. The systematic school training of most of the girls attending high school ends when they graduate. Within a few years after graduation, many of these girls are married and have the entire responsibility of caring for a home. Homemaking is the life-work of practically every woman. Whether she marries or not, it is the business of every woman to know how to manage a home efficiently, A knowledge of chemistry is fundamental in the study of nearly all the other sciences. An exact knowledge of the chemistry of the processes concerned leads to efficiency in practically every art and industry; the science of household management, which is also an art in the highest sense of the word, is no exception to these rules. Seven years ago, a course was built for service — a course in chem- istry for girls. The girls were told about it. Each year the nvunber of classes grew; new laboratories had to be built and new teachers found. At present the enrolment each term in domestic chemistry is usually more than twice that of the regular chemistry. This remarkable increase in the number of girls taking chemistry has proved that the girls needed just such a course. Were this apparent success at the expense of thoroness in subject- matter, the course would be unworthy of discussion. That it is a thoro course in real chemistry is indicated by the fact that it is given the same entrance credit by the universities as is given the regular chemistry. Domestic chemistry is a college-entrance course, altho it deviates from the standardized course in chemistry. This deviation is not apparent until the beginning of the second term. The work the first term is so similar to the work in the first term of regular chemistry that in some schools the classes are not separated until the beginning of the second term. Mindful of the time, I can mention only a few of the topics studied: (i) what we I020 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Science breathe; (2) what we drink; (3) acids, bases, and salts, and particularly those used commonly in the home; (4) carbon, fuels, and illuminants; (5) some compounds of carbon and simple organic chemistry; (6) the appU- cation of this organic chemistry to the study of food principles; (7) food adulterants; (8) leavening agents; (9) soaps and cleansing agents; (10) textiles and methods of cleaning and dyeing them. C. APPLIED SCIENCE AS THE BASIS OF THE GIRL'S EDUCATION HAZEL W. SEVERY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, SANTA BARBARA, CAL. Science courses to meet the general needs of all girls may be classified under two heads: first, courses for girls who are planning a scientific or technical education; second, courses which make better homes because the sciences are taught in a simple but practical way. We wish to discuss in this paper our second division, that of making better homes, because the sciences are taught in a simple but practical way. Let us consider of what a science course for girls should consist and point out a few of its possibiUties. Botany allows the study of the develop- ment, structure, and function of cell, leaf, stem, root, and flower; their nutrition, assimilation, respiration, and food storage. Processes of bread- making are brought out by yeast. From the study of simple bacteria can easily be made clear and practical its relations to household processes such as care of milk, decay of food, sterilization of dishes, combating disease, and cultivating useful flavoring and soil bacteria. Botany helps to create the love for the beautiful which can be reproduced in the household decora- tion by better selection of woods, wallpaper, color combinations. It gives a clearer insight to the care of flowers which beautify the grounds and to the raising of vegetables that will lower the cost of living. K zoology rather than botany is selected as a study, the divisions to be discussed are the structure and the life-processes of the cell, the earthworm, fish, frog, and rabbit. The best medical men are paying more attention to the prevention of disease by correcting the wrong ways of living than by treating the effect. The public-school system of education can help by laying more stress upon appHed physiology. Personal hygiene is taught thru the scientific and practical presentation of the structure of the body, digestion, circulation, assimilation, nervous system, ventilation, rest, exercise, sleep, and avoid- ance of unnecessary drugs. Bring the facts so forcefully to the girl that she can apply them to such subjects as sanitation, water and milk suppHes, prevention of infectious diseases, better children, and better homes. Make the subject vital, for nothing is more important than the production and preservation of a healthy race. Apply the work directly to home duties, Department] APPLIED SCIENCE AS BASIS OF GIRLS' EDUCATION 102 1 as for instance, showing what parts of the body are exercised when we sweep, wash, or iron. Applied problems always make the home work less of a drudgery. Chemistry trains the girl to observe, to reason, and to apply to the home difficulties the principles learned. The first half-year of the work in chemistry would be given to a thoro grounding in the fundamental principles given in a clear, simple manner, with special applications to the home problems. Complex theories would be left out. Household chemistry would occupy the second half of the year's study. Its division would be food and textile chemistry. What is more important from the homemaker's viewpoint than the preparation and preservation of food ? Food chemistry gives the girl the simple test, acquaintance with the different brands of foods, knowledge of the pure- food law, but above all the power to choose the best and most economical food. Discussion of extracts leads to the study of alcohol as a solvent, antiseptic, antidote for carbolic poisoning, etc. From vinegar we go to the fruit acids, glycerine, and fats. Thru butter and olive oil are studied saporification, soaps, digestion, manufacture, and purity of fat products. Carbohydrates and proteins are then taken up thru the common food stuffs, so as to show hydrolysis, the relation of these products to each other, and to account for the changes they undergo during digestion. Such food products as baking powders, chocolate, tea, and coffee have their value in such a course. By textile chemistry the high cost of living in the home can be reduced. The girl, in order to make the right selection of material, must understand fibers and whether a material is filled or bleached to the rotting-point. A simple knowledge of household tests is necessary to know the purity of wool, cotton, linen, and silk. The laundry shows the effect of hard and soft waters, soap, soap manufacture, bleaching powders, stain removers, dying, and ironing in such a way that it will not take the girl long to choose between superior and inferior work done by the laundries. Household physics teaches the laws of levers by the can-opener, ice- cream freezer, and other simple household devices. Radiation, convection, conduction, are illustrated by the stove, cooking utensils, thermos bottle, and fireless cooker. Then follow such subjects as ventilation of the home and school; light and its effect on household decoration; illimiination; electricity in its simplest forms, electric bell, electric iron, telephone, tele- graph; color and its physical and psychological effect. Thru house structure and musical instruments sound is taught. These science courses should consist of lectures, recitations, and indi- vidual laboratory work. In closing allow me to make this plea. Let us make our science courses stronger, more practicable, and more easily applied to the girl's needs. Let us give the facts in such a simple, clear, forceful way that they will be understood and applied to home problems. I022 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science D. GENERAL SCIENCE FOR THE FIRST YEAR OF HIGH SCHOOL IDA WELCH, HIGH SCHOOL, EVERETT, WASH. A general course in science as proposed for the first year of high school is intended primarily for those who drop out of school after the first year or so and therefore receive no training in science. It may also serve as an introductory and a preparatory course for those who will take more advanced work in science. When the high school began as a preparatory school for college, only the more capable students entered. Now we have students from all classes of society, and a very small percentage of those who enter the high school complete the four-year course. Many of those who remain in school fall below the standards set for them. To fail to give some kind of scientific training to those who are not capable of more technical work is to lose a great opportunity for raising the standard of living of those who need it most. As a nation we are not living up to our scientific knowledge, partly because those who do not fit into our scheme get no training of this kind, and those studying sciences are not generally taught in a practical way. The world is still full of people who follow superstition. I recall a case where a boy had been bitten by a dog and his mother treated the wound by tying on it some hair from the dog's back. The subject-matter would enter more closely into the life of the student if the credit given bore directly upon his abiUty to apply the instructions. I fail to see the value in the study of personal hygiene and sanitation unless it is put into use, just as in the case of cooking and mechanics. The students may be led thru suggestion to make practical applications at home and report on their results. The subject-matter need not be confined to text- books. Magazines are an important source of information and deal with practical questions not found in the textbooks. Students also like occa- sionally to write up their own work for the daily papers. This gives them excellent training in English, and makes them more exact in their obser- vations and more accurate in their conclusions. Science for the first year should not be technical and should not go into detail. I have known students to take things from the laboratory just to experiment at home in their own free way. Each teacher should outline a course to suit his particular environment. This can be done adequately only when boys and girls are taught in sepa- rate classes. Furthermore I believe that the girls should be taught by a woman, G. Stanley Hall says: Nature decrees that with advancing civilization the sexes shall not approximate but differentiate, and we shall probably be obliged to carry sex distinctions, at least of methods, into many if not most of the topics of the higher education. Now that woman has by general consent attained the right to the best that man has, she must seek a training that fits her own nature as well or better. So long as she strives to be a man, she will be inferior and a pinchbeck imitation, but she must develop a new sphere that shall be like the rich field of the cloth of gold for the best instincts of her nature. Department] GENERAL SCIENCE FOR FIRST HIGH-SCHOOL YEAR 1023 A course in general science might well begin with a study of the physical environment, but this should not be treated in the cut-and-dried method. This part of the subject might be made to apply to the industrial side of life for the boys and to the home life of the girls. The outline at the end of the paper may be suggestive for this part of the course for the girls. A course following this outline, with little variance, has been given to the domestic science girls in our school for the past three years. The study of the physical environment might well be followed by the subject of the reproduction and development of animals and plants. In this way the sex question may be met naturally and quietly without any reference to sex hygiene. This seems to be the most logical and sane way of treating the subject. A wholesome and lasting impression is made upon the minds of the students when the developmental changes are watched from the growth of the egg cells thru the embryonic stages into young living creatures. If this part of the subject is given thru textbook descriptions, it loses it greatest value. The study of a single case of development is not sufficient, but live fish eggs should be obtained, and the hen's egg incu- bated as well as the eggs of amphibians. In connection with this study of reproduction and development are given the theories of evolution, continuity of germ plasm, and the laws of heredity. Great interest is shown by the students in gathering data from their own observation and from the experiments of those who are raising fancy chickens, pigeons, rabbits, plants, and fruits. The Next Generation, by Francis Gulick Jewitt, is an excellent book for this part of the work. Right here, in developing the principles of evolution, is the place to develop the morals and ideals of the student. He discovers man's relation to the natural laws, also he finds that he is a part of the great and divine plan of the imiverse, and this awakens in him a higher sense of life. In directing his moral and religious instincts, ideals cannot be found which are too high. Ethics need not necessarily be taught in the classroom, but it may be done indirectly by the instructor. Let the student take the initiative and when he begins to ask questions, place into his hands books which you have already selected for this purpose. This will prevent argu- mentation. He will continue to ask you for reading and advice long after he has left your class. Is it the place of the school to do this work ? It is the place of the school to make good citizens. A course in general science given from the student's viewpoint of life will be the most successful course ever given. The teacher's relation to the student is different and in turn the student's attitude toward the teacher is to regard him as one who becomes interested in him and as a helper in his daily life. This at once makes the subject and school appeal to the youth as something in which he has a vital part. I024 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science OuTrnifE IN General Science foe Girls To be followed by the study of animals and plants. Three hours a week to be given to laboratory exercises. 1. Air: Composition of the air; air in the home, in public buildings; effects of uncleanly premises on the air; moisture in the air; testing the air for Coa and live dust. 2. Ventilation. 3. Water: Composition of water; study of its elements; water as a solvent; hard and soft water; purification of water; organic matter in water; water pollution; water supply and sewage disposal. 4. Light and heat: Gas light; lighting and heating of public buildings and the home; fireless cooker; steam-pressiu-e cooking; electric iron. 5. Sanitation and bacteria: Characteristics and action of bacteria; immunity and dis- infection; methods of sweeping and dusting; sanitary habits; care of street, lots, and alleys. 6. Yeast and molds. 7. FUes, mosquitoes, and rats; their relation to disease. 8. Foods: Their composition and care. 9. Personal hygiene. THE PLACE OF PURE SCIENCE IN OUR PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM E, P. LEWIS, PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY, CAL. In discussing this question, we must first agree upon what we mean by pure science. No science, at least in the early stage of its teaching, can be pure in the sense of complete detachment from more or less familiar phenomena. It is founded on realities and cannot get far away from them. I think that what we mean when we speak of pure science is science con- sidered altogether without regard to its utilitarian possibilities and with reference to its more general aspects and principles rather than to its narrower details. The sciences have often been taught in this way. The objects and processes studied and the apparatus employed often have no other function than to serve as illustrations of the principles which they are intended to illustrate. It has been the boast of many teachers that they refuse to teach anything that can be of any practical use. Opposed to this notion is the vocational idea which has lately permeated the educational world. In its extreme form, it demands that no time be spent on ele- mentary science except in the study of methods, processes, or apparatus which are actually used in the industrial world. We must remember, however, in considering this question, that it is not necessary to go to extremes in either direction, but that between these extremes we may find some happy mean. Twenty-four years of teaching have gradually modified my originally orthodox views, have made me see vividly the weaknesses as well as the strong points of both the extreme cultural and the extreme vocational idea, and have given me fairly definite views regarding the kind of science teaching Department] PURE SCIENCE IN OUR PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM 1025 which may be expected to do the most good for the largest proportion of students. To make my ideas clear it may be well to use some con- crete illustrations. These illustrations I shall draw from the field of physics, partly because that is the science most familiar to me and partly because it is the one which is most subject to abuse by extremes of treatment. Physics as usually taught in California, and probably elsewhere, twenty years ago may serve as an example of what we may, for the purposes of the present discussion, consider as pure science, altho there may be some reserva- tions as to whether the methods followed and the results obtained would justify such a title. Usually five periods a week were devoted to this sub- ject. Three of these were taken up with recitations from the textbook, often mere question and answer. Memorization of the printed page was all that was required for a high mark. It is needless to point out that this was in no sense science study. It is the method used in language study or in any other subject where usage and authority are supreme. There was little or no direct observation and discussion of scientific phenomena, which alone can be the basis of scientific inquiry. It is like learning art from the pages of a catalog. The remaining two periods were devoted to the laboratory. Here emphasis was laid upon measurement, not upon physical principles. The apparatus was designed for the purpose of obtaining the numerical data which were the main object in view, and the discussion of their mean- ing played a small part in the work of the pupils. The nature of the work made it impossible to perform many experiments. As a result the pupils had no opportunity to observe and study many phenomena which should be familiar to them. A neatly written notebook was considered the crown- ing triumph of their labor. So ingrained was the idea that this kind of laboratory work is vital that when a number of teachers investigated the subject of physics teaching a few years ago, with a view to making it more palatable and nutritious, they could not escape the clutch of tradition. They recommended no essential change of method, but by a majority vote they selected the seventy quantitative experiments which they regarded as most indispensable and suggested that choice be made only from this list, but that on no account should more than one experiment illustrating a given principle he assigned. Undoubtedly this was to enable the pupil to cover the ground in one year. But what a blow to the inductive principle which is supposed to underlie scientific instruction! How intimate would you ever become with a person whom you were allowed to meet but once ? What would we think of a teacher of geography who confined his laboratory work for beginners to drawing accurate topographical maps, or the teacher of astronomy who began by having his pupils calculate latitude and longi- tude and computing eclipses? Elementary students must first be intro- duced to scientific phenomena and become familiar with them by frequent observation in varied aspects before they can profitably undertake that I026 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION iSdence phase of study. We do not initiate a friendship by measuring the nose and counting the hairs of the object. No wonder that pupils showed little interest in physics and refused to assimilate it or any other science thus taught. No wonder that teachers grew discouraged, and that, as shown by the reports of the commissioner of education, there has been a steady decline in the number of pupils of sec- ondary schools studying the physical sciences. This growing dissatisfaction, together with the general democratization of our schools which has attended their rapid growth, caused a demand for studies leading more directly to some practical end. Naturally this reaction went perhaps a little too far sometimes, or rather it did not take sufficient accoimt of all the things which go to make up the fulness of life, which should mean more than bread to eat, or clothes to wear, or a bed to sleep in — per- haps even more than the movies, and baseball games, and joy rides, which seem to be accounted practical by many apparently hard-headed persons. As a consequence of this movement, physics has been dropped entirely in some schools, and type-setting or plumbing substituted — as tho every boy intended to be a type-setter or plumber. In other schools it is taught in what is supposed to be an extremely practical fashion. That is to say, only those phases of physics are considered which seem to apply directly to machinery, or to the use of gas and electrical appliances, or to the cidtiva- tion of the soil. It is as tho we taught English for lawyers, EngUsh for doctors, English for cooks, forgetting that nothing that we can give all our children is so practical as a facility in the use of their own language in expressing every phase of their life-activity. In physics likewise there are a multitude of facts, phenomena, and principles which are not confined to any one field of industry and which can be but imperfectly grasped if con- sidered only with reference to that field. It is easy to see that this method falls far short of attaining even the limited object in view. It is not a practical method in the sense used by its advocates, for, when it is taught in such a narrow spirit, it is impossible for the pupils to obtain any real command of the subject. At best they learn the mechanical construction and the mechanical use of what they study, without the power to correct what may go wrong or to meet new conditions. Their knowledge is mere rule of thiunb like that acquired by students in those schools which guarantee to teach mechanical or electrical engineering in one year, without physics or mathematics. It would be unpractical, even if the knowledge imparted were not superficial, because in a given class there would be pupils with widely different purposes in life, to most of whom a limited number of special practical applications would be valueless; whereas physics taught in a broader spirit might be made interest- ing and instructive to every member of the class. Again, such a method does not inspire interest except where it makes a special utilitarian appeal. We are likely to forget that children are not materialistic or utilitarian. Department] PURE SCIENCE IN OUR PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM 1027 They have imaginations which we should develop, not stifle. There is in every healthy child an innate curiosity about his surroundings which demands satisfaction, and which if developed and encouraged is the surest passport to knowledge and power. Often the colors in a soap bubble may arouse more interest than a pulley or steam engine. The gratification of curiosity in such cases is not wholly useless; one who understands the origin of these colors can all the easier understand wireless telegraphy. The "practical" teacher sees no connection between the two. If neither of the extreme methods seems to fulfil the hopes of those who have tried them, how can success be attained ? It seems to me to lie in substituting for the textbook direct contact with phenomena, with the addi- tional human interest to be gained from reading the biographies of great physicists, and by substituting for a limited number of quantitative experi- ments an unlimited number of qualitative experiments. Instead of con- fining attention to either useful or useless things, make use of every fact, every process, every phenomenon which is available to illustrate every principle. Only in such a way can an intimate acquaintance of the subject be secured, which is no less thoro because not expressed in mathematical terms. Much of what we may call pure physics will be included in such a course. I conclude that pure science in our schools is justified, because it creates an interest among all classes of pupils, and because science other- wise taught is necessarily incomplete and superficial. I believe that this conclusion applies to all other sciences. So far we have considered the methods which may be expected to give the most thoro and generally useful grasp of a science, but it seems to me that there is another end which for most of our children is far more signifi- cant and important. In a mixed elementary class there can be only a small number who can learn much which will be of direct practical value in their life-work. Most of the actual knowledge obtained will be forgotten by all in a few years. What remains to justify the time, effort, and expense of teaching it ? The result which proves most permanent is likewise that which is the great and unique value of scientific training. Language, history, and most other subjects depend entirely on usage, tradition, and authority, and tend to inculcate the habit of bhnd obedience and unques- tioning acceptance of established views. Science properly taught appeals to the pupil's own perception and judgment. The object of scientific study is the truth, undistorted by prejudice, tradition, or speculation. The habit of mind acquired in studying nature will, perhaps unconsciously, influence our attitude toward social, political, and economic questions. There are great problems before us upon which the future welfare of society depends. Why is 60 per cent of the country's wealth concentrated in the hands of 2 per cent of its population ? What proportion was earned, what proportion due to special privileges, what proportion stolen ? Are our systems of land ownership and of taxation what they should be ? Are our laws efl&ciently I028 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Science and justly administered to rich and poor alike ? Why does every improve- ment in the methods and machinery of production seem to increase the cost of Mving? These and many similar questions are not to be solved by appeals to past usage, by political chicanery, or by demagogic upheavals. They are to be solved only by sober and disinterested scientific study. The mastery and appUcation of the scientific method of ascertaining the truth can assist us in the solution of these great economic problems; but the truth alone cannot save us. We may know the right and yet wiUfully do the wrong if self-interest alone guides us. A regenerated reli- gion of humanity, based upon the Sermon on the Mount, can alone tell us what to do with the truth when we know it. To cultivate this habit of mind and to inspire these ethical standards is the greatest task intrusted to our schools. No circmnscribed utihtarian view of science teaching will carry us far toward the completion of this task, and therefore I make an earnest plea for the retention of a considerable amount of pure science teach- ing in our pubhc schools. DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — O. M. Plummer, director, Board of Education Portland, Ore. Vice-President — Edward C. Elliott, professor of education, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Secretary — ^Feane M. Bruce, business manager, American School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis. FIRST SESSION— Friday Forenoon, August 20, 1915 The meeting was called to order in the Auditorium Theater at 9:00 a.m., with Presi- dent Plummer in the chair. Wilh'am C. Bruce was appointed secretary pro tempore. The following program was given: "Addresses of Welcome" — F. B. Cook, president, Board of Education, Oakland, Cal.; A. A. D'Ancona, member. Board of Education, San Francisco, Cal. "President's Address" — O. M. Plummer, director. Board of Education, Portland, Ore. "School Surveys" — EUwood P. Cubberley, professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. "School-Board Members" — ^William E. Chancellor, Hoge Professor of Political Science, University of Wooster, Wooster, Ohio. "Is the Board of Education an Incubus on Modem Education?" — Reynold E. Blight, former member, Board of Education, Los Angeles, Cal. SECOND SESSION— Friday Afternoon, August 20, 19 15 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2:45 pm. The following papers were read: "School Grounds and School Architecture" — ^John J. Donovan, architect, Oakland, Cal. "School Buildings and Grounds in the Philippines" — Frank L. Crone, director, Bureau of Education, Department of Public Instruction, Manila, P.I, Discussion: J. R. Rawlins, member, Board of Education, Jordan School District, Midvale, Utah; George W. Gerwig, school board accountant, Pittsburgh, Pa.; George W, Auch, member, Board of Education, Detroit, Mich.; D. Peine, secretary. Board of Educa- tion, Houston, Tex.; C. E. Chadsey, superintendent of schools, Detroit, Mich.; O. M. Plummer, director. Board of Education, Portland, Ore.; O. S. Spencer, member, Board of Education, Seattle, Wash. The following officers were elected for the coming year: For President — O. M. Plummer, director. Board of Education, Portland, Ore. For Vice-President — George W. Auch, member, Board of Education, Detroit, Mich. For Secretary — Frank M. Bruce, business manager, American School Board Journal, Milwaukee, Wis. X039 I030 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration THIRD SESSION— Friday Evening, August 20, 1915 The meeting was called to order by the president at 8: 15 p.m. The following papers were read: "Teachers' Problems and the Teaching of Peace" — ^David Starr Jordan, President, National Education Association. "Tenure of Office" — Grace DeGraff, president. League of Teachers' Associations, Portland, Ore.; H. D. Sheldon, professor of education. University of Oregon, Eugene, Ore. "The City School Board— Its Constitution and Fimction"— P. P. Claxton, United States commissioner of education, Washington, D.C. William C. Bruce, Secretary pro tempore PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS ADDRESS OF WELCOME F. B. COOK, PRESroENT, BOARD OF EDUCATION, OAKLAND, CAL. I esteem it an honor to extend, in the name of the Oakland Board of Education, a cordial welcome to you as visiting members of boards of edu- cation and to invite you to avail yourselves of the opportunities which will be presented of visiting Oakland and of inspecting as far as possible the schools of the city and the plan of operation of the school department. Changing social and educational conditions have increased tremen- dously the responsibilities of school directors. The annual difficulty of making the budget and the effort necessary to secure the proper financial support for the schools, which must take their chance before supervisors and city councils with a dozen other civic necessities, the responsibiUty of providing instruction of a type which not only will meet the needs of all the young people, but which, with an almost prophetic wisdom, will antici- pate possible changes in the economic and commercial life of the city, are in themselves worthy of the best effort of any man or woman. These, however, are but items, important tho they may be. The purchase of land enough to provide adequate playgrounds for the schools of a growing city, which requires keen insight into the direction of possible expansion; the choice of textbooks; the wise administration of the teaching body; the proper ratio of expenditures for the development of the kindergarten, the elementary schools, and the high schools; control of the methods of administration and the system of accoimting; the selection of a superin- tendent of schools, an administrative officer with duties second in impor- tance and in difficulty to none in the city: these make up a sum total of duties which would tax the time, patience, and energy of any man or woman. The Oakland Board of Education has done its best to meet its respon- sibiUties as faithfully as possible. Visitors will doubtless criticize some details of the Oakland schools. We trust that in our new buildings, 01 playgrounds, our teaching force, our high-school libraries, our bands anc Department] PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS IO3I orchestras, our care for public health, and our general plan of organization, there may be something to commend. We make no apologies for what we are not able to show you. Such features, however, as we can show are open to your inspection. We trust that you will enjoy visiting the new schools, the offices of the Board, the playgrounds, and any other features the department can offer. PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS O. M. PLUMMER, DIRECTOR, BOARD OF EDUCATION, PORTLAND, ORE. Members of boards of education should be very important factors in the National Education Association. Once each year educators from all over the United States come together and discuss all phases of educational activities. The heads of the large industries are always on the lookout for new ideas and for new machinery. Let a better way of doing a certain thing be reported in any part of the world and immediately the old method of performance is discarded and the new adopted. The handling of school affairs should be along the same lines. If the people of the New York schools have discovered some new truth along educational lines, we of the west coast should be put in touch with it at once. Participation by our members in this national meeting better fits us for our mark. It also makes us firm supporters of the ideas advanced by our superintendent as a result of his observations made at this same gather- ing. As the board of education is the foundation of all things educational from a public-school standpoint, the Department of School Administration should become one of the strongest in the entire organization. There is no office within the gift of the people which carries with it more honor than that of a member of a board of education, and no man or woman in any community has it within his power to be of more usefulness than a school director. Only a person who thoroly loves children and who places their welfare above everything should be eligible for the position. A member who confines his attention to the tax levy entirely to the utter disregard of the child is a menace to any school board. There is hardly a community in the country which will not back the board of education to the limit if the people feel that the appropriations are expended wisely. There is no better constructive publicity for a city than to be known over the entire country as a city of good schools. Let us bring our business interests and our chamber of commerce to realize the far-reaching importance of education to the end that they will back every sane request for financial aid. I032 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administrat SCHOOL SURVEYS ellwoodYp. cubberley, professor of education, leiand stanfoi JUNIOR university, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL. We may distinguish four types of surveys which have so far be made: state school surveys, county school surveys, city school surveys, and college or university surveys. With the latter this section is not at all con- cerned. The state survey is an attempt to measure up the needs and work of a state school system, along such lines as the organization and adminis- tration, the scope of the school system provided, the state's educational needs, school finances, methods of taxation and apportionment, teachers and certification, school plant and equipment, hygiene and health work, and other similar large topics. The purpose is to find what are the state's problems, the resources with which these problems may be met, what real organizations in administration are desirable, what steps would advance the state, and what to attempt now. It may also well undertake to evaluate the steps which have been taken, in terms of their usefulness in promoting the purpose of future education. The purpose of such a survey, as of all surveys, should be constructive, and to oflfer a program along which the state school authorities and the legislature may make satisfactory progress for some years to come. The Ohio school survey conducted in 1913-14, the Vermont school survey of 1913, and the Maryland school survey of 191 5 are types of the best which we have had in this line. The county survey is essentially a study of the educational resources and needs of a county, studying these needs from a social, economic, and educational point of view. The present organization, the cost and eflfective- ness of the system, and the supervision are all-important topics, and the survey should point out to the people of a county what reorganizations are desirable in order to enable the county school system better to meet the rural life and rural educational needs of the county. The survey of a Virginia county, and the one of San Mateo County, California, both of which have been pubHshed as bulletins by the United States Bureau of Education, are types of such surveys. It is very probable that the need for a reorganization of our county school systems along better educational Unes, which the next decade is almost certain to bring forth, will cause the county survey to become a very important one within the next ten years. The city school survey has so far been the most prominent and the most helpful. Its purpose is essentially to seek hght and to offer a constructive program for the guidance of the school board and its executive oflScers. The organization and administration of the system, the direction in which the system is headed, the value of the work which it is doing, the expendi- tures which it is making, and the new undertakings which it has begun or ought to begin are all important features. Mere criticism is undesirable. Wherever criticism is indulged in, it ought to be with a constructive pur- Department] SCHOOL-BOARD MEMBERS 1033 pose, and a better way of doing things ought to be pointed out. The survey must consider the location, the setting of the school system, and its peculiar local problems and possibilities. What is good in the system should be evaluated, and what is fundamentally bad should be pointed out. Each city school survey, and to a certain extent each survey of other types, will need to bring to the surface what are the fundamental problems in the particular community or political subdivision. One city's funda- mental need may be better organization and administration; in another it may be a new school plant and a new educational purpose; in another the fundamental problem may be that of finance; in another it may be that the school needs defense against unjust attacks; in another the instruction offered may be fundamentally weak, and in the wrong direction; in another the schools may need speeding up; and in still another what may be needed is a fundamentally new educational conception on the part of the people. It is part of the work of the survey to locate these problems, to evaluate the system which exists in terms of good work, to commend what is good and to recommend substitutes for what is not good, and to point out to the com- munity clearly, and sometimes forcibly, the fundamental needs of their school system. SCHOOL-BOARD MEMBERS WILLIAM E. CHANCELLOR, HOGE PROFESSOR OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, UNI- VERSITY OF WOOSTER, WOOSTER, OHIO The governmental school board is an American invention. Originally the American community appointed its school board with the single power of seeing that the public teacher was properly paid. The board could not even select the teacher who was called by community vote and was expected to remain for life. Often the call invited the man by name to ''live among us and be the teacher of the school." In this early period occasionally the school wardens or board members were named for life. Such is the true historical origin and such is the present essential intention of the American school board. It pays, but it does not name, the teacher. When a school superintendent names a teacher, he does not derive this power from the board but acts in lieu of community action. He stands for town meeting or for parish meeting. One who knows the United States educationally knows that it contains many different worlds. In these worlds, the same terms do not have the same meanings. State lines are forceful facts. We are conducting a score of different kinds and classes of public-school expei:iments. Not- withstanding a general comity, we do not altogether understand one another. From the school board's original single duty of providing a livelihood for the school-teacher, this governmental device has grown into exceedingly diverse forms. The Boston city school committee is a very I034 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration different affair from an Ohio county school board. It does not consider the same business. We are in great need of a developed school terminology. The city school superintendent of Buffalo has somewhat the same powers as the Boston city school committee and superintendent combined. One type of school board can bond, assess, and tax its district freely, another has but one power, to elect the city superintendent, whose salary it cannot even fix. Such are the extremes of great powers and of almost no power. Obviously, when one talks of school-board members, it makes a deal of difference what legal kind of school board he has experienced, and whether or not he has had to deal also with city councils, town meetings, and referen- dum votes. For forty years I have known school-board members as well as city school superintendents. It is my notion that he makes the best school- board member who most clearly understands and fully obeys his appointed social function. He fills his office according to law but does not attempt or even desire to overfill or crowd it. I never yet saw any sudden reform of permanent value accomplished by any school-board member or even majority of members unless specifically directed by mandate of higher law that they were simply operating. The first business, therefore, of any school-board member is to find from the laws his own legal duties. This will take time, for one must not only read the laws but must discover their judicial and customary interpretations and appreciate as well as understand their total as well as their specific meanings. In consequence, the first year of any board mem- ber's service is a year of novitiate, a year when one should hear with his ears, observe with his eyes, try to understand in his heart, and unless under extreme provocation of dishonesty, of corruption, or of incompetence on the part of his colleagues both say and do nothing. In my observation and experience, generally the best boards and the best board members have been those with the largest legal powers. Re« sponsibility enlightens and steadies mind and heart. Great responsibility silences the tongue, compels consideration, strengthens the will. As a matter of pure psychology, I believe that a potent cause of good schools in several states is that the people have conveyed ample powers to their school boards. In specific terms, a school board should own the lands and buildings, bond and assess its district, and, subject only to minimum requirements, fix the qualifications, salaries, and tenures of every kind of employee. The public knows whom to praise and whom to censure for the kind of schools maintained. In too many states, responsibility rests everywhere and nowhere. As an observer of American social conditions and as a teacher of politi- cal science, I am equally assured that we need the differentiated and inte- grated school system, separate at once from church and from state, from religion and government, from ecclesiasticism and from ordinary politics. I Department] SCHOOL-BOARD MEMBERS 1035 All that I have to say further of school-board members proceeds solely from personal experience. In thinking over this subject, I find that of all the board members whom I have officially known, thirty-six stand out in my memory vividly. I have reconsidered them, and, in the light of this reconsideration, I desire to develop several facts and opinions. T|ie facts are beyond argument and final; the opinions will depend for their value to others partly upon such knowledge of myself as those others may have and partly upon such experience as they have had in public education. These three dozen board members represented English, German, Scotch, Irish, and Afro- American stocks; both sexes; Protestant, Catholic, Hebrew, and no religious faiths; every degree of wealth from many millions to pitiable insolvency; every degree of education to none whatever; every social status from city leadership to back tenement rooms; and every age from twenty-three to above seventy. Several had themselves been teachers. One of the really good board members had served fourteen years when I came to know him. He was a bachelor physician, head of the city hos- pital. He died in the performance of medical duty and twenty thousand persons attended his funeral. The peculiarity of his service was that he looked upon the schools as his patient and almost daily called to see how \ things were going. He might visit a school or the main office. He never stayed long. He was too vigorous to be called a saint and too democratic to be called a patron; and yet I think of him as the "patron saint" of the schools of the city of Paterson. And yet I cannot say that physicians make the best board members even tho I rate two of my five doctors who were board members as easily in the first half-dozen in quality of these thirty-six. I do wish, however, that every board of education had just one practicing family physician and no more among its members. There are clubs of a kind now increasing ', thru the land whose rule is to admit but one man from a profession or other [ occupation. It would be an excellent rule for school-board membership. Two physicians are one too many. A young physician is usually an unde- sirable. I think that it is the alien knowledge of the expert physician that makes him valuable. He knows a deal about human life of which others, j; including board members, teachers, and parents, know but little. This expert knowledge deeply concerns humanity and therefore education, but it does not directly involve the teachers' function of pedagogy. It is a safe rule that the more extended the business of a manufacturer, of a merchant, of a banker, or of a lawyer, the better board member he makes. As I have no intention to soil this record with the deeds and qualities of the infamous, I refrain from discussing the fourteen men and women in three different cities who to my certain knowledge were wholly unfit for 1036 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration school-board service. I submit, however, several generalizations true without exception of these fourteen: 1. Not one of them was serving a second term either by re-election or by reappoint- ment. 2. No educator who knew them would invite any one of them a second time to his family dining-table unless of ofl&cial policy. 3. Not one of them had any large general knowledge of the life of the world. This is true even of such of these infamous persons as were college graduates, for coUege gradua- tion is no guaranty of public worth in educational service either as teacher or as school- board member. I understand that there is such a person as a good and competent woman school-board member; but officially I never experienced even one. Of the four whom I have known, the only good woman flinched at the first fire of the comiptionists and resigned at the order of her husband. Her health was good for domestic use but wholly inadequate for pubhc warfare. Svurrendering under fire is not confined, however, to women. Among the men who have failed in crises were a rich young physician and a rich retired government officer. Their health also broke down. It was in 191 2 that my pubhc service ceased. Today, but two board members are in office whom I knew in these four cities. This to me seems an appaUing fact. Every bad member and all but two of the good ones have disappeared from the scene of action. What are the remedies ? — for remedies there should be. They will nc come from an unenUghtened pubhc or from candidates for board member-| ships or for teaching positions. Amazing as the truth sounds, there more school-board members by far in almost every state of the Union there are teachers. The remedies will come only from a few statesmen^ and, let us hope, from many board members and educators. It seems tc me that the requirements are these: 1. Legislation that will strengthen the hands of board members by cent educational affairs in the board and by lengthening their terms to at least three years- 2. Enlightenment of board members in oflBce to their first duty, which is to le their duties before trying to practice their supposed or even real powers. 3. A reform of teachers so that they will appreciate the good and evil conduct board members and dare to act accordingly. Wholly erroneous notions circulate among] teachers respecting their relation to boards of education. New and correct ideas need to be diffused. A teacher is not a wage-hireling of school-board members and owes no] gratitude to them unless improperly in service. 4. A realization aUke by board members and by teachers of the truth that boardaj exist primarily to provide real teachers with reasonable livelihoods in the immediate] interests of the youth as such and of the nation that is to be; and that boards with anj other primary concern commit treason of a disgraceful kind against the public. 5. A determination by good men that every good man is willing to serve the public] wherever and whenever the public wills without pay or other reward than a sense wit of deserving the approval of the good, of the wise, and of the many. If many board members had not in truth Hved as honorable pubUcj servants, American education would not have, as it does have today, so] Department] RELATION OF BOARD OF EDUCATION TO EDUCATION 1037 many examples of what schools should be, the gateways of the new genera- tion into a better future. I am not enough of a dreamer to imagine that in a few j'ears every school-board member will be at heart loyal to free pubhc common education as practically every college trustee is loyal at heart to the interest of his college; but democracy like a spring in the hills has the fine quaUty of cleansing itself of impurities and of foreign matter. And, like every other man who knows the field of American education and the inspiring history of its progress, I am unable to doubt that in the course of time we shall develop the free, independent, universal pubUc school — a system of complete education without either political or ecclesiastical interference. There is plenty of room in American education for intelligent, brave, and loyal men as board members. Not every such man will come into his kingdom as did the patron saint whose case I have cited; but he has at least the assurance of a good conscience in a field both of work and of war- fare. We may never pay our school-board members hvelihoods or even honorariums for their services, but pubhc honor is incommensurate with salary and a good school system is a monument of honor to its board of education. Finally, men and women of the American school board, keep forever in mind that you are judged by the kind of teachers whom you provide with hvelihoods. Most of all you are judged by the kind of city or county or other school superintendent whom you employ. He in turn is judged by the course of study that he operates. You inherit these teachers and often this school superintendent. Before you reject your heritage, it is expedient for you to consider it well. I know of no other field of American life where false opinion is so prevalent as in the schools. Here interest weds with creduhty and vain imaginings are their offspring. Beware of rumor. In patience ye shall possess your souls, and in patience as board members you can build broad, deep, and soUd the free school of our democracy. _^ IS THE BOARD OF EDUCATION AN INCUBUS ON MODERN EDUCATION? REYNOLD E. BLIGHT, FORMER MEMBER, BOARD OF EDUCATION, LOS ANGELES, CAL. While every department of education has shown an amazing growth within the last half-century, there is one part of our educational system that has not developed coincident and in harmony with this general evo- lution— the board of education. In spite of some few exceptions the aver- age board of education remains as it was fifty years ago. This condition takes on a serious significance in view of the fact that the board of edu- cation exercises aknost unlimited control over the affairs of a school system. 1038 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration The fact that the board of education is the dominating factor in any! school system may not be altogether deplorable if this almost milimite control is exercised by a board that appreciates the responsibility of it position and the splendor of its opportmiity. And may I briefly and affirmatively del&ne such an ideal board ? It will possess a fourfold quali- fication. 1. The ideal board will realize that the purpose of a school system la to educate the children. Everything else — tax rates, buildings, purchase of supplies; teachers, organization — must be subordinate to this one object.] Until a school director is so thoroly convinced of this fundamental principle that he wiU test every question that comes before him by this infaUible and invariable standard and is therefore absolutely proof against anj sophistry or cajolery, he is utterly unfit to sit on a board of education^ I do not believe I am exaggerating when I say that the cause of education has suffered more from the failure of boards of education to apprehend and hve up to this primary ideal than from the grafters and incompetentsi who have from time to time occupied positions on the boards. In these'! days when the increasing cost of education fills the big taxpayer with alarm, and when editorial critics, speaking for the big taxpayer, cry out for economy and retrenchment, denouncing what they are pleased to call the costly fads and frills of modem education, the temptation to make a reputation for economy is great. The expenditures, of course, must be carefully guarded, but let the school director beware lest his economies cut too deep and strike the very vitals of the school department under his control. The wildest extravagance of our municipal expenditures is that imwise policy that would sacrifice the educational efficiency of the children to save a mill on the tax rate. Money spent for the detection and punish- ment of crime, for maintenance of courts and jails, is a civic loss; but money properly spent for the education of the children is a civic investment upon which the community will receive dividends for years to come. I wish I could post in a conspicuous place in every board of education room in the country this motto, "The purpose of a school system is to educate the children." 2. The ideal board of education will represent the whole community and not any particular part thereof. A board that would truly serve its community must keep itself free from every kind of sectarian or partisan influence. The moment any board jdelds ever so little to the pressure of any certain group of people in discrimination against the rights of the rest of the community, that instant the integrity of that board is vitiated. The real foes of modem education are not the crooks who seek to advance their personal fortimes by membership on the board, or ignorant directors who vote according to their stupidity or prejudice; but the smooth, dignified representatives of non-educational interests who in subtle ways seek to defeat the nobler purposes of modem education, and the large taxpayers Department] RELATION OF BOARD OF EDUCATION TO EDUCATION 1039 whose lack of vision prevents them from seeing and understanding the vital importance and significance of free schools in a democracy. Only that board of education can be successful in this day and generation that is surcharged with the liberalizing spirit of democracy, that knows no class, creed, or color, but seeks to give, even to the lowest, poorest, and meanest child, a complete and efficient education, which is his right. 3. The ideal board of education will realize that the administration of the schools is a matter for experts, and will wisely confine itself to legis- lative and general supervisory functions. When a board exceeds its proper jurisdiction and invades the prerogatives of the superintendents and teachers, it becomes a disturbing, frequently a demorahzing, factor in the educational work. There is a legitimate field for the board's activities, such as the determining of poHcies, the representing of the parents and citizens, the maintenance of a general supervision over school affairs, which is done in our larger communities largely by budget appropriations, and the receiving of reports from its executive officers, but when it tries to make up courses of study, engage, place, and discharge teachers, and perform other distinctively administrative acts, it goes beyond its real authority. The school system must more and more approach the organization of a corporation with the board of education as the board of directors and the superintendent as the general manager. No board of directors would dream of continually interfering with, overruHng, and hmniliating its general manager, and yet this is just what the average board of education is usually doing either consciously or unconsciously. After a board of directors formulates its plans and outlines in a general way its campaign, which is done in consultation with its experts and managers, the carrying out of its pohcies is left to its general manager. He is not only held responsible for the success of the enterprise, but he is given full authority to work out the details and direct his assistants. From time to time, he reports his progress to his directors, but so long as he is conscientiously and successfully con- ducting the business of the concern he is given a free hand and loyal support. During recent decades education has become a highly speciaHzed pro- fession and there have been developed a large group of men and women who by academic and practical training, long experience, and proven efficiency rank as peers of the foremost in the professions of law, divinity, statesmanship, or business management. The modern school system, as already stated, is a wondrously complex thing and requires expert handling. No matter how earnest or public spirited a board of education may be, and no matter how successful the individual members of the board may have been as lawyers, merchants, or grave-diggers, it stands to reason they cannot bring to their work the degree of expert skill that can be brought by men and women who have received special trainmg for, and had long experience in, educational work. Success in money-making does not of itself qualify any one to sit on a board of education and manage the schools of a I040 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Administration community. It were as reasonable to put a board of lawyers or ministers to superintend the surgical operations in a hospital. It is a wise board, there- \ fore, that knows when to defer to the wise counsel of its superintendent ! and when to take its hands off the administration of the schools and leave j it to him and his corps of capable assistants. 4. And now I come to the fourth qualification, which I consider the] most essential of all. Every member of the ideal board of education will] possess an enthusiasm for education. An efficiency engineer, equipped] with a stop watch and a coldly analytical brain, may reduce a factory to a basis of real efficiency, but no man can be a successful member of a board of education until his emotions are quickened and his inner enthusiasms aroused. A group of children playing should set his pulses stirring and a schoolroom of happy students should be an inspiration. In which case he would be keenly alive to his responsibihties; would be eager to know the best and most effective teaching methods; would follow with growing appreciation the present evolution of education; would keep in touch with the newest experiments; would read the latest and most authoritative literature; would frequent the educational conferences and listen with open mind to the leaders in educational thought and life; would strive to know and understand the deeper currents of school activities; would intelligently co-operate with principals and teachers in their efforts to solve the many problems of the schoolroom and the playground; would develop a beautiful sympathy with child life in all its phases; and would know the profound significance of the public school in relation to this throbbing democracy in which we Hve. I know this is a big contract, but only big- souled men and women, capable of solving big problems and dreaming big dreams, should sit on our boards of education. The ordinary board of education does not measure up to this high standard, and in so far as it falls short it becomes a clog upon the wheels of educational progress. What is the remedy ? I can offer no short cut. The problem is but another phase of the] evolution of democracy. Fundamentally, it does not matter whether your board is elective or appointive, whether it be composed of men or women, whether it consist of five or fifty members, whether it be paid or unpaid. The board of education, in the present state of our democracy, will reflect the popular opinion, the average inteUigence. If the people fully imder- stand and beUeve in the principles herein «et forth, they will elect boards of education which will act in conformity therewith. It is therefore the duty of every educator and every citizen who understands the situation to be a teacher of the people that they too may know. This is why I so heartily favor surveys of school systems by competent and disinterested authorities. They serve to enUghten the people. It is a slow process, I admit, but the only method that promises permanent results. Department] SCHOOL GROUNDS AND ARCHITECTURE 1041 SCHOOL GROUNDS AND SCHOOL ARCHITECTURE JOHN J. DONOVAN, ARCHITECT, OAKLAND, GAL. Next to locality size is the most important item to consider in selecting a school site. School grounds are natural recreation centers, and since the school is generally placed near the center of a populous district, it follows that the grounds as a recreation center will furnish the greater use and do the most good for the community and the city, if they are of suffi- cient size to accommodate the needs of play. Assuming further that the city must provide a number of large playground centers, it is extremely advisable in mapping out the future school sites that a careful survey of the city be made, arbitrarily allotting to a number of school grounds suffi- cient land to provide for the various wants of these large play centers, and in the remaining number of schools securing enough land so that they may care for the needs of the younger children of the immediate neighborhood. I beg to present herewith a schedule of what a well-equipped large school playground should contain, and will mention sizes, keeping in mind that these first dimensions are for the large playground: (i) One athletic field to include a quarter-mile track, the space within the oval to be used for two baseball diamonds, as well as for the football and field sports. The space under a section of the bleachers will furnish rooms for showers, lockers, and dressing-rooms. (2) One large swimming-pool, size of pool 75X100 feet, and a space about 50X100 feet, connected with the pool, for dressing-rooms for both sexes. (3) Four tennis courts each 36X78 feet, two croquet courts each 30X60 feet. In addition to these there should be three smaller divisions of the grounds, one for boys, one for girls, and one for the smaller children, which should contain areas for basket- and volley-ball courts, gymnasium apparatus, and a space for a platform for dancing. These areas require from ten to twelve acres of ground as a minimum, but it should be kept in mind, however, that these large grounds are sparsely located thruout the city or town. For the smaller school grounds, at least four acres of land are advisable. This will permit at least one baseball field and subdivisions for tennis, croquet, and basket-ball courts for both boys and girls. Inasmuch as small children play close to the walls of a school, the east side of the building in temperate climates should generally face the play- ground. This will minimize the shadows falling on this much-used play space. Also one-half the building and the play-yard will receive warmth from the morning sun. Before leaving the subject of grounds, I should like to call your atten- tion to what has become a necessity in school architecture, namely, a proper treatment of the grounds by the planting of shrubs, formation of gardens, design and placing of flagpoles, and the use of garden architecture, thus giving to the building a natural setting. I042 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [AdministraUo The remainder of this paper will be confined to the discussion of school] buildings. The classroom. — Let us keep in mind that the points of the compass are the most determining factors in the placing of the building on the site. InJ localities having a climate similar to that of Oakland, San Francisco, and] other Pacific Coast cities, where it is not intensely hot during the summer and fall months, the most desirable points for the natural lighting of thej classroom are the east and west, respectively, thus leaving the north side for such rooms as manual training, principal's office, domestic science,] domestic arts, club room, library, etc. The reason for this is that sunshine at some time of the day should enter the room, warming it naturally andi helping to produce hygienic conditions. In the interiors and in locaUtiesj having high temperatures at these periods of the year the north and east points for windows are preferred, owing to the heat during the middle of the day, but it is my belief that for these sections every effort should be made to place as many classrooms on the east as economical and good planning will permit, and I firmly believe that as few classrooms as possible should have north lighting. The window arrangement of a classroom is extremely important and a few good rules to follow are: First, there should be left-hand lighting only. Secondly, the total glass area should equal approximately 25 per cent of the floor area. Thirdly, the group of windows should be placed as near the rear wall of the classroom as possible and the heads of the windows close to the ceiling, and further, the sills of the windows should not be less than 2 feet 6 inches from the floor and in conjunction with the above the mullions between windows should be as narrow as safe construction will permit. In speaking fiirther of the location of the windows, it is a good rule not to place the windows nearer than five or six feet toward the front wall of the classroom for the reason that this blank space serves well as a resting area for the eyes of the pupils and eliminates strong rays of light entering from that angle of the room. I wish to dwell for a moment upon the use of transoms in classrooms, a scheme which has been adopted in all the new schools of Oakland and is now followed in many sections of the country. The purpose is to create natural ventilation when the heating and ventilating system is not in use. Size of classroom. — Assiuning that the number of pupils for a grammar- grade classroom shall not be more than forty, and for the primary grades not more thaji forty-two, we have found that the best results are realized with the size of the room of the following dimensions: width 22 feet, length 31 feet six inches, height 12 feet 6 inches or 13 feet. This allows 2 feet for width of desk and i foot 6 inches for width of aisle between desks and 3 feet between side walls and desks. Since it is generally accepted that a teacher should have not more than forty or forty-two pupils to teach, it behooves the directors of the schools Department] SCHOOL GROUNDS AND ARCHITECTURE 1043 and the architects so to limit the size of the classroom that overcrowding of desks is thus prohibited. The width 22 feet has many advantages over the width of a classroom 24 feet wide, which leads me to remark: first, the cost of the building is less, owing to the difference in width; secondly, the light is better on the blackboards and on the last row of desks. In deciding upon the size of a room the following units of measure- ments have been used: Dimensions of seat and desk 2 feet in width by 2 feet 6\ inches in length. This makes a bank of seats consisting of five rows in width by eight seats in length — a block equal to 16 feet by 20 feet 4 inches. This in a room 31 feet 6 inches in length. will allow 3 feet between the rear wall and the last row of seats, and 8 feet 2 inches between the front row and the teacher's blackboard, which is ample room for the teacher's table and circulation in front of same. This sized room will permit of approximately 59 lineal feet of blackboard space. While it does not enter very largely into the planning, I should like to touch for a moment on the use of slate blackboards. While slate is twice as expensive as imitations and compositions, it is preferable in that it is more sanitary and easier to write upon, and is a lasting investment. Continuing further regarding the design of a classroom, it is my belief that the wardrobe should be at the teacher's end of the room, its doors open- ing only from the classroom and never from the corridor, for the reason that the teacher may easily lose control of a pupil when the wardrobe exits into the corridor. Besides, wardrobes off corridors have a tendency to become foul pockets to the building. We have made all wardrobes 4 feet 6 inches in width by the width of the room, lighting the same by exterior windows. Another point in the classroom design which is worthy of mention at this time is the use of one door as an entrance to the room. This door should be at least 3 feet 6 inches in width and the advantage in favor of the one door is again the better control of students in the classroom. This is well demonstrated by the conditions which are likely to prevail at times of panic. One of the problems which confronted us in our new work was what should be done with the wall space between the baseboard and chalk rail, and we have adopted veneer sheathing for this space for all future work. In previous work canvas and burlap have been tried, with no satisfaction, and it is my belief that the wood sheathing is a permanent fixture in that space. I mention this at this time because I am endeavoring to empha- size the importance of the details of the classroom. With regard to painting, best reflected light is obtained when ceilings are treated with a light tone just off the white, and pleasing wall effects by the use of washable wall paints in light buff colors and the trim stained to harmonize with the wall coloring. Speaking further about the color scheme of the interior of a classroom, I can easily close this part of the paper I044 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration by appealing to the interested parties to endeavor to carry a complete color scheme into the desks, chairs, tables, and window shades. A good point in connection with the last-named item is that it is not desirable, nor was it ever intended, to exclude simlight from a classroom by dark, opaque shades, but rather it is better that the sunUght be diffused thru semi-transparent shades. The requirements for the classroom for the high school are so different from those of the elementary school that there the problem is much simpler. The essential principles are the same, however, regarding area of lighting and orientation. Before discussing the type of building, I should like to point out some of the essential improvements which have been added to the domestic- science, domestic-arts, manual-training, and kindergarten rooms and the assembly haU. The domestic-science department of our elementary schools has devel- oped into a series of adjacent and connected rooms which include the main room of size 26 feet X38 feet, the dining-room approximately 16 feet X 16 feet, and a large storage closet for foodstuff, in which a refrigerator may be placed. The large working-room should always be able to care for twenty- four pupils, which number makes up a full class. The small dining-room is indispensable and should be so located with relation to the large room that serving is easily accomplished. As the teaching of the domestic arts is generally a part of the work of the domestic-science teacher, consequently this room should be within easy walking distance of the domestic-science room, or, better yet, adjacent to it. For the best working conditions, we find that the domestic-arts room should be approximately 28 feet X 40 feet and should have besides the main room a large storage closet and a dressing-room where fitting of dresses may be done conveniently. The home economics departments of our grammar, intermediate, and high schools are fast progressing to a point where the universities must establish advanced courses in dress and costume design, which has become a modern art. Whenever possible, the lockers, which contain the aprons and cover dresses for the domestic-science and for the domestic-arts pupils, should be placed in separate rooms apart from the large working-rooms and supplied with lavatories. This will tend to keep both of the large rooms free from obstructions and projections which are dust collectors. In referring to the assembly hall, we find it is no longer a large room just for occasional convocations. Besides serving as a place of assemblage, one of its best uses is that for a gymnasium and I would suggest that the dressing-rooms be equipped with showers and lockers or that the space imder the dressing-rooms be used for this purpose. The space imder the stage when properly arranged serves well as storage room for the movable seats of the assembly-hall floor. With the structural work of the ceiling exposed I Department] SCHOOL GROUNDS AND ARCHITECTURE 1045 the various gymnasium apparatus may be suspended therefrom. The other details of converting the assembly hall into a gymnasium are easily attained by careful study of the requirements for both uses. Every assem- bly hall should contain a moving-picture booth for moving-picture views. The preceding part of this paper has been devoted to the component parts of the building, and assuming that in the work of designing a school building these parts are fixed, let us turn our attention to the composition. Inasmuch as the heights of school buildings are receiving considerable thought, and since the number of stories affects the plan and design, a good question to discuss is: Shall the building be a one-, two-, or three-story building? This is a matter most vitally important for there are many angles to this question. Having been the architect for a number of each type recently constructed, I feel free to talk to you about the merits and demerits of each. Notwithstanding the temporary mania which has seized a large section of the country for one-story buildings without regard to conditions, the one- story school has its proper place and its use. To my mind, its place and use are for the primary school and possibly for a complete elementary school where there is suJQ&cient land to warrant its adoption, but even on this point I am skeptical for many reasons which will be brought out in discussing the various types. Reverting to the one-story school, as I stated before, I believe that it is adapted to the primary grades where the kindergarten and the first four grades are taught. Here is the opportunity for pleasing arrangement and charming architecture to create good and lasting impressions on the minds of the very young. In fact, the one-story school for these grades can be made to represent the summer house with its arcades, cloisters, pergolas, and what not. It is also safe from panic effects. It is simple in form for access and egress and there is a feeling of security when there are no stairs for the small children to descend. How- ever, for inclement weather sheltered playrooms must be provided. Briefly, this is all that can be said in favor of the one-story school, for when it comes to building a complete unit to include eighteen to twenty classrooms with all the accessory departments such as the domestic science, domestic arts, etc., the workable school is the two- or three-story building. Furthermore, the two-story is cheaper than the one, and the three-story is slightly cheaper than the two, providing of course, that the same or similar type of permanent construction is used in both. Then again for adminis- trative purposes the concentrated plan will give better results. No two schools are built exactly alike and it is well this is so. From the data I have collected, the cost per cubic foot and per square foot is less for the three-story than for the two-story, and the three-story school has some advantages over the two-story school. With the three-story school, and assuming that the first floor or base- ment is at ground-floor level, the inclosed playrooms, the toilets, the boiler I046 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration and fan rooms, the manual-training, kindergarten, and domestic-science rooms, the cafeteria, and the shower and locker rooms can generally be cared for on the first or ground floor. Therefore the higher building means economy of land. I know whereof I speak regarding these points of economy, for we have just completed twenty-three new school build- ings and have tabulated almost every item of cost for comparison. . Some of the advantages of the two-story building are that there is only one flight of stairs to;climb, it is a safer building in times of earthquake and fire, and perhaps there exists a greater opportunity for more pleasing architectural effects, altho this is almost entirely dependent upon the architect as well as upon the problem. With the two-story, as with the one, the problem has not been completely solved unless sheltered play spaces are provided for play during inclement weather and this means separate pavilions connected with the school. You will note that so far this paper has referred mostly to elementary- school architecture, and I have purposely so prepared it for the reason that elementary-school work is more general and the space is too limited to discuss both elementary and high schools in detail, but what follows does apply to all schools. In the first place, our schools should be built of the best fire-resisting material as a matter of safety and permanency of construction. In the last twenty years the public taste in this country has been devel- oped in architecture to an amazing extent by the opportunity of traveling, by the increased wealth of the country, by current magazines, and particu- larly by the courses in architecture in the universities which have developed a large body of well-trained young men whose influence has been felt U thruout the country. Consequently, there is a demand for more than the ^ commonplace in school architecture, and there is no reason why our school buildings should not be pleasing, inviting, and interesting in themselves. In closing, I should like to say one word for the use of sculpture, mural decoration, and landscape architecture for our school buildings. Referring ^ to sculpture and painting, I hope the day is not far distant when every new school will have provided in its estimate a fixed sum for one piece of good sculpture, and one panel of mural painting. In the next few years, America is bound to be the field of opportunity for the strong young men in the work of art, and while America has been slowly but gradually waking up to the possibility of reproducing in color and stone its historical and natural tradi- tions, it seems to me that the logical place for our best work in art is in the school building, where the most good from its exposition may be more generally dispensed. Department] PHILIPPINE SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS IO47 SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS IN THE PHILIPPINES FRANK L. CRONE, DIRECTOR, BUREAU OF EDUCATION, DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, MANILA P.I. The experience gained during the formative years of the Philippine Bureau of Education, together with the liberal appropriations voted from insular, provincial, and municipal sources for schoolhouse construction, made it imperative that a definite policy be adopted having for its pur- pose the expenditure of the funds available in a manner which would serve the best interests of the schools and avoid the mistakes which past expe- riences had brought to Ught. This program may be summarized as follows : 1. The preparation of a set of standard plans for permanent buildings providing for a unit system of construction whereby additions may be made from time to time without injury to the original structure. 2. The selection of suitable school sites. 3. A creditable and decent standard for temporary buildings. 4. The proper care and maintenance of schoolhouses and grounds. 5. The equipment of every school with the necessary furniture and appliances of simple but substantieil character. 6. The provision of adequate and sanitary toilet facilities in connection with all public schools. THE STANDARD SCHOOLHOUSE A building to be permanent in the Philippines must be able to with- stand earthquakes and severe storms and to resist the ravages of insect pests. White ants alone have destroyed buildings worth thousands of pesos. Only the best timber, stone, or concrete will resist them. The materials which have proved most satisfactory for schoolhouse construction are reinforced concrete for walls and girders and native timber of a superior quality for roof trusses, floors, and partitions. A good grade of galvanized iron roofing should be used for roofing. These features have been incorporated in the standard building plans of the Bureau of Education. Another feature which adds utility to these standard schoolhouses is that they are built on the unit system, each unit being a classroom of standard size 7 by 9 meters. These classrooms are so arranged that addi- tions may be made to the original structure whenever the needs of the school demand it without any serious injury to the building. The enlarge- ment is brought about by adding units at the rear of the original building on both sides of the assembly room forming a continuous row of classrooms on either side. It will readily be seen that such an arrangement permits of additions almost indefinitely without interfering with the lighting and ventilation of any of the classrooms. The largest of these buildings is built around an open court or patio. This court is faced by porches or corridors from which doors lead into the various classrooms. The cross- ventilation afforded is just the thing for the tropics. In fact, this style of construction has proved so popular that these building plans have been used for municipal buildings as well as other 1 I048 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Admimstrati public buildings. Requests have been received from various countries in South America and from colonies in tropical Asia and Africa for the plans of these buildings, which goes to prove that they have a strong appeal to school authorities who are concerned with the problem of schoolhouse construction in the tropics. In view of the financial situation, the schoolhouses in the Phihppines must, of necessity, be plain. But while they lack architectural embeUish- ment, they are nevertheless substantial and present a neat appearance. The floor plan is very convenient. The one-story building in use has many advantages. The whole school being on one floor, it can be supervised with a minimum degree of effort; pupils and teachers do not tire them- selves in going from one classroom to another. Ventilation could be no better and the hghting is in every respect satisfactory. The adoption of these standard plans has greatly simplified schoolhouse construction. Instead of working out separate plans and specifications for each building to be constructed, all that is necessary is to decide upon the amount of classroom space needed and the standard building of the size can be erected, thus avoiding delay and additional expense. At the present writing more than 400 standard-plan schoolhouses have been completed containing approximately 1,800 classrooms and providing accommodations for 75,000 pupils. The governmental agencies responsible for construction work are better equipped than ever before to do this work. More and more Fihpinos are being trained as foremen in this class of construction and the available supply of building materials has increased to such a degree that construction work is no longer delayed for months at a time for lack of materials. These conditions have materially reduced U the cost of construction. With the best of materials the average cost per unit of construction does not at present exceed $1,250. TEMPORARY SCHOOL BUILDmOS A large majority of the schools of these islands will necessarily have to be accommodated in temporary quarters for years to come. To take the attitude that it is not worth while to improve temporary school accom- modations will mean that a majority of the schools in these islands will be improperly housed. Results which already have been obtained in many provinces prove conclusively that both neat and serviceable buildings of a temporary character may be provided at reasonable cost. To accomplish this pur- pose, it has been found necessary to close a large number of barrio schools in many provinces and to insist that definite requirements regarding temporary school buildings be complied with before such schools can be reopened. A large number of satisfactory temporary school buildings have already been constructed at no cost to municipal school funds and the results which Department] PHILIPPINE SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 1049 have been accomplished thru the active co-operation of the local repre- sentatives of the Bureau of Education and the patrons of the schools are very considerable. While it is not advisable to expend public funds for temporary buildings in any considerable amounts, it will only be a matter of economy to remedy adverse conditions before too much money is wasted in the support of schools under unfavorable circumstances. Buildings acceptable for school purposes should at least have four good walls, a tight roof, and a floor raised off the ground, which is sufficiently substantial to support the desks and other school furnishings. They should provide rooms of standard size with sufficient classroom space to house properly the pupils in attendance. THE SCHOOL SITE The minimum area prescribed by the Bureau of Education for school sites is not at all unreasonable but, if anything, too low. An area of 10,000 square meters for central schools is hardly sufficient to insure adequate playgroimds if the building be properly located and if sufficient space be reserved for gardening. In the case of outlying barrios where 5,000 square meters are required, space for baseball is out of the question. The chief factors which enter into the proper selection of school sites are as follows: 1. The gro\md selected must be adequate in size. 2. It must have good drainage. 3. It must be regular in shape. 4. It must have soil adapted to gardening. 5. It must have an unbroken surface, 6. It must have wholesome environments. THE PERMANENT PLAN OF IMPROVEMENT As soon as an adequate site has been acquired, immediate steps are taken toward the preparation and adoption of a permanent plan of the place, taking into consideration all the structural features. These include the location of the various buildings, the areas to be set aside for playgrounds, garden, lawn, etc., and the location of trees and shrubs which help to produce satisfactory foliage effects. Minor details are determined as the place develops but the structural features and the relative importance and purpose of the main parts must be determined beforehand. The development of a plan, therefore, in every case precedes any attempt to develop the premises. Unless this is done, mistakes are sure to happen as regards both duplication of effort and the general effect and convenience of arrangement. The worst feature about such mistakes is that they cannot be remedied without a great sacrifice of time and money. It is better to forestall them by solving the problem in a satisfactory manner beforehand. The plan is prepared by the local representative of the Bureau and receives the approval of the division superintendent of schools, after which lOSO NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Administration it is submitted to the general oflSce for final approval before any construction of a permanent nature is authorized. In the preparation of this permanent plan, the blueprint of the original survey prepared by the Bureau of Lands is used. Every precaution taken beforehand has proved to be of lasting advantage to school interests. Considerable headway has been made during the past three years in the acquisition of adequate school grounds and the development of satis- factory school plants. At the present writing over 1,300 school sites of the required area have been acquired. THE PLAYGROUND General school athletics, school games, and gardening have been given definite places in the course of study adopted for the public schools in the PhiHppines. Provisions for these school activities are, therefore, made in laying out every school ground. The aim is to make the playground large enough to acconmiodate all the pupils. One section of the groimds is reserved for the boys, another for the girls, and the games of both are under proper supervision. The playground, since it is the largest open space on the school premises, deserves much attention. Cleanliness especially is insisted upon. Weeds are not permitted to grow and the surface is graded and leveled in a manner which provides for proper drainage. Unused corners which serve no use- ful purpose and are liable to grow up to weeds or become filled with rubbish are planted to shrubbery and trees. All of these features are indicated in the plan of improvement. SPECIAL-PLAN BUILDESTGS Special plans have been prepared by the consulting architect for a number of provincial high schools and dormitories and for a number of provincial trade and manual-training schools. These are usually more elaborate in design and considerably more expensive than the standard schools. This is possible because of the fact that provincial resources are larger than municipal revenues for construction. Recent provincial school buildings, however, have in all cases been constructed in accordance with standard plans as these have proved to be better adapted to school purposes in addition to being less costly. Special plans prepared by the consulting architect were used in the construction of the academic building and the girls' dormitory of the insular normal school. These are large three-story buildings of reinforced concrete. Being insular school buildings, they are of a more impressive style. Both as regards utility and beauty of appearance, nothing has been spared to make them render the highest possible service to the cause of education. Plans have also been prepared for the shop buildings of the insular school of arts and trades. These will be under construction at an early date. A large mmiber of insular school buildings are yet housed in tem- Department] TENURE OF OFFICE I05I porary quarters for lack of adequate funds with which to build. It is hoped that the present program of doing something each year toward pro- viding permanent structures for these institutions will relieve the situation. The policy of using the meager resources in the construction of permanent buildings is believed to offer the only practical solution to this problem. CARE OF SCHOOL PREMISES School grounds must be cared for by continuous effort, and not by spasmodic attempts. The planting of a few trees and a literary program on Arbor Day are useful only in arousing enthusiasm. This event is not depended upon either for planting or for caring for the school premises. The secret of success lies in planting at the right time and in doing at all times what is necessary for the best development of the things planted. Active participation on the part of each pupil in caring for the plants and grounds is encouraged. Every child is made to feel that the school yard, the playground, the garden, etc., are partly his, for the reason that he helped to make them. An injury to any one of these features becomes a personal matter. This feeling tends to bring out a regard for public property, consideration for others, and responsibility toward the public good. The pupils are usually organized into an improvement society under a teacher who is held directly responsible for the improvements and upkeep of school grounds. The object of such a society is actual work on the school grounds rather than an academic discussion of something with which the pupils have no business to meddle. It is the duty of the teacher in charge to see that the provisions of the permanent plan of improvement are carried out in detail, for which purpose he has the entire student body back of him. Such matters as care of the grounds, watering of plants, construction of fences, and providing proper drainage facilities come under his direct supervision. To summarize briefly what has been done in the campaign for adequate school buildings and sites let me say: Of the 4,200 public schools of the present day in the Philippines, about 700 have been provided with build- ings which are permanent and adequate in every respect. The other five- sixths of the building program is the task of the future. As for school sites, practically one-third of the work is done. That is to say, over 30 per cent of the school sites of the Philippine Islands are adequate upon the standards which I have described. TENURE OF OFFICE GRACE DEGRAEF, PRESIDENT, LEAGUE OF TEACHERS* ASSOCIATIONS, PORTLAND, ORE. Elementary teachers are beginning to realize that the status in which they are held by the community is largely due to their own united efforts, and that, while, an individual teacher sometimes stands high, as a group IOS2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Administration or class they do not occupy the place they would like. This hampers their power of training the children to take their places as fearless self- respecting citizens. Teachers are supposed to measure up to all the standards of people who have leisure. Yet the average salary for a teacher in igii was less than $42 a month. In the criticisms against the public schools, the public forgets that poor pay means poor help; yet the teacher is held largely responsible for the failure of the schools. For years the grade teacher has heard from the press, the public, and school boards that if she were a "lover of children" and a "born teacher" she would be ideally happy with her paltry salary and her barren schoolroom. Teachers have been falsely trained. False pride has kept them from revolting against the conditions. So they have struggled along, doing their own washing, ironing, dressmaking, and millinery, nights after school, Sundays, and vacations. While by doing this teachers have managed to exist, they have been conscious of robbing the children of a cheerfulness of spirit and an energy that should have been given them. The grade teacher has been told that she should better prepare herself for her work. That was the entire trouble. So she has taken advantage of everything offered. She has been told that she must know every sub- ject well enough to teach it; that she must dress better; must take lecture courses and reading-circle work; that she must read and must travel; must have a library; must mingle with the parents; must conduct literary societies and debating clubs; must teach in Sunday school; do church work; be a social worker; take part in the parents' circle; give up her lunch period to take care of lunch pupils; buy supplies not furnished by the dis- trict and incidentally must be an expert instructor in twelve or fifteen sub- jects. In fact, there is nothing under the sun not mentioned that she should not be able to do. The teacher has been so busy meeting all these requirements that she has forgotten her duty to herself. She has carried out orders. She has furthered school policies without having a part in shaping them. In doing her duty to the children, the parents, and the state, she has had no time to break away from the traditional bonds that held her and no one has done it for her. From long training the teacher has learned to carry out orders and this has led to a servility that must be abolished if you wish the most competent teachers. I say it with shame for the teaching profession, but either the majority of supervisors are not brave enough or else they are so incompetent they cannot help teachers with constructive criticisms. It may be very hard to tell a teacher of her faults, but that is the chief business of super- visors. The majority use a remedy easier for themselves but tremendously unfair to teachers, children, and parents. They condemn and dismiss teachers in secret, often giving them recommendations but following their applications with damaging letters. Often everyone in the corps, except Department] TENURE OF OFFICE IO53 the teacher herself, knows that she is failing in her work. Dismissal without stating the cause is most unfair. How can the teacher correct her grievous fault if no one has told her? While teachers love children and love their work, the majority are teaching for the wage check at the end of the month, which is necessary for their existence and for those dependent upon them. One unfair dismissal creates an unrest thruout the whole corps, which renders them unable to put hope and confidence and good cheer into their work. No teacher can do her best work when harassed by the thought that she may lose her position if she does not conform to every wish of those in authority, or if she be dominated by every parent in the district, regardless of how capable or incapable those authorities or patrons may be. A tenure law is not a plan to protect an incompetent teacher. She obtains her position thru politics and the same influence that placed her will keep her in her position. A tenure law is to relieve the efficient, conscientious teacher from a period of worry each year that means a great loss to the children. Tenure dignifies the profession. It establishes a recognized tribunal to which she can go for justice. This tribunal eliminates public attacks upon school authorities. An incompetent teacher has no place in any system; neither has an incompetent supervisor. A teacher's service should grow steadily in value. A teacher must keep her own agreements either implied or expressed in order to be in a position to exact her rights. So thru appreciation of tenure a teacher becomes jealous of keeping it, and if they are organized you will find the competent teachers bringing influence to bear upon the incompetent to raise their work to standard. Tenure to me means what I have already said and more. It means a written notice of dismissal, stating the charges, criticisms, or complaints by the person making the same, at least two and a half months before the close of the school term. It is said sometimes that such a notice would cause the teacher to do poor work. If she is doing such poor work that she should be dismissed it cannot become much worse, and justice demands she be given a reasonably fair opportunity to earn her livelihood elsewhere. As a safeguard to the board, the charges and full proceedings should be a public record. . No teacher could afford to take a chance on leaving such a record that she would be forced to leave the profession, and so if she were incompetent she would not ask for a trial but would quietly accept dis- missal. A tenure law should give a teacher an opportunity of working with two principals before dismissal. Most cities have a large number of supervisors. If after a two-year probationary period under their direction, a teacher has proved her ability to teach satisfactorily, then the state and school board owe her the protection of tenure, especially if they wish to keep the most competent teachers for their children. LIBRARY DEPARTMENT SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Harriet A. Wood, school librarian, Library Association. Portland, Ore. Vice-President — ^W. Dawson Johnston, librarian, public library St. Paul, Minn. Secretary — ^Marion L. Horton, librarian, John C. Fremont High School Oakland, Cal. FIRST SESSION— Tuesday Forenoon, August 24, 19 15 The first session of the department was called to order by the president in Chabot Hall at 9:00 A.M. The following program was given: "Report of Committee on Normal-School Libraries" — ^Mary C. Richardson, State Normal School, Castine, Me., chairman. " Report of Committee on Standardizing the Course of Study in Library Instruction in Normal Schools" — James F. Hosic, head, department of English, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, HI., chairman. Discussion: "The Importance of the Course in Children's Literature in a Normal School" — Charlotte G. Robinson, librarian, State Normal School, San Diego, Cal.; Emma J. Breck, head, English department, University High School, Oakland, Cal.; Marjorie Van Deusen, State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal.; Herbert Lee, principal, University High School, Oakland, Cal. "Report of Committee on Iligh-School Libraries" — Mary E. Hall, librarian. Girls' High School, Brooklyn, N.Y., chairman. "Planning and Equipping a High-School Library" — Janet H. Nunn, Ubrarian, Lewis and Clark High School, Spokane, Wash. (This paper was read by Marion L. Horton, librarian, John C. Fremont High School, Oakland, Cal.) "High-School Libraries of California" — Ella S. Morgan, librarian, Lincoln High School, Los Angeles, Cal. "Some High-School Problems — Question Box" — Elizabeth Madison, librarian, High School, Oakland, Cal. SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, August 24, 1915 The meeting was called to order at 2:30 P.M., by President Wood in Chabot Hall. The following papers were read: "The Voice in Its Relation to the Literary Appreciation of Children" — Katherine Jewell Everts, specialist in voice expression, Pomfret, Conn. "Report of Committee on Rural-School Libraries" — Martha Wilson, supervisor of school libraries, State Department of Education, St. Paul, Minn., chairman. "Report of Subcommittee on a Standard Foundation Library for a Rural School" — Harriet A. Wood, school librarian, Library Association, Portland, Ore. Discussion: Alice G. Whitbeck, librarian, Contra Costa Coimty, Cal.; Stella Hunt- ington, librarian, Santa Clara County, Cal.; Charlotte Casey, school librarian, Los Angeles, Cal. "Report of Committee on Elementary-School Libraries" — EflSe L. Power, super- visor of work with schools, Carnegie Library, Pittsburgh, Pa., chairman. "The Basis of Selection of an Elementary-School Library" — Flora M. Case, school librarian, Salem, Ore. "American History in Elementary Schools" — Ida H. Holmes, departmental teacher of history, Clinton Kelly School, Pordand, Ore. XOS5 ios6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library THIRD SESSION— Tuesday Evening, August 24, 1915 The meeting was called to order in Chabot Hall at 9:00 p.m., by President Wood. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: For President — ^Irene Warren, librarian, University of Chicago, Chicago, HI. For Vice-President — C. C. Certain, Polytechnic Institute, Aubvum, Ala. For Secretary — Grace D. Rose, librarian, Davenport, la. The following program was given: "School Libraries — Stereopticon Lecture" — ^John D. Wolcott, librarian, United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C. "The Library as a Continuation School" — Bernard C. Steiner, librarian, Enoch Pratt Free Library, Baltimore, Md. "Books and Education" — E. O. Sisson, commissioner of education, Boise, Idaho. "A Reading" — Katherine Jewell Everts, specialist in voice expression, Pomfret, Conn. Mamon L. Horton, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON NORMAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES We have co-operated with the Department of Normal Schools of the National Education Association to the extent that we have on the program of that department at the Oakland meeting a speaker who will present the importance of library work in the normal school. Our speaker is President Carroll G. Pearse, of the Milwaukee State Normal School, a man who recognizes the value of the library in the school and the need of specific training in the use of books and the library as shown by the library require- ments in his own school. A normal-school president was chosen for this purpose with the idea that one of their own number could speak with more influence and persuasion to school men. A librarian might possibly be considered prejudiced in favor of her own profession. The committee has made it a point to keep in touch with other organiza- tions and with other committees of this organization doing allied work, thus saving, when possible, unnecessary duplication of effort. We call attention to the following committees: Committee on Special Training of School Librarians appointed by the American Library Association January i, 1915; Frank K. Walter, assistant director, New York State Library School, Albany, N.Y., chairman. Committee on School Library Organization appointed by the American Library Association, January i, 1915; Willis H. Kerr, librarian, State Normal School, Emporia, Kans., chairman. Committee on Standardization of Library Coiurses in Normal Schools appointed by the normal-school group of school librarians which met at the Washington meeting of the American Library Association, in May, 1914; Lucy E. Fay, librarian. University of Tennessee, KnoxviQe, Tenn., chairman. Committee on Standardization of Library Courses in Normal Schools appointed by the Library Department of the National Education Association, at St. Paul, Jidy, 1914; James F. Hosic, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, HI., chairman. Department] COMMITTEE ON NORMAL-SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1 05 7 We would call attention also to the Bulletin on Library Instruction in Universities, Colleges, and Normal Schools, compiled by Henry R. Evans, and published by the United States Bureau of Education. It seems advis- able to try to have this valuable pamphlet revised rather than to compile anything as a comniittee, since this is more accurate and more accessible than anything we might do. Yet there are many changes since this pamphlet was compiled, so rapidly is the idea of library instruction in a normal school advancing. We note that when this bulletin was compiled ninety-three normal schools reported some work in library science. This is encouraging, but there is still much to be done, as this number represents only about one-third of the normal schools in the country, and only one-half of the states have a normal school doing this kind of work, as far as our records show. Only two states, Wisconsin and Idaho, require library instruction in their normal schools. Your committee has sent copies of an excerpt from an address by J. C. Engleman, superintendent of schools, Decatur, 111., to each normal-school president in the country. We quote only the closing sentence. Commercial courses, library science, and public speaking are all finding definite places in progressive normal schools, the percentage and distribution of each one being such as to prophesy their being universally taught within a few years. Your committee has done some work along the line of what to teach our students about the work in library instruction in the grades. We report the following places where such work is done: Binghamton, N.Y.; Brook- line, Mass.; Cincinnati, Ohio; Dover, Me.; Grand Rapids, Mich. ; Kansas City, Mo. ; Lewisburg, Pa. ; Los Angeles, Cal. ; Portland, Ore. ; Providence, R.I.; Utica, N.Y,; East Orange, N.J. Normal schools giving such work: Geneseo, N.Y.; Castine, Me.; Phoenix, Ariz.; Milwaukee, Wis.; White- water, Wis.; Los Angeles, Cal.; Emporia, Kans. From the courses of study of library work in the grades which we have on file, we make the following observations: It seems advisable to give simple lessons on the care and treatment of books, how to open a book, etc., to the first four grades, and thus the love of books and the reading and the library habits may be begun early. We find that some courses begin with the fifth grade and that still others give the work in the last two grades or the last grade only. The various courses agree pretty well as to what to put into the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. Grade VI. — Use of card catalog, use of general cyclopedia, arrangement of books by subject, and under each subject by author. Grade VII. — Use of atlas and readers' guide, classification — teach country numbers, and their relation to literature, language, history, and geography — further use of card catalog. I058 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library Grade VIII. — Further study of reference books, and of books thruout the library useful in looking up a subject, special points of difference and value in the various cyclopedias and dictionaries, how to look up a subject for debate, how to take notes, etc. Number of lessons; This varies from two a month to two a year. Who gives the lessons ? Some cities employ a school librarian, others depend upon the children's librarian or the regular librarian, and only occasionally do we find the work being done by a teacher. Probably the number of teachers doing the work will not increase materially until we have something in definite, printed form to put into their hands. Even if it did not fit every case — and we all admit it would be very difficult to outUne a course which would meet the conditions in different schools — a teacher or superintendent should have something concrete and definite to start with and something that is easily available. Valuable as are the various outlines which have come out from time to time in library journals, they are of little if any value to teachers, because of their not being easily acces- sible. The School Library Exhibit, prepared last year by the United States Bureau of Education, with the assistance of Ida M. Mendenhall, then chairman of this committee, has proved itself valuable and has traveled far since May, 1914. It has visited the following places, as reported by the United States Bureau of Education: Washington, D.C., American Library Association, May, 1914. St. Paul, Minn., National Education Association, July, 1914. Knoxville, Tenn., University of Tennessee, July, 1914. Columbia University, Simimer Library School, August, 19 14. Ithaca, N.Y., New York State Library Association, September, 1914. Dayton, Ohio, Ohio Library Association, October, 1914. Charleston, HI,, Eastern lUiaois Normal School, October, 1914. Milwaiikee, Wis., Wisconsin Teachers' Association, November, 1914. Lidianapolis, Ind., Indiana Library Association, November, 1914. Chicago, HI., National Coimcil of Teachers of English, November, 1914. Cincinnati, Ohio, Department of Superintendence, National Education AssociationJI February, 1915. Chattanooga, Tenn., Southern Conference for Education and Industry, April, zgij As to the work for the coming year, we recommend that the plan adopted by the Committee on High-School Libraries of assigning to each member of the committee some one phase of the work be adopted by this committee. In addition to this the committee as a whole might carry out the following lines of investigation: It might gather information to bring up to date the normal-school material in the Bulletin on Library Insiruction in Universities, Colleges, and Normal Schools. It might find just what cities and towns are doing library work in the grades, as well as who is teaching it, and thus have something definite to give to our students who are going out to teach and to superin- Department] STANDARDIZING LIBRARY INSTRUCTION 1059 tendents who ask us for information. The committee might get a complete file of courses of study used in these cities, and possibly outline a course which would be suitable to have printed. Respectfully submitted, Mary C. Richardson, Castine, Me., Chairman Ida M. Mendenhall, Utica, N.Y. Willis H. Kerr, Emporia, Kans. Committee ■{ Marjorie Van Deusen, Los Angeles, Cal. Esther Braley, Kalamazoo, Mich. Della. G. Ovitz, Milwaukee, Wis. ^ Margaret Dold, Chico, Cal. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON STANDARDIZING THE COURSE OF STUDY IN LIBRARY INSTRUCTION IN NORMAL SCHOOLS At the annual meeting of the American Library Association in Wash- ington, D.C., in May, 1914, a conference of normal-school librarians was held which resulted in the appointment of a special committee on library training in normal schools. This was constituted as follows: Lucy E. Fay, librarian of the University of Tennessee, chairman; Delia G. Ovitz, librarian of the Milwaukee State Normal School; and Mary J. Booth, librarian of the Eastern Illinois State Normal School. The purpose of the committee was to outline a standard course of library training for normal schools. This committee sought the co-operation of the Library Department of the National Education Association, and accordingly a like committee, the names of whose members are subscribed, was appointed by that organiza- tion at its annual meeting in St. Paul in July of the same year. The two committees agreed to divide the work. The American Library Association committee undertook to gather information as to what courses are being given in the normal schools and on that basis of experience to propose a series of standard courses. The National Education Associa- tion committee, for its part, agreed to approach elementary and high- school authorities in an effort to learn what sort of library training those persons who are in charge of elementary and high schools regard as most desirable. The American Library Association committee made its report at the annual meeting of that society at Berkeley in June of the present year. The National Education Association committee sent out to a hundred school supervisors representing all parts of the country a letter explain- ing the purposes of the committee accompanied by the following questionnaire: . io6o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION ILibrary What Should a Teacher Know about the Use of Books and Libraries ? Please check the items which you consider of first importance. I. Elementary-school teachers should know 1. The best books for the grade they teach o) For home reading b) Connecting with the subject taught c) To read aloud S) For stories to tell 2. The best encyclopedias for graded schools 3. Books about children's reading and story-telling 4. How to judge books for usefiilness and real worth 5. The best printed lists of children's books 6. The best editions of standard children's books 7. How to buy books economically 8. The book resources of the town, coimty, state 9. How to use books effectively 10. How to teach the use of indexes in books; the dictionary, encyclopedias 11. Library technique as follows: o) How to mend books b) When a book should be rebound c) How to keep a record of the books belonging to the library; i.e., an inventory or accession record d) The best way to keep a record of the books loaned e) How to arrange the books in the library so that the books on the same subject may be easily found; i.e., to classify n. High-school teachers should know 1. The best books on their special subjects 2. Interesting books for home reading for high-school girls and boys 3. The best general encyclopedias 4. Encyclopedias of special subjects 5. The best magazines for high schools 6. The best lists of high-school books 7. How to use books to advantage a) Dictionaries, encyclopedias, general reference books b) Magazine indexes c) Indexes in books 986 Sacramento 3>ii2 Los Angeles (7 schools) 33,000 San Bernardino 3>225 Long Beach 6,850 San Diego 7,ooo Oakland (3 schools) 16,000 San Jos6 4,464 Orange 3,711 Many of the high-school librarians conduct classes in library work for which school credits are given. Lectures on the use of books are offered in most of the larger schools, while student assistants who have more or less training given them with their work are helping in many of the libraries. Los Angeles has two evening high schools which use the libraries. Tho the use made of these libraries is more for reference work in the room by night-school students, and for reading-room use by people of the neighbor- hood, than for drawing books, yet the circulation during one term from September 15, 1914, to February i, 1915, was 1,600 volumes. Several of I072 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library the country high-school libraries report that the townspeople are using their books. The two high schools holding night schools in Los Angeles are also holding summer sessions. In these schools the libraries are open and are in charge of the city staff of high-school librarians, who receive extra compensation for their work just as the teachers do. At the present time, about 75 of the 241 high-school libraries in the state are using the coimty libraries. All of the active county libraries are, as far as can be ascertained, giving service to the high schools of their respective counties. Glenn County even goes so far as to loan books to a school in an adjoining county having as yet no county library. The service seems to be largely such as most public libraries in towns give to the schools. When requested, books on special subjects, oftenest for debates, are sent from the main library, its nearest branch, or thru that, from the state library, and this usually without charge for carriage. In a number of coimties, collections are deposited in the schools. As the high schools have by law no fixed apportionment, it is difficult for them to enter into any sort of business agreement with the county to pay for service or loans of collections of books. However, it is being done in two or three instances at least. The Girls' High School of Riverside seems to be the only one that turns over all its book money to the county. Here the librarian's salary is paid by the school. In Solano Coimty the library of the county is located in the high school, rent free, with shelves, tables, and chairs supplied by the school. The library books belonging to the school are retained by it and are to be put thru the regular library process of classification, cataloging, etc., by the county librarian. Other services performed by the county libraries for the high schools other than loans of books are: the purchasing of library books for the high-school librarian; talks on the use of books and on librarianship as a profession; care of a balopticon and slides purchased by three high schools and deposited with the Tulare County library, which is made trustee. Lantern and slides are sent to the school desiring them, free of express charge. The fact that the county library system is new, some of the libraries being less than a year old, accounts probably for the lack of uniformity in service to the schools. Also the lack of apportionment for high-school library books before mentioned is a hindering factor. A city Association of High-School Librarians has recently been organ- ized in Los Angeles. This has a membership of fourteen including the librarian of the city-school library for elementary grades and her assistants. The interest of other high-school librarians in the state in this local organ- ization of high-school librarians led to the request that this Los Angeles Association of High-School Librarians be reorganized into a state organ- ization. As the number of high-school librarians in the state has more than doubled since 191 2 and new appointments are being made constantly, such an organization has a great opportimity for increasing the efficiency Department] COMMITTEE ON ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL LIBRARIES 1073 of the high-school libraries thruout the state and for encouraging the estab- lishment of new high-school libraries which shall be planned, equipped, and administered according to modern library methods and ideals. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL LIBRARIES EFFIE L. POWER, SUPERVISOR OF WORK WITH SCHOOLS, CARNEGIE LIBRARY, PITTSBURGH, PA., CHAIRMAN This report is not final. It aims chiefly to cover the field of library work in elementary schools in connection with public-library systems in large towns and cities and has been arranged in the form of an outline which may be completed later by the committee. Elementary-school libraries may be organized independently or may be administered in connection with a school-library or public-library system. Examples of the independent library are to be found in a few private schools in large cities and in the state normal schools and departments of education in universities, but they are incompletely equipped with books and service. The so-called model libraries in the normal schools contain so many books for student use that they are not good examples of children's libraries. These institutions need well-rounded collections of juvenile books, separate children's rooms, and trained children's librarians. Such a children's library may be a unit or a part of a system, conditions within the school and its location in relation to other libraries determining the better form. The books for library work with schools may be owned as a whole or in part by either the school or the public library, but it is the opinion of the com- mittee that ordinarily the administrative problem belongs to the library, and this report has been made on that basis. For examples of systems otherwise administered, see the public-school libraries in New York City and Los Angeles, Cal. ORGANIZATION I. Work with schools by public libraries in towns and cities with from 25,000 to 100,000 population and with an approximate school population of from 5,000 to 20,000 is usually carried on by the chief librarian or the children's librarian, who also administers the children's room in the library building. A trained assistant with clerical help is desirable. In case the library system embraces one or two branches, extension work in schools may be administered from branches also, but centralization is recommended. This t5T)e of school work is exemplified in library systems in the following cities: Utica, N.Y., Wilkes-Barre, Pa., Superior, Wis., Davenport, la. Work of this volume may be carried on by means of a separate collection of duplicates of standard and classic children's books supplemented by the I074 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library children's room collection. The size of the special collection should range from one-half to the total number of the school population. As many titles will be needed as for a greater school population and the number should range from 800 to 1,500. 2. Work with schools in libraries in cities with from 100,000 to 250,000 population and with an approximate school population of from 20,000 to 50,000 should be administered from the central library as a department in charge of a trained assistant with clerical assistance. This type of school work is illustrated in library systems in the following cities: Grand Rapids, Mich., Seattle, Wash., Louisville, Ky. The book collection should include from 1,000 to 2,000 titles and should number from 10,000 to 20,000 volumes. 3. Libraries in cities having a population of 250,000 or more inhabitants should have a supervisor of this department, at least one trained assistant, and a clerical staff. Work of this volume may be administered as a separate department under the chief librarian; a division of the children's depart- ment; or a division of the extension department. A few libraries separate the high-school libraries from the normal- and elementary-school libraries. The book collection should be expanded to include adult books, picture books, special collections, and books for occasional use, and should include from 1,500 to 2,500 titles duplicated to meet the demand. The schools collection of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh nimibers 31,069 volumes. This is supplemented by loans from the adult lending department, making a total of about 35,000 volumes. The collection owned by the New York City Board of Education numbers about 500,000 volumes. BOOK COLLECTIONS Book collections for school use usually consist of reference books owned by the schools and loans from a floating collection owned by the library. These loans take the form of general collections for the children's home reading, classroom libraries, special collections of one class or kind of book for either home or reference use, sets of duplicates for supplementary read- ing. The following lists will aid in the selection of books for school use: Buffalo, N.Y., Library: Classroom Libraries for Public Schools, 1909. Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh: Catalog of Books .... for First Eight Grades in the Pittsburgh Schools. 1907. Iowa State Library Commission: Catalog of Books for School Districts of Iowa. Sekcted by Edna Lyman Scott, 1911. Minnesota State Board of Education: List of Books for Elementary and Rural Schools, compiled by Martha Wilson, 1914. Oregon Library Commission: List of Books for School Libraries for the State of Oregon, 1906. STAPF Elementary-school library work is usually administered by members of the local library staff. The standard of preparation should equal that of the school supervising staff and include teaching experience, library-school Department] SELECTING AN ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL LIBRARY 1075 training, and at least two years' experience in general library work including work in a children's room. COST OF ADMINISTRATION The rule in most systems is that all equipment is furnished by the school, while the books, supplies, and service are furnished by the library. Salaries of trained workers vary from $1 ,000 to $2,000. Cost per book varies from $0.65 to $1.00. FUNCTIONS OF ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE Selection of books, pictures, and other material; care and distribution of deposits of library material in schools; reference work with teachers and classes of pupils; instructions to teachers and classes of pupils in the use of the library; instruction in library use and children's literature in normal schools; publication of school lists; exhibition of model collections of books for children; selection and collection of pedagogical books and magazines; collection of textbooks for comparative study; collection of museum material for teachers and pupils; collection of newspaper clippings showing local and current history of school work; talks and lectures on school- library topics; story-telling; attendance at school-library meetings; co-operation with other child- welfare agencies; the administration of a special room for teachers within the library; presentation of library work as a vocation; the training of school librarians; reports. DEPOSITORIES Books; pictures; maps; museum material; lantern slides; stereopti- cons; victrola records. THE BASIS OF SELECTION OF AN ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL LIBRARY FLORA M. CASE, SCHOOL LIBRARIAN, SALEM, ORE. With the thousands of children's books in the publishing houses and the hundreds of titles coming out every year, the teacher and the librarian have a task of nice discrimination if they accomplish their common aim — to make books a vital force in the lives of boys and girls. From the mass they must choose, not alone the good, but the best. Tolstoi may not have spoken of juvenile literature when he said, "The good book appeals to the universal mind," nevertheless the statement is true both for the child's book and for the child's mind. Probably no other criticism is applicable to so many children's books as is this: They seem to stoop to an inferior intelligence. They say plainly, if not in words, "Come, boys and girls, I will try to adjust my superior knowledge that I may dispense a few crumbs in childish words which you can comprehend." The result is a childish work to be condemned by any self-respecting child. 1076 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Library A fair test, then, for the worth of a child's book is its appeal to the adult mind. Not all adults, it is true, find real pleasure in the best of them. There are mothers who insist that no good can come of reading a fairy tale that is altogether untrue. The average person does, however, find the simple and childlike to be attractive. Who of you has opened The Sun- bonnet Babies or The Overall Boys without a thrill of pleasure ? They are truly childlike. The childlike is often not far removed from greatness. We require of all books a correct moral attitude. It is of special importance that those to whose influence the undeveloped mind is to be exposed maintain true values of life. The adult will discriminate between the author's ideals and his own. The younger mind has not so formidated his ideals that he can discriminate; he unconsciously accepts those of the author whom he finds entertaining. The author does not need to set his values by moralizing. He must not if he wants them accepted. If, however, in his attitude toward right and wrong he tolerates a low plane or swerves from truth he is to be avoided as the truly vicious. Of the books that fail to set a high standard, the most popular with the boys who visit the Salem public library are The Motor Boys Series. These books are made up of a succession of improbable events. The boy reader will find that the world does not treat him much better than his efforts demand. In the volume read, I found nothing to inspire to higher ideals or nobler action. A book with this lack of character is not alone a waste of time, but it also dulls the appreciation for better. The Elsie Dinsmore and Sophie May stories might be discussed as t3^es of the undesirable books for girls. These, then, are characteristics that we would demand of any book to be put into the hands of boys and girls: direct appeal to their intelligence, maintenance of a high moral tone, and strict adherence to truth whether in the presentation of facts or in the portrayal of life. That its English be pure may be assumed as well as that its physical form be made attractive by clear type, good paper not too highly glazed, broad margins, and pleasing, even artistic, illustrations. They are legitimate considerations, but inci- dental to the main purpose. The book that is worth while has a definite aim and leads directly to the accomplishment of that aim. Our Puritan fathers distinguished by a sharp line the books read for pleasure from those read for knowledge, with scant toleration for the former. We err on the other side when we try to make science and travel inviting by means of a sugar-coating of romance, forgetful that the attainment of facts for which sufficient desire has been aroused is the source of keen pleasure. In order that the big things of life be not belittled by small minds, let us trust the specialist who has, from his deeper vision, gained a message that demands hearers. If he has seen his vision, he will seldom fail to interest. Then the scientist will write our book of science, the historian our history, and the thoughtful traveler our book of travel. I do not say that one who has Department] SELECTING AN ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL LIBRARY 1077 written a good story for a child may not write a good scientific book. I do say that the story is not a proof that he will. The characteristics thus far discussed are applicable to any selection of books for children; they are considered even in a public library. The school collection can include little beside the essentials and must, there- fore, depend upon the libraries — city, county, or state — to round out the reading worlds of the boys and girls with books of more varied interest. However limited the library, it must preserve a certain balance in its subject- matter. If broad, fair minds are to be developed, a large range of subjects must be represented. But few of the necessary classes can be even men- tioned in a discussion so brief as this. One of the earliest demands is for the fairy tale. Its right will not be questioned by a body of teachers who know too well the need to develop the imagination in practical Americans. Only men of developed imagi- native power have seen the visions that have given progress its great strides. It is trite to say that the age most strongly marked by growth of the imagination corresponds to the period when fairy tales are most craved. In the choice of both fairy and folk stories care must be exercised to avoid the inferior, even vulgar, stories found in some collections. Unless others can be examined thoroly, it is safer to rely largely upon Lang's versions. They are generally good, and the collections known by the names of the colors afford variety if supplemented by separate volumes like Grimm's and Andersen's. The opportunity to satisfy this taste should be provided until the sixth grade, when the stories of fairies give place to Arabian Nights and the legends of King Arthur and Robin Hood. It may seem that there is enough of poetry in the English courses to contribute its share to the development of the imagination without much added attention in the library. With due regard to the teaching of English, we must confess that it sometimes fails to give poetry the place it should hold in the affections of the student, and the poem that is read voluntarily is better loved than the one that is closely studied. Therefore, I ask for attractive volumes of poems for all the grades. Let us have for the little ones a good edition of Mother Goose, Stevenson's Child's Garden of Verses, and others like Rosetti; Eugene Field, and good graded collections for the intermediates; with more complete selections from the standard authors to satisfy the author interest as it is aroused in the higher grades. As previously suggested, it is desirable that the informational books be written by specialists. Zoology will be represented by a book on birds and stories of animals founded on appreciative observation, such as we have from Seton, Burroughs, Kipling, and Long, with, for the little ones, the attractive Potter books and Burgess* stories, wherein the animals are personified. Botany will have attention nearly equal to that accorded to zoology. In our most carefully chosen library, some books will stand so far superior to others that we shall be sorry to have any child pass the grades 1078 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library without knowing them. In order to concentrate our efforts on certain of the best books, the teachers of our city selected ten of what we call the classics for each from the third to the eighth grades. We hope to secure the reading of at least six of each ten by every child in the grade. The lists do not include all of the best books, but they are what the teachers believe they can use to the best advantage. Each room will have enough copies of each classic for six weeks, so that every child may have opportunity to enjoy it. When the pupils in the room have read one of the books, the teacher will encourage a discussion that shall emphasize what is best in it. This purposeful work with the best books is what gives them their vital place in lives. The teacher who advises her pupils to go and read library books will not accomplish her aim, but she who knows and appreciates her books will make her pupils love them. Then tho the collection be small, if it be choice, and if its use be directed by one who sets true values upon it, it will be a power. AMERICAN HISTORY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IDA H. HOLMES, DEPARTMENTAL TEACHER OF HISTORY, CLINTON KELLY SCHOOL, PORTLAND, ORE. David Snedden, state commissioner of education for Massachusetts, says: The time has arrived when all persons interested on the one hand in the better teaching of history, and on the other hand in better preparation for citizenship and the promotion of a common culture, shall face, in the light of modem knowledge, the question of valid aims and methods in the teaching of this important subject. This means that it shall have to go to the world of practical affairs, and obtain therefrom guidance as to the actual ends which can be made the objectives of educational effort and which are worth while in modem society. Only when we shall base our purposes on direct understanding of social needs shall we be able finally to do the kind of constructive work which I believe the future requires. The character of the work done by both teacher and student depends upon the standard which is adopted, and this again depends upon the inter- est; hence high ideals and the constructive rather than the destructive thought are essential for successful presentation and accomplishment. Courses in history should tend to establish habits of correct thinking and intensive methods of study. There are historical problems to be worked out, the same as in mathe- matics, which require clear thinking, and unless the method of instruction establishes and makes clear the solution of the problem, the true value of the study of history is not evidenced. Grant in his military career solved many serious war problems. His capture of Vicksburg was a problem which he worked out with irresistible determination. The Missouri Compromise and Kansas-Nebraska Bill were attempts at a solution of a great problem. Department] AMERICAN HISTORY IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 1079 Securing and holding the attention of a pupil is the history teacher's problem, but the story is one of the easiest solutions. History story-telling should begin in the first grades, gradually increasing in extent and diffi- culty. These stories, told by the teacher, or read and reproduced by the pupil, according to grade, furnish a foundation for successful work, not only in history, but in English and composition. The average story for little children should be a hero story. It should be simple and not too long, but full of human interest and alive with action. The story-teller must picture accurately the details of action, form, feeling, color, and word. These are dear to the heart of the little child. For the first grade, it would be well to tell stories of Indian life. Tell Thanksgiving and Christmas stories at the appropriate times, stories of Washington and Lincoln, of Daniel Boone, telling of the primitive life in America. Make the application of these stories thru handwork and dramatization. Make a wigwam, weave a mat, make miniature snow- shoes, moccasins, bows and arrows, or whatever is suggestive of the story told. Dramatize these stories, letting the imagination of the child have full sway. I have seen these suggestions made applicable, and the results were a live interest and a basis for future history work. We are living in an industrial age, an age that is emphasizing hand-training and the dignity of labor. What better place to begin its application! For first grades I would suggest Two Little Algonkin Lads, by Bayliss; Colonial Children, by Hart; Wigwam Stories, by Judd; Customs and Fashions of Old New England, and Pilgrim and Puritans, by Tiffany. These are suggestions, and, while I am not now dealing with the young children, I have had the experience and found the history story-telling of inestimable value. With older children, in beginning history from a textbook I have aroused their interest by getting them to ask questions at home as to ancestor — father, grandfather, uncle, etc. — who has had experience in frontier life or in the Revolution or Civil Wars. Perhaps there are historical landmarks in the community or relics in possession of families; seek these out, thus bringing the pupil into actual contact with the historical past. Show him that he himself is living in a history-making period — that he is a part of a great whole. Dependence and reliance upon one textbook are severely criticized by the modern and progressive teacher. Textbooks are written for one age while the pupils live in another. By the textbook method, we withhold valuable information and dwarf a more intelligent development for effective citizenship. If I may be pardoned personal illustrations: During the past year, in taking up the study of the Civil War, I divided it into three periods: the eastern campaign, the opening of the Mississippi River, and the final maneuvers of Grant and Sherman resulting in the capture and surrender io8o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library of the southern forces. A special topic was a class assignment, but the text of the history in use was not accepted as authoritative or final. Inter- est was keen, and competitive recitations were in order. We found Bison's History of the United States, the high-school text, especially helpful, in its interesting and easy narration; also Sidelights on American History by the same author. Montgomery's History of the United States is reliable and authentic, its footnotes sometimes of more importance than the text itself. The first proclamation of neutrality of the United States issued by Washington was compared to Wilson's proclamation, and the conditions leading to each were studied. In studying the War of 1812, the correlation of conditions on the sea existing then and our present relations with foreign powers made not only the recitation but the preparation for classwork keenly alive. In the elementary school, much of the past can profitably be omitted from the history course, substituting civics and a knowledge of present problems or current events. It is wrong to send pupils forth into the workaday world without knowledge of American government, of present- day conditions, of the forces that have destroyed monarchies and set up republics, of the powers that make for intelligent and true leadership. The enthusiasm of the live teacher, the telling of an illustrative story, and the guiding to the right sources for information cannot fail to arouse the interest of the pupil. I have given one class period a week to current events and after a few weeks was able simply to announce: "Tomorrow we will have our current- event work and the class responsibility is entirely in your hands. Your current events may concern the world." At another time, it was to be information concerning the United States. I myself have been astonished at the results. Articles from the Literary Digest, Popular Mechanics, Technical World Magazine, Collier^ s, Harper^ s Weekly, and the school paper. Current Events, were intelligently selected. The inspiration of the moment or the response of the pupils to one's enthusiasm furnishes the basis for the method employed. I have on my desk copies of The Story of the Iliad, Stories of Troy, Undine, Robinson Crusoe, Uncle Tom's Cabin, Betty Alden, Black Beauty, all interest-getting and absorbing stories, and they are read between class periods or when work has been prepared. The biography of those men closely identified with early American history cannot be overlooked in classwork. George Washington, Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, Alexander Hamilton, Andrew Jackson, General Grant, Abraham Lincoln, are names of those concerning whom every pupil should have specific knowledge. It was their high ideals of justice and their intelligent determination and perseverance which won for America its position today as a world-power. Four American Patriots, by A. N. Department] THE LIBRARY AS A CONTINUATION SCHOOL io8l Burton, I found valuable in the hands of pupils. Life of Abraham Lincoln, by Nicholay, is reliable and interesting. School departments of public libraries can be, and are, of inestimable value in assisting both teachers and pupils in the selection and use of the best and most helpful books. In Portland, classroom libraries, selected by teacher and librarian, are sent to each building. Branch libraries are located near the outlying districts, and pupils are encouraged to use these branches. As a result of their interest being aroused pupils have used the library sources for refer- ence work, and intelligently selected books and magazines have been brought into classes. It has been most gratifying to me to note the growing willingness on the part of the librarian, teacher, and pupil to work together in bringing the knowledge of good books into the class- room and school. Historical pictures of the periods of history studied are valuable aids and the school department of Portland's library has taken interest in selecting and mounting such pictures, which are loaned to individual teachers. In closing it seems fitting to speak of the necessity of teaching the youth of today the essential friendship of nations. The younger members of the present generation are the future lawmakers of this country, and they should and can be taught, not merely patriotism, which in its abstract sense means simply love of country or the achievement of military success or power, but they should be taught humanity, brotherly interest and honor, justice, instead of love of self. The horrors of war may well be an illus- trative lesson on the benefits of peace and forbearance. THE LIBRARY AS A CONTINUATION SCHOOL BERNARD C. STEINER, LIBRARIAN, ENOCH PRATT FREE LIBRARY, ' BALTIMORE, MD. No Other country has developed the public library so thoroly as has the United States and nowhere else is the function of the public library as a part of public education so clearly recognized. Let us turn our attention, for a few minutes, to some of the ways in which a library serves the community as a continuation school, taking up the topics in no logical order, but so as to show, by the enumeration of one subject after another, how valuable a service is given in this way to the people by the public library: I. The public library is an educational institution, in the nature of a school, thru the expert guidance which it gives those who come to it for the information which is contained in the books on its shelves. A volume could be written upon this subject alone. When one considers the endless variety of questions asked at the delivery desk and the more complex and lo82 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library erudite problems placed before the employees of the reference department, one feels like the old hymn- writer and is "lost in wonder, love, and praise" of the beneficence of the library. The cumulative effect of many appli- cations is most clearly seen and there is frequently, in the reference desk, or in the head of the reference librarian, a list on the subject of which the inquirer is in search. 2. The library acts as a continuation school, by permitting borrowers to have access to books themselves, whether this access be to a carefully chosen collection of reference books, such as that which one sees in Bates Hall of the Boston Public Library; or to an equally well-selected standard open-shelf room, as that in the Providence Public Library; or to a less rigidly approved Ust of books which one will find on the shelves of any branch of a large city public Hbrary. One of the most valuable parts of my college course was the education which I obtained from browsing among books in the Yale library. Merely to know what has been written upon a subject is an education. When that great teacher, Edward S. Dana, closed his course of lectures upon physics before our college class, he said: "Young gentlemen, twenty years from this time, I shall not be surprised, nor greatly disappointed, if I find that the majority of you have forgotten most of the facts which I have taught you; but I shall have failed in my teaching, if you will not remember how to find out for yourselves again the facts which you have learned here." This is true, not only as to informa- tion gained from class instruction, but also as to that gained from glancing over books, reading their tables of contents, or even merely perusing the titles upon their backs. 3. In some of the larger libraries, the call of vocational guidance for the mechanical tradesman has been heard and answered, not merely by buying good books on applied arts and kindred subjects, which all librarians do, but also by the establishment of special technological departments, in which all books dealing with such topics are segregated, placed in a separate por- tion of the building, and given into the care of clerks who devote their whole time to the ascertainment of the proper answer of every request for technical information. It stands to reason that a particular type of mind, brought into constant contact with these books, can extract from them information far more quickly, more exactly, more exhaustively, than can be done by any staff of a general reference department no matter how skilled they may be. 4. The aid of the reference department is multiplied, both in extent of the area covered and in the permanence of its work, thru the issue of reading lists and bulletins on special subjects. The man in the street fails to realize how much time is consumed in the preparation of such bulletins and how valuable are their results. When one enters the library halls, he is almost sure to see in a conspicuous place a bulletin board, bear- ing one or more lists of books and magazines upon subjects of popular 1 Department] THE LIBRARY AS A CONTINUATION SCHOOL 1083 interest, or upon those to which the library wishes to turn the interest of the borrower. The activity of the library in preparing such lists does not stop there. Sometimes lists are sent to the daily newspapers for publi- cation; again, mimeographed lists may be mailed to persons known to be interested in a given line of books. For example, the Enoch Pratt Free Library recently sent a list of titles of books upon plumbing to every one of the four hundred master plumbers of Baltimore. Again, a postcard or a letter may convey a typewritten list to some one borrower known to be interested in a subject; and when the library can save a few cents from its meager funds, or secure the opportunity to print thru the shrewdness of a business man who is willing to advertise in such a bulletin, you will see a printed bulletin, which is sometimes annotated, as is the sociology bulle- tin of the Brooklyn Public Library, or sometimes merely a classified list of titles, as those the Enoch Pratt Free Library issued in the summer of 1914 upon the great European war. These bulletins may be sold, or dis- tributed free at the library coimters, or may be used by book merchants as advertisements to be placed in every volume sold by them, but, in what- ever form they reach the reader, they serve as guideposts to lead him to scenes of higher improvement. Full many a man, reading such a list, has become interested in some subject and beginning to read therein has con- cluded by becoming a considerable scholar in that department of knowledge. The same service is rendered thru a wealth of bibliographical apparatus provided by the lists of other libraries sent in exchange and thru books which have been prepared by co-operative effort, or which have been sent forth by publishers who have felt that the demand for such works would be such as to compensate them for the necessary outlay in placing these books upon the market. The open sesame to the cave in which lies the wealth of articles printed in our magazines was first discovered by the venerable Nestor of librarians, John Edmands, of Philadelphia, when he was librarian of the Brothers in Unity Society at Yale in 1847, and his work was expanded by his successor, William F. Poole, into that invaluable index which bears his name and which was first issued in 1853. Its work is now very efficiently carried on by The Readers* Guide, which was begim in 1 90 1. To guide the student thru the vast forest of books, we have the compass to be found in such works as the Catalog of the American Library Association Standard Library issued in 1893, revised in 1904, and brought to date by a supplement in 191 2, or such other works as Sonnenschein's Best Books and Nelson's Standard Books, to say nothing of the useful American Library Association Index to General Literature. The forest has paths also leading thru some of its darkest groves, where the trees stand in close multitudes: e. g., C: K. Adams' Manual of Historical Literature, Larned's Literature of American History, and the annual volume of Writings on American History point out to the traveler how to win his way in one direction; several evaluated guides of fiction aid those working their way lo84 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library elsewhere; while the Engineering Index and the Industrial Arts Index do for a restricted field what Poole did for the general reader. The federal government publishes an index to its public documents, and all these guides are to be found, with many another, on the shelves of libraries, accessible to all borrowers, so the wayfaring man need not err therein. Then, too, the education must not be forgotten which is to be gained from a search over the cards of such a dictionary catalog as stands in the delivery rooms of our libraries, giving the inquirer information as to what books a given author has written, what books have appeared under a remembered title, or what books the library contains upon almost any subject under heaven. 6. To seize the attention of the passer-by and induce him to become interested in books, so widening his intellectual horizon and informing his mind, the windows of the library may be used, when they are sufficiently near the street to render conspicuous the books displayed therein. Thus, in the annex of the main building of the Enoch Pratt Free Library there are two windows close to the sidewalk and at such a level that objects placed in them meet the eyes of those who walk by the building. Upon glass cases in those windows we place collections of books upon topics to which we desire to call the attention of the people and we change these collections every week or so. In this manner, not only are men led to think of the desirabiUty of reading these books or similar works on the same subjects, but also there comes into one's mind the subtle suggestion that if the library contains useful books on the subjects so displayed it must also contain equally useful books dealing with other subjects upon which one wishes to be informed, and thus men are led to look to the library for help and edu- cation. 7. The public library acts as a continuation school in a most important way when it is fortunate enough to possess a lecture-room within its walls wherein the people may be brought to hsten to the spoken word of the man who is an authority upon any subject. There should always be the endeavor to induce the listener further to inform himself upon the theme treated by the lecturer thru reading books contained in the Ubrary. It cannot be emphasized too strongly that the Ubrary is the home of the book and that anything which is not definitely connected with the intention of aiding people thru the use of books is not a part of the Ubrary's sphere. Con- sequently, with each lecture, we may well look for the posting upon the bulletin board of a list of books upon the subject covered by the speaker and for a definite attempt to secure the circulation of those particular books at that time. 8. We have long known of the attempt of libraries to supplement the schools by providing reading clubs, story hours, and debating clubs for school children, and the effort is now being made to carry like institutions to the persons of maturer years who use the libraries. At one of the Department] BOOKS AND EDUCATION I085 branches of the Enoch Pratt Free Library, for example, a reading club of women, numbering now some thirty members, has met weekly for two years to read and discuss standard English novels, those of the women who so desire bringing work with them. A similar club, at another branch, has devoted itself to the reading and discussion of Huckel's translation of Wagner's operas. There are almost boundless possibilities of good in the way of improvement of literary taste and impartation of useful knowledge thru such clubs. 9. All the forms of educational work outlined above may be carried on in the great majority of libraries and as part of the essential work of the institution. When the library has associated with it a museum, as at Springfield, Mass., or an art gallery, as at New York City, or a gallery in which exhibitions may be held, as at Worcester, Mass., or Newark, N.J., the scope of the work is further widened and it is possible for the insti- tution to serve as a continuation school in many other ways. Last of all, it must be said that the most important feature of all, in the work of the library as a continuation school, is the culture which it gives men, thru introducing them to the great men of all ages of whom the books tell and by whom the books were written. Thru reading the books from public libraries, many a man has been transported from the narrow limits of time and space which hedge him in. One day I went into a store to have an umbrella repaired. The proprietor took my name and address and then said: "I have always been a patron of the library." "Indeed," I replied, "what kind of books do you chiefly draw?" "Those on ancient Egypt. I think I have read everything on that subject which you have in EngUsh. I have one of the volumes in my back workroom now." When I questioned him further, I found that what he said was literally true and that from his back room on a busy Baltimore street the soul of that man walked forth and held converse with the Pharaohs. BOOKS AND EDUCATION E. O. SISSON, COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION, BOISE, IDAHO In examining the Ubrary book one is immediately struck with the somewhat cabalistic marks on the back. My reflection upon these marks, upon the subject of books in general, and upon the relation of books to education leads me to offer some advice to the librarians as to the marks which they should put on the backs of books. I have sketched out very roughly a few specimens of such marks, utterly incomplete as a system, but sufficient to serve, perhaps, as a mere finger pointing in the desired direction. First, there are books on the backs of which should be a death's head and crossbones. Nor am I thinking of George Bernard Shaw, nor even Zola, for in books, as elsewhere, the devil is dangerous only when he appears more or less as an angel of light. io86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Library Then I should have some sort of zigzag figure to mark books that are false, erroneous, unreUable. Some books should have a zero on their backs as the best possible representation of their true content. Some books again should have dancing figures to denote that they are calculated to increase the joy of nations. Then there must be a symbol of truth, correctness, reliability — ^possibly a square would serve this purpose. Still higher would be a crown of olives, to indicate not merely correctness, but splendor and beauty and magic character. On some books perhaps the square and the crown could be combined. Finally, on some books should be a symbol of the sublime — ^perhaps a mountain peak — to indicate to the uninitiated beholder that these are books belonging to the whole world, such as the Book of Job, the Iliad, the Divine Comedy, King Lear, Les Miserables, and others superlatively great. George Fitch has a charming vest-pocket essay on Abraham Lincoln in which is found this wise and witty remark: "Lincoln in his boyhood had access to only five books; consequently, he grew up with an unlittered mind." It seems almost impossible that anyone anywhere ever had access to only five books. Our troubles are the opposite of all this. The mass of print poured out, scattered thruout the country, and stored up is terrify- ing. It is impossible for anyone who has anything else to do to know even the names of those books which, to be barely intelHgent, one must have actually read. The effects of this enormous mass of printed matter are serious. If I might step for a moment from the library into the lecture-room, I should call attention to one of the arts which is taught in colleges, altho it is usually not mentioned in the catalogs. I refer to the art of ' 'retiniz- ing" books. Let me illustrate: The professor of history assigns to his class for the following day's lesson sixty pages of "required reading." The pages are crowded with matter interesting, abstruse, profound, perplexing, erudite. To read these books would be a task probably of days. Hence, reading is out of the question, for reading involves thought and thought requires time. Retinizing is the way out, and is the perfectly natural and absolutely inevitable result of this method of instruction, which, so far as I know, is universal in our high schools, colleges, and universities. It would not be correct to say that in the process of retinizing the impression never penetrates beyond the retina. Indeed the perfect develop- ment of this art consists in having some of the words marked upon the memory with such clearness that they may be reported to the professor the following day. He who is most successful in this process is likely to pass thru college with a high degree of success and minimum of pains to himself. Let us draw a little nearer to the heart of our theme. Years ago I read the story of a Frenchman in the Middle Ages who wrote in his diary: "I have been reading a book by a man named Homer; since which Department] BOOKS AND EDUCATION I087 men are seven feet tall and I cannot sleep." Who has not felt in some degree this stupendous power of the book? Who knows how deep, how fateful, how character-determining are the traces left by books on the souls of children and youth? Who knows the changes that are wrought in the natures and the characters of boys and girls by what they read? And who knows the loss they sustain in what they do not read ? Who can estimate the dismal waste of time — and life, for time is life — among our children, by reading the weak, the futile, the gaudy, the too-good, the false, and the inane, which our presses vomit forth ? This throws us into the whole problem of censorship. I have read that when the Mohammedans burned the vast treasures of the Alexandrian Library, their leader justified the act by declaring that if what the books contained was in the Koran the books were unnecessary. If what they contained was not in the Koran they were injurious. From this to Milton's Areopagitica, his plea for the freedom of the press, is a vast distance, and we modems lean powerfully toward the view of Milton. And yet for the sake of youth and childhood we must hsten to the words of the world's first great educational thinker, Plato. He did not hesitate to demand censorship, and a censorship which should ruthlessly exclude even the most sacred writings when they were not fit for the minds of youth. Then the first thing will be to have a censorship. We will desire mothers and nurses to tell their children the authorized ones only. At the same time, most of those which are now in use will have to be discarded; the fault is telling a lie and a bad lie, whenever an erroneous representation is made of the nature of gods and heroes. One who has often visited libraries must be impressed with the marvel- ous help which is received from the hands of librarians. There is a vast educational potentiality in the profession of the librarian. The mechanics of librarianship threaten this potentiaHty somewhat, as has been gently hinted in the earlier part of this desultory talk; yet no one can fail to have a vision of the Hbrarian in schools and colleges, in towns and villages, as a quiet, constant helper of the youth ; patient, kindly, intelligent, with high ideals, guiding the feet of the young thru the wonderful fields of the literature both of knowledge and of power. DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — M. P. E. Groszuann, educational director, National Association for the Study and Education of Exceptional Children Plainfield, N.J. Vice-President — L. R. Alderman, superintendent of schools Portland, Ore. Secretary — Samuel B. Allison, district superintendent of schools Chicago, 111. FIRST SESSION— Thuesday Forenoon, August 26, 1915 The Department of Special Education was called to order in Chabot Hall at 9 : 00 a.m. with Vice-President Alderman in the chair. The following program was given: "What Portland Is Doing for Her Exceptional Children" — L. R. Alderman, super- intendent of schools, Portland, Ore. "Report of Committee on Classification and Terminology of the Exceptional Child" — Samuel B. Allison, district superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111., chairman. "School Surveys of Backward and Retarded Children" — J. Harold Williams, research fellow under Buckel Foundation, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. The Report of Committee on Classification and Terminology of the Exceptional Child was adopted and the committee discharged. The Committee on Public School Surveys, of which Mary R. Campbell was chair- man, was continued. SECOND SESSION— Thursday Afternoon, August 26, 1915 The meeting was called to order at 2:30 p.m., in Chabot Hall. The following program was given: "The Stanford Revision and Extension of the Binet Scale" — ^Lewis M. Terman, associate professor of education, Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal. In the absence of the author, this paper was read by J. Harold Williams. "The Combined System of Educating the Deaf" — William A. Caldwell, assistant principal, California School for the Deaf, Berkeley, Cal. "The Importance of the Open-Air Regime for Backward and Retarded Children" — Sherman C. Kingsley, director, Elizabeth McCormick Memorial Fund, Chicago, 111. In the absence of the author, this paper was read by Mary E. Murphy, who had charge of the Elizabeth McCormick Open-Air School Ediibit at the Panama-Pacific Inter- national Exposition. THIRD SESSION— Thursday Evening, August 26, 1915 The meeting was called to order at 8:00 P. M., and the following program given: "Retardation and Feeble-Mindedness in Relation to Crime" — David Starr Jordan, President, National Education Association. "Shall There Be Public Day Schools for Feeble-Minded Children ? "—Vinnie C. Hicks, clinical psychologist, Oakland Public Schools, Oakland, Cal. In the absence of the author, this paper was read by an assistant. "An Important Function of the Home-School for Children with Permanent Mental Defects" — E. A. Farrington, M.D., president, Bancroft Training School, Haddonfield, N.J. 1089 1090 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special "The Public School's Responsibility for the Subnormal Delinquent" — Frank G. Bruner, assistant director, Department of Child Study and Educational Research, public schools, Chicago, 111. In the absence of the author, this paper was not read. The following officers were elected for the coming year: For President — Elizabeth E. Farrell, inspector of \mgraded classes, Department of Education, New York, N.Y. For Vice-President — ^Lewis M. Terman, associate professor of education, Leland Stanford Jxmior University, Stanford University, Cal. For Secretary — Frances E. Cheney, Springfield, Mass. The Committee on Resolutions presented the following report, which was unanimously adopted: Whereas, The best interests of society require that the feeble-minded be segregated; and Whereas, The dictates of humanity demand that the feeble-minded child be given the best possible opportunity to become in part, at least, self-supporting, and not be wholly deprived of intercourse with his relatives; therefore be it Resolved, That institutions for the care and training of the feeble-minded be established contiguous to centers of large population, and that photos and motion pictures of the loca- tion, buildings, daily routine, and care for the feeble-minded in such institutions be shown to mothers' clubs, parent-teacher associations, etc., in order to remove the prejudice against sending children to such institutions; and be it further Resolved, That pending the building of such institutions a clinical expert with teaching experience be employed in each reform and parental school to initiate and carry out methods for training subnormal inmates to adjust themselves to the social order, and that legislations be had to secure compulsory segregation of the feeble-minded. We recommend that the work for retarded and backward children be extended vmtil each school of one thousand membership or over be provided with a special room and the smaller schools have a convenient center where these groups can be accommodated, that the official title of these centers be changed from "subnormal room" to "special centers" or "opportunity rooms"; that "opportunity rooms" be open to exceptional "acceler- ates" as well as to "retardates." We further recommend that normal schools, city training schools, and xmiversity departments of education delineate and emphasize as a requisite for graduation increased power to discover and estimate the delinquents, to the end that the teacher may be more efficiently aided by the school nurse or by the psychological clinical expert. The meeting then adjourned. Samuel B. Allison, Secretary 1 PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS . REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON CLASSIFICATION AND TERMINOLOGY OF THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD SAMUEL B. ALLISON, DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CHICAGO, ILL., CHAIRMAN There is an urgent need of a consensus of usage and opinion on the terminology and classification of exceptional children. Such a classifica- tion and terminology should be in harmony broadly with the following principles: 1. It should be made from a sociological point of view. Children should not be grouped as defective because not strong in academic work. The standards of judgment should have reference to life rather than to the school. 2. It should be made from a pedagogical and administrative point of view rather than from one purely technical or scientific. So far as possible Department] COMMITTEE ON THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD lOQl words already embedded in common speech should be adhered to. The terms should not be ultra scientific. The terminology of the psychopathist or cKnical psychologist, bristling as it does with strange and polysyllabic words, is terrifying to the parent, confusing to the teacher, and sometimes casts suspicion unwarrantably upon the child. What is wanting is a prac- tical, working terminology understood by non-experts. There is serious objection to the attempt to fix by a rigid classification the status of a child except in unambiguous cases. It is a growing mind that is being dealt with. The school should not stigmatize or attempt to fix without hope the status of any child by any classification in advance of a practical, prolonged tryout in the classroom. Any classification of exceptional children for school purposes must of course proceed with reference to certain tests or standards. The tradi- tional criterion has been the ability to accomplish a certain grade or mark in academic subject-matters. It is easy for us now to understand that this is one-sided and artificial, but it is diflicult to bring any modifications into use. It would be easy to show that the standard or criterion of classification of the school should be the same that nature employs in the struggle for existence. Now the great fundamental criterion which nature uses is the ability to maintain an independent existence in the struggle for existence. It is not whether the individual can read or write or spell or even figure. The basal fact of classification as a natural process is this practical fitness for self-support in the environment in which the individual finds himself. Those that fail in this fundamental regard are nature's failures. It may be granted that such fitness may be measured in mental terms and is perhaps so measured in the natural field. There is no organism that does not show some modicum of intelligence, using this word in a large sense, and if intelligence is worth anything in the struggle for life it can and does measure ability to cope with environment. But it is the primitive forms of intelligence as shown in ability to solve concrete problems and achieve practical results that are the criterion of nature. It is the general field of life and the practical problems found there that test out abilities. The ability to read, spell, write, and cipher in its relation to these fundamental criteria is thus seen to be derivative and subordinate. It is at most and at best a necessity to a very highly developed and specialized group. As a guide to the classification of school children these academic skills lack in generaUty and deep relation to the fundamental necessities of living. And here is where the Binet-Simon test for mental maturity is at its weakest. It attempts to grade mentality by means of certain tests, mainly linguistic, arranged in order of difficulty from three years of age to twelve. They are supposed to be such as a majority of children could successfully cope with and are all directed to the capacity for language or mere sense discrimination. There is not a single one that tests ability in any practical sort of problem, such a one as would test ability to perform the simple duties of an ordinary I092 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special household. The result of classification from such tests is artificial and academic. A measuring-rod peculiar to the school is used. Injustice to individuals and falsification of nature are the result. Starting then with nature's first great division, two groups or lines of classification are evident: Those who in adult form will be capable of maintaining self-independence and those who will not. For these latter the general term "defective" or "feeble-minded" should be used. Any term that aims to soften the harshness of this word is not advisable, for the reason that such a euphemism allows of children who are not feeble- minded being included within this group, as witness the word "subnormal." This word was used originally to designate feeble-minded children. Its circiunference spread upward until it includes all falling away from normal to the extent of needing special help. It has carried the taint of feeble- mindedness with it over the whole field. Great numbers of children are classed as "subnormal" with average mentalities. This group, the feeble-minded, should be determined, as suggested above, by a common-sense, practical economic test. Will the individual be self-helpful in the mature stage ? If he will be, the school should rise to meet his individual needs without reference to linguistic inabilities. Such economic independence may be of the simplest kind. It may be the abiKty to accomplish only directed and unskilled work, yet the abihty should keep the individual from submergence in the lower groups. It is probable that the majority of the world's workers are in this undeveloped condition men- tally, and yet they form the great reservoir from which will come recruits to the world's most specialized groups. Of course objections can easily be made. It may be said that a child in a civilized community who cannot learn to read except with the utmost difficulty is feeble-minded in the sense that he shows a mentality deviating too far from the average. This is of course setting up a relative instead of an absolute standard for determina- tion. Compared with a child who can accomplish reading easily he might be so designated, but this same child when out of school can perhaps do some practical work with success sufficient to win a livelihood. It may be said too that the criterion is impracticable because it bases economic independence on the adult form. How can economic inde- pendence be anticipated? There can be no doubt about determination at the lower levels. A child markedly defective, usually shown by physical appearance, is self-evidently feeble-minded. All doubtful or border-line cases should be tried out in the school until actual status is determined even where expert opinion is available. In all cases of doubt, expert examination is of course valuable, but no one would claim that near the upper limits of feeble-mindedness expert judgment unaided by actual trying out a case should be relied upon. A child who makes no progress or shows no interest in handwork, plays, or academic subjects up to twelve years of age is, if not physically handicapped, non-educable or feeble- Department] COMMITTEE ON THE EXCEPTIONAL CHILD 1093 minded. Such children will never be self-supporting. They are unstable and erratic, morally as well as mentally, and constitute a real menace to society, not only by actual overt attack, but more especially as transmitting their tainted strain of blood to the future generation. This group, from the stricter pedagogical viewpoint, is the non-educable group, not meaning thereby that there is a total lack of response to training but that its members are not capable of anything above a mere mechanical reaction to educative efforts. It is a wrong pubUc policy to care for these children in day schools. They are custodial cases and should be segregated in institutions. The school is not generally interested in subgrouping defectives. This refinement is a matter of institutional regime. However, a group very naturally differentiates itself in this region of the field composed of those cases whose status is doubtful and undetermined. These constitute the border-line cases. This classification is provisional for purposes of observation. Above the group of defectives and linked to it thru the border-lines, there is a second great group which should be designated by the term "backward." They are retarded, but not because of sickness or physical troubles. They are the "born-shorts." They cannot keep pace with the children nearer the mean in mental endowment. This class has far more boys than girls, showing that there is a large functional element at work as a cause of the backwardness. There are about as many girls as boys in the defective group. An absolute incapability should be distributed equally among boys and girls according to the laws of chance. The largest class within this group will be the great subgroup of children of low mental endowment, linked to the defectives thru the border-lines. They will learn perhaps to read; in any case they will be self -helpful, economically independent. They will do directed work. In fact, they will carry on the world's unskilled work for the most part. Their inability is pronounced in linguistic skills. In other more concrete fields they some- times are above the mean. They can never, as a whole, do the work of the regular grades. They should form the great permanent body of those in special rooms. Another subgroup of the backward children is the slowly developing child, frequently found among boys. This group matures mentally very slowly, yet many times its members have sturdy endowments. The highest type of the backward group is the variant child. This child is incapable in certain fields only. Extreme cases of variant inability should have special help. They are many times unstable and show marked ability in some limited field. This inability in particular fields is many times shown as an aversion for academic work or sometimes as a leaning toward concrete practical occupations. The last and highest group of exceptional children below a mean educable limit is the great retarded group. These children enter into and I094 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special mingle with those more or less successfully accomplishing the regular work. They are lagging behind normal gradation from one to six years. This retardation is not due mainly or emphatically to lack of mean mental endow- ment but to some accidental cause for the most part. These causes are usu- ally designated as physical and usually pathological. Any hard-and-fast separation here is of course very difficult to make. It is difficult to tell whether retardation is due to physical or to mental causes where the former are present. But when the physical trouble is removed, where it can be, the classification takes care of itself. This group of retardates falls naturally into subgroups as the causes are noted. These causes are physical j(patho- logical) or environmental. Environmental causes of retardation readily suggest themselves as bad home conditions, moving, etc. This latter group is usually morally as well as academically retarded and thus forms a separate group for administration purposes. The pathological retardates would include a long list of exceptional children: the deaf, blind, crippled, anemic, tubercular, stammering, weak, "nervous," ill-fed, mistreated, and neglected children, connecting thru these with the mentally deficient. Continuing our journey along the mental incline, passing the great plateau of the average ability or mediocrity, we come to the more pleasant regions of ability and exceptional power. Not enough attention is being paid to this group. The school must not smother our geniuses. They are our most valuable social assets. In terms of social advance and control an Edison or a Burbank is worth many average or mediocre minds. Yet Thomas Edison was sent home by his principal as uneducable. It is the geniuses that leaven the social lump. It should be the urgent business of education to find the genius and give full opportimity for the highest development of which he is capable. We have then three great groups of exceptional children that the school is bound to take note of and for which it must provide special procedure: The bright or plus exceptional group, the retarded group, and the backward group. It is true that both of these latter groups may be considered retarded. Retardation is prima facie evidence of the need of special pro- cedure. A child one or more years behind the normal gradation of his chronological age is prima facie a case for special agencies. Those retarded by removable causes will regain with special help, if not too old, mean or average gradation. The defective group will or should be excluded from public day schools, leaving the great backward group as the permanent care of the special classes. A try-out of the classification outlined above has been made for two years in the Chicago special classes where children are assigned as "sub- normal." The teachers were asked to make a classification of their classes on their own judgment according to the grouping here suggested. The first year, 1,265 children were distributed by 47 teachers; the second year Department] SCHOOL SURVEYS OF BACKWARD CHILDREN IO95 1,589 children were grouped by 55 teachers. The percentages of children in the various groups are approximately the same for the two years as shown by the following table: 1914 191S Group a 28 per cent 29 . 8 per cent Group b 13 per cent 13 . 2 per cent Group c 19 per cent 24.4 per cent Group d 21 per cent 18.8 per cent Group e 11 per cent 9.0 per cent Group/ 8 per cent 4.0 per cent RECAPITULATION A classification of exceptional children for special ungraded classes, division rooms, centers, or schools is here given. Only those groups important from an administrative point of view are given a letter. This is done in order that the letter may be used as a group name where advisable. First group: Above the average in mental ability. Bright either academically, practically, or both. Second group: Retarded — with average mental ability. 1. Retarded because of permanent physical defect — crippled, blind, deaf, deformed, paralytic, dwarf. 2. Retarded by remedial causes or predisposed to retardation from those causes. Speech defects, anemic, tubercular-infected, con- tact cases. a) Retardate proper. Retarded by malnutrition, throat or nose obstruction, nervous disorder, illness, accident, parental neglect, defective vision, partial deafness. 3. Retarded morally as well. Habitual truant, incorrigible, delin- quent. Third group: Backward — with below average mental ability. b) Variant — toward the academic, toward the practical, toward arithmetic. c) Slow in mental development. d) Low mental ability. Dull permanently. More or less immature yet economically independent. e) Borderline cases. Fourth group: Defective. Non-educable. Institutional or custodial. Economically dependent. /) Feeble-minded. SCHOOL SURVEYS OF BACKWARD AND RETARDED CHILDREN J. HAROLD WILLIAMS, RESEARCH FELLOW UNDER BUCKEL FOUNDATION, LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL. The comparatively recent discovery of the misfit child in the public schools has caused educators to feel keenly the need for intensive study and investigation of this important problem. So great is the extent of retarda- 1096 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special tion and mental deficiency among school children, and so closely connected is this with the old problems of truancy, incorrigibility, dropping out of school, and slow progress thru the grades, that a knowledge of the situation in every city is necessary to an efficient administration of the schools. In each of our reformatories, prisons, jails, charitable institutions, and deten- tion homes will be found a large percentage of persons who were misfits in the pubUc schools. While probably all could not have been entirely saved from their later anti-social careers, it is certain that in many cases the recognition of subnormal or exceptional conditions early in life might have aided materially in their guidance toward some useful and honorable pur- suit, while others could have been placed in an environment where their feeble capacity for competing with normal persons would not have been a handicap in securing an honest living. It is the function of school surveys to point out as many ways as possible in which the school system can be of service to every member of the com- mimity. In the case of defective children, at least, this service should extend far beyond the limits of the local community. In every city, there are feeble-minded school children who, if permitted to go upon their own responsibility after leaving the pubUc schools, will bring to another locality a burden many times as great as they themselves are now; or, what is still more unfortunate, may be the founders of a community of persons like themselves. Surveys of retarded and backward children may be undertaken either in connection with general school surveys, as have been made in several cities during the past few years, or as separate investigations. It is prob- ably more desirable in most cases to have the study made as a part of a larger survey, since many other problems of administration and supervision are closely related to the subject under consideration. The fundamental aim of a system of education is the adaptation of the schools to fit the needs of individual pupils. It is of advantage to aU phases of school work to have the system studied as a whole rather than by separate parts. A survey of backward, retarded school children should include: (i) the use of intelligence tests for determining the mental levels of children selected by their teachers as backward, or who are over-age; (2) a study of the age- grade distribution; (3) a study of supplementary data, such as school ability, attendance, conduct, home environment, heredity, and physical condition. Every effort should be made to throw light upon the causes of retardation and backwardness, in order that other cities may profit from the findings of the survey. Especially important is the detection of feeble- minded children in the public schools, who of all our misfits should be the first to be eliminated. In an investigation of delinquent boys which is now being carried on at Whittier State School, Whittier, Cal., it has been found that the great ma- jority of these delinquents have been misfit children in the public schools. 1 Department] COMBINED SYSTEM OF EDUCATING THE DEAF 1097 In 33 per cent of the cases this has been due to mental deficiency; 25 per cent of additional cases are on the border-line of feeble-mindedness, and but a small proportion have been instructed in special classes. Probably 50 per cent of these cases could have been conserved to useful lives thru a proper understanding of their exceptional nature. Altho practically all of 200 delinquents have come from cities where good educational advan- tages in regular class instruction are offered, 9, or less than 5 per cent, have reached the grade which is reached by ordinary children of the same age. Of 195 delinquent boys between the ages of fourteen and twenty- two, less than one- third have succeeded in completing the sixth grade; and 37 per cent have not gone beyond the fourth grade. Other related facts of a similar nature indicate equally well that the relation between retardation and pre-delinquency is of immediate importance to the public school. There is an urgent need for the setting forth of these conditions in every city. In cities where departments of research have been established, the study of retardation and backwardness can be carried on continuously, and adjustments can be made upon the basis of these continued investigations. This constitutes the ideal method of studying the problem. The school survey is suggested as a valuable means for determining the extent to which these factors hinder the efficiency of supervision and instruction and when carefully made should furnish information of great importance in reorgan- izing the schools to fit the needs of individual pupils. THE COMBINED SYSTEM OP EDUCATING THE DEAF WILLIAM A. CALDWELL, ASSISTANT PRINCIPAL, CALIFORNIA SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF, BERKELEY, CAL. This term is used to designate that scheme of educating the deaf which employs a variety of methods. It is used more especially to differentiate that plan from the oral method, which directs its attention chiefly to the development of ability to communicate by means of spoken language. The combined system uses speech, writing, manual spelling, the sign language, and any other means which appears as of value in developing in the learner the ability to think and reason, and to communicate with the hearing world. The oflScial organ of our profession is the American Annals of the Deaf. From the issue of January, 191 5, the following figures are taken, giving the number of deaf pupils in school November 10, 1914: 64 Public schools (not day schools) ii)834 68 Day schools i.9S9 22 Denominational and private schools 541 14,334 ioqS NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special Of this number, ten thousand and more were being taught under the com- bined system. In the mind of the public, so far as the public mind concerns itself at all about the matter, there are just two classes of teachers of the deaf, one class teaching speech and the other signs. Now naturally, with this erroneous view of our work, it is not strange that there should be some wonder as to why 70 per cent of all the children in schools for the deaf should be taught signs instead of speech. It is not necessary to tell teachers of the deaf themselves that this classification is based on a wrong hypothesis. All teachers, of whatever school, have in mind the preparation of their pupils to communicate with the hearing world about them in the most effective way possible. Those whom for purposes of identification we may term "pure oralists," believe and promulgate the doctrine that deaf pupils will be best prepared by means of spoken language, no signs being used except such as the hearing use — the motions of the lips, the natural gestures of the hands. But those who favor and follow the combined system take the groimd that all persons have not equal ability in acquiring speech or in learning to read speech on the lips of others. They recognize the impor- tance of even imperfect speech, and teach speech and lip-reading but do not teach it nor by it exclusively. In the majority of these combined schools, the pupils on entering are placed in charge of oral teachers who follow the same methods as are used in the oral schools. By the end of a year or so, it develops that certain of the youngsters cannot learn to speak intelligibly nor read the lips of others to any considerable degree. It is the policy and the practice of such schools then to discontinue this oral work either entirely or to a large extent, and to confine the work to developing the child's ability to write and to understand writing. Here is where the pure oralist and the advocate of the combined system part company: The former takes the ground that all deaf children of normal intelligence can be taught orally; the advocate of the combined system denies the truth of this and takes the ground that deaf children, of whatever grade mentally, will ultimately have to depend chiefly on pen and pencil in communicating with the hearing world, and that certainly, in cases where there is extreme backwardness in acquiring fluency of oral communication, it is better to teach by writing, manual spelling, and within certain bounds to make use of signs. Moreover, the practice in most schools of the combined order is to use signs in conducting chapel exercises, in translating lectures and talks, and in many other ways, and this is something which is not looked on with favor by those who regard speech as the chief end in educating the deaf. With regard to this, it must be admitted that there is danger of the sign language doing much mischief in the way of interfering with the acquisition of English. It does thus interfere by reason of the fact that signs are so easily learned, so readily understood by the child, thus tempting him to use them when he should be Department] COMBINED SYSTEM OF EDUCATING THE DEAF 1099 using English. The idiom of the sign language also is entirely unlike that of English, and this, when he attempts English composition, tends to cause confusion. But admitting all this, the advocate of the use of signs takes the ground that any means of communication, easily mastered and eagerly adopted by the learner, even in those schools where it is frowned upon by the ones in charge, possesses advantages which cannot be ignored. It is regretfully conceded by the pure oralists themselves that deaf children will make signs unless under constant supervision by those who disapprove. Imagine, for instance, a game of baseball in which the only communica- tion between the players should be by means of the motions of the lips. Now the position of the advocate of the combined system is this: Our deaf pupils have a means of communication, ready at hand, as you may say. They will use it, clandestinely if necessary, but they will certainly use it. Now the question arises, Shall we not make use of this language so far as seems advisable in the classroom, in the chapel, wherever the child's unfamiliarity with English blocks free interchange of thought between pupil and teacher? A reason for making use of more than one method of instruction is also found in the variety of the material we have to work on. There are those who were born deaf, those who have become deaf after having learned to speak, the semi-deaf, and the deaf of defective mentality, to name no others. Each of these requires special methods, peculiarly adapted to the condition of the individual. And in this connection permit me to remark that mere ability to speak and to read the lips is not necessarily evidence of a high order of intellect. Philosophers would not make good lip-readers — they are prone to reason out things; the expert lip-reader apparently acts purely or largely upon instinct. He is a good guesser. Again, in the outside world, the chatterbox is not regarded as a being of profound intelligence; why should it be different in the world of the deaf ? So far as I know, no attempt has ever been made to secure statistics on the point, but I feel perfectly sure that a canvass of the schools of the land would not result in showing the best speakers and lip-readers listed at the head in general scholarship. The boy who has finished his course at school and has gone out to make a living may be fortunate enough to secure employment under an employer who will take pains to make himself understood orally, but the boy will certainly soon meet with terms and expressions that he will not recognize on unfamiliar lips and he will be compelled either to resort to pencil and paper or to pro- ceed entirely in the dark as to what is wanted of him. Even under the most favorable conditions his own voice will be more or less "artificial" and his speech hard to understand, and the noise of business around him will act still further to his disadvantage in making himself understood orally. Now in view of these facts, and they are facts, it appears to the advocate of the combined system that it is best to make the teaching of speech distinctly lioo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Special a matter of secondary importance, and to direct the main effort toward imparting a fluent command of written English. Another reason in favor of the combined system, besides those abeady given, is the one of economy. An oral class necessarily requires more individual attention than a manual one. It is generally conceded that there should not be more than ten pupils in a class that is to be taught by speech, while it is not unusual to find as many as sixteen or more in a manual class. This matter of the expense of an education is not the highest plane from which to look out, but it cannot be ignored. Those who supply the sinews of war are often more interested in the per capita cost than they are in the standard of scholarship or results in general, and in our study of "reasons why," this one must be among those considered. The combined system is the one favored by the deaf themselves — by those who "have been thru the mill." This fact must necessarily have weight with those in charge of state schools for the deaf. We have, on the one side, the parents of deaf children urging that their children be made to talk and to understand. On the other hand, we have the graduates of the schools enthusiastically upholding the sign-language as their most precious possession and demanding its retention in the schools. Neither of these appeals can be wholly disregarded, but we must be guided chiefly by a study of the progress of our pupils after they have left school. Unfortu- nately statistics are not available to the extent that could be desired. It is the theory of the oralists that their graduates are absorbed in the hearing world and become a part of it, and that consequently it is not easy to secure statistics concerning them. Those who favor the combined system, how- ever, are inclined to believe that the so-called "restoration of the deaf to society" is not accomplished by the oral method to the degree that the advocates of that method hope and beUeve, In conclusion, notwithstanding the fact that the combined system is the one in use in the great majority of the schools for the deaf of America, there can be no question that the oral method is growing in favor all the time. It naturally appeals most powerfully to the parents of deaf children, and whenever the authorities in charge of a school become convinced that the pupils in their care will make just as satisfactory progress imder a method which forbids the use of signs and substitutes speech, that method is adopted. AN IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF THE HOME-SCHOOL FOR CHIL- DREN WITH PERMANENT MENTAL DEFECTS E. A. FARRINGTON, M.D., PRESIDENT, BANCROFT TRAINING SCHOOL, HADDONFIELD, N.J. We are accustomed to regard the permanently defective child as non- educable. He rarely learns more than the rudiments of reading or writing, and arithmetic is a sealed book to him. True, he may be taught certain Department] HOME SCHOOL FOR MENTALLY DEFECTIVE CHILDREN IIOI manual occupations, but beyond this his powers seem to faU him. He is to a large degree anti-social, or perhaps we should say asocial; he seems able to acquire little that will serve him adequately in meeting the complex condi- tions of life among his normal fellows. If left to himself, he soon gets into trouble, and we have thus come to believe that the only way to deal with him is to place him in permanent custody. He is what we call an institution case. This may be well enough in theory, but unfortunately it does not work out in practice. Under present conditions our public and private insti- tutions can accommodate only a small fraction of the number of children who should properly be placed in their care. The left-over cases are thrown back into the special classes to become a highly disturbing element, or else they are returned untaught to their own homes, perhaps to drift later into the streets and thence to the reformatories and the prisons. The logical solution of the difficulty would seem to lie in the establishment of more and larger state institutions, but, when one comes to study the actual figures, the cost of permanent housing for every incurable defective is seen to be so great that few states could be persuaded to undertake the task. Another possible solution suggests itself. If some of these defectives could be socialized so that they might live outside the walls of the insti- tutions without serious menace to themselves or to others, and if those from the better class of homes could be safely returned to the home environ- ment, at least a part of the dif&culty would be removed. Is such a task possible ? The work done by some of our home-schools seems to warrant an affirmative answer to this question. It has been shown that a certain percentage of children with permanent mental defects, if placed under training in the proper environment at an early age, can be more fully social- ized than we have heretofore believed; but, in order to accomplish this, special methods of education, carried out in a carefully regulated environ- ment, are necessary. The question of environment is of the greatest importance. The normal child begins his training as a social being in his own home. His social instincts, quite unknown to himself, come to the surface and are molded by his environment. This process continues during school life, gradually broadening as new influences are brought to bear, until he is at length fitted to take this place in the social body of the community. But in the mentally defective child this unconscious and orderly development of social traits does not take place. His reaction to his environment is abnormal, and the usual surroundings of home and school cannot be depended upon to mold him in the normal way. His defects incapacitate him, he becomes bewil- dered, and his efforts to adjust himself serve only to repress whatever budding social impulses he may have. If, therefore, we are to get any results in socializing the defective, we must remove him from his native environment to more suitable surround- II02 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Special ings, where his imperfect social capacities may be fostered and strengthened and perhaps developed into something permanent and useful. But if we expect to fit him in time to return to his native environment, the new sur- roundings must differ from the old as little as possible. Furthermore, this difference must be a wholesome one and one that is adjustable, so that as he develops, his surroundings may change, gradually tending to press him away from the new and back toward the old. By this means he may at length reach a point at which he can be transferred to his own home or to some other place outside the training school, where he can get along comfortably with a minimum of supervision. We have in the home-school an agent peculiarly fitted to carry on this form of environmental training. In such a school almost all the desirable elements of the child's home and school life may be reproduced in modified form with the imdesirable or harmful factors left out. Indeed the ideal home-school may be formed into a complex little world, a veritable micro- cosm, patterned according to the needs of its weak and immature inhabi- tants. In it the pupil finds first of all the affection that he craves; someone is there to "mother" him; to look after his little wants, to praise or admonish him, to give him an "anchor to windward," as it were, to make him feel "at home." He soon finds his place in the household. He has his room — not a dormitory but a real bedroom — and his room-mate, with whom he presently develops a bond of brotherly affection. At table he is surrounded by a small group of friendly faces, among them one or two grownups, much as he would be in his own home. On the playground he has his chum and his girl and boy playmates, and in the classroom he works side by side with those best known to him and nearest like himself. Thus he forms a small circle of intimates among teachers and children corre- sponding to his family circle; he has also his friends among those of the household who come in frequent touch with him; beyond this are acquaint- ances, more remote in type and development; and finally, as a background, there is the constant coming and going of those among pupils and employees who are so far removed from him in their interests and activities as to be practically strangers. These are the human relationships of his small world. In such surroundings his training begins. He is carefully studied; his history is reviewed; his strong and his weak points are ascertained. He becomes a member of the group or class to which he is best suited, but his personality is not submerged; he remains an individual. One of the first things he learns is that he is good for something. No matter how limited his capacity may be, he finds himself respected by those in authority, and — what is especially significant — also by his companions. He is no longer looked down upon and laughed at by others younger and more capable than himself. He ceases to be "it" in all the games, the butt of all the jokes of his fellows. Sooner or later he finds that he is not wholly a failure; \ Department] HOME SCHOOL FOR MENTALLY DEFECTIVE CHILDREN 1103 there are some tasks that he can perform successfully, some in fact m which he can excel others. His self-confidence and self-respect are stimulated; he learns the meaning of success. In the defense of his rights he finds that he is not thrown wholly upon his own resources. There are rules to which he can appeal, and which he can help to uphold. These are the laws of his little world. In adhering to his duties toward others and toward his school, he learns in a small way the meaning of service, unselfishness, gen- erosity, gratitude, self-denial. All these are stimulated, and impulses are aroused that help toward an understanding of the Golden Rule. With this come the tiny beginnings of altruism. These things are the funda- mentals of the pupil's training. As time goes on, he acquires also some of their external accompaniments. He learns the value of neatness and care in personal appearance, of good manners, of politeness and of consideration for the feelings of others. He may even acquire a little of that rather uncommon social virtue, tact. Thus by degrees the child grows from an asocial and troublesome defective to a being, still defective, it is true, but gifted nevertheless with something that resembles a rudimentary social conscience, something that will enable him to respect himself and others, to obey the law, and to observe the major proprieties. He has reached a plane of life one step beyond custodialism. Such a procedure as outlined above would not wholly solve the question of what to do with the permanent defective. It would, however, accomplish something, and every aid toward the solution of so important and far-reaching a problem should command our serious attention. DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Mrs. Louis Hertz, Council of Jewish Women San Francisco, Cal. Vice-President — Mrs. Philip N. Moore, trustee, College for Women, University of the South, St. Louis, Mo. Secretary — Mrs. E. L. Baldwin, state chairman, Department of School Patrons San Francisco, Cal. FIRST SESSION— Monday Forenoon, August 23, 1915 The Department of School Patrons was called to order in the Ballroom of the Oak- land Hotel at 9:30 A.M., with President Hertz in the chair. The following program was given: "Reports of Organizations Affiliated with the Department of School Patrons": 1. "General Federation of Women's Clubs" — Mary G. Bamum, Alhambra, Cal., chairman, Education Department, General Federation of Women's Clubs. 2. "The Southern Association of College Women" — Mrs. Don Carlos Ellis, Wash- ington, D.C. 3. The Council of Jewish Women" — Fannie S. Long, Wilkesbarre, Pa., chairman, Committee on Education, The Council of Jewish Women. 4. "Association of Collegiate Aliunnae" — Marion Reilly, dean, Brsm Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa. "Report of Committee on School Revenue" — Mrs. W. S. Jennings, Department of Education, Florida Federation of Women's Clubs, Jacksonville, Fla., chairman. "Report of Committee on School Health" — Florence E. Ward, assistant. Boys' and Girls' Club Work, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C, chairman. Discussion — Frances S. Bradley, M.D., Children's Bureau, United States Depart- ment of Labor, Washington, D.C; Adelaide Brown, M.D., California State Board of Health, San Francisco, Cal. SECOND SESSION — ^Monday Afternoon, August 23, 19 15 The Department of School Patrons was called to order at 2 : 30 p.m., by the presid«it and the following program given: Topic: Lands beyond the Pacific The Development of Educational Systems and Their Relation to the Home and Industrial Conditions "The Development of the Philippine Public-School System in Co-operation with the Home and in Relation to Industrial Conditions" — ^Hugo H. Miller, chief. Industrial Division, Bureau of Education, Manila, P.I. "China" — ^Yamei Kin, M.D., superintendent, Pei Yang Women's Hospital, Tientsin, China. "Japan" — ^Jiro Harada, commissioner for Japan, Panama-Pacific International Exposition, San Francisco, Cal. The following ofl&cers were re-elected for the coming year: For President — Mrs. Louis Hertz, Council of Jewish Women, San Francisco, Cal. For Vice-President — Mrs. Philip N. Moore, trustee, College for Women, University of the South, St. Louis, Mo. For Secretary — Mrs. E. L. Baldwin, state chairman, Department of School Patrons, San Francisco, Cal. 1105 II06 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons TfflRD SESSION— Monday Evening, August 23, 1915 The meeting was called to order by the President at 8:00 p.m., and the following program given: "The Child in the Home in China" — Yamei Ean, M.D., superintendent, Pei Yang Women's Hospital, Tientsin, China. "The Mother and the Child" — Maria Montessori, M.D., Rome, Italy. (Mariana Bertola, M.D., San Francisco, Cal., Interpreter.) Mrs. E, L. Baldwin, Secretary. PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS REPORTS OF ORGANIZATIONS AFFILIATED WITH THE DEPARTMENT OF SCHOOL PATRONS /. GENERAL FEDERATION OF WOMEN'S CLUBS MARY G. BARNUM, ALHAMBRA, CAL., CHAIRMAN OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT, GENERAL FEDERATION OF WOMEN'S CLUBS The General Federation of Women's Clubs, with its 9,000 clubs, 49 federations, and 2,000,000 members, is working thru twelve departments, nearly all of which reach out helpfully toward children and the schools, by means direct and indirect. The Departments of Art, Music, Lit- erature, and Library Extension in many communities provide pictures, instnmients, books, fimds, or other valuable support for these uplifting phases of school life. The Department of Civics very frequently aids in securing and equipping playgrounds. The Department of Conservation actively assists in Bird and Arbor Day programs and celebrations. The Department of Social and Industrial Conditions is fighting child labor, and its menace to the school and the futiure home. The Department of Home Economics has for a long time done valiant service in stimulating and often contributing to the introduction and enrichment of coiurses in cooking, sewing, and other homemaking arts in the public schools. The Department of Public Health, in all its committees — Anti-Tuberculosis, Social Hygiene, and Child Hygiene — works in many places and in a variety of ways for the benefit of children of school age. The Department of Legislation has materially assisted in many states in securing legislation that was being earnestly sought by school authorities necessary for state- wide school improvement. Among these departments, the Department of Education is one of the largest and most thoroly organized, with committee chairmen in the state federations and most of the clubs. It has four general committees: Peace, Political Science, Vocational Training and Guidance, and Rural Schools. In the brief time alloted this morning, it will be impossible to report the general educational work or that of all the committees. Since the interest of the Federation as well as the department has been somewhat concen- Department] GENERAL FEDERATION OF WOMEN'S CLUBS 1 107 trated during the last year on the improvement of rural schools and the securing of teacherages for rural communities, it will be appropriate to submit principally the report of the chairman of the Committee on Rural Schools — Maggie W. Barry, of Texas. Mrs. Barry reports: In the southern states the most notable work is the School Improvement Associations. These have been directly the result of the efforts of club women. One of the activities of these asso- ciations is increasing the school revenue by interesting the people of the school districts in improving their schools. In Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, the Carolinas, for instance, club women have gotten in touch with rural schools and have helped them raise money by giving fairs, pie socials, concerts, and so on. Then they help by improving the buildings, adding to the equipment, buying a stereopticon or phonograph — something that will add to the social life of the community. This increased activity and interest of the people nearly always results in increased local taxation or donations to the school. In one Texas county, a wealthy farmer who had always voted against raising the taxes gave without solicitation $2,000 when he found what it meant to his family to have an up-to-date active school and social center. Club women are co-operating with the workers of the extension divi- sion under the Smith-Lever bill. They have in a number of instances raised money to supplement the fund so as to place a county agent in the field. The money is nearly always raised in the town without calling on the rural population of the county. In Texas the club women have been raising prizes of $25 for the winners, either boys or girls, in the debating, declamation, and athletic contests held under the interscholastic league of the extension division of the university. I commend this work very highly. The school to which the winner belongs nearly always takes a new lease of life and the community pride is stimulated. The Texas legis- lature appropriated this winter $1,000,000 as a special fund to be expended in the improvement of rural schools. Club women have aided in securing teacherages, also. There are now 400 in the United States, with the states of Texas and Washington taking the lead, with 108 in Washington. These houses vary from a cook- wagon taken off its wheels and set down beside a schoolhouse, as in some districts in Montana, to houses costing nearly $4,000, as in Spokane County, Wash- ington. The women nearly always furnish these by donations of either money or furniture. The Bureau of Education writes me that this work is progressing rapidly with most beneficial results to the rural communities where the teacherages are established. I have conferred with Cora Wilson Stewart concerning the moonlight schools and the illiteracy problems, in which the Education Department is interested. Mrs. Stewart said that sixteen states have taken up the work. In Oklahoma last year nineteen rural teachers pledged themselves to teach iio8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons illiterates outside of their regular school work. Now the Central State Normal School, Edmond, Okla., reports about two thousand students and teachers enlisted in the cause. Among many helpful activities, I would mention the rural-welfare clubs or circles which bring town women and country women together. These are usually started thru the efforts of town club women. At first ladies are invited from each rural-school district to come to a "get acquainted" meeting with ladies from each federated club; informal discussion of school and other problems is subordinated to visiting and general social enjoyment; then other meetings are held to which each lady from each nural-school district brings as many more from her district as she can; presently active leagues result in the various districts, with a membership of men, women, and children. Several women have told me since that women of the isolated rural districts are hungry for such simple social pleasures. The quickest and easiest way to stimulate the co-operative, community consciousness of such women is by meeting this great need of their lives. Under the direction of the Rural-School Committee, each club is asked to make a study of the laws of the state and to have one program devoted to discussion of needed legislation for rural schools; to make a survey of the rural schools of the county; to adopt one or more schools in the county and contribute something to their improvement; to co-operate with local school authorities; to hold as the ultimate purpose the establishment of local organizations of the citizens in each school district for the betterment of their schools. The general educational activities of individual clubs are too numerous to mention. One may cite a single instance, where a club of seven members furnished flower seeds to school children, held a flower festival, gave prizes for best exhibits, held a three days' community festival, and, as the result of the community spirit thus awakened, secured a traveling library. A music teacher was provided for high school and grades. In the observance of " Officers' Day," a nural club of twelve women was entertained at luncheon and a musical program was given. On the other hand, one may consider the aggregate resiflts of many clubs and federations combining for some special educational cause and note that in the single matter of scholarships and loan fimds there was reported for 191 2 more than $34,000 and for 1915 more than $90,000. In generous practical helpfulness to children and schools one may surely say that, taken individually or collectively, "Clubs are trumps." Department] THE SOUTHERN ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGE WOMEN 1109 //. THE SOUTHERN ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGE WOMEN MRS. DON CARLOS ELLIS, WASHINGTON, D.C. By outlining briefly the work and aims of the Southern Association of College Women, I hope to suggest ways in which all intelligent women, whether members of our Association or not, can help us inculcate proper educational ideals; for that has been our leading aim since our organization twelve years ago. We realize fully that many women who have not been to college have acquired by inheritance, association, private study, and experience an education more valuable than that which a college course alone could give. Therefore tho only college women are included among our members, in order to do our most effective work, we need all southern women to co- operate with us. As there are only thirty-one colleges in the South recognized by the Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the Southern States, and as only twenty of these admit women, our membership is small. The six standard colleges for women — Agnes Scott, Converse, Goucher, Randolph- Macon, Sophie Newcomb, and Westhampton — furnished us, according to our last report, a total of 130 members; our nine standard state uni- versities admitting women — Alabama, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and West Virginia — furnished only 67 ; and of our six standard non-tax-supported coeducational institu- tions only Trinity and Vanderbilt have as yet supplied us with any mem- bers, the others — Baylor, Chattanooga, Rice, and Southern University — having only recently been recognized by the Southern College Association. Fully half of our members, therefore, are graduates of northern and western colleges; but each year we are expecting larger and larger recruits from our southern colleges. We have twenty-two branches distributed as follows: one each in Maryland, Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia, and Kentucky; two in Louisiana and in Texas; three in Alabama and in Tennessee; and seven in North Carolina. Each branch tries to make a study of local conditions and to aid in whatever reforms are most needed in its community. For example, the Georgia Branch was instrumental last year in securing the passage of a bill for an industrial reform school for girls; and the Mobile Branch conducted a campaign which secured a favorable vote on a school- bond issue called for by their city commissioners. And all of our branches have taken a more or less active interest in securing better child-labor and compulsory-education laws. This year we tried especially to make our influence felt by urging our respective senators and representatives to vote for the Palmer-Owen Child Labor Bill. For the sake of co-operation in all kinds of social service work, a number of our branches have joined the Federation of Women's Clubs of their respective states. mo A^^ TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [School Patrons The main work of our Association, however, is carried on by means of standing committees made up largely of representatives from our various branches. The Extension, Finance, and Press Committees carry on the work suggested by their respective names. The Committee on School Patrons has as its object especially the keeping in touch with the work of other women's organizations; and during the past year this committee has been investigating the actual iUiteracy conditions of each southern state as a first step in improving these conditions. But the distinctive work of our Association is in the hands of the Committees on Scholarships, College Days, and Standards of Colleges. These committees are working: (i) to interest girls in going to college; (2) to differentiate between different types of institutions calling themselves colleges; and (3) to persuade institutions not to make false claims. The Association holds twenty-three scholarships at standard northern and western colleges, and each year the Scholarship Committee tries to find capable girls who need scholarship aid, and as many deserving girls need more than the amount covered by a scholarship, a Loan Fimd Com- mittee has recently been appointed to secure money to supplement the scholarships. The Committee on College Days and the Committee on Standards of Colleges co-operate in pointing out to high-school girls what they should take into consideration in choosing a college. There are in the South over 140 institutions calling themselves colleges for women; but as only six have been recognized as standard colleges, we try to inform prospective college girls of the exact character and standing of all the others. We explain that normal schools and finishing schools have as worthy a function as that of real colleges, but that they are not colleges. If a girl wishes training in methods of teaching and cannot take the time for a standard college education, she is advised to go to a normal school. If she wishes a general finishing course, or if she wishes to "specialize" in elocution, music, or art, she is advised to go to a finishing school. We always reconmiend, however, those not bearing the name college and not conferring degrees. If a girl wishes a liberal college education she should, of course, go to a standard college; but if, for denominational or pecimiary reasons, she is forced to to choose a college not recognized as standard, she is informed as to which are the approximate colleges and which are the purely nominal colleges in her state. She is then spared the humiliation of learning after she graduates that her degree is valueless. Our reports show, for instance, that Georgia has only one standard college for women — Agnes Scott; but that nine others call themselves colleges. These reports show further that Bessie Tift, Brenau, Lagrange, Shorter, and Wesleyan are not recognized by any non-sectarian standardizing agency; that degrees from such institutions as Andrew, Cox, and Southern Female are purely nominal; and that a diploma from Lucy Cobb Institute, ) I Department] THE SOUTHERN ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGE WOMEN nil which does not pretend to be a college, is preferable to a degree from any of the nominal colleges. For the sake of more ready reference for high-school girls and their parents, we are preparing tables grouping all institutions for women in each state under the following heads: 1. Standard Colleges — that is, those recognized by the Association of Colleges of the Southern States. 2. Approximate Colleges — ^institutions not fully coming up to the standard set by the Southern College Association. 3. Finishing Schools — institutions offering one or two years of work in advance of a high school but not giving any real college cotirses. 4. Nominal Colleges — finishing schools claiming to be colleges. 5. .Normal Schools — ^institutions whose main object is the training of students in methods of teaching. If our treasury permits we will publish these lists next fall, and distribute them in every high school in the South. By continuing to make public in every southern state the actual standard of each educational institution, we hope to induce all conservatory "colleges" to drop the title college; some of our other nominal colleges to become junior colleges by substituting standard Freshman and Sophomore work for the present Junior and Senior superficial course; others to become good pre- paratory schools, and only a very few to attempt to become standard col- leges. For one standard college for women is all that any southern state should at present attempt to support. But denominationalism complicates scientific management at this point. (We are trying, however, to persuade the different church boards of educa- tion to limit their colleges in a state to one for men and women, either separate or combined, and one or two junior colleges.) And we are also endeavoring to create such a public sentiment as will lead state legislatures to pass laws refusing to grant college charters to corporations that cannot guarantee resources amounting to at least $300,000; for no institution with less than that should attempt to do college work. Our various bulletins issued during the past five years have already, to a certain extent, counteracted the deceptive advertisements of nominal colleges. And our statistical tables showing the approximate value of recent degrees of southern colleges are being used at all leading northern and western colleges and universities in rating students from southern colleges. But we realize that our influence on nominal colleges, on denomi- national boards of education, and on state legislatures will be very slow unless we are able to gain the sympathy and co-operation of all intelligent people. Therefore, we beg all who love honesty and right ideals to help us in our efforts to induce each southern educational institution to limit its announcements to its capacity whether that be that of a preparatory school, a finishing school, a two-year college, or a real college. Then, and then only, shall we have high educational standards in the South. III2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons ///. THE COUNCIL OF JEWISH WOMEN FANNIE S. LONG, WILKESBARRE, PA., CHAIRMAN, COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, THE COUNCTL OF JEWISH WOMEN The recently appointed Committee on Education of the Council of Jewish Women can credit to itself few activities; nevertheless it is most happy to announce its position and aim. The interests which crowd more than ever around education, those that bear upon relation of economic condition and intellectual growth, have always been a fairly conscious issue in the minds of the groups of women who make up the Council. Charity toward their poor has been their obsession and education for their children is even a keener pursuit. It is thus a delightful task to turn their attention to desirable ends and to point out such methods as our limited abilities may. Perhaps the greatest problem that presents itself to social doctors is the means of diffusing the information which they assemble to other agents of betterment and in particular to those who are not conscious of their own need of improvement. In each of the more than sixty sections of the Covmcil of Jewish Women the Committees on Education have to deal with this alert interest if the ears can be reached with intelUgible, reasonable, and possible projects. The history of past and continuing activities under the section Education Committees demonstrates this translation of a live thought into service. It is hardly fair to the others to single out particular sections for your approval. The sum of the work that is done in the sixty runs the gamut of socio-educational effort, but the work of Cincinnati in estabhshing penny luncheons; of Brooklyn, in the model practice flat, and street playground; of Wilkesbarre's vacation school of useful household arts; of Mobile's clubs and classes; of Birmingham's rural library; of Pittsburgh's free dental clinic; of Nashville's efforts in behalf of the blind; of Little Rock's library of free textbooks; of Hartford's drawing classes; and so on, adds to the very definite history of the new school complements. The National Committee's new triennial program for section considera- tion hopes to acquaint the sections with the large and new educational movements, but will lay special emphasis upon three points of particrdar and practical value. They are asked to spend their energies on (i) group culture, by simple surveys and exhibits to acquire intelligent opinions; (2) self-culture, thru classes and lectures to keep a page ahead of the children and taste the joys promised in the "pursuit of wisdom," and (3) service, in a sort of big-sister concern in every Jewish child in the schools, nor favoring, with this offer of f riendUness, the delinquent more than the hyper-able or just normal. In this work we hope to be a sort of gulf- stream of kindly interest running thru the school life and becoming to the group of Jewish children what a parent-teacher association can be to all. Department] COMMITTEE ON SCHOOL HEALTH 1 1 13 For the Council body I ask your high regard — you may place its atten- tive interest and cordial support as one of your assets and the National Committee on Education, together with the section committees, wait to know whatever you wish to tell them, and to attempt what your delibera- tions may find for their hands to do. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON SCHOOL HEALTH FLORENCE E. WARD, ASSISTANT, BOYS' AND GIRLS' CLUB WORK, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D.C., CHAIRMAN Health is a prerequisite for vigorous personal development and social service. It is therefore the business of every individual to know and to keep the laws of health. The chief causes for lack of health are ignorance and inability to control surroundings. Hence it is the business of the state to place, within the reach of all, health ideals, health knowledge, health habits, and wholesome living conditions. The most logical agency that the state can employ for the accomplishment of this boon of national health is our public schools. That such a campaign is already well under way is evidenced by the marked improvement in school-health standards and practices. Some will easily recall the days when the physiology recitation was con- ducted in a classroom tightly closed, where children sat in spine-curving seats, imbibed from a common drinking-cup with germ-laden rim, and wiped their hands on the roller towel. Suitable furnishings, drinking fountains, and paper towels are crowding these menaces into the background while fatiguing gymnastics and stilted miHtary drills are supplemented by spontaneous playground activities with their elbow room and larger gymnastic equipment. Many evidences show the growth of this movement toward natural physical development and heightened vital efficiency. It is, how- ever, largely in the crowded cities where school-health matters have com- pelled attention and where money and organization have been employed to stamp out preventable disease. Rapeer, in his book on School Health Administration, gives a comprehensive survey of the work of this char- acter in twenty-five of our larger cities. To make school health national and telling in its scope, the village and the rural schools must be considered. The country is theoretically the most healthful place in the world for children to go to school, but actually it is a place where ignorance and carelessness abound with accompanying contagion, infection, and low vitality. The service that the school-health committee of this department has endeavored to perform has been to urge in every state thoro co-operation with its joint committees, and a vigorous campaign for the spreading of the school-health gospel. The first step is to awaken parent and teacher 1 1 14 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [School Patrons to the importance of the school-health problem and to give definite informa- tion along those lines which will cause people to observe their own local needs and to consider their own local possibiUties for improvement. The following methods have been suggested by the committee: 1. The distribution of bulletins setting forth facts and suggestions. The recom- mendation of helpful books and lines of reading. 2. Newspaper propaganda. 3. Popular lectures on health topics illustrated where possible with slides or moving pictures. 4. Clinics. 5. Exhibitions giving graphic illustrations, photographs, models, and charts, which not only make truthful statements of facts, but suggest policies and plans for promoting this work. "There is nothing so dangerous as ignorance at work." When teachers have greater knowledge of the sciences that have to do with health and their application in hygiene and sanitation, they will educate not only the child but the community, co-operating with and unifying all forces now at work for the promotion of this acute social problem. The skilful teacher's contact with the child not only will bring informa- tion, but will inspire ideals and promote sensitiveness and refinement. The teacher will recognize that health in itself is not an adequate motive for effort from the child's standpoint, hence such motives as activity, pride, approbation, competition will be provoked. "Do's" will be substituted for "don'ts." The appeal will be, not health for future service, but expe- rience which functions in the child's life today. Health habits will be the result, and health habits established in childhood spell health in maturity. Sensitiveness on the part of the child to physical conditions, a resentment of unnecessary disease, a love of cleanliness, an aversion for filth, all point toward a citizenship which will legislate for pure air, clean water, plenty of sunshine, nourishing food, the elimination of dust from home and factory, sanitation in outbuildings, the banishment of the fly, the mosquito, and other germ-carrying insects. We are coming more and more to recognize that it is within the power of man to rid himself of every parasitic disease. Experts estimate that of the 1,600,000 deaths occurring annually in the United States, 42 per cent are preventable. Of this number 50,000 are school children who die of unnecessary disease. The child's school life is short, at best, but shortened still more by the 4 per cent of the entire school time lost by preventable disease. A large amount of retardation or repeating in the grades is also due to this cause. Rapeer estimates that avoidable disease is responsible for 25 per cent of the absences; 15 per cent of elimination; 10 per cent of non-promotion; 10 per cent of retardation. In view of the tremendous cost of disease from the financial standpoint alone, to say nothing of the greater loss of social service and efliciency, it seems a wise investment to put a generous amount of money into funds for school-health projects. Department] COMMITTEE ON SCHOOL HEALTH I II 5 By encouraging the best methods of instruction and inspiration on the part of workers in the various organizations, the Department of School Patrons is helping to eliminate social and economic waste. Our peculiarly close affiliation with social organizations outside the school, yet keen with interest regarding, it, gives opportunity for service in the matter of school health which can be measured only by the intelligence and vigor of our effort. DISCUSSION Frances S. Bradley, M.D., Children's Bureau, United States Department of Labor, Washington, D.C. — ^There is little room for discussion of a paper which so thoroly covers the ground as the one just read. But never in the history of the world has there been such need of sound, sane, well-balanced men and women, and our ever-changing system of education, with its new standards and ideals, and new methods each decade is subject to exhaustive discussion even at the expense of repetition. A well-rounded education touches the child at every angle. For years education meant simply mental training, imtil Froebel, thru the kindergarten, taught the child something of the beauty and joy of life, of service, of the rights of others, and, above all, of the co-ordination of mind and body. He became a producer, and this doubtless led to the establishment of our manual training, our home economics, vocational guidance, etc. Formerly education was limited to the few, this class increasing gradually to include those who had the price. Later came our system of free education; and now we say that every man's child not only may but must be educated. But compulsory education with its consequent crowding of thirty, forty, or fifty in a room, involves continual exposure to physical ills which we have no right to inflict upon a community. The child compelled to go to school has a right to protection from all preventable dangers involved thereby. This can be secured only by an up-to-date school equipment, giving the child sanitary surroundings, and by periodical physical examinations, that we may know we are helping and not harming him by this compidsory education. We realize more and more every day the interdependence of mental and physical development, each useless without the other. To this end we are establishing open-air schools, schools for the retarded and deficient, and are canying into the homes educational propaganda by the follow-up work of the visiting nurse. And this work is no longer limited to children of school age. In several of our larger cities, there are being held examinations of prospective pupils with the belief that: (i) the earlier a defect is dis- covered and treated, the better the chance of cure; (2) from an economic standpoint, pre- school examinations are an advantage, saving thereby later interruption both to teacher and to pupil; and (3) pre-school examinations necessitate the presence of parents, thereby giving an opportunity of educating the latter, with benefit to their families. A thoro physical examination should be required of every child before admission to school and a record kept of his physical as well as mental progress during his entire school life. In this city of Oakland where there is an excellent system of physical inspection of schools, such records are available to the parent or the community, when necessary, and often furnish valuable data to juvenile courts, in associating moral delinquency with early neglected physical defects. As our obligations to the child become more varied and complex, there is increased need of co-operation between local, state, and federal activities. To unify this co-opera- tion and to help where help is needed, the United States government has established departments of education, of agriculture, and of labor, with bureaus devoted to the inter- ests of the child. By this means, surveys, investigations, and reports are made, bulletins 1 1 1 6 NA TJONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [School Patrons are issued for the use of the public, and information is furnished on comparative conditions in different parts of the coimtry. The newest of these is the Children's Bureau, installed as a part of the Department of Labor, and it is now at the disposal of the public in an effort to further the advancement of the American child. In addition to the foregoing information, the Bureau is now prepared to send out traveling exhibits similar to the one now being shown in the Palace of Education at the Panama-Pacific Exposition. This consists of panels, charts, models, electrical devices, stereopticon slides, and moving pictures on all subjects pertaining to the welfare of the child, from pre-natal to adolescent days. Special stress is laid upon infant feeding, and the nutrition of the growing child, with daily demonstrations in the care and preparation of food. The importance of birth registration, of mothers' pensions, of the child at work and at play is shown. In connection with the exhibit is a children's health conference, where parents may consult with a children's specialist in regard to the growth and develop- ment and general hygiene of the child. A thoro examination is made, and tendencies which, if neglected, may become defects are pointed out to the parents. Literature is also supplied upon pre-natal care, care of the baby, etc. It is hoped in this way to stimu- late mothers to a more intelligent observation and to a keener sense of responsibility in the hygiene of their lives. By thus combining all forces which make for the better mental, physical, social, or economic development, the child will surely come into his own and give us in the coming generation a higher type of citizenship. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PHILIPPINE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM IN CO-OPERATION WITH THE HOME AND IN RELATION TO INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS HUGO H. MILLER, CHIEF, INDUSTRIAL DIVISION, BUREAU OF EDUCATION, MANILA, P.I. Growth of system. — Ten to fifteen years ago pupils of the Philippine public schools were brought to the classrooms at the point of the bayonet. When these schools opened some two months ago, about six hundred thousand pupils were enrolled, some fifty thousand were turned away, and from two hundred thousand to three hundred thousand were directly or indirectly prevented from voluntarily enrolling themselves. The means by which this great change in public opinion was brought about may be summed up in the one word "co-operation," for the public schools of the Philippines are not apart from but are of the people themselves. They were organized at the close of the long war and naturally the first American teachers found conditions most pitiable. Thousands of families were living in a state of abject poverty and whole districts in constant hunger. What put the American teachers on their metal was the helplessness of the people. They saw about them all the means for obtain- ing the necessities and many of the comforts of life and these means were unrecognized and unused. At first there was no concerted action, but the teachers instinctively worked along the same lines. The pioneer teacher taught hygiene and sanitation in self-defense — often he was the self- appointed entire Board of Health. He helped to fight cholera, smallpox. Department] PHILIPPINE SCHOOLS, HOME, AND INDUSTRY 1 117 and fever, and the lessons he taught by bettering existing conditions were heeded in the homes. It is safe to say that there were no school districts where some sort of lunch was not provided to the ill-nourished youngster. Often the expense had to be met by the teacher, but later, when the con- ditions improved, meals were served at a slight gain and the money invested in materials to carry on handicrafts, such as basketry and embroidery. School sewing came about as naturally as the lessons in cooking. The naked youngsters and shocking infant mortality during the cool season appealed to the American women's sense of decency and humanity, and it is worthy of mention that the first industrial exhibit included a creditable showing of garments for little children. The athletic movement grew out of the genuine desire to develop energy in the pupils and give them healthful interest in something. In the early days during the recess hour, the girls would drape themselves picturesquely over window sills, too indolent even to get themselves a drink of water if it were required, and no self-respecting girl ever thought of carrying her own books to or from school. These pioneer teachers were very busy people, and the teaching of the "three R's" was the least of their duties. They were directly in touch with the people and with the homes. They saw what was needed, and each in his own particular district, they laid the foundation for the industrial courses as they are taught today. Courses of study and their aim, — Each unit and each course of the Philippine public-school system has therefore been organized to meet some practical need. The primary course consists of four grades and is complete in itself. It is planned to educate Filipino children for good citizenship, to take care of themselves in ordinary business transactions, and to earn a living. The intermediate pupils are enrolled in special courses such as housekeeping and household arts, trade, farming, and business. The object of the high-school course is to give broader views of the problems of life as they affect the people. Quite naturally in such practical curricula as these, the industrial and applied-science courses are given greater stress than the purely academic. Our first schools were simply American schools transferred to the Islands and they did not fit. The Filipino looked upon education as a means to raise him out of the producing class. All forms of manual labor were to him a degradation. The schools were a means of separating himself from manual labor and placing himself in the class of clerks and officeholders. The idea that the school was a place to prepare for the everyday tasks of daily life was entirely foreign to him. Hence it was quickly seen that if our schools were to accomplish the work of bringing about the necessary changes, there must be a decided and radical departure from the ordinary course of study found at that time in the United States. The course of study has therefore been revised and specialized until every pupil entering the primary school now begins his industrial and mental training at the same time, namely IIl8 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (School Patrons in the first grade, and continues them thru the four years' primary course. The intermediate curriculum specializes this training. Thus graduates of our schools are trained to make a living in a chosen occupation and to make a home cheerful, comfortable, and sanitary. The subjects taught are divided into those directly affecting the home and those by means of which home conditions can be bettered. School gardening is taught in order to raise the standard of living above rice and fish. Nursery work is required in connection with all intermediate school gardens in order that the premises of Philippine homes may be improved and greater value placed on fruit trees. Farm schools are operated in con- nection with parcels of from twenty-eight to thirty acres developed as model Filipino farms: here practical farm management is taught and the girls are given a three years' course in housekeeping and household art, in the same practical manner in which the boys do the farming work. Convenience and comfort in the home and proper consideration of health conditions require better fiurniture than Filipinos have been used to instal- ling in their houses. To this end, primary shops have been organized, where bamboo and wooden furniture is made. Athletics and group games are taught to all, not only with a view to increasing the physique, but to teach fair play and high regard for the rights of others. No change had been made in the manner of preparing meals, and the general style of dress worn by the women is that fashion adopted from Europe three centuries ago. For this reason instruction is given in the preparation of familiar home dishes with what improvements modem culinary art has to offer. The pupil gets something from the first lesson, which she can put into immediate practice in her home. A graded course in plain sewing and garment-making is carried on from the first thru the seventh grade and all girls are required to take the work. Having instilled the desire for better things, disaster would have over- taken us had we not provided means for the Filipinos to earn them. Thru general surveys and special investigations, the existing household industries and available local materials were located and studied and these data became the basis for instruction in handicraft work. From the first grade, all articles made by pupils must have some value. These articles have been commercialized and a system of sales and reimbursements has been developed, so that all articles are disposed of and the pupils are paid the labor value of their products. For instance, there are now at the Panama Pacific Exposition articles valued at over $100,000 which are entirely the product of Philippine school children. These articles have already been paid for and most of the money has gone into the pockets of the pupils. How the homes are reached. — Before I can take up with you the means by which these new ideas and industries and these new methods were introduced into the homes, it becomes necessary to explain some of the economic and social conditions obtaining in the PhiHppines. The Philip- Department] PHILIPPINE SCHOOLS, HOME, AND INDUSTRY 1119 pines are in an agricultural stage of development. Most of the people are small farmers, tilling a few acres of soil from which a bare living is obtained. But between seasons of agriculture and duties of the household, they have much spare time, and it is these extra hours, weeks, and months that the Bureau of Education is trying to have utilized for productive efifort. The chief aim of industrial instruction is not the making of a few hats and baskets, but it is to create home industries in each hamlet and town with the idea of supplementing the income from agriculture. Such additional income is often used to provide for schooling of children and for better clothing, shelter, and food. The introduction of these industries and the betterment of farming and housekeeping methods are the problems of the public schools of the Philippines. Of course, the general interest in education is bound to have some effect upon the Filipinos. For instance, one often meets with illiterate men who can sign their name in the immature way taught them by their children. But it has also been necessary for us to arouse the special interest of parents. For instance, in gardening, 80 per cent of the work must be cultivated thru the home. Today there are over 75,000 home gardens cultivated by pupils. Without question, these are largely responsible for the marked improvement in the quantity and quahty of fresh vegetables now available in the market all over the Islands, for it has brought the lesson forcibly to the very doors of the people. In the great majority of cases, all the necessary repairs in the school are performed by pupils, and to them are left the improvement and upkeep of the school grounds. The training resulting from such activity is extremely practical and the apprecia- tion of good surroundings is already being seen in the homes of the people. For the most part Filipino methods are used in the teaching of cooking. The utensils are those to be found in the average Philippine home, and American recipes are given only in the advanced classes, Filipino girls in taking the improved methods into the homes find exactly the same equipment as in their own domestic-science building. This domestic- science building is an important part of the course in housekeeping and household arts, for its serves as a model for the community. Many of the articles we wish to introduce in the homes of the people are sold to them. For instance, thousands of bamboo chairs are disposed of annually, and Filipino mothers are quite in the habit of buying children's garments from industrial exhibits. The course in plain sewing leads up as quickly as possible to making children's garments and then garments for the family of the girl. In one school alone in Manila, thousands of paper patterns have been distributed to families. Time and again the Bureau of Education has co-operated with the Philippine Bureau of Health in stamping out epidemics in various parts of the archipeligo, and special subjects are always being taught in con- nection withjthe general course in hygiene and sanitation. I was in one II 20 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons province recently where the boiling of water introduced into the homes, by the schools, had saved the people from a very dangerous cholera epidemic. While the school-teacher stands in very close relation to the people as a guide and adviser and example of what is right, the schoolhouse, which is usually the most commodious and best building in the town, is also used as the civic center, where the people meet and where topics of the day are often discussed. Quite naturally pupils in the Philippine public schools bring to their homes the articles they make in their industrial classes. The parents take great pride in these and seek to imitate them or to begin again work which has lain dormant. For instance, in one town the teaching of weaving caused the older women to bring out their looms. And of course, when pupils take home several pesos which they have actually earned with their own hands, the elders are interested in what is evidently a potential source of additional income to the family. That the industries we are teaching in the schools are commercially practical is further proved to the people, however, by means of industrial exhibits. Filipinos are very fond of fiestas, where the countryside comes together to listen to speech-making, to see rather crude theatricals, or to wander thru booths where food and gewgaws are sold. Today thousands attend industrial and athletic meets, where the results of school work are displayed for them. So popular are these events that the "Corn Day" (instituted during the corn campaign for better food) and the "Garden Day" (instituted to carry on the propaganda of gardens) have become a permanent feature of many towns and have been developed into what in the United States would be called county fairs. These exhibits are organized so that they reach from the smallest hamlets up thru the larger towns and provincial capitals, finally to Manila. While their main purpose is to show the people what has been done in their locality and to gather and compare the diversified products from all parts of the Islands, they also serve to instil the industrial idea into the minds of the Filipinos. They have brought home to the people as nothing else would the effectiveness and possibilities of the work being carried on in the schools. The Bureau of Education does not feel that it should leave the people it has thus trained entirely to their own devices in making and selling products. An organization is therefore provided for disposing of them wherever com- mercial concerns do not extend their activities, or wherever it is necessary to protect the people. It may be of interest to this particular body to know that forms of co-operation from the most primitive to very complex exist in the Philippines. In building a house, for instance, the owner wiU provide a fiesta and the coimtryside will turn out to erect the structure for him. The Bureau of Education takes advantage of this institution in the erection of voluntarily constructed buildings. In the same way handi- craft workers often form "turnuhans" for the manufacture and disposal Department] THE MOTHER AND THE CHILD 1 1 21 of articles. These organizations are being developed and used by the Bureau of Education in the extension of handicraft work. Farming includes the scientific production of vegetables, field crops, and instruction in elementary agriculture. In addition, nursery work is taught. The shop furnishes equipment to the school in the form of embroidery frames, desks, and other furniture. In the cooking classes, the vegetables raised by the boys are made palatable. The girls wear the garments they themselves have made and much of the boys' clothing has been made by their sisters. From the school, each day, the children go home to con- tinue their work. The boys attend to the home gardens. The girls repeat the lessons learned in the sewing, cooking, or needlework class. Instruction which leads to results such as these directly appeal to the Filipinos, With their sons acquiring an increasing knowledge of new food crops and methods of cultivating them, and their daughters learning how to cook and serve these foods cheaply, and how to provide good clothing for the family and take care of the house, and with both their sons and daughters bringing to the home money they have earned from handicrafts which may be the means of providing for the new desires, the parents have come to realize the real practical value of the Philippine public schools. THE MOTHER AND THE CHILD MARIA MONTESSOEI, M.D,, ROME, ITALY The mothers of today take far more intelligent care of their children than did the mothers of the past, and this is not because they love their children more but because the science of medicine, by establishing rules for child hygiene, has materially aided the mission of motherhood. Thus the treat- ment accorded the child has brought great change to the mission of mother- hood. Above all, it has vitally transformed some of the principles, that is to say, some of the ideas as to the real influence that we may have on a child as he develops. Let us rapidly survey these transformations. What used to take place ? Perhaps there are some who still remember having seen certain practices, considered a universal dogma at one time. The child was wrapped in swaddling clothes to avoid having crooked legs; his tongue had to be clipped so that he might some day talk; he always wore a cap to keep his ears from standing out; care was always taken to lay the baby down in such positions as not to run the risk of doing perma- nent injury to his delicate head; the good mothers also rubbed the little newborn baby's nose so that it would grow long and slender and not remain too short and stumpy; they even put gold ear-rings on him at birth because this supposedly made his sight keener. In some countries these practices are doubtless forgotten, but in some they are still in use. Who does not remember the means used to help the child in learning to walk ? In the first months — at a time of life when the 1122 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons nerve paths are not yet developed and it is impossible for the chUd to co-ordinate his movements — mothers would waste several half hours a day trying to teach the child to walk. They held the babe by his body and used the disordered movements of the Uttle feet to delude themselves into thinking that these were the beginnings of walking, and because the child began, Uttle by little, to put one foot in front of the other and to gain confidence in the use of his feet, the mothers attributed all this progress to their previous efforts. When the control of movement was somewhat established — but not equilibrium, or the power of standing upon his feet — the mothers used straps to support the baby body and thus had him walk with them, or when they could not spare the time, they would put the child into an ambulator — — which having a broad base could not tip over — and there he stayed, his arms hanging over the side, his Httle body supported by the rim, and tho he did not know how to stand still, he went forward by moving his feet — that is, he walked. What did science reveal when it entered the field of child welfare? Certainly it offered no sure means of strengthening the nose and ears, and it did not enlighten the mothers as to the ways of teaching a child, even from birth, how to walk. No, first of all, it uttered the firm conviction that nature herself sees to determining the shape of the head, nose, and ears; that man will talk well without the need of clipping his tongue; that the legs grow straight naturally; not only this, but the fact that the function of deambulation is established of itself in nature and has no need of assist- ance. Hence we must let nature act of its own accord as freely as possible and the more a child is left free to develop, the sooner and the more per- fectly will he attain his higher forms and functions. Abolish then the swathing-bands and recommend great peace and comfort when he rests. The child, with his limbs free, should be left lying quietly, not tossed up and down or rocked as many used to do, thinking they were amusing him; neither should he be forced to walk before his time. When the hour comes he will arise and walk. Today almost everyone is convinced of these facts, and swaddHng clothes, girths, and ambulators have almost disappeared from sale. Chil- dren, therefore, have, straighter legs and walk better and at an earlier age than formerly. This fact is well estabUshed, and it is a great relief, for in truth what a burden it was to think that the straightness of the legs, the form of the nose, of the ears, of the head, were all the direct results of our care! What a responsibility, for which all felt unfit! What a joy to say, "It is nature's task. I will leave the child free, I will watch him grow in beauty, I will assist quietly at the miracle." These new concepts have up to now been confined to the body. As regards the inner life of the child there has not been a like progress, for in Department] THE MOTHER AND THE CHILD 1123 this we are still in a stage similar to that other which, by the help of science, we have left behind. Something of the kind is coming for the child's inner life. Indeed, we are assailed with questions. The character must be molded, the intellect developed, the feelings guided, and we ask ourselves. What shall we do? Here and there we touch the child's soul, or we confine it more or less as the mothers did by rubbing the child's nose or bandaging his ears. We hide our anxiety behind a sort of medium success, since men do grow up with character, intellect, and feelings. When, however, all these qualities are lacking, we are overcome. What shall we do ? Who can endow a degen- erate with character, an idiot with intellect, a moral degenerate with feel- ings ? If, indeed, it were by merely touching the soul here and there that man gained all these qualities, then it would suf&ce to touch a little more energetically him who was lacking. But such is not the case. Hence we are no more creators of the inner form than of the outer. It is nature, it is creation, which directs all these things. When once we are convinced of this, there is born within us the principle of the neces- sity of not putting obstacles in the way of natural development, and instead of so many different problems, such as what to do to develop character, intellect, and feelings, one problem only would present itself as the basis of all education — how to give the child freedom. In this freedom there must be included principles analogous to those which science dictated for the forms and functions of the body during the period of growth, a freedom in which the head, nose, and ears became more beautiful and deambulation the most perfect possible, according to the congenital forces of the individual. So here freedom as the only means should carry the character, the intellect, and the feelings to the highest point of development possible to the individual, and it should give to us, who are directing this work, peace and the opportunity of contemplating the miracle of growth. This freedom liberates us, too, from the anxious burden of an imaginary responsibility and a dangerous illusion. Woe to us if we believe ourselves responsible for things which do not concern us and delude ourselves into thinking that we bring things to pass which, on the contrary, take place without any reference to us. What, then, has become of our real mission, of our real responsibility ? What wrongs, what real sins are we committing ? The history of the child's physical redemption has for us a most interesting sequence. It does seem strange to us today to consider that at a time when infant diseases were a scourge, it was not the death- rate which held the attention, but the form of the nose or the legs, whereas the vital question passed unnoticed. The mortality statistics revealed such high figures that the phenomenon was named the "slaughter of the innocents." The famous statistics of Lexis, which do not refer to any one country but to the average death-rate 1 1 24 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons of humanity in general, shows that this terrifying truth was universal.! It has two factors: One undoubtedly is the characteristic weakness of the child; the other, the want of protection for his weakness, a lack which was general among all peoples. Certainly there was no want of good-will or feeling of love toward the children, but a something unknown was wanting: the means of combating a dreadful peril which took place all unnoticed. We know today that infectious diseases, especially those of intestinal origin, were the cause of such great mortality. Intestinal diseases diminish nutrition or produce poisons at an age in which the delicate tissues are most sensitive and they were responsible for almost the entire slaughter. Then the wrongs which were being habitually committed against infants stood forth, wrongs comprised in a lack of cleanliness which today would astound us and in an absolute want of any rules as to the feeding of babies. The soUed linens which enveloped the child were often merely himg out to dry several times and used over again and again before being washed. No care was taken to wash either the nipple or the baby's mouth, in spite of the fact of fermentation so serious to cause local sickness. The infant nursed without any regularity; night and day the baby's cries governed the time of nursing and the more indigestion and sujBfering increased the more his feedings were increased, thus aggravating his condition. Science gave the simplest rules; it advised the most perfect cleanliness possible and it pointed out a principle so evident in itself that it was amazing that everyone had not understood it from the beginning, namely: A baby, like an adult, must fast at times and can take new food only after the pre- ceding has been digested, and so the nursing periods should come at regular intervals, varying according to age, following the modifications of the physio- logical functions in their development. Nor should crusts of bread be given the child — as so many mothers do, especially the very poor — to calm his crying, for he might swallow the hard particles before he is able to digest them. It was science which, redeeming the children, brought about trained nurse girls, cradles for all, rooms and proper clothing, and especially pre- pared foods made by great concerns for the hygienic feeding of children after weaning. Indeed, it created an entirely new world for them — intelligent, clean, and pissing. The child became the new man, who has wrested his rights from life and who has, therefore, had to create an environ- ment for himself. Thus we see that infant mortality diminishes in direct proportion to the diffusion of the rules of child hygiene. If, therefore, we say that spiritually also the child should be left free because nature — and not we — is the creator who molds him, we do not mean by that to abandon him and leave him to his own devices. Perhaps, however, if we study the situation, we will realize that, tho we may not be able to act directly on the child's individual forms of char- Department] THE MOTHER AND THE CHILD 1 1 25 acter, intellect, and feeling, which we have overlooked and on which depend the life and death of the spirit; yet there are a certain series of obligations and a round of cares which it is our duty to perform. The criterion of liberty is not then one of abandoning the child, but by leading us from illusion to truth, it points the way to the positive and most efl&cacious manner of caring for children. FREEDOM OF THE CHILD OF TODAY MERELY A PHYSICAL FREEDOM CIVIL RIGHTS OF CHILDREN IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Hygiene has freed the child's physical life. The external proofs, which consist in the doing away with the swaddling clothes, in the open-air life, in giving sufficient rest, and the like, are, in general, the most visible and tangible part, but they constitute only a means of attaining freedom. A far more important step toward freedom has been that of removing from the path of life the dangers of disease and death. As soon as the obstacle caused by some of these fundamental errors was removed, not only did the children survive in greater nimabers, but it was proved that they grew better and healthier. Was it really hygiene which helped them to increase in weight, in stature, in beauty, and also in general growth? Hygiene did not do all of this. The gospels say: "Who is able to add one cubit to man's stature?" Hygiene only freed the child's body from the obstacles which were preventing his growth. There were external bands that hindered the growth and the entire natural evolution of life. Hygiene broke these bands asunder and everybody realized that a liberation had taken place. When this was an accomplished fact everyone said : " Children must be free." Now the direct relation between "attained conditions of physical life" and "acquired freedom" is universally felt. In that way the child is treated like a Httle plant. For years plants in an orchard or a garden were well kept; they had gained rights and privileges which the child has only just now attained — good food, oxygen, a suitable temperature, and minute protection from the parasites which cause plant disease. Today the son of a prince can have as good care as the most beautiful rosebud in a lovely villa. The old saying, "A child is like a flower," is what we hope today to make a reality, but it is as yet a privilege accorded only to the more fortunate children. But let us arouse ourselves from so great a mistake. The child is a man. What is enough for a plant is not enough for a human being. We must always hold before us the picture of the child as the future man. We must see him in the bustling humanity which seeks with such heroic efforts to attain the goal of life. What are the rights of children ? Let us consider them for a moment as a class in society, a laboring class, for they do indeed labor to produce men. They are the future generation. They labor and endure the hard- ships of the physical and spiritual growth. They are continuing the work II26 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons performed for a few months by their mothers, and to them is left the per- forming of the more arduous, more complex, and more difficult task. When they are born they have naught but potentiality, yet they must do every- thing in a world which, even on the word of an adult, is full of difficulties. What is done to aid these weak pilgrims in an unknown world ? They are born weaker and more helpless than an animal, and they must in a few years become men; must be a part of an organized and complicated society, built on the secular effort of innumerable generations. At an age in which civilization — that is to say the possibility of hving well — is based on rights acquired by force and incorporated into laws, what are the rights of him who comes among us without strength and without thought ? Let us see how the laws of society receive a child into the world. We are in the twentieth century, yet in many civilized nations foundling homes and the practice of using wet nurses are still institutions. What is this foundling home ? It is a prison in a dark dungeon, where all too often the prisoner finds death, as was the case in those mediaeval dungeons where the victim, judged in secret, disappeared unknown to anyone. He will never see his own people, his family name is blotted out of existence, his goods are confiscated. Any malefactor whosoever has greater rights than he, and yet no one could better prove his innocence. The maternal duty of nursing one's children proclaimed by hygiene is founded on the physiological fact that the mother's milk is more nour- ishing than is any other milk. It is true there is the law of property rights which is final. One need only steal a roll, starving tho he be, to become a thief, to be punished by law and put outside the pale of society. But as regards babies, what more sacred right is there than that the baby shall have its mother's milk? There is no doubt as to the legality of his right; his only capital, the milk, came into the world with him and for him. All his wealth is there; his power of life, of growth, of gaining strength depends on that nourishment. If ever the defrauded child were to be weak and have rickets, what will become of him, condemned as he is by poverty to a hard occupation ? If some day the child, having attained to manhood, should present his case before society's court of justice, what a just cause he would have for damages because of his inability to work and his permanent injuries! What distinguishes us from cannibals and pirates is the fact that the rights of the adults are recognized. Not so the child's rights. What cowardliness to recognize the adult's rights and not those of the child ! Shall we give justice only to those who can defend and protect themselves and in all else remain barbarians? The peoples of today may have attained a greater or less degree of evolution from the standpoint of hygiene, but they all belong to the same civilization, i.e., the rights of the strong. When we intend to consider seriously the problem of the child's moral education, we should glance around and at least be cognizant of the world Department] THE MOTHER AND THE CHILD 1 1 27 we have prepared for him. Do we desire that, like ourselves, he may unheedingly trample on the weak? That he may hold ideas of justice which halt before one who cannot protect? Do we wish to make of him a half-civilized man, when he meets his equals, and a half-beast when he comes in contact with the hosts of oppressed and innocent? If we keep in our conscience facts of such serious injustice, not to call them crimes, without ever being aware of them, what may not be the lesser evils which will descend on the child ? HOW WE RECEIVE THE CHILDREN WHO COME INTO THE WORLD Until recently nothing was ready to receive this wonderful guest. It is only recently that little beds for children have been manufactured. There used to be no washstands, no armchairs, no little tables, no brushes. From among so many houses, not one house for them; only very rich and privi- leged children have their own room, and it is almost a place of exile. Let us imagine enduring for a single day the torment to which they are condemned. Supposing that we should find ourselves among a giant people, whose legs were exceedingly long in comparison with ours, whose bodies were enormous, but who were very quick as compared with us — an exceedingly agile, intelligent people. If we wish to climb their stairs, the steps are high, on a level with our knee, and yet we have to try to climb up with them. If we wish to sit down, the chair reaches almost to our shoulders. Climbing up with difficulty, we finally succeed in perching ourselves on it. We would like to brush our dress, but the big brushes are so heavy that our hand cannot even grasp, much less hold, them. For brushing our nails we are given a clothes brush. We could easily take a bath in the wash basin, but our arms would not be strong enough to lift it. If we knew that these giants were expecting us to do so, we would say: "They have made no preparation to receive us, to make our visit comfortable." The child finds all that he could wish for in the form of toys or dolls. The rich, multiform, attractive environment was not made for him, whereas dolls have houses, with sitting-rooms, kitchens, and closets — everything which the adult possesses is reproduced in miniature for the doll. The child, however, cannot actually live with all these things — he can only play with them. The world has been given to him as a joke, because as yet no one has admitted that he is a living man. He finds that society has prepared an ironical reception for him. The child really tries to Hve with all the things that surround him. He would really like to use a washstand by himself, to dress himself, actually to comb the hair on a living head, really to sweep the floors; he, too, would like to possess chairs, tables, armchairs, clothes hooks, and closets. What he wants is really to work, to attain an intelligent end, to have the enjoy- ment of his own life. Besides, he must not only act like a man, but he II28 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons must actually form the man; this is the predominating tendency of his nature, his mission. The smallest thing suffices to make him happy — to hang his clothes on a hook placed low on the wall within his reach, to open a light door whose knob is in proportion to his hand, silently and lightly to move a chair whose weight is adapted to the strength of his arms. It is a very simple matter to offer him an environment where everything is built in proportion to his size, and to let him live there. Then there develops in him that active life which has caused so much wonder, because we see in him the revelation of a spiritual life. In that harmonious environment we have seen the child concentrated on intellectual work, as a seed which has taken root in the right ground, and from that develop and grow by one means only — ^prolonged constancy in each exercise. When the little ones are seen acting in this way, intent upon their work, slow in carrying it out because of the immaturity of their constitutions, as they are slow in walking, because their legs are still short, one has the intui- tive feeling that they are perfecting their hves, as a chrysalis slowly perfects the butterfly within its cocoon. To hinder their occupations would be to commit violence against their life. On the contrary, what is generally done to children? We all interrupt them without the sUghtest regard, without the slightest respect, with the manners which were used by masters toward slaves who had no human rights. To have the same regard for a child as for an adult would seem ridiculous to many people, and yet with what severity we say to children, "Do not interrupt us." If the little one is doing something, for example eating by himself, an adult comes along and feeds him; if he is trjdng to put on his apron, the adult runs to dress him; all brutally take his place, without the slightest respect. And yet we are keenly aware of the proprietorship of our work and whoever tries to take our place offends us. What would happen to us were we to become slaves to a people incapable of comprehending the sensitiveness of our feelings — a giant people, stronger than ourselves? While we are quietly eating our soup, relishing it, at our pleasure (and we know what an enjo)nnent is found in this freedom), a giant comes along and grabs the spoon from our hand and makes us swal- low so fast that we almost choke. Our protest, " For goodness sake, wait," would be accompanied by a contraction of the heart and our digestion would be endangered. If another time, while thinking of something pleasant, we were slowly putting on our coat with that satisfaction and that liberty which we have in our own home, and a giant should light upon us, and in the twinkling of an eye, having dressed us, should carry us bodily out of the door, we would feel our dignity so belittled that the whole pleasure of the walk would be lost. Our nourishment does not come simply and purely from the soup swallowed, and the well-being does not come simply and purely from the walk, but also from the freedom which accompanies all these things. We would feel rebellious and offended, not certainly because Department] THE MOTHER AND THE CHILD 1 1 29 of hatred of these giants, but only because of the love for an inner tendency to let our life function freely. There is something within us that man does not know, which, one might say, with an expression easily understood, God alone knows, and He is imperceptibly manifesting it to us that we fulfil it. It is this love which more deeply nourishes and gives the feeling of well-being to our life, even in its most minute acts. Because of this it is said that "Man does not live by bread alone." How much more true is this in the case of the child, where creation is at work ? Children must defend their little acquisitions in the environment by struggles and rebellion. When they want to exercise the senses, for instance that of touch, everyone reprimands them, saying, "Don't touch!" If they try to take some object from the kitchen, some leftovers to make a pie with in a little plate, they are chased away, they are mercilessly led back to their toys. How many times one of those wonderful moments, in which their attention is fixed, and that process of organization which must develop them is starting within them, has been brusquely interrupted, as the spontaneous efforts of the children are seeking blindly in the environ- ment for those things with which to nourish their intellect. Have we not all perhaps had the feeling that something in our life has been crushed forever ? Let us picture adults who were not settled in life, as are most men, but were in a state of inner autocreation like men of genius. Suppose a writer to be under poetical inspiration, and about to give to humanity a helpful and inspiring message. Or let us take the mathematician who sights the solution of a great problem whence would spring new principles useful to humanity. Or take an artist whose mind is conceiving the ideal image, which must be put on the canvas immediately so that a masterpiece may not be lost. Imagine such men at such psychological moments. Sup- pose there came into their presence a cruel person calling aloud to them to follow, and this person should take them by the hand and then push them out. To what purpose? To play a game of chess. "Oh," they would say, "you could not have done anything worse to us. Our inspiration is lost, humanity will be deprived of a poem, a masterpiece, a useful discovery, because of this foolishness." But the child loses not only a product, but himself as well, for the master- piece which he is creating in his immortal self is the new man. And it is not only the soul which suffers, but the body suffers too. For this is what characterizes man — the influence that the spirit has on his entire physical existence. We deceive ourselves in thinking that we give all to the child when we give him air and food. Indeed, we do not give even this; food and air are not enough for man's body; all the physiological functions depend on the well-being, and that is the only key to the whole of life. So, also, the child's body lives by the freedom of the soul. II30 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [School Patrons A new hour is about to strike for the relations between mother and child. The modern mother who is prepared to care perfectly for the physical life, and who for such a mission has only yesterday opened her mind to new studies and new ideas and has accepted new responsibihties, is about to take a step forward. Like care, dictated by science, will be demanded of her tomorrow for the intellectual hygiene of the child and for the health of his inner life. No longer will medicine alone furnish her the necessary teachings, but also a renewed pedagogy based on the positive facts of science. The girls who yesterday, in order to be better mothers, took hospital training, will tomorrow go to children's schools to learn the art of protecting the new lives which are about to be entrusted to them by nature. Then the maternal mission will become complete and woman will turn her steps toward mother- hood with open eyes and with the dignity of one who is no longer only a creator but also a protector of posterity, one who guards and saves the body and mind of the new hiunanity. DEPARTMENT OF RURAL AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — E. C. Bishop, schools section, Iowa State College Ames, la. Vice-President — M. J. Abbey, professor of agricultural education, University of West Virginia Morgantown, W.Va. Secretary — F. L. Gmmn, extension service, Oregon Agricultural College Corvallis, Ore. FIRST SESSION— TxTESDAY Forenoon, August 17, 1915 The meeting was called to order in Scottish Rite Hall at 9:00 a.m., with President Bishop in the chair. The topic for the morning, "Extension Work in Agriculture," was discussed by a nmnber of speakers. C. H. Lane, chief specialist in agricultxiral education. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., read a paper entitled "High-School Extension in Agri- culture." Discussion. A tentative Report of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education as Concerned with the Work in Agriculture was read by the chairman, Ashley V. Storm professor of agricultural education, University of Minnesota, St. Pa\il, Minn. Several persons participated in a discussion on "What Should Be Raised on the School Farm." SECOND SESSION— Tuesday Afternoon, August 17, 1915 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2:30 p.m., and the following program given: "Educational Values of Work" — ^J. M. Mills, superintendent of schools, Ogden, Utah. "How Boys and Girls Respond to Home Work in a Large City" — Clayton F. Palmer, supervisor of agriculture, city schools, Los Angeles, Cal.; George L. Farley, suj)erintend- ent of schools, Brockton, Mass. "School Credit for Boys* and Girls' Club Work and Extension Activities in Agri- culture and Home Economics" — O. H. Benson, United States Department of Agri- culture, Washington, D.C. "Agricultural Education in the State of Victoria, Australia" — C. K. Harrison, Department of Agriculture, Victoria, Australia. "Gardening and Farming in the Philippine Schools" — North H. Foreman, inspector of school gardens and sites. Bureau of Education, Manila, P.I. The following oflScers were elected for the coming year: For President — George A. Works, professor of rural education, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. For Vice-President — Henry N. Goddard, high-school inspector. State Department of Education, Madison, Wis. For Secretary — ^W. S. Taylor, associate professor of agricultural education, Uni- versity of Texas, Austin, Tex. F. L. Griffin, Secretary 1131 1 132 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS HIGH-SCHOOL EXTENSION IN AGRICULTURE C. H. LANE, CHIEF SPECIALIST IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D.C. High-school extension work in agriculture comprises all educational efforts at the homes and on the farms of the people, and also such work at the school itself as is more or less temporary and that centers directly in interests away from the school. Community work in agriculture is welfare work and is properly a necessary part of the curriculum of a school that is maintained by the people for the service of the people. Community work should aid the people in solving the principal problems of farming and also the social, economic, and educational problems of farming communities. To this end it is necessary that trained men be available, but I shall have more to say about this matter later. In too many cases the extension work has been used merely as a means of publicity for the school or the personal aggrandizement of some teacher. This will fail in the end and it will react unfavorably on the school itself and the work in general. The whole motive must be sincerely to help the people, not to push or advertise the school nor to promote publicity for any person. There are instances of high schools which have failed of their pmpose and been repudiated by the people because they were dominated by the desire to aggrandize themselves or to exploit the people for the sake of state aid or other remuneration. Only so long as they have the spirit of service and of substantial demonstrated work will they have reason permanently to do community work. It is proper that a public high school that is doing good work should extend itself to the people, but it is well to hold in mind that it should not begin the process until it has something to extend. Not every high-school instructor in agricxilture is qualified to do extension work. The instructor should first show in the classroom that he is competent to extend his instruc- tion to the patrons of the schools. Extension efforts should be the result of work rather than the beginning of work. One is likely to make the mistake of beginning the extension work first, whereas the extension work should grow gradually as the school work in agriculture grows and be the natural expression to the people of the work that arises in the school itself. We have arrived at more or Igss standardized methods of high-school teaching in the academic subjects and sciences. We are beginning to standardize our regular high-school instruction in agriculture as experience accumulates. We shall also arrive at standard methods of extension work. We appear to be now in an epoch of exploitation and the putting over of Department] HIGH-SCHOOL EXTENSION IN AGRICULTURE 1 133 enterprises. I am afraid of many of the variegated schemes. The safety in the situation lies in the fact that the farmer is more concerned with his plowing than with anybody's pet scheme. Before attempting extension work, the teacher should study the agri- culture of the community to learn what is being done and what is worth while agriculturally in each part of it. He should know the character of the soil, the character of improvements, the systems of farming followed, the class of farmers, and the conditions of the rural one-teacher schools and of the churches. This information is fundamental to an intelligent develop- ment and adaptation of both interior and exterior instruction. The stu- dent who comes to the high school must adapt himself to the instruction of the school and apply its teachings in agriculture to his own local conditions, but the school teacher that goes to the farmer must adapt his teaching to the community in which he is instructing, and to do this he must know local conditions. The success of his extension work will depend largely upon how much he teaches that the farmer can put into practice on his own farm. It is therefore wise to make haste slowly, to secure the co-operation of the more progressive farmers, and to do more demonstrating than talking. The past ten years have seen the wonderful growth of agricultural education movements. It would seem that everybody has undertaken the education of farmers. The United States government expanded the work of the Department of Agriculture. State agricultural colleges and experi- ment stations have taken on a new life. Normal schools, high schools, and even elementary schools have added agriculture to the curriculum. Railroads, manufacturers of farm machinery, and various commercial organizations have undertaken the work of helping the better-farming movement by putting out demonstrations and running agricultural trains and publishing literature. State departments of agriculture have become active in holding institutes and publishing literature for the farmers' enlightenment. The popular thing is to boost the farmer and to undertake to help him to farm more scientifically. The forces are out trying to help put farming on a better basis, and the service is indeed all right, but too often the work is being done at cross- purposes. The results are not in proportion to the efforts spent. These various agencies need to do what they are trying to teach the farmers to do —"get together." All sorts of schemes are broached nowadays in the interest of better agriculture and country life. These need co-ordinating, but they cannot be co-ordinated except on some basic principle. We have in agricultural extension work no more important problem than to try to decide in the next few years the groundwork on which may be based a correlation of labor that shall be both scientific and practically efficient with reference to: (i) the relationship of high-school extension in agriculture to other public- supported agencies within the state; (2) the relationship of state-supported "34 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Agricultural agencies to federal agencies; and (3) the relationship of all to privately supported agencies. An equally important problem is, finally, the way in which in the community, the county, the state, and the nation, the whole problem of agriculture and country life can be integrated, solidified, and made effective as a great national piece of development. After considerable investigation in regard to suitable extension work in agriculture for secondary schools, it is generally agreed that the teacher of agriculture may extend his influence outside of his regular high-school work in the following ways: (i) by supervising the home-project work of his pupils; (2) by directing agricultural instruction in the grades; (3) by organ- izing and following up boys' and girls' clubs; (4) by acting as organizer for the one week's short course for farmers; (5) by offering personal counsel and advice on certain days to farmers of the community; (6) by assisting in organizing farmers* reading-courses; (7) by directing school agricultural exhibits locally and at the county fair; and (8) thru Saturday meetings with farmers and by farm visitation. In a broad way the high-school teacher who attempts extension work should represent the commimity agriculturally; he should stimulate it; he should point the way; he should project the meetings, policies, and methods of work as applicable to the place: he should have an office in the high school in which facts pertaining to the agriculture of the community are assembled and where they will be avail- able for the use of any person who desires them. The agricultural teacher should be an organizer of information and of movements; he should become a director of agricultural enterprises within his school community. He should act as the connecting link between the scientists of the research institutions of the state and nation and the farmer, presenting the results of investigations in such a way that tiie farmer can use them, and calling the attention of scientists to the local agricultural problems of the community and soliciting their assistance. In carrying on his work, he should first attempt to meet the evident needs of the local farming popula- tion; in a particular locality it may be the question of liming the land and the ways of securing the lime; in another it may be the means of spraying orchards and the securing of the machinery and materials; in another it may be the health of the live stock and the means of improving it; in another it may be combined action in the buying of certain supplies or in the selling of certain products; in still another community it may be the question of information and careful publicity as to the value of available lands for sale; it may be seed selection or the making of demonstrations; it may be a means of exchange, and so on to the end. You sometimes hear it said that none but the man of great experience, in some cases it is even urged that none but the investigator, should attempt to teach the farmer the results of research. Without doubt care should be taken in selecting agricultural instructors by any state, as they should be thoroly acquainted with the results of the state experiment station, and all Departmentj HIGH-SCHOOL EXTENSION IN AGRICULTURE II35 instructors within the state should, as far as possible, teach the same thing. But after all, as a broad proposition, we must choose the agricultural teacher carefully, and then we must trust him to do his work — that is, we should not treat him any differently from what we do other teachers. If we waited in placing agriculture in high schools and carrying on extension work until all the teachers were just as good as the best, we should not have any system of agricultural instruction. The fact that some men will some- times teach what is not true is lamentable, tho it is perhaps as inevitable as human nature is, but we should not, I think, set up standards for agricul- tural teachers which we do not set up for other teachers. The one big problem then in secondary agricultural extension work is to devise courses of training for high-school teachers comparable in effective- ness to those given men entering other professions. Such courses should contain two essential elements: (i) sound training in the science of agri- culture, and (2) sound experience in the practice of the art. The scientific training of the high-school instructor who engages in agricultural extension work should be just the same as that of other agricultural experts up to a certain point. That is, he should have good training in the fundamental sciences and in agricultural science at least to the extent given in well- organized agricultural courses leading to a Bachelor's degree. It is extremely doubtful whether he should be permitted to specialize in the latter part of a course as is now common in larger institutions. On the contrary, since he is to be a teacher, it is necessary for him to have training in psychology and in the principles and methods of education. Since he will be expected to contribute to the local paper, he should give careful attention to language work and have much practice in the clear I and simple statement of his thoughts. Something like what is attempted ' in the courses in journalism given at a few of our land-grant colleges should be included in his program. He should have practice in public speaking, for we are coming to see that the voice of the teacher whether in the school- room or on the lecture platform is a vital factor in the education of the masses and always will be. The student agricultural and horticultural societies, or literary societies, should be encouraged to devote programs or parts of programs to mock organizing of farmers' clubs and co-operative societies, boys' and girls' clubs, and even to the discussion of vital country- life problems. In this the various college departments can render valuable assistance by suggesting programs, topics for discussion, and outlines for extemporaneous talks. Provision should also be made for actual practice in extension work. In the Junior and Senior years, the students preparing to teach in high schools should be attached to the extension division of the college and allowed to participate in its work. They may thus be given practice teaching in the short courses for farmers given at the college, and sent out with experienced extension workers to speak at conventions and farmers' institutes and to teach in movable schools of agriculture. They II36 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural may also be loaned out as assistants to successful teachers to do short course work in agriculture in high schools. This method is already being used at the New York State College of Agriculture. Since the attitude of the high-school teacher's mind is a large and fundamental factor in his success, his college course should be planned to keep ever before his mind that his professional aim should be to "connect school life with the home life of the community, to bring school instruction in touch with local farm practice, to bring to the attention of adults inter- ested in agriculture any discoveries or practices of scientific agriculture the appUcation of which would be beneficial locally, to unite the agricultural interests of the community, to add zest to coimtry life, and, in short, to promote in any way possible better methods of work, greater profits, and contentment and happiness for farm people." The high-school teacher is to promote successful farm practice. He should be able to see and, if necessary, to explain the scientific foundation for this practice. But his success in extension work will be fairly judged by what he does in bringing adult farmers and young people with limited edu- cation to change their practices which are wrong for new practices which are right. Hence, in the high-school teacher's training, much stress should be laid on instruction in farm management, rural economics, and rural sociology, provided these courses are given by teachers having a thoroly practical sense and outlook. EDUCATIONAL VALUES OF WORK J. M. MILLS, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, OGDEN, UTAH He who sp>ends his time in the ceaseless grind of hard work without any recreation or study intermingled unfits himself for getting the real pleasures of life and becomes an ineflicient member of society. Likewise one who spends his entire time in pleasure-seeking because perhaps he is relieved from drudgery by the wealth of a dead ancestor and does not participate in either work or study is an inefficient if not a maUcious mem- ber of society. It may be said that one who studies all the time and never turns his wisdom to some useful end thru work or play is an inefficient member of society. Unfortunately the program of daily effort is not prop- erly distributed and men in the affairs of life are overdoing one or the other of these different activities. Everyone seems to be striving toward a better adjustment of social conditions, and there is no good reason why the school should not be the place to train for useful citizenship and for maxi- mum efficiency. By so doing, the most complete happiness, which is the ultimate aim in life, can be secured. The school, therefore, should be organized on a basis where work, play, and study may be properly adjusted. There was a time when every boy and girl had duties to perform around the home, and no matter how necessary education seemed in that day, they Department] EDUCATIONAL VALUES OF WORK II37 could not be relieved from their daily tasks. Today there are few homes that can provide the work which most school men recognize as being an essential part of the development of youth. If we have money, we must work for it. If we have pleasure, we must work for it. In order to enjoy any good thing in the world that is worth having, we must work for it. The weakest point in our American school system is that there is little provision for training boys and girls to work. We could easily persuade ourselves that swimming is a part of education if we should write a textbook on swimming and take a class of students thru the book. If they do the book work and pass well in their subject, we should regard them as good students, but some kind adviser from the real world should be near by to caution those students, when they leave the schoolroom, not to go into deep water. The student would be a better swimmer if he got into real water and learned the difficulties and how to overcome them. He would do still better if, when finding difficulties, he would consult his textbook. Many a parent sends the child thru the book work in school relieving him from all care and responsibility. He tells him that he is going to leave him unhandicapped that he may get an education, and then he will be well prepared to start his life-work. What a mistaken parent. He gives the boy the book work and then pushes him out into the ocean of life and he may either sink or swim. He will surely sink unless he has learned something some time when his father and the teacher were not looking. Fortunately for boys and girls, most of what they learn is learned outside of school. The reason a boy runs away from school is not always to his discredit. Most truants have just as much sense as those who stay in school and are just as good boys. They revolt against the system. Our forefathers did this when they wanted to correct the form of government, and were called patriots. Most of these runaway boys are of the motor type, sometimes called hand-minded. They are not book-minded boys, and become nervous and irritable in our bookish schools. Their very beings revolt against what are to them meaningless abstractions. This type of boy is extremely ener- getic and must express himself in some manner that gives himself satisfac- tion. Sometimes the actions of these boys are such that they are expelled from school, and then they surprise the community and shame those who conduct the schools by going out and making a success of life. Their educa- tion begins after they leave school. They are for the first time unfettered and allowed to grow. It is a well-known fact that many boys go thru high school and college with only one lesson thoroly learned and that is to try to get along without work. The dignity of work should be upheld. All work is education. The entire city should be considered the school, with all the shops, stores, gardens, etc., as a part of the plant. Any good thing that is learned in one place should be as valuable as any good thing that is learned in another. 1138 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural The school machine should be broken and a class of students graduated that will know how to earn a living or keep a good home. It is the big democratic idea at the bottom of the American school system which gives its power. A readjustment in some of the details of the organization, made upon the broad democratic foundation, will teach the world a lesson in education. The school of tomorrow will be vitalized by a reorganization on an industrial plan having a half-day of academic work and a half-day of industrial, social, and physical work, or on some similar plan. In certain cases, boys and girls may be excused from the industrial half-day of the school to take their industrial work in some of the approved industries of the city on the co-operative plan, on the theory that the real, practical work of life should be an essential part of our educational system; provided that it shall be thoroly supervised, and that the intellectual, physical, and social progress of the student shall not in any way be hampered. Some kinds of work have little or no educational value. Other kinds are injurious to body, mind, and morals. The child should be protected by the school from entering such employment. The educational value of earning and saving money is an important thing in the training of young people. Making a living is the first requisite of society. Many fail from thinking this the only thing worth striving for. No man lives right who stops growth at this first accomplishment. The school of tomorrow will make full use of the school plant all the time — day and evening — the year aroimd. The proper mingling of work, play, and study can lengthen the school day without injury to any child, while, under the present system, the present day is too long. Cramming the child with a mass of unrelated, discon- nected, disassociated, meaningless, abstract formaUties is making a genera- tion of mental dyspeptics unfitted for usefulness. The benefits of longer supervision in related activities are numerous. The rights of every indi- vidual child should be safeguarded, and, in some cases, it is known that the home can provide better training than the school for a part of the time each day. Great care should be taken by the school oiEcers, however, that careless and grasping parents should not exploit their children for mere financial gain. Jimior and Senior high-school boys and girls may be directed by the home, with great profit, in housekeeping, dairying, cabinet-making, gardening, and many other occupations, as well as in private lessons in art, music, languages, elocution, etc. The daily program should be such that the book-minded or the hand-minded child can be cared for and his choice under guidance should be encouraged. Every high school and college has every year shining examples of products of self-effort. Boys and girls who are forced, thru financial reverses or other handicaps, to work their way thru school are generally successful. Such students may be sometimes slower in their scholastic advancement, but they are surer in acquiring strength, ability, and solidity. Department] BOYS' AND GIRLS' HOME WORK IN A LARGE CITY 1 139 Every grade school too has had its experience in promoting those who struggle for an education. It is known that one who is doing things may be put a grade ahead without anyone even knowing that he lacks the training. Work gives young people a motive, a point of view, which when acquired is worth more than a college education without it. With it a college education is easy to get and will be worth while afterward. Work is, therefore, not a curse to anyone, and any man or woman who has begun to work while young is better off for having done so. The evil is in over- doing the work side, but even that evil is not so great perhaps as the evil of idleness. At first glance, it would appear that taking away time from one's scholastic studies would lessen one's efficiency in those branches. It would if it were not for the fact that one's physical being is rested and reanimated and one's mind clarified and made tenacious by' the task, if it is well performed. Added to this is another great factor. These daily tasks, in connection with the year's scholastic work, will do more to give a purpose than books alone. One who has a purpose in life will find his way and the world will help him. "Physical work promotes the circulation of the blood, opens the pores of the skin, gives tone to the respiratory organs, helps the functions of digestion, strengthens the muscles, adds suppleness to the joints, enlivens the senses, quickens the nerves, regulates the passions and tends to build up the constitution. Mental and moral work clears the understanding, empowers the will, keens the perception, awakens the conscience, informs the judgment, enlarges the memory, rectifies the affec- tions." HOW BOYS AND GIRLS RESPOND TO HOME WORK IN A LARGE CITY I. CLAYTON F. PALMER, SUPERVISOR OF AGRICULTURE, CITY SCHOOLS, LOS ANGELES, CAL. To those of us who have been trying to carry on home gardening thru encouragement from the school, the project seems to offer exceptional opportunities. While we might feel inclined to express regret that it was not begun years ago, we have to remember that, in the natural order of events, gardening would be taught first by teachers at school. The home garden as a taught subject is an outgrowth of the school garden and as such is here considered. To encourage the boys and girls in home gardening in our city the past year, substantial prizes were offered by the 191 5 committee, in each school district where enough interest was manifested to justify it. Careful scores have been kept by teachers and others authorized to do this and the awards are to be made at a closing celebration to be held this fall. The points taken into consideration in scoring the gardens, together with the number of units of credit attached to each, are supplied the contestants, II40 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultura and a definite effort has been made to impress upon them the significance of scoring and of conducting their operations in such a manner as to avail themselves of as much total credit as possible. Thus each visit has resulted in the imparting of a certain amount of actual instruction. From the teacher's standpoint, the whole project is part of a comprehensive scheme along educational lines. From the beginning of our campaign for better and more home gar- dening, two somewhat contrasting conceptions have been in the minds of different people. Those who have viewed the matter from the standpoint of business have hopefully looked forward to seeing the vacant lots turned into bowers of beauty, the parkways improved, new lawns established generally, etc. Now much of that sort of improvement has taken place, as a matter of course, but those of us who are teachers have been less hope- ful of startling results; we realize that such things must be achieved by a slower process. While trying to secure results that would contribute toward beautif)dng the city for the year, we have had in mind also the idea of estab- lishing a good foundation for better work in the future. We therefore hope to obtain the proper support for continuing the work. Occasionally we meet a principal who favors home gardening strongly but not school gardening. We are coming to look upon these as supple- mentary, their functions being somewhat different. The school garden is a demonstration plot wherein are taught the fundamentals of gardening. In the home garden, the pupil is free to carry out his ideas on a larger scale and to follow his own inclinations to a greater extent. Nor is this all. We make it a point to raise many plants in our school gardens, lath-houses, and cold-frames, giving the surplus to pupils to plant at home. This results in planting in the home gardens more desirable plants, and pupils are encouraged to build their own cold-frames, etc. A class puts in a lawn at school, or plants shrubbery, and soon the results are seen here and there in improved grounds, not only at the homes of pupils, but elsewhere. Our cities still have their unsightly dumping-grounds, inartistic build- ings, weedy vacant lots, congested tenement houses, filthy streets, and worst of all their slums. Many of these nuisances really have their counter- part in conditions existing in altogether too many homes, and it would seem that improvement should begin there. Education is needed quite as much as legislation and probably they should go hand in hand. To just the extent we are able to improve our homes today will these pubUc nuisances disappear naturally tomorrow. For, after aU, any city can be just as clean and wholesome as the rank and file of its inhabitants want it to be and no The home-garden project will contribute greatly to this end. more. Being interested to learn of the phases of gardening that appealed to the children in different districts, I asked the opinion of our teachers. Their replies indicated that a much larger percentage of the boys and girls preferred vegetable gardening. In some cases, the interest was divided, Department] BOYS' AND GIRLS' HOME WORK IN A LARGE CITY 1141 many planting a border of flowers about the vegetable garden. In a few districts the girls showed a preference for flowers, and, where fruit trees or vines were of producing size, they came in for a share of attention. It should be noted here that because of the nature of the contest being held in this case naturally no particular attention was paid to such home interests as poultry, rabbits, etc. That home gardening is materially reducing the cost of living there can be no doubt. We read from a teacher's report that one family practically lived on the products of its garden; another spent no money for vegetables for several months; many children sell vegetables to parents and earn spending money. A widow and five children procured their support largely from the garden. Fifty little gardeners are reported by one teacher as furnishing the family tables with vegetables. The good effect upon the moral tone of the community is vouched for by teachers in most cases. Some merely say that it is too soon to judge, but they reason that since home gardening keeps children profitably busy and in contact with nature, it naturally tends to raise the moral tone of the community. The fact that it keeps children off the streets and doing some- thing worth while is an important consideration with several. The improve- ment in the character of the individual is believed of necessity to react in favor of the whole community. One says that the backyard is cleaned, then the house, and finally the neighborhood. Several mention the fact that gardening teaches children to respect the rights of others and makes better citizens. One wisely notes that gardening develops a greater love of home, leading more people to desire to own their homes. The transformation into useful endeavor of energy that would otherwise be wasted cannot help raising the moral tone of any neighborhood. It is doubtful whether there is anything that would bring the school and the home into closer and more friendly relationship than the active interest of the school in the gardens of the homes. Certainly as an entering wedge for such results it offers excellent opportunities. One teacher says that it seems the first opportunity for a close relationship between home and school. All agree that many desirable results are bound to come from such co-operation. In the poorer neighborhoods, home visits often reveal cases of real distress that otherwise might not be known to any who could bring relief. We read in the replies that knowledge of the home environment of the children greatly aids the school in its efforts to help them, the children feeling a closer bond of sympathy; the teacher learns the child's hobbies, and gets the parent's idea of the child's personality; home gardening im- proves the work done by the child in his school plot; parents become more interested in the school in its various activities; the school garden takes on a new importance when it becomes tangible with the home garden; a sense of social unity is developed; the home-garden teacher becomes more helpful to the principal and to the other teachers of the school; children 1 142 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural respond to a feeling of personal interest; the project establishes a certain intimacy not attained in other ways; a knowledge of home conditions is gained which thru any other kind of visit would be looked upon as an intru- sion; any antagonism existing toward the school is removed, and a friendly relation is established. One assistant director reports that the interest in home gardening has greatly lessened the tendency to petty bickering between neighbors in some communities. With the possible exception of a few districts, where the work is slow in starting, teachers report that the demand for more instruction in home gardening is decidedly increasing. In some communities, the fact that prizes are offered in gardening seems to be regarded as a detriment instead of a help; but where the commercial spirit is stronger prizes seem to offer a special stimulus. It is the consensus of opinion, however, with a few exceptions, that, whatever stimulus the prizes may have been the past year as a means of arousing general interest in gardening, the cause will in the future be hindered rather than helped by them. It has been our conviction as teachers that more money should have been used in the work of instruc- tion in the homes and less in actual prizes. One of the most important problems arising in connection with the raising of produce beyond what is needed by the family is to find a suitable market for the surplus. This is especially true where there are many children in the same community who are trying to sell vegetables to their neighbors. The solution of the problem where such is the case would appear to be met thru some sort of co-operative effort in marketing. This would no doubt require considerable engineering on the part of some per- son of experience. One of our enthusiastic teachers proposes to take up actively this problem in her district, which is on the outskirts of the city. We shall watch the experiment with much interest. What then can be said in favor of the attempt on the part of the school to encourage and assist in the matter of home gardening ? We have seen that principals, teachers, parents, and pupils are as a rule heartily in favor of it. In general, the home gardening idea has been a decided success. It has resulted in the profitable use of otherwise non-productive land and idle time. It has kept thousands of children in wholesome employment, reducing the cost of living and teaching lessons of economy and thrift. Thousands of home yards have been made neater and more sanitary, the members of many families have become more closely united in a common interest, and the moral tone of many a community has imdoubtedly been elevated. In all this work, the school and home have been brought much nearer together for the mutual benefit of all concerned, and the foundation has been laid for what may result in greater achievements in the future. We beUeve enough has already been done to justify recommendation of the project to others who may care to undertake it, altho only a beginning has as yet been made in our city. Department] BOYS' AND GIRLS' HOME WORK IN A LARGE CITY 1 143 n. GEORGE L. FARLEY, SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, BROCKTON, MASS. I wish to show how one city has responded to this work. Four years ago a citizen offered twenty-five dollars to start this work, and in the fall some 30 children had carried this work to successful completion. The next year this same gentleman raised four hundred dollars and the city gave two hundred dollars, and 1,100 boys and girls entered upon the work. The third year five hundred dollars was raised by subscription and the city gave six hundred dollars with 2,500 children enrolled. Then the fourth year, three hundred dollars has been given by citizens and over 2,700 pupils are carrying on gardens. Of this number, 135 to 140 plots are of one-tenth of an acre or more in size, which allows the owner to enter the Massachusetts Agricultural College competitions. The work covers two fields: home and school gardens and the growing of both vegetables and flowers. It is under the direction of a supervisor, a teacher of the high-school faculty, who has as assistant a young man who is a student at the Massachusetts Agricultural College. The city is divided into ten districts, the gardens in each district being visited by inspectors who are pupils of the high school. Two exhibits are held each year, one at the high school, where many small money prizes and ribbons are awarded, the second at the Brockton Fair, the directors giving each year two hundred dollars. Many prizes are offered by citizens. This year, one of the city banks has employed an agent, under salary, one of whose duties is to loan to deserving boys and girls sums ranging from five dollars to twenty-five dollars to carry on projects they could not otherwise finance. This agent also sold on notes bearing interest 179 pigs to boys and girls who are entered in the Massachusetts Agricultural College pig contest. Many splendid records have been made by boys and girls. The work keeps many children off the streets during the summer months and thus out of mischief. It makes it possible for the older boys and girls to earn sufficient money to continue their school course. It teaches many lessons in citizenship, rights of property, and the value of money. The economic value cannot be estimated, but if each garden earns five dollars, and this is a very low estimate as many show returns as high as forty-five dollars, the total value of the 2,700 gardens is considerable. Besides all this work in the gardens, the work has extended to the forming of poultry clubs, and the keeping of bees, and this summer twenty-five pupils are doing canning and already report having put up forty-five varieties of vegetables and fruit. 1 144 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural SCHOOL CREDIT FOR BOYS' AND GIRLS' CLUB WORK AND EXTENSION ACTIVITIES IN AGRICULTURE AND HOME ECONOMICS O. H. BENSON, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D.C. As a part of extension education, we have what is commonly known as the boys' and girls' clubs or extension work in agriculture and home economics for the boys and girls. For a little while this afternoon we shall concern ourselves with this type of work as it is related to the public school, and shall discuss briefly, if you please, its claim upon the school from the stand- point of school credit. Personally, I have not worried a great deal about getting school credit for this home work. As a matter of fact, the best possible credit that a boy or girl may receive from club work is the education, experience, health, and conservation value, together with the blessings of the out of doors, and a net profit on investment. It is my opinion that these credits are sufficient, as far as the boys and girls are concerned, but I believe that it will be worth while for the school to express itself in a tangible way in connection with this work. If the school can offer sub- stantial credit or recognition in this type of extension work, it will do the school and the school curriculum more good than it will the home work and boys and girls engaged in it. Every member who enrols in one of these club projects signs an enrol- ment card, thereby agreeing not only to enter but to stay in the work and finish the job, covering a period of from six to ten months in all of the club or home projects. After they have thus entered, they are organized into a local club or group; arrangements are made for regular meetings, in which they participate as officers, entertainers, speakers, and so forth. During the entire cropping season systematic, carefully prepared follow-up instructions are mailed to them, a few lessons at a time, from the state college of agriculture, by the state leader in charge of club work. These instructions cover not only the selection of seed, planting, preparation, and management of the plat, but also the care and management of the surplus or otherwise waste products of their club plat. Coupled with this, we have exhibits and club festivals, in which play contests and recreational oppor- tunities are properly given and directed. Then, again, for the winter months, some very excellent lessons are furnished, showing how to correlate the club-project work with the activities of the classroom and schools. During the summer months, in addition to receiving the printed instruc- tions, club members are visited by local, leaders, county superintendents, county agents, etc., upon their individual plats, not in the parlor, but out in the field, barnyard, garden, and kitchen, where he may stand in council with the future business-man farmer, or coming home-builder. Department] CREDIT FOR AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORK 1145 All of this work contemplates very definite organization and follow-up work during the vacation and summer months. After the school has been closed and the teacher has left for vacation fields, someone should be selected to visit the club plats and club members, to conduct demonstration meetings and field meetings, and to give direction in other ways in the work of marketing, gathering and making of exhibits, making out of cost- accounting records, etc. This, in brief, outlines the scope of the work, as suggested under the head of a club project. How can we best give school credit for these home projects in the organization of club activities? First of all, let me say that if this work is carried on as outlined and designated, every member who enters and stays in the game, follows printed instructions, goes to other sources for information as directed, attends meetings, does the correlation work in the school with the home project, is certainly entitled to some recognition on the part of the school. This will help the boy to appreciate the school more if he finds that this practical work and his achievements at home have been properly recognized by educational authorities. I have but few suggestions to make along this line. You, of course, know that in every club project we have certain definite requirements and a standard of measurement or basis of award. Many people have misunder- stood the real purpose of such a basis of award, and have thought that it meant a score card or standard for the purpose of awarding large indi- vidual cash prizes, free trips, and other premiums to state fairs, county fairs, and other public events. True, the basis of award has served a very definite purpose along this line, but the real argument for this basis of award is to furnish a standard of measurement for the home project and to make it possible for the teacher to reward real standards of achievement. Every child in the public school today should be taught, as soon as possible, what an achievement is, and what it costs — not at the expense of others, but at the expense of the child's own time, money, and energy. I would recommend to this section of the National Education Associa- tion, and to your favorable consideration, that all of the bases of awards used in our club home projects be also used as the bases of awards for the giving of school credits. I am submitting below a complete set of these standards, on all the projects. All of them are based on a loo per cent score, and they have either four or five points. They contemplate yields, net profits, quality, quantity, bookkeeping records, and written stories of the work. If a boy makes go per cent on any one of these projects, it simply means that he has covered a very definite period of time and has completed a definite piece of work, during which time he has had direction, instruction, H46 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural correlated reading in agriculture (or home economics), and has had as definite training as he could have had for the same period of time in the schoolroom. In the state of Washington, the state superintendent of public instruc- tion and the other educational authorities of the state have adopted a very excellent plan: They allow 50 per cent credit toward the final examinations in the subjects of agriculture and home economics to all members who have taken up and followed to completion one of these home projects. They have set a certain percentage as minimum, as required by the committee supervising this particular t5T)e of work. I would recommend this as one of the best plans I know of for giving school credit for carefully supervised club activities or properly organized home work. In order that you may understand fully what we mean by "club work," "home projects," and "bases of awards," I will first outline the projects and state the specific requirements, then recommend a workable basis of award for each project upon, or from which, the work of the boy and girl may be measured, and for which school credit may be given. These all contemplate a definite, approved, supervised project, definite hours of work, business methods put into practice, net profits to the child, and a completed job — hence its claim to school credit. Please note the following list of club projects, work units, and bases of awards on the various projects, some of which are now being definitely promoted by the state co-operative leaders in charge of boys' and girls' extension work in agriculture and home economics: List of Peojecxs field, fa£m, frxht, and garden projects i-acre com project i-acre potato project i-acre sugar-beet or mangel project ^(pacre garden project Square-rod market-garden project I-acre alfalfa project i2-tree apple-club project 4-year rotation project ^-acre tomato project HOME DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS 3- to 6-month canning and marketing project 3-month mother-daughter canning project lo-piece garment-making project Backyard-garden project Boys' and girls' home-canning project Plat of wheat and 10 loaves of bread project ANIMAI. HUSBANDRY PROJECTS Pork and crop production project Poultry project: (o) hatching and rearing project; (6) egg-laying and marketing project Beef and crop production project Dairy-club project Department] CREDIT FOR AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORK 1 147 SPECXAL CLUB PROJECTS Home-management project Fann-management project Farm and home handicraft project Basis of Awaso or Standass fob Awarding School Credit, Medals, Ribbons, AND Otecbk Prizes Requirements. — The requirements for all clubs are practically the same. Every member is required to attend meetings, follow instructions, and faithfully manage at least his acreage or project units, outlined in No. i, under "Basis of Award," as a minimum. There is no limit to the size of the plat or the amoimt of work tmdertaken. The member must keep a record of observations, cost, and receipts, and make an exhibit of his products at the time and place designated by state and local leaders. corn clxtb Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Yield per acre (i acre) 30 2. Profit on investment 30 3. Exhibit of ten ears 20 4. Written story and crop report 20 Total score 100 potato club Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Yield per J acre 30 2. Profit on investment 30 3. Exhibit of 25 lbs. of seed potatoes 20 4. Written story and report records 20 Total score icxs SUGAR-BEET OR MANGEL CLUB Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Yield per acre (i acre) 30 2. Profit on investment 30 3. Exhibit of ten individual beets ao 4. Story and record of dub work ao Total score 100 I^ ACRE GARDEN CLXTB Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Quality of vegetables {^ acre) ao 2. Quantity of products ao 3. Appearance, and plan of garden ao 4. Profit on investment 20 5. Story and crop records 20 Total score 100 1 148 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural SQUARE-ROD MARKET-GARDEN PROJECT Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Quantity of products (i sq. rd. minimum) 20 2. Quality of products grown 20 3. Appearance, and plan of garden 20 4. Profit on investment 20 5. Story and crop record 20 Total score 100 ALFALFA CLX^ Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Yield per acre (i) (average, if over i) 30 2. Net profit per acre (or average) 30 3. Exhibit of cured alfalfa 20 4. Story and record of crop production 20 Total score 100 APPLE CLUB Requirements. — Care and management of not less than 10 apple trees for the season. Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Percentage of extra fancy fniit ^ 20 2. Gross returns from trees 20 3. Total yield, in bushels 20 4. Use of by-products 20 5. Story and crop records 20 Total score 100 FOUR-YEAR ROTATION CLUB Requirements. — Outlining and carrying out a definite four-year rotation of farm crops suited to the soil, climate, and conditions, on a minimum of 4 acres. Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Total yield of acreage for foiir years 30 2. Average net profit per acre for four-year period 30 3. Condition of 4-acre plat at end of foxir years 20 4. Records for four years and story of work 20 Total score 100 ^0 ACRE TOMATO-CLUB PROJECT Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Yield on ^ acre of land 3° 2. Net profit 30 3. Exhibit of fresh and canned products 20 4. Crop records and story of work 20 Total score lOO Department] CREDIT FOR AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORK 1 149 3- TO 6-MONTH CANNING AND MARKETING CLUB Requirements. — Members of this project must agree to study methods and practices of marketing as well as methods of home canning, and must agree to put up at least 10 varieties of which half must be vegetables. Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Quality of canned products 20 2. Quantity of canned products 20 3. Variety of canned products 20 4. Profit on investment 20 5. Marketing, canning records, and story of work 20 Total score 100 MOTHER-DAUGHTER CANNING CLUB Requirements. — Mother and daughter to follow the same instructions, make records together, co-operate in doing the work, and put up during the season not less than 25 quarts of food products, in either glass or tin, the same to represent at least 1 2 varieties, 6 of which must be vegetables. Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Quality and variety of canned products 20 2. Quantity of canned products 20 3. Appearance of canned products 20 4. Profit on investment 20 5. Records or story of home-canning work 20 Total score 100 TEN-PIECE GARMENT-MAKING CLUB Requirements. — This project to cover a period of not less than nine months, and members to agree to follow the instructions in the making of not less than 10 practical pieces of sewing. The 10 pieces must represent at least three different designs or garments. Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Stitches 20 2. Neatness of work and design 20 3. Appearance and practical use of garment 20 4. Cost of production 20 5. Story of work and records 20 Total score 100 boys' and girls' home-canning CLUB Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Quality of canned products 20 2. Quantity of canned products 20 3. Appearance of canned products 20 4. Profit on investment 20 5. Story and canning record 20 Total score 100 II50 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural WHEAT AND BREAD CLUB Basis of award for wheat plat: Tet Cent 1. Stand and general appearance of wheat plat 25 2. Quantity of wheat produced on plat 25 3. Exhibit of not less than 50 wheat stalks 25 4. Story and crop records 25 Total score 100 Basis of award for bread: Per Cent 1. Quality of bread (see score cards) 50 2. Story, bread recipe, and baking records 50 Total score 100 PORK AND CROP PRODUCTION CLUB Requirements. — ^Members of this club are required to grow at least a part of the feed required for the raising of the pigs or hogs, preferably one acre of either com, alfalfa, cowpeas, rape, or other suitable feed, and to raise during the season at least one pure-bred hog. Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Yield of crop and rate of gain of pork 20 2. Net profit of crop and pork 20 3. Exhibit of crop products and pig 20 4. Percentage of feed for hogs produced at home 20 5. Crop records and story of work 20 Total score 100 POULTRY CLUB The po\iltry-club work should consist of two club projects: (i) Egg-laying and marketing. This dub project should be the first imdertaken in the poultry work, followed by the hatching and rearing project. Unit: From four to six birds, all of one strain. Minimum time of contest: Four months. Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Eggs produced 30 2. Profit on investment 30 3. Records and reports kept 20 4. Written story of the work 20 Total score loo (2) Work in hatching and rearing of not less than 30 chickens. Contest period: Not less than four fnonths. Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Highest percentage of chickens alive after four months 20 2. Quality of pen of fowls exhibited 20 3. Profit on investment 20 4. Highest percentage of eggs hatched 20 5. Story of production and records 20 Total score 100 Department] CREDIT FOR AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORK 1 15 1 BEEF AND CROP PRODUCTION CLUB Requirements. — Club members will be required to feed and care for at least one animal for a period of not less than nine months. The animal must not be under three months of age nor over three years. Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Rate of gain of animal 20 2. Cost of gain of animal 20 3. Score record of animal 20 4. Cost and gain records 20 5. Story of work , 20 Total score 100 DAIRY CLUB Requirements. — Club members are required to care for one dairy cow for a period of not less than four months; to make butter-fat tests and keep feed records for a period of not less than four months. The record should cover feeding, weight of milk, and butter-fat produced, as well as test of the milk. Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Feeding records 20 2. Care of cow 20 3. Testing records 20 4. Rate of gain of butter-fat 20 5. Story and written records 20 Total score 100 HOICB-lfANAGEMENT CLUB Requirements. — ^Members of this project must agree to follow the requirements of the outlined work, covering interests in the four divisions of the home-interest work, such as cooking, housekeeping, home management, aiid homemaking. At least three duties will be assigned in each of these divisions. Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Score on cooking (3 units) (food and recipes) 25 2. Housekeeping (3 imits) (arrangement) 25 3. Home management (3 imits) (business) 25 4. Homemaking interests (3 imits) (domestic, social, educational). . 25 Total score joo Note. — The three imits under each of these heads are to be first judged on the basis of a definite score card providing for the particular tjT)e of work which the unit represents. If one of the units be breadbaking, the score card used for that particular unit should be -the bread-score card. FARM-MANAGEMENT CLUB Requirements. — ^This project should be made up of four activities, representing each of the four following divisions of farm-management work; (i) field work, as represented by the growing of a crop; (2) the organization of the farm, or part of the farm, on a business 1 15 2 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural basis; (3) feeding and management of live stock; (4) special work with reference to markets, keeping of records, and management of farmstead. Basis of award: Per Coit 1. Results shown by growing of one field crop 25 2. Organization of farm enterprises (show plan) 25 3. Feeding and management of farm animals 25 4. Marketing method and cost accounting 25 Total score 100 Note. — Each of the four subdivisions named above is to be scored by a basis of award for each unit. FARM AJJD HOME HANDICRAFT CLUB Requirements. — Members of the farm and home handicraft project must agree to work out not less than 10 different units, or 20 pieces of any one imit of the list submitted by the state leader, and according to plans and specifications fiunished for direction in this work. Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Quantity of work completed 20 2. Quality of work 20 3. Skill, speed, and accuracy shown in demonstration 20 4. Set of drawings of 10 units exhibited 20 5. Records and written story 20 Total score 100 FARH WOOD LOT CLUB Requirements. — ^The object of this club is to encourage the planting, care, and manage- ment of trees, with a view to their utility, beauty, comfort, and economic value to the farm, with special regard to the farming commimities of the North Central states and the dry-land areas of the West. Members must plant and care for not less than 10 trees during a period of twelve months. Basis of award: Per Cent 1. Condition of wood lot as to soil, freedom from weeds, etc 20 2. Condition of the trees at the end of the year 20 3. Location, planting, arrangements, etc 20 4. Kind and quality of individual trees (adaptation) 20 5. Records and story of work 20 Total score 100 Note. — ^It is imderstood that the projects and bases of awards given at this time are intended only as guides and for our convenience in the consideration of the subject under discussion. The state leaders in charge of the boys' and girls' extension work should be consulted and the set of standards in general use for the state should be followed by all teachers who are to consider the matter of giving school credit for such work. The state leader will be in a position to know whether the work is properly organized and super- vised, and entitled to consideration by the schools. Too much school credit for home work. — I am not in sympathy with the idea practiced by some of our people in the giving of school credit for every important little thing that a child does at home. I would not appreciate Department] CREDIT FOR AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORK 1 153 it if a teacher of our Washington, D.C., schools should offer definite credit to my child for brushing the teeth, washing the ears and neck, taking daily or weekly bath, speaking kindly to parents, doing little necessary chores, and many other common domestic and individual activities of the home and of the home environments. It is my opinion that the giving of awards for such things is likely to set an improper standard and to do more harm to the child than good. We expect the home to train properly the children to do these common, necessary, civil things without any thought of being paid for them, or given outside credit and recognition for them, excepting as they receive it in the "I thank you," or the possible smile of approval. We must give to the young people of America proper ideals and proper standards. They must be able in all of their activities, whether in school or upon the farm, to recognize in their efforts and the relation that they hold, not only for the todays, but for the tomorrows, that a day properly spent in study and in the exercise of the brain and the development of physical powers will give them a claim on the future to ten days of comfort, efficiency, and contentment; and, in like manner, the waste of a day will mean a ten-day resultant in defeat, disappointment, and failure for future life. With this in mind, and looking forward to these things, it will make it an easier matter to handle the credit phase of our home work. If our boys' and girls' home work is to be properly recogaized by the school and school authorities, we appreciate fully the importance of a definite standard of measurement. It is not necessary to have a com- plicated standard nor a new standard. Some degree of measurement is necessary and possible in connection with this work. In my judgment, everything that is being done by the teacher and the taught that is worthy of being undertaken at all is capable of being measured by some standard. There is no other way for us to determine when we have achieved. In all of this work, we seek, thru the leadership of state, district, county, and local schools, to have a definite record of the hours of work, the degree of application and concentration, amount of interest shown and investiga- tional work undertaken, and the a^djustment of the enterprise into the local needs and conditions. We must remember that the function, not only of the boys' and girls' club work, but of the school, is to reinforce and render more efficient the most important institution in American life, the home. The home, after all, is the foundation of all the superstructure in American educational life. With the automobile, the moving-picture shows, and other new and rapid-transit interests of the todays, we shall need to speed up considerably in our work of sending the boys and girls back to the home; otherwise, the impressions they get of the home, its activities, interests, and enterprises, will not be the sacred impressions that now linger in the minds and hearts of men and women, to comfort, sustain, and pilot them thru the wiles and trials of modern life. 1 154 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN THE STATE OF VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA C. K. HARRISON, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA I. Agricultural teaching given in 1. Primary state schools Elementary agriculture is taught in 700 rural schools. The work is largely experimental and deals with properties of soils, the growing of common crops, and the principles of manuring. Small experimental plots are established at a great many of these rural schools. This work is conducted by the education department. 2. Agricultural high schools Established in ten rural towns under the following conditions: a) Half of cost of buildings and equipment shall be contributed by local subscriptions. h) Not less than 20 acres of land shall be provided and must be convenient to the high school. c) At least 50 students, paying prescribed fees, shall be guaranteed before a proposal to establish an agricultural high school is entertained. Students must be at least fourteen years of age aW must pass a qualif)dng entrance examination. Ten students are admitted for free instruction on the recommendation of the board of control. 3. Technical schools Working Men's College, Melbourne, and at Gordon College, Geelong, where agricultural chemistry, wool-classing, and poultry- breeding are taught. 4. Agricultural colleges a) Longerenong Situated in the northwestern part of the state, for boys not over sixteen years of age, where the principles and practice of agriculture are taught. Students divide their time between college and farm work. This is a preparatory agricultural school for the h) Dookie Agricultural College Situated in the northeastern part of the state. Students must be over sixteen years of age before entering this college. Here they are taught among other things analyses of soils, effects of manuring, rotation of crops, drainage, principles of breeding plants and animals, how to cope with diseases affecting them, and farm bookkeeping. On the farm the student learns to handle sheep, cattle, horses, pigs, and poultry. Department] AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION IN VICTORIA, AUSTRAUA 1155 The area under cultivation is 1,000 acres each year. A graduate from this college may enter Melbourne Uni- versity for the veterinary science course. The University of Melbourne makes use of this college as training-ground in the theory and practice of agriculture for candidates for the degree of Bachelor of Agriculture. c) Burnley Horticultural School This school is situated in one of the suburbs of Melbourne and has an area of 33 acres. The science of horticulture, poultry- breeding, and bee-keeping is taught. Lectures are also given in other subjects. The course for a certificate covers two years. This school has 2,000 different varieties of fruit trees. 5. Experimental farms Experimental farms established: a) The central research farm at Werribee. Situated 18 miles from Melbourne, where experiments in methods of cultivation, irrigation, manuring, stock-breeding, improving cereals by selection and cross-fertilization, testing of fodder plants are made; oats and barley are grown and dis- tributed among the farmers. b) Rutherglen viticultural station Situated in the northern part of the state. The chief work at this station is the propagation and grafting of the American resistant vines for reconstitution of phylloxerated vineyards. This work is done by boys from the Neglected Children's Home. c) Wyuna irrigation farm Situated in the Goulburn Valley, where experiments and demonstrations in irrigation and cultivation are carried out. d) Bamawm experimental farm Situated in the Rochester irrigation area, where experiments in the growing of tobacco and citrus fruits are carried on. 6. Experimental and demonstration plots Established on farms in different districts thruout the state, the practical work being done by the farmer under the advice and supervision of experts. These plots, 10 acres in area, are rented by the Department of Agriculture. II. Agricultural teaching and lectures 1. Agricultural classes, where free lectures and practical demonstra- tions are given by experts thruout the state under the auspices of local agricultural and other associations. 2. Demonstrations, Practical demonstrations in cheese-making, fruit- preserving and drying, etc., flax manufacturing, poultry-dressing, etc. iiS6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Agricultural m. Agricultural teaching. Agricultural publications, annual reports, monthly journals, and bulletins on special subjects are issued and dis- tributed regularly by the Department of Agriculture. IV. Agricultural teaching — ^Agricultural exhibits The departmental exhibit of agricultural products is forwarded to agricultural shows for inspection. Special acts of educational value which are for prevention of disease in stock and plants and for the eradication of noxious insects and weeds, have been passed and are as follows: Vegetable Disease act; Stock Dis- eases act; Vermin Destruction act; Bees act; Thistle act; Compulsory Sheep-Dipping act; Milk and Dairy Supervision act. GARDENING AND FARMING IN THE PHILIPPINE SCHOOLS NORTH H. FOREMAN, INSPECTOR OF SCHOOL GARDENS AND SITES, BUREAU OF EDUCATION, MANILA, P.I. The Philippine public schools reach the people by means of numerous agencies the most prominent of which are gardening, food campaigns, settlement farm schools, farm schools, and agricultural schools. Each of these is a part of an educational policy which makes the industrial work a required school activity under the personal supervision of teachers. Gardening as taught in the Philippine public schools means the cul- tivation by pupils of a tract of ground planted in vegetables. One-fifth of the cultivated area is in the school garden where under modem methods it serves as an object-lesson and model. The other four-fifths is either at the home of the pupil or in some vacant lot, but always under the super- vision of a teacher, and cultivation of it is a part of the pupil's industrial requirement. The parents readily see the good which comes out of this form of school activity and their appreciation is great. Without doubt gardening is responsible for the inproved variety of fresh vegetables found in the markets thruout the Islands. The result is an improved diet which is of much economic significance to every Filipino home. At the same time it stimulates the people to improve the native plants and to raise in their own gardens the food for which they were formerly dependent upon the inadequately supplied markets of the locality. In many instances enough vegetables are grown to make the marketing of the surplus a remunerative occupation. While the Filipino boy is learning to grow vegetables, his sister is learning to prepare them in appetizing dishes. More than 100,000 pupils were engaged in gardening during the school year 1914-15 and more than 43,000 pupils' home gardens were kept producing thruout the year as required school work. Special food campaigns, started in 191 2, were largely responsible for the increased production of food and the corresponding decrease in rice Department] GARDENING AND FARMING IN PHILIPPINE SCHOOLS 1157 importations. The planting of yams, legumes, and other quickly maturing food plants have been pushed by the teachers who each year went among the people and urged them to grow more foodstuffs. The results are evi- denced by the present condition of the people, who are now freer from food shortage than ever before, notwithstanding the recent locust scourge and the untoward business conditions incident to the European war. The greatest of these campaigns is the corn campaign which is now in its fourth year. This campaign is conducted to increase the production of corn and to make it popular as a human food. Not only was it necessary to encourage corn production, but the girls went out before the people and prepared in plain view of the public palatable corn dishes. This offset the old idea that corn was not a good food due entirely to the poorly prepared product usually eaten. The 8,000,000 people who inhabit the Islands depend upon the rice crop for their staple food supply. The rice crop in the Philippines is not sufficient to feed the people even when a normal crop is harvested. At all times rice is imported, and when the local production falls below normal, prices rise and thousands of people find it difficult to secure sufficient food. The corn campaign aims to give the people a food which will supplement their rice diet at all times and become a staple when the rice crop fails. The campaign divides itself into a number of somewhat distinct activities all of which are a part of the great object to make corn a well-received table food in all parts of the Islands. Corn-growing contests were organized last year enrolling 43,000 boys, all of whom actually grew corn and were taught seed-testing, seed selection, cultivation, and judging. Some 11,000 girls were taught how to prepare palatable corn dishes with such simple utensils and common ingredients as are available in the ordinary Filipino home. The people were reached by a series of corn posters displayed in all schoolhouses, markets, and town halls, and by corn lectures given in the native dialects to more than 500,000 people. More than a half-million people were served samples of well-prepared corn foods together with recipes telling how to prepare the food. The result has been that corn is now appreciated as a human food. Larger quantities are being produced with a corresponding decrease in rice importations. Figures for the year 1914 show that since 191 2 the acreage has increased 38 per cent, the total yield 61 per cent, and the aver- age yield 81 per cent. This additional corn represents a money value to Filipino farmers of about $4,700,000. During this same three-year period the rice importations dropped from 260,249,653 kilos to 98,921,497 kilos, or about 62 per cent. Altho we may not wish to claim the entire credit for this great saving for the people, still the coincidence is significant, and the corn campaign, gardening program, and other food campaigns con- ducted by the Bureau of Education as a part of the industrial work of the public schools have been great factors in reaching the people. 1 1 58 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Agricultural The work of taking the people as they are and helping them to develop in terms of their surroundings has brought out a t)^e of school which is known as a settlement farm school. These schools are opened in sections where the first need is to feed the people. A few pupils are gathered together and imder the direction of a teacher they begin the growing of food crops on a tract of land reserved for the school farm. The pupils spend one-half of their time in the field and the other half in the classroom. The farm is provided with a work animal and such tools as represent an advancement upon local methods, but stiU within the comprehension and financial means of the people. The farm is worked entirely by the pupils on a communal basis and the harvested products are given to the pupils to take home. It is not infrequent that entire families subsist for consider- able periods upon this school-grown food. Permanent villages whose inhabitants now cultivate the surrounding fields after much the same manner as that followed on the school farm have grown up around the school farms. Large areas of open land have been put under cultivation and thousands of roving families settled in permanent homes. There are about one hundred of these settlement farm schools some of which have been open for several years. They clearly demonstrate the tremendous influence such schools have upon the people. These little farms contain many vital lessons. Without doubt they form the first well-fenced land, the first land to be kept producing every month of the year, and the places where seed selection is first practiced in their localities. They introduce the first improved hogs and chickens into the neighborhood, later becoming the distributing-points for better fruits and farm crops. Other types of agricultural schools are planned to meet local conditions. One of these which we term farm schools enrols pupils of both sexes for work in the intermediate grades, A model farm of from twenty to forty acres is developed. Both boys and girls enrol in special vocational courses. These schools, of which there are now eleven, have been responsible for determining many agricultural facts of importance, and of demonstrating their practical use thru the pupils' co-ordinated home projects. Pupils attending these schools reside at their homes, returning each school day to the farm school for the day's work. There remains another t)rpe known as agricultural schools where a farm of considerable area (one hundred or more acres) becomes the center of a colony formed in an vmsettled region. The farm is worked on an exten- sive basis in contrast to the intensive methods of the other types. Dairy herds and herds of range cattle are developed. It has been proven by the oldest of these schools that homesteaders settle upon the surroimding land and that the locaUty becomes a settled community. Six such schools are now open and three more projects are being considered. The results have been secured only after much study and careful preparation. Special Department] GARDENING AND FARMING IN PHILIPPINE SCHOOLS 1 159 texts in agriculture have been prepared and many modern farm implements adapted to local needs. Most rural schools in the Philippines are largely agricultural in scope of activities. These together with the special schools of purely agricul- tural aims make the public schools a great factor in educating the people. In many sections the first modern plows and improved corn mills were used by the schools. The first attempts to practice crop rotation, to conserve soil fertility, to introduce better plants, to produce better hogs and chickens by improved breeds, and to visit the farm homes and help the farmers to understand new plans and new ideas, were made in most localities by teachers in fostering and carrying out the agricultural educational plans of the school system. The Filipino farmer gives credit to the public schools for the insight given him into better conditions. In every phase of the work, the schools aim to be practical in the fullest degree and to help educate the boys and girls to become more eJ0&cient along the common lines of work they must follow in life. We believe that a school is most democratic when it fills the common needs of the daily life of the people it serves. i DEPARTMENT OF CLASSROOM TEACHERS SECRETARY'S MINUTES OFFICERS President — Nellie Minehan, vice-principal, Jefferson Street School Milwaukee, Wis. Vice-President — ^Jane McCarthy, teacher, Public Elementary School No. 164. .Brooklyn, N.Y. Secretary — Maky V. Donoghue, teacher, Stewart School Chicago, 111. FIRST SESSION— Wednesday Forenoon, August 18, 1915 The meeting was called to order by President Minehan at 9:00 a.m., in Ebell Hall. The following addresses were given: "Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions" — ^James Ferguson, San Francisco, Cal. "Rating of Teachers" — J. W. Crabtree, president. State Normal School, River Falls, Wis. "Abolishing the Rating of Teachers" — Ava L. Parrott, Public School 115, Man- hattan, N.Y. Discussion. It was moved, seconded, and carried that a committee be appointed by the president to draw up a resolution on "Rating of Teachers," such resolutions to be presented to the Committee on Resolutions of the National Education Association. The following committee was appointed: Isabel Williams, Jackson School, St. Paul, Minn., Chairman. Ella Flagg Young, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. J. W. Crabtree, president, State Normal School, River Falls, Wis. Ava L. Parrott, Public School 115, Manhattan, N.Y. Miss Fahey, New York, N.Y. SECOND SESSION— Wednesday Afternoon, August 18, 1915 The meeting was called to order by the president at 2: 30 p.m., and the following program given: "Teachers as Councilors of the Superintendent and Board of Education" — Ella Flagg Young, superintendent of schools, Chicago, 111. "Vocational Education — Its Dependence upon Elementary Cultural Training" — Frederick W. Roman, professor of economics, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y. The following officers were elected for the coming year: For President — ^Mary E. Adkisson, teacher, public schools, Denver, Colo. For Vice-President — Isabel A. Ennis, president. Class Teachers' Organization of Brooklyn, Brooklyn, N.Y. For Secretary — ^Mary V. Donoghue, sixth-grade teacher, Stewart School, Chicago, 111. The committee appointed to draw a resolution on "Rating of Teachers" presented the following resolution, which was approved and presented to the Committee on Resolu- tions of the National Education Association for its consideration: Resolved, That the National Education Association, while recognizing the necessity of a record of all individuals connected with any system of schools, desires to call atten- tion to the fact that the excellence of our public schools depends upon the teachers, 1161 Il62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Classroom Teachers and that anything which unsettles them lessens their efl&dency. Therefore, be it further Resolved, That no arbitrary or perfiinctory estimate should be permitted to enter into this record. Maky V. DoNOGHUE, Secretary PAPERS AND DISCUSSIONS TEACHERS' SALARIES, TENURE, AND PENSIONS JAMES FERGUSON, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. One of the great weeklies, Life, recently published a cartoon consisting of two pictures in which the first shows a Hebrew merchant observing one of his employees coming out of a savings bank. In the second picture he is shown telling his partner what he has just seen, and he ends with the statement: "We are paying too high wages." To him the savings bank was for the employer, not for the employee. This is a cartoon, but it expresses so much truth that it may well be considered a treatise on the principal factor in determining wages. It is no uncommon thing to find in the commercial world salesmen working on a commission, who, when they get to the point where they make unusually large salaries, are changed from a commission basis to a flat salary of much less than they were making when working on commis- sion. In a conversation with an official connected with a business repre- senting one of the largest institutions in this country, he remarked to me: "We have to use our men like lemons. We squeeze out of them all we can get, and then throw them away." We also know that girls and women are being employed in many places at wages far below the actual cost of living, and, to make such a condition impossible, legislatures have been compelled to pass minimum-wage laws for women workers. This has been done, as you know, in California. A higher intelligence on the part of the employer, especially of skilled labor, shows him that it pays better to raise wages to conform to a higher standard of living, making it possible for the workman and his family to form home ties and have the comforts that should go with modern home life. In this way, permanency in the working force is secured and an increase in efficiency is the result. Changing employees means a lower standard of efficiency. The same is true in the commercial world also. One of the most noted examples of the desire to secure permanency of employees is shown in the case of the Ford Motor Company. And because Mr. Ford has seen fit to pay his permanent employees a wage which makes it possible for them to secure a home, surrounded by attractions that are appealing, and to enjoy other social advantages, some have looked upon him as the philanthropist of this country. But Mr. Ford, I understand, makes no claim to such distinction. With him it is good business. Department] TEACHERS' SALARIES, TENURE, AND PENSIONS 1 163 He believes it yields bigger dividends to get the best and keep them. To this attraction of better wages and a higher standard of living is added by many public and private corporations the pension plan. Pensions typical of the industrial pension idea, and established by railway, industrial, and commercial concerns, have been put in operation by many business companies. These are discussed briefly in the Ninth Annual Report of the Carnegie Foundation. By insuring protection against dependency in old age thru a pension, employees in such institutions are found to be willing to remain permanently in a position and to give themselves more unre- servedly to their work. The maximum wage is fixed by the estimated required cost to create in the employee the amount of physical and mental energy necessary to perform the task in the manner most profitable to the employer. Where wages have gone beyond this point it has been on account of the organized and united demand of the employees. Secretary Wilson, of the Bureau of Labor, speaking in Southern California the other day, was quoted by the daily papers as saying that a rise in wages never comes voluntarily but as the result of an organized demand on the part of the wage-earners. The history of labor for the past fifty years is conclusive proof of this statement. Does someone ask, " What has this to do with the salaries of teachers ? " Investigate the methods by which such salaries are fixed and you will find practically the same principles governing. How much more than a bare temporary living — without any prospect for the future — does a community give a teacher when it fixes her salary at $300 per year ? While in some large cities, salaries run as high as $1,200, the average salary of grade teachers will be found to conform to about the standard of the actual cost of bare living. I am not here referring to the higher position. But even in such cases it may be remarked that the same preparation and the same expenditure of energy in other directions would give far better returns than teaching. In this connection let me refer you to two interesting tables on p. 14 of the bulletin entitled "A Comparative Study of the Salaries of Teachers and School Officers" soon to be issued by the United States Bureau of Edu- cation. These show the average yearly salaries of elementary-school teachers in comparison with the salaries of workmen in building trades and of policemen and firemen in groups of cities thruout the United States. In every case but one the teachers are paid less than the firemen and police- men; as compared with plumbers' salaries, teachers' salaries are always lower. Salaries in commercial and industrial life are higher than in teaching, with vastly greater opportunity for advancement, and it is not strange that many men and women leave the profession each year because of the higher remuneration offered them. The average length of service for teachers in many localities is as low as two years. 1 1 64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers With the teacher, the community is the employer who fixes the salary thru the boards of education or other school officials. Here an influence enters which in many respects is worse than the selfishness of business — it is politics. Boards of education, whether elected or appointed, are almost wholly dependent on some part of the poUtical system for the funds with which to carry on school work. The political party in power is inter- ested primarily in remaining in power, and it is considered one of the best ways of remaining in power to keep down taxes, even at the expense of the schools. In some of the more progressive communities, it is found credit- able and profitable for the administration to boast of large sums well spent on education. But such are the exception. The fact is, the purse strings are held by the politicians, and lest their chances for re-election be endangered by a higher rate of taxation, school appropriations are kept at their lowest, salaries of teachers are kept down, schools are given poor equipment, many buildings are insanitary and inconvenient, even to the point of endangering the health of the occupants, and the children are made to suffer. This condition is modified in a city or community only so far as the higher intelligence of the people makes it necessary. What is the remedy ? The first step toward it is to divorce our schools, not from politics, for we cannot do that, but from the politicians, and put them in the hands of men and women committed to the cause of education. This is a task worthy of bold hearts. Having secured the necessary funds, the next step will be to get the highest efficiency based upon educational qualffications on the part of the teachers and the superintendent of schools. This can be accomplished by making the teaching profession worth effort to prepare for and worth remaining in. Good salaries and permanency of tenure are the greatest attractions devised by the commercial and industrial and professional world, and thru these permanent efficiency has been secured. The same results would follow in teaching. What inducement can there be for a young man or woman to prepare for work in teaching when it is a known fact that many of the janitors are paid more than the teachers and that their tenure of employment is more secure. And the janitors are by no means overpaid. Much has been said about evils attending permanent tenure. I have never known one of its critics to refuse a position under the system. On the contrary, I have known some of them to come pretty near breaking the speed limit in a race to secure one. It is sometimes said that the system preserves the unfit. Where this is so, it is an abuse which can be corrected by the proper enforcement of the retirement clause which should always be made a part of any plan of permanent tenure. Department] RATING OF TEACHERS 116$ RATING OF TEACHERS J. W. CRABTREE, PRESIDENT, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, RIVER FALLS, WIS. It is a very great honor to have this privilege of reading a paper before the classroom teachers of this Association. I see before me some of you who are not classroom teachers, but who are in administrative and super- visory positions, and I think well of you. I am greatly interested in the phase of work you are doing. My heart, however, is not with those of you who direct the work in a general way and who receive the larger pay half as much as it is with these classroom teachers who do the drudgery, these women who do the actual teaching but who do not receive the pay. Just as farseeing statesmen have abiding faith in the great common people and render a greater service to our country by striving to promote their weKare, so our truly constructive leaders in education must have genuine faith in the classroom teachers, the so-called rank and file of our profession, in order to render the best service to education and to youth. The city superintendent, the supervisor, or the normal-school president is deserving of credit for work well done in administration or supervision, but the classroom teacher, that little woman perhaps who does the actual teaching and who lays the first foundations for knowledge and for character, is not only entitled to greater credit than has ever been accorded to her, but to a more certain tenure and to a much higher salary than she receives at the present time. Any system of rating teachers, in order to have my support, must not only give classroom teachers a squarer deal than any I have studied, but it must actually promote their educational and financial welfare in a more pronounced manner than any I have yet seen in operation. Let it be definitely understood at the outset that I have neither prepared nor adopted a scheme of rating to submit for your consideration and approval. I frankly admit that while I hope we may some time have a satisfactory system of rating teachers, I am not competent to prepare at this time anything like a scientific scheme to use as a basis for promotions and for salary increases in my own faculty. Not until I am able to work out a scheme which is satisfactory to my own faculty shall I attempt to thrust one upon you, to control your promotions and your salary increases. There are few if any of our superintendents and teachers who would not be in favor of a good merit basis for salaries, and who would not welcome the general use of a good method of rating placed in impartial and expert hands' and one safeguarding the interests of the teacher as well as those of the superintendent and the board of education. One class of people considers it absolutely impossible to find a safe, usable scheme of rating, but does not know exactly why it is impossible. Another class thinks it entirely feasible to work out a satisfactory plan without knowing exactly how to do it. I belong to the second class. That Il66 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers is about where we are today. It must be remembered, however, that in any movement toward efficiency the battle is haK won when the need of the step to be taken is fully appreciated. From that standpoint, success is already half-way attained. Possibly we have gone a little beyond the half-way point, because some work has actually been done and some try outs have actually been made. Milwaukee has tried out more than one scheme of rating and is yet experimenting somewhat along that line. The next speaker, who knows the New York system thru and thru will, according to the program, recommend "abolishing the rating of teachers." The Minnesota plan does not seem to be as popular as it was a year or two ago. Like the old army musket, it seems to have a kick-back defect. The kick- back shot I am told has even loosened now and then a superintendent from his position. That may have been a good thing or it may have been a bad thing. At Asheville, North Carolina, teachers are rated as Class A, Class B, and Class C. The rank is based on: (i) success involving personality and schoolroom efficiency; (2) educational preparation as shown in pro- fessional, cultural, and academic training; (3) experience, considering grade and length of teaching service. The rating is done by the superin- tendent and the conmiittee of the board. The bulletin of the Bureau of Education does not say whether the scheme is satisfactory to the teachers or not. But similar schemes are used elsewhere with varying degrees of success. Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania, determines the teachers' fitness for salary increases by giving percentages on the following points : (i) evidences of growth in schoolroom efficiency; (2) evidence of growth in scholarship; (3) evidence of growth in the theory of teaching. The superintendent keeps an efficiency record of all teachers. The teachers' committee also makes an efficiency record. Salary increases are based upon these records. These schemes are simple enough, incomplete enough, and mild enough to avoid great harm even tho they add Httle if any to the pocket- memorandum method not so often seen as really used by superintendents. The completer systems in the larger cities are still more imsatisfactory than these simpler, rougher makeshifts. The foundational surveys established and operated by predatory wealth have worked out compUcated card systems of rating teachers which have not yet been tried out by superintendents, but which have been used by those making surveys in determining the percentage, not of efficiency, but of inefficiency on the part of teachers in the public schools. These sur- veyors look upon it as a weakness in teachers who fear to be measured by their system, and yet it is a matter of common knowledge that when one of these foundational surveyors was himself being surveyed he was actually sick and in bed for several days. Of course the sickness in this case may have been a coincidence, yet it is certain that this surveyor maintained that he was not getting a square deal. Overworked teachers have often grown Department] RATING OF TEACHERS 1 167 more nervous also when forced to submit to tests given with apparent critical intent. Much better progress has been made in the matter of finding reasonable and satisfactory methods of testing the efficiency of pupils in the schools. The following are successful plans which seem to have come into more or less general use: the minimum essentials by Thompson; the Hillegas scale on composition; the Ballou scale on composition; the Courtis tests in reading and arithmetic; the Starch tests in reading. It does not seem unreasonable to assume that enterprising and con- structive educators may also eventually work out more satisfactory methods of testing teaching efficiency and better methods also of safeguarding the interests of the teachers who are thus rated and ranked. The chances are that there will be less difficulty in working out a usable scheme than we are aware of, when other conditions are right. The trouble at present may be due to bad laws fully as much as to incomplete and faulty schemes of rating. Teachers have a right to demand that the system of rating in some way apply to those doing the rating as well as to themselves. They have a right to demand that this work be placed in absolutely impartial hands. They have a right to object to narrow, incompetent, or cold-blooded judges. The high type of service rendered by these teachers should guarantee that the rating be done by those who actually know the work and appreciate fully the difficulty to be overcome in doing it, and who are in sympathy with the work and anxious to promote the welfare of teachers. Why not begin nearer the top and rate the college and normal-school professors first ? Why not apply the scheme to superintendents and super- visors before applying it to the teachers under their supervision? Then after the necessary sifting and refining have been done above, protect by law, rules, and regulations from censure and from ousting, those who are to give honest estimates of teaching efficiency. Not until some of these steps are taken can we ever safely recognize genuine merit in making promotions and in giving salary increases. The chief advantage to be gained from a good safe plan of measuring teaching efficiency is not so much in the promotion and increased salaries as in the constant growth and increase in efficiency on the part of teachers. Teachers discovering their weak points will strive the harder to overcome them. Teachers will learn that even personaUty may be cultivated and that it pays to give time and attention, just as one would to arithmetic and grammar, to the cultivation of cheerfulness and happiness. After all, the big thing in life is not to receive much money but to render actual service, to go about, as did the great Teacher, doing good in the world. ii68 NA TIONAL EDUCA TION ASSOCIA TION [Classroom Teachers ABOLISHING THE RATING OF TEACHERS AVA L. PARROTT, PUBLIC SCHOOL 1 1 5, MANHATTAN, N.Y, The abolition of the rating of teachers where this practice already ^sts, and the prevention of its further introduction, is second only in importance to the question of salaries. In fact, rating, both directly and indirectly, affects the salaries. Also I wish unhesitatingly to take the position that teachers are entitled to the privilege of obtaining the highest salaries which they can, equally with all other classes. This subject will directly interest those teachers who are rated at present. It will indirectly interest those who may, in the future, be rated, owing to the movement among superintendents to "standardize" the methods of rating and thereby more specifically and in detail to apply and accentuate the faults and injuries of this already pernicious system. It also indirectly concerns and should interest all teachers, for, just as long as teachers are rated by a superior officer, and that mark kept on file, just so long will the public and the other professions refuse to call teaching a pro- fession and just so long will the average salaries thruout the United States be utterly absurd, as compared with those of other vocations, when the requirements and work are considered. When the time comes, as it surely must come, when teachers are regarded as having been licensed to practice the profession of teaching, as are members of the clergy, lawyers, and physi- cians licensed to practice their professions; when they receive their hcense to teach unhampered by any demeaning, artificial, arbitrary, perfunctory, and superficial rating, then will teaching truly be a profession and be acknowledged as such by the public, and then and not until then will the emolument of those in the ranks be materially increased. But I am not speaking primarily upon rating in its relation to salaries; I mention that issue only to show that the abolition of rating where teachers are rated, and the prevention of its lurther extension, concerns the teachers who are not rated as much as those who are. I am speaking of rating as fundamentally wrong, impossible of just and correct appUcation, lowering to the self-respect and dignity of teachers, both to themselves and in the eyes of parents and children, entirely imnecessary, a detriment to good pedagogy, and a bar to the placing of teaching among the professions. It would be well perhaps to give a very brief history of the origin and progress of this movement. A committee of high-school teachers decided that the system of rating teachers in New York City needed revision. They placed the matter before the Teachers' Council, which in turn placed it in the hands of its Committee on Professional Interests. This committee caUed a public hearing upon the matter thru the papers. I saw the announcement, and, having come from Philadelphia schools eight years before where teachers were not rated until the fall after I left, I had always resented and disapproved of this rating of teachers. I had also learned Department] ABOLISHING THE RATING OF TEACHERS I169 from teachers in Philadelphia that during the eight years since its adoption in that city some of the evil effects which were troubling New York teachers were noted in Philadelphia. For the first five years of my service in New York, I had not looked at one of my ratings. But I was particularly inter- ested in the subject. I therefore attended this hearing on March 27, 1914. There were about twelve or fifteen speakers. Each advocated an entirely different and separate way of patching up, revising, or continuing some method of rating. After all had finished, I spoke strongly for total aboli- tion, giving my reasons. This viewpoint was accepted with acclaim by those present, four men offering to place anything in the papers which I might write regarding the subject, a number offering their support to such a movement. All seemed to abandon their original diversified views, and one asked me to join a particular teachers' association. Later we formed a new association and thru it we endeavored to accomplish the abolition of rating. This association we called the Professional Teachers' Association. We advocated the idea thru the press, and by the sending of many briefs and letters and by the holding of personal interviews with various members of the Board of Superintendents and Board of Education finally obtained a hearing upon the subject. In October of last year, 1914, a committee of this Board of Superintendents appointed to investigate the subject brought in a report giving eleven reasons for the entire abolition of rating. Despite these recommendations, and the agitation of the Professional Teachers' Association, the most that has been accomplished, in a definite way, with the Board of Superintendents is that this board has voted to have the district superintendents rate but once in three years instead of every year, as formerly. There will be time to answer but a few of the popular objections. I have referred to the hearing granted the Professional Teachers' Asso- ciation by the Board of Superintendents. At that hearing one of the superintendents made the statement, which I have found to be rather a popular one: "Policemen, firemen, those in civil-service employ, physi- cians, lawyers, doctors, all are rated." This superintendent was confusing rating, as it is applied to teachers, with the reputation which is won by a professional man, the estimation in which he may be held by the public, the judgment which may be formed of his ability. The members of the other professions are not rated as are teachers. In the case of policemen, firemen, and those in civil-service employ, these are all performing definite, specific acts which can be measured. A teacher's work cannot be measured. The second popular objection, voiced by another member of the Board of Superintendents and also repeated to me the other day by one of the officers of this Association, was: "But we have to have some way to rate teachers in order to regulate salary schedules." Salaries should never be regulated by ratings. The first and most practical reason is that there can be no comparative or ratio value in these 1 170 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers ratings, as between one teacher and another, because they are rated by differ- ent minds. It is therefore an obvious injustice to regulate salaries thereby. To illustrate: In New York City there are about five hundred principals and forty-two district superintendents who are obliged to rate teachers. It is readily apparent that there must be as many standards as there are principals and district superintendents. To illustrate further: Superior Merit, or an A, under one principal or district superintendent might be a B, under another. B under one might be C under another. I could give many proofs of instances where this is so where teachers have changed from one school to another. In one school they may receive B-}-'s, in the next B, and C, and so on. This is too self-evident to dwell upon longer. Standardization to a teacher is impossible. Would anyone for a moment suggest that "standardization" would be possible with physicians, lawyers, ministers ? The absurdity is made apparent there at once. You can see that it is equally absurd with teachers, for they are doing the same kind of work — work which cannot be measured and gauged by a scale, but for which the community must trust to their education and integrity. The second reason for abolishing rating and for not having the salaries regulated thereby is that it gives those who rate too great power and places them in a position in which they are open to temptation. In some cases this power is abused. An aflSrmation that it is not, by those who rate, would be equivalent to an assertion that they are not human. No system should be allowed which permits of injustices when it comes to the status of a person's work. I am not basing my claim upon these exceptional cases, but upon the fundamental principles. To say that there are but few C's given is also not an argument for continuing rating, but one of the best arguments for discontinuing it. Why then all this unnecessary time, expense, and energy put upon it for a very few? This argument was advanced to me by a member of the Board of Education of New York. The third reason for abolishing rating and for not having salaries regu- lated thereby is the fact that because rating does regulate salaries this practice has the following injurious pedagogical effects. These effects are so self-evident that I shall not explain or illustrate them, but shall simply state some of the ill effects. First, the teacher is hampered, and is prevented from expressing her own individuality. Payson Smith, state superintendent of public schools, Augusta, Me., in his wonderfully fine paper, read before this Association, spoke against making the school system simply a machine, and gave this one special idea: "It is not more standards that we need, but greater freedom to the individual teacher." The rating of a teacher, and the regulation of her salary thereby, absolutely destroy all her freedom. The second pedagogical evil is that rating makes the teacher a machine. Again she teaches what the principal and district superintendent want rather than what the children need. Did that rating not stand in the way, Department] ABOLISHING THE RATING OF TEACHERS II71 she would confer with the principal and be able to prove to him, sometimes, that his methods did not fit her class. Fourthly, it causes rote teaching — getting the facts into the children's heads as soon as possible, before the principal or district superintendent comes around. Fifthly, it makes what we might term, in modern sociological phraseology, rate slaves of the teachers. This is proved by the statement in the Hanus report that the teachers were afraid to voice any of their opinions. I have heard many who have interviewed teachers in New York make the same assertion, and I myself have experienced the disadvantages of their fear many times. It is unnecessary to do more than simply state that teachers controlled by fear, or under a system which inculcates fear tending toward cowardice, are not the most desirable teachers for the children of our future generations. How then would you regulate salaries ? Pay the salary for the posi- tion, not for the incumbent. While teachers will and should differ in attainments, as is true everywhere else in the industrial world, their salaries cannot be regulated by any system of merit within the same position, for their work cannot be measured. There should be automatic increases, due to years of experience, within the schedules for each position. Some teachers would have improved more than others in the year, or years. But so, perhaps, do presidents, senators, etc. Since that improvement cannot be measured and compared one with another, the increases should be purely automatic. If teachers can come to be regarded by the public as educators/ of the children, rather than as employees of a board of education, the public will come to approve of good salaries. Some say that rating is necessary to maintain efficiency. Rating is not deemed necessary to keep up to the mark those at the heads of our school systems where salary is paid for position. By what right is it assumed that it is necessary to keep teachers up to the mark? It is only on that assumption that rating could be justified. But everyone will admit that it is generally conceded that teachers are the most con- scientious class of public employees. But then what would you do ? Merely provide for the expulsion of the absolutely inefficient teacher, and for the urging to better work of any few who might seem inclined to lag. That is all that is necessary. The president of the Board of Education in New York, at a meeting before the Federation of Parents' Associations, said: You ask us why we don't discharge more teachers for incompetency. Why should we? We haven't any to discharge. You don't hear of missionaries being discharged from their positions and very few ministers. And I do not place the members of these professions above the teachers. They are missionaries. They have to meet rigid reqiiire- ments to become teachers and there would be no more reason for discharghig them than there woiild be for discharging missionaries. No inefficient teacher should be allowed to enter the profession. Each applicant for a new position should be required to prove his fitness for the 1 172 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers position before a board of judges by submitting all his credentials, letters, degrees, history of experience, etc. He should be urged to talk upon his hobby, or discuss school systems before the members of this board. They would soon learn whether he was a live wire or a dead follower. If the time were not imduly curtailed, the majority of this board could not fail to form a correct estimation of the applicant's manner, personality, and force of character by his method of presentation. They could deter- mine his logic, system and executive ability, and could note details as to his voice, poise, manner of dress, and general culture. With a physical examination as at present, a fair written examination to determine the applicant's technical knowledge of the subject, and a test which would demonstrate his use of written English, his proper place upon the eligible list could be determined. Having entered the profession, he should be given a chance to win a reputation. He invariably wins it in the school and with the principal. He should be given an opportunity to win it with the pubUc and the community thru the passing of a compulsory observation law for parents; or by winning in some way the presence of one parent of a chUd to observe one whole day in a school in alternate years, and every other citizen one day in every two years; the observers being obhged to remain from the time the teacher enters the classroom to the time of her leaving, whether it be one, two, or three hours after the regular dismissal time, and only one observer being allowed in a room at a time. Thus would the teacher acquire a reputation, be held in certain estimation by the community, and be judged as are members of other professions. That would be the simplest way of bring- ing the home and school together and would result in school budgets of any size desired by the school authorities. K there can be a compulsory edu- cation law for the children, why not a compulsory observation law for the parents? It is almost equally important. The foregoing methods would be more a spur to efficient teaching than rating, and would hold some inspiration and enable the teacher to feel that she held a position of dignity. If an inefficient teacher be found, or one who is deliberately neglectful of her work and who needs urging, let the teachers take care of that themselves thru a general teachers' coimcil, with a branch in every school, the board of education acting as the final court of appeals. A description of the details for carrying out this plan is un- necessary. Teachers know that as long as the responsibility for a teacher's work rests with the principal, the teachers will keep their hands oflf, but if the responsibility were placed directly upon the teachers, it would immediately create an esprit de corps among them. Any weak members would be urged and helped, and those inefficient sympathetically and justly dealt with for the benefit of what would then be a profession. A behef that teachers should be rated by any supervisory official can only imply that the majority Department] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND CULTURAL TRAINING 1 1 73 of the rank and file of the teaching staff of the United States cannot be trusted as can the members of other professions, educators in higher posi- tions, or those holding places of trust in the government. I have thus far found no one who has dared to make that assertion. While superintendents are puzzling over ways to "standardize" methods of rating teachers, let the classroom teachers prove that teaching cannot be standardized, work for the abolition of all rating, and hold to the position that when the license is granted we enter a profession. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION— ITS DEPENDENCE UPON ELEMENTARY CULTURAL TRAINING FREDERICK W. ROMAN, PROFESSOR OF ECONOMICS, SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY, SYRACUSE, N.Y. Our country is the richest in the world. Never before have our work- men been able to produce as much goods as is being created in the present capitalistic stage of economy. More food and clothing are produced each day per capita than has ever been the case in any previous epoch of history, yet there is great discontent among the workers. Wealth is being con- centrated more and more into the hands of the few. The effect of this tendency is expressing itseK daily in the threatening social revolution just ahead of us. Strikes of enormous proportion are the subjects of the head- lines of great cosmopolitan dailies. Civil strife has been so great and so frequent in recent years that one may say that the state militia or federal troops are busy restoring order in one or more sections of the country all the time. Such is the brief but true analysis of our industrial situation in this country. It is clear then that the paramount economic question is not ways and means of producing more goods and better goods, but rather a reorganization or at least a readjustment of our means of distributing the enormous quantities of wealth which are being produced right now. The agencies for educating the children of this country are asked to help coming generations to solve the question of .distribution rather than that of produc- tion. Despite this economic and social situation, we find numerous vocational-school men who seem to think that mechanical eflSciency is the chief, and about the only, element needed in the future vocational-school curriculum. Let it be distinctly understood at this point that we in no wise wish to disparage the importance of training in skilled workmanship in vocational schools. One of the goals of the vocational schools must always be high- grade mechanical efficiency, but we must not overlook the fact that material deficiency is not the chief defect of our present industrial organization. We have at the present time a host of commercial clubs, chambers of com- merce, manufacturers' associations, and a small group of school men who "74 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION (Classroom Teachcra are taking just this narrow view of vocational education, which all goes to prove what amateurs they really are when it comes to deahng with the industrial ills of our country. We see this narrow conception of the vocational-school problem expres- sing itself in systems of dual control — such as we find in the state of Wiscon- sin. Strenuous efiEorts have been made in the state of Illinois for the last several years to establish vocational education under an independent school board. The Wisconsin law and the Illinois proposed scheme place the control of the vocational schools in the hand of a so-called practical board composed of employers and laboring men. This whole dual-control idea rests upon the notion that it is the chief business of vocational schools to train the pupils in mechanical efficiency. Some manufacturers feel that that is the only thing worth while. The boy is to be trained to be a high-class machine. It is argued that this Mrill enable him to command the highest wages possible and, therefore, lead to his best comfort. To this fundamental misconception of the real problem connected with vocational training, these same commercial clubs and manufacturers' associations have called to their aid three argimients; First, they have said that the teachers in the elementary schools and high schools are not in sympathy with vocational training. The public school has been held responsible for the large number of boys and girls who leave school after the age of twelve years, and for the small proportion of our high-school graduates as compared with the number who enter. Pupils dropping out of the elementary school and the high school have frequently been called the waste produce of our public-school system. This has been supposed to be due, in a large measure, to the incompetence of the teachers and to an elementary- and high-school curriculum that fails to meet the needs of the children. A second argiunent for the separation of vocational schools from the elementary schools has been championed in this country because it was claimed that such separation was based upon the best experience found in Germany. It is safe to say that the dual-control idea of Wisconsin and the agitation for a similar dual board in the state of Illinois are primarily due to the supposition that such a scheme represents what is being done in Germany. A careful analysis of the German school system shows that the dual-control propaganda carried on here in the United States is not at all warranted by what Germany is doing. In some parts of Germany, there is a dual state control which has Uttle or no relation to the dual control as provided for by the Wisconsin law. Sometimes we hear a third argument presented. The vocational school must have the atmosphere of the shop, the store, the mill, the factory, and this is said to be impossible as long as these schools are under the domina- tion of the present school government. With the idea that the chief goal of the vocational school is to fit boys and girls for the highest material- Department] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND CULTURAL TRAINING 1175 producing efficiency, and supported by the above-mentioned arguments, the dual-control advocates are anxious to establish an independent school system so that the large number of boys and girls, or the so-called waste product of our public-school system, may find their true function in society. It is the purpose of this address to show that vocational education, in order to be successful, must include much more than the mere making of skilled tools out of our children. Our capitalists have already robbed our forests and our mines and the natural resources of our country generally, and now we are asked to accept a system of education which looks to the exploiting of our children. To train boys and girls to become mechanically efficient will not solve the problem arising out of the ever-increasing number of strikes and labor wars going on in the United States. The greatest problem before the American people is not how to train boys and girls to produce more goods and better goods in shorter time and at less expense, but the real problem is the question involving the distribution of the goods which we already produce. Some of our manufacturers, business men, and school men seem to think that the public schools are helping the children to adjust their lives to meet the struggle for existence, and the realization of the best that life can give, by fitting the children to produce material goods. They seem to forget that this government is trying to be a democracy; hence, it becomes the task of our schools to equip our children to meet the responsi- bilities of citizenship, which is something more than knowing how to work in a factory. To train children to earn wages is one thing; to give them some adequate ideas of the amount of the wage to which they, as future workmen, are entitled, is quite another question, and for the indus- trial peace of our RepubUc, much more the important of the two, A system of vocational schools cannot solve the latter question by giving individual attention to materiaUstic training. There are, then, two distinct bases, the material and cultural, on which the vocational school is dependent upon the elementary school. It would seem that the advocates of vocational education who favor divorcing the control of the vocational school from the regular elementary school have lost sight of both. The vocational school cannot succeed unless the work in the elementary school be done thoroly, both from its mechanical and from its spiritual side. An independent vocational-school system could not even succeed in producing efficiently trained workers if the work in the elementary schools were not properly done. If the experience of the German schools teaches us anything at all, it shows that vocational schools can never be made anything worth while until the elementary schools are brought up to a high degree of efficiency. The reports of the Prussian continuation schools show that for a long time much money and efifort was wasted because the work done in the elementary schools was so inefficient. It was shown to be inefficient in II76 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION [Classroom Teachers the amount of subject-matter, quality, and method of presentation. The pupils coming from the elementary schools presented such a variety of preparation that it was well-nigh impossible to classify them with refer- ence to any vocational-school program, that had even the smaller con- ception of vocational education as the goal; namely, training for mechanical efficiency alone. It was soon discovered that a part of the vocational- school program had to be taken in reviewing the fundamental processes of the elementary school. It was necessary to teach the pupils to read, to write, and to give them thoro reviews in the simple mathematical exer- cises. The celebrated Kerschensteiner of Mimich shows over and over again that further advance in the progress of vocational education is depend- ent upon greater efficiency in the work done in the elementary schools. Hence, we see that even from the standpoint of the mechanical efficiency of the vocational school there is the greatest connection between the ele- mentary school and the vocational school. This indep)endent school board that is to have charge of the vocational schools would not be able to give us vocational graduates prepared to do the work, because in so many cases the mechanical work in the elementary schools is so poorly done. This would naturally lead to difficulties between the two school boards. The one would blame the other. Conferences and compromises would constantly be necessary, in order to work out the difficulties which would be sure to arise. Not until complete unity had been established between the elementary schools and the vocational schools, and the complete depend- ence of the latter upon the former had been recognized, could the vocational school be in position to do the best work from a mechanical point of view. I have taken some time to analyze this point of view, because I have hoped to show that this second school-board idea is not practical even under the easiest possible responsibility which we may place upon the vocational school; namely, the training of boys and girls in trade and busi- ness subjects only. In other words, an independent vocational school is not a practical institution, even when its field of operations is limited to the province of producing mechanical efficiency. These independent vocational school boards would soon find that, in order to do the work which the community expected of them, they must have control of the children, not only from the age of fourteen to seventeen, but from the age of six to seventeen. The vocational school has not fulfilled its complete function imtil it helps the boys and girls as completely as may be to adjust their lives to their environment. To prepare our boys and girls merely to earn wages will not enable them to meet the responsibihties of a democ- racy. The great need of this country and the world generally is a much more rapid development in a true understanding of questions relating to the welfare of the state. Our present materialistic civilization is threatened with destruction because the social forces which bind mankind have not kept pace with the materialistic advances of the world. Department! VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND CULTURAL TRAINING 1 1 77 It is the purpose of nature to create organic matter out of inorganic matter, and this process takes place at an accelerated rate. However, the volume of matter never increases. The more complex our material life becomes, the more must the psychic agencies be developed in order to keep the equiUbrium established. If any community or nation develops the material side of life faster than it does its mental side, then retrogression is sure to set in. Just this phenomenon is taking place in Europe now. The last generation has been spent in producing material equipment, whereas the civilization of mankind has been neglected. For that reason, this war must go on until the amount of material possession in the world is reduced to correspond with the amount of brains that the nations possess. If the material development of any community or state is to remain a permanent achievement, it must be accompanied by a corresponding mental advance. We cannot hope to hold the material blessings which we now enjoy in the United States unless our schools are able more fully to socialize our people. This quarrel between labor and capital cannot always go on. It will not be solved by vocational schools that have material production as their goal. The need of the present hour is a vocational school that is able to take due cognizance of the industrial strife that is being waged so bitterly between "those that have and those that have not." The vocational-school curriculum must give due prominence to prob- lems connected with wages, citizenship, and democracy. It is easy to understand that no vocational school can help its pupils crystallize notions on these topics that will insure the safety of the Republic unless the ele- mentary school is thoroly saturated with the cultural viewpoint thruout its entire course. GENERAL INDEX [Names of authors of formal papers are set in small capitals.] Abolishing the Rating of Teachers (AvA L. Parrott), ii68 Accountancy in Bookkeeping Classes, or Training Students to Thmk, Teaching the Fundamentals of, 884 Accoimts, Farm Statistics and Standard- ized, 925 Act of Incorporation, i Addresses of Welcome (A. C. Barker), 35; (James A. Barr), 36; (F. B. Cook), 1030; (John L. Davie), 34; (Edward Hyatt), 33; (Frederick S. Spiegel), 261; (JOECN M. WiTHROW), 264 Administration of Compulsory Attend- ance Laws (S. O, Hartwell), 485 Administration of the American Univer- sity (David Starr Jordan), 522 Advertising and Salesmanship (N. 0. Shtvely), 921 Africa, The Educational Situation in South, 135 Africa, The Progress of Education in North, — Particularly in Tunis, 171 Agricultural Education (Henry J. Waters), 193 Agricultural Education in Normal Schools (David B. Johnson), 227 Agricultural Education in Nova Scotia, Progress in Elementary, 520 Agricultural Education in the State of Victoria, Australia (C. K. Harrison), "54 Agriculture, Correlation of Chemistry and, IOCS Agriculture, High-School Extension in, 1132 Agricultmre and Home Economics, School Credit for Boys' and Girls' Club Work and Extension Activities in, 1144 Aims of Education (Ben Blewett), 560 Aldrich, George I. — The Delinquent Pupil, 449 All-Day Trades School (E. C. Warriner), 313 Allison, Elizabeth Wilson — The Teach- er's Field in PubUc-Health Work, 676 Allison, Samuel B. — Report of Commit- tee on Classification and Terminology of the Exceptional Child, 1090; Sec- retary's Minutes, Department of Special Education, 1089 Amanuensis, The Training and Field of the, 897 American History in Elementary Schools (Ida H. Holmes), 1078 Andrews, Fannie Fer,n — The Education of the World for a Permanent Peace, 246; The New Citizenship, 702 Anemic Pupil (James E. Bryan), 452 Appelmann, Anton H. — Germany's Re- cent Progress in Secondary Education, Applied Science as the Basis of the Girl's Education (Hazel W. Severy), 1020 Appointment, Salary, and Tenure of Teachers (A. G. Yawberg), 419 Architectiu'e, School Grounds and School, 1041 Art in Its Relation to National Growth (Frank A. Parsons), 8x6 Asia, The Teachers of America and the Problems of, 186 Athletics as Education and Athletics as Business (William T. Foster), 233 Athletics in Playgrounds (Charles E. Teach), 979 Australia, Agricultural Education in the State of Victoria, 11 54 Australia, Trade Possibilities between the United States and, 916 Avery, Lewis B. — The Future High School, 748 Ayres, Leonard P. — ^The Investigation of the Efl&ciency of Schools and School Systems, 384 Backward Pupil (Adelaide Steele Bay- lor), 445 Bagley, William C. — ^The Question of Federal Aid for Normal Schools, 766 Baldwin, Mrs. E. L. — Secretary's Min- utes, Department of School Patrons, 1 105 Balliet, Thomas M. — Sex Hygiene and Sex MoraUty as the Aim of Sex Edu- cation, 148; Vocational Education, Its Wider ImpUcations, 832; Discussion, 410 Banks, School Savings, 904 Barbour, Marion B. — The Influences of Modern Education upon Handwork for Young Children, 647 Barker, A. C. — Address of Welcome, 35 Barnhart, E. W. — Student Finances, 908 Barnum, Mary G. — General Federation of Women's Clubs, 1106 Barr, James A. — Address of Welcome, 36 Barrett, John — ^The Latin-American Field and Oppwrtunity, 934 Basis of Selection of an Elementary- School Library (Flora M. Case), 1075 Baylor, Adelaide Steele — The Back- ward Pupil, 445 Begg, James T. — Discussion, 481 Benson, O. H. — School Credit for Boys' and Girls' Club Work and Extension Activities in Agriculture and Home Economics, 1144 "79 ii8o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Benton, Guy Potter — Higher Educa- tion, 621 Bexell, J. A, — Farm Statistics and Standardized Accounts, 925 Black, George H. — Correlation of Chem- istry and Agriculture, 1005 Blair, Francis G. — The Determination of the School District, 427 Blanchard, Clyde — The Student Ste- nographer, 913 Blewett, Ben — In Memoriam — ^James M. Greenwood, 533; The Aims of Edu- cation, 560; The Education of Adult Immigrants, 439 Blight, Reynold E. — Is the Board of Education an Incubus on Modem Edu- cation? 1037 Boehringer, C. Louise — Some Factors Making for Growth of Elementary Teachers in the Field, 672 Boggess, Carey — Discussion, 462 Books and Education (E. O, Sisson), 1085 Boone, Richard G. — The Educational Value of Playgrounds, 989; The Social Phases of Vocational Education, 837 Bradford, Mary C. C. — Some Adjusfc- ments That Might Secure Closer Inte- gration, 641 Bradley, Frances S. — Discussion, 1115 Bright Pupil (J. G. Collicott), 457 Brittain, M. L. — Supervision in the South, 506 Brown, Elmer E. — Educational Progress in the Past Fifteen Years, 48; Higher Education, 599 Brown, J. Stanley — Secondary Edu- cation, 616; The Place and Fimction of the High School in the American System of Education, 724 Bruce, William C. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of School Administration, 1029 Bryan, James E. — The Anemic Pupil, 452 Bryan, William Lowe — The Trap, 268 Buildings, Some Problems to Be Con- sidered in the Selection of Sites for School, 951 Buildings and Grounds in the Philippine Islands, Standard School, 955 Buildings in Indiana, Ten Million Dollars for Sanitary School, 967 BmssoN, Benjamin — ^The Progress of Edu- cation in North Africa — Particularly in Timis, 171 BtnssoN, Ferdinand — ^Moral Education in French Schools, 73 Bulgaria, Education in, 190 Bumbaugh, Alice C. — The Teaching of Harmony in High Schools, 855 Burnham, Ernest — A Decade of Progress in the Training of Rural Teachers, 801 Burris, W. P. — Discussion, 554 Business Education, The Night School as a Factor in, 918 Business Enterprises, Linking School Work with, 903 By-Laws, 5 Cadwell, Helen G. — Hawaiian Music, 875 Caldwell, William A. — The Combined System of Educating the Deaf, 1097 Calendar of Meetings, 13 Carleton, E. F. — Standardization of the Rural Sdiools, 679 Carrington, W. T. — Discussion, 556 Case, Flora M. — The Basis of Selection of an Elementary-School Library, 1075 Census, The Taking of the School, 496 Chadsey, Charles E, — Secondary Edu- cation, 593 Chancellor, William E. — School-Board Members, 1033; The Selection of County Superintendents, 423 Chandler, W. L.— The Field for the Cor- poration School and Its Relation to the Public Schools, 319 Changes in EngUsh Education since 1900 (Michael E. Sadler), 144 Chase, Amanda Mathews — Working Plans for the Home Teacher, 698 Chemistry and Agriculture, Correlation of, IOCS Chemistry Course for Girls (Mary Ethel Jones), 1019 Child, Education in Relation to the Imagi- nation of the Little, 661 Child, Report of Committee on Classifi- cation and Terminology of the Excep- tional, 1090 Child Education as a Basis for the New Internationalism, A (May Wright Sewall), 667; B (Harriet P. Thomas), 668 Child Study, A (Gail Harrison), 658; B (Maria Montessori), 661 Child Welfare and Rural Schools (Thomas D. Wood), 104 Children, School Surveys of Backward and Retarded, 1095 Children, The Influences of Modem Edu- cation upon Handwork for Young, 647 Children, The Mental Hygiene of Excep- tional, 945 Children with Permanent Mental Defects, An Important Fimction of the Home- School for, 1 100 China, The Deeper Problem of Education in, 229 China, The Recent Educational Develop- ment in, 17s Citizenship, The New, 702 Civic Service, Reed College and, 757 Clark, Edith K. O. — ^The Large versus the Small Unit for Rural-School Ad- ministration and Supervision, 710 Clark, Lillian M. — Kindergarten Legis- lation in California — How We Secured It and Some of Its Results, 632 Clarke, Frances E. — Forces at Work for the Betterment of School Music, 848 Claxton, p. p. — The Organization of High Schools into Junior and Senior Sections, 747 INDEX Il8l Clubs, General Federation of Women's, i io6 Cohen, Mark — Educational Progress in New Zealand since 1900, 56 College, The Junior, 119 College-Entrance Courses for Girls, Devi- ations for Standardized, 1015 College Preparation for Teachers of Music in Secondary Schools (Ikving M. Glen), 858 CoLLicoTT, J. G. — The Bright Pupil, 457 Combined System of Educating the Deaf (William A. Caldwell), 1097 Commerce, The San Jose Junior Chamber of, 903 Conmiercial Teaching, Factors of Efficiency in Secondary, 893 Committee on Classification and Termi- nology of the Exceptional Child, Report of, 1090 Committee on Economy of Time in Ele- mentary Education, Report of, 402 Committee on Elementary-School Li- braries, Report of, 1073 Committee on Health Problems in Edu- cation, Report of, 583. Committee on High-School Libraries, Report of, 1064 Committee on Normal-School Libraries, Report of, 1056 Committee on Research, Standardization, and Correlation, Report of, 930 Committee on School Health, Report of, 1 1 13 Committee on Standardizing the Course of Study in Library Instruction in Nor- mal Schools, Report of, 1059 Committee on Tests and Standards of Efficiency in Schools and School Sys- tems, Report of, 560 Community, High-School Efficiency and What It Means to a, 742 Community Center Work (Josephine Corliss Preston), 687 Community Center Work (Elizabeth C. Sterling), 503 Compelling of Efficiency thru Teacher Training (A. Duncan Yocum), 544 Conley, Emma — Secretary's Minutes, De- partment of Science Instruction, 995 Continuation School Work in Wisconsin (Robert L. Cooley), 308 Cook, F. B. — Address of Welcome, 1030 Cooley, Robert L. — Continuation School Work in Wisconsin, 308 Cooper, Frank B. — The Mentally De- fective Pupil, 447 Corporation School and Its Relation to the PubUc Schools, The Field for the, 319 Correlation of Chemistry and Agriculture (George H. Black and Earl S. Wooster), 1005 Correlation of Physics and Manual Train- ing (M. Thomas Fullan), 996; (George R. Twiss), 1000 Cost and Labor of English Teaching (Edwin M. Hopkins), 114 Council of Jewish Women (Fannie S. Long), 1112 County Superintendents, The Selection of, 423 Crabtree, J. W. — Personality in Super- vision, 516; Rating of Teachers, 1165; The Wisdom of a Wider Use of the Pro- bational in Discipline in the Public Schools, 694; Discussion, 553 Crone, Frank L. — Higher Education in the Philippine Islands, 760; Physical Training in the Philippine PubUc Schools, 984; Public Instruction — America's Work in the Philippines, 166; School Bmldings and Grounds in the Philip- pines, 1047; The Secondary Schools of the Philippine Islands, 734 Crook, C. W. — ^The Growth and Organ- ization of the National Union of Teach- ers, 127 CuBBERLEY, Ellwood P. — Organization of Public Education, 91; School Sur- veys, 1032; University S\uveys, 755 Current Methods of Dealing with the Ex- ceptional Child, A (Adelaide Steele Baylor), 445; B (Frank B. Cooper), 447; C (George I. Aldrich), 449; D (James E. Bryan), 452; E (J. G. Colli- cott), 4S7 Current Practices in the Appointment of Teachers (William C. Griggs), 466 Curricula and Orgjmization, School, 350 Dake, L. Gilbert — The Placement Bureau, 910 Davie, John L. — Address of Welcome, 34 Davis, John W. — The Taking of the School Census, 496 Deaf, The Combined System of Educating the, 1097 Dean, Arthur D. — A State Program for Industrial and Social Efficiency, 292 Decade of Progress in the Training of Rural Teachers (Ernest Burnham), 810 Declaration of Principles, 25 Deeper Problem of Education in China (L. K. Tao), 229 Defective Pupil, The Mentally, 447 DeGrafp, Grace — Tenure of Office, 1051 Delinquent Pupil (George I. Aldrich), 449 Demands of Rural-School Districts (Frank W, Miller), 358 Department of Business Education, 883; of Child Hygiene, 941; of Classroom Teachers, 1161; of Elementary Edu- cation, 671; of Higher Education, 755; of Kindergarten Education, 629; Li- brary, 1055; of Music Education, 847; National Coimcil, 527, 587; of Normal Schools, 763, 785; of Physical Education, 971; of Rural and Agricultural Educa- tion, 1 131; of School Administration, 1029; of School Patrons, 1105; of Science Instruction, 995; of Secondary Education, 723; of Special Education, 1089; of Superintendence, 253, 502; of Il82 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Vocational Education and Practical Arts, 815 Desmond, Daisy Fox — ^The Night School as a Factor in Business Education, gi8 Detennination of the School District (Francis G. Blair), 427 Development of the International Spirit thru Education (May Wright Sewall), 244 Development of the Philippine Public- School System in Co-operation with the Home and in Relation to Industrial Conditions (Hugo H. Miller), 1116 Deviations for Standardized College- Entrance Courses for Girls, A (Blanche O. Twiss), 1015; B (Mary E. Jones), 1019; C (Hazel W. Severy), 1020; D (Ida Welch), 1022 DeWolfe, L. a. — Progress of Elementary Agricultural Education in Nova Scotia, 520 Dickie, George E. — Organization and Management of Playgrounds and Recre- ation Centers, 972 Distinctive Fimctions of Games and Gym- nastics (Charlotte Stewart), 981 DoDSON, John M. — Methods of Extending the Propaganda for the Improvement of Sanitary Conditions in Rural Schools, 584 Donoghue, Mary V. — Secretary's Min- utes, Department of Classroom Teach- ers, 1 161 Donovan, John J. — School Grounds and School Architecture, 1041 DoRSEY, Susan M. — The Special Teacher, 713 DouGAN, Lewis M. — The Education of Adult Immigrants, 440 Dresslar, F. B. — Some Problems to Be Considered in the Selection of Sites for School Buildings, 951 Dyer, Franklin B. — Response to Ad- dresses of Welcome, 266 Education, Agricultural, 193 Education, Applied Science as the Basis of the Girl's, 1020 Education, Athletics as Education and Athletics as Business, 233 Education, Books and, 1085 Education, Development of the Inter- national Spirit thru, 244 Education, Elementary, 602, 6x6 Education, Financing PubUc, 76 Education, Germany's Recent Progress in Secondary, 137 Education, Health Problems in, 583 Education, Higher, 599, 610, 621 Education, Higher Ideals in, 232 Education, Is a National Standard of Edu- cation Practical? 373 Education, Is the Board of Education an Incubus on Modem? 1037 Education, Modem Implications of Sec- ondary, 82 Education, My System of, 64 Education, National Aid for Vocational, 322 Education, Normal-School Extension Cour- ses in, 771 Education, Organization of Public, 88, 91 Education, Report of Committee on Econ- omy of Time in Elementary, 402 Education, Secondary, 593, 609, 6x6 Education, Sex Hygiene and Sex Morality as the Aim of Sex, 148 Education, Some Defects in Our Legal, 207 Education, The Aims of, 560 Education, The History and Development of American, 593 Education, The Influences of Modem Education upon Handwork for Yoxmg Children, 647 Education, The Night School as a Factor in Business, 9x8 Education, The Place and Function of the High School in the American System of, 724 Education, The Problem of Handedness in, 959 Education, The Purpose of a National System of, 588 Education, The Social Phases of Vocational, 837 Education, The Study of Education in the Normal School and the University, 539 Education, Vocational, 292 Education, Vocational, Its Wider Impli- cations, 832 Education, Way of Approach to the Su- preme Ideal in School, 239 Education (Child) as a Basis for the New Internationalism, 667, 668 Education Essential, Physical, 993 Education for World-Living (Henry Churchill King), 251 Education in AgriciUture in Normal Schools, 227 Education in Bulgaria (Stephen Pana- retoff), 190 Education in China, The Deeper Problem of, 229 Education in French Schools, Moral, 73 Education in Guatemala (Federico S. deTejada), X52 Education in North Africa — Particularly in Tunis, The Progress of, 171 Education in Nova Scotia, Progress of Elementary Agricultural, 520 Education in Relation to the Imagination of the Littie Child (Maria Montes- SORl), 66 X Education in the Philippine Islands, Higher, 760 Education in the PhiHppines, Some Social Phases of Vocational, 843 Education of Adult Immigrants (Ben Blewett), 439; (Lewis M. Dougan), 440 Education of the Engineer (Charles D. Marx), 223 Education of the Japanese in America, 157 INDEX 1183 Education of the Physician (Ray Lyman Wilbur), 212 Education of the World for a Permanent Peace (Fannie Fern Andrews), 246 Education since 1900, Changes in English, 144 Education the Forerunner of Universal Peace, Ideal, 205 Educational Development in China, The Recent, 175 Educational Progress in New Zealand since 1900 (Mark Cohen), 56 Educational Progress of Continental Europe since 1900 (Frederic E. Farrington), Educational Progress of the Past Fifteen Years (Elmer E. Brown), 48 Educational Situation in South Africa (Charles T. Loram), 135 Educational Statesmanship, The State Department and, 511 Educational System, Should It Include Activities Whose Special Purpose Is Preparation for War? 335, 337, 344 Educational Value of Playgrounds (Richard G. Boone), 989 Educational Values of Work (J. M. Mills), 1136 Efficiency and Preparation of Rural Teach- ers (Harold W. Foght), 100 Efficient Country School (David B. John- son), 683 Elementary Education (Grace C. Stra- chan), 616 Elementary Education (H. B. Wilson), 602 Elementary Music Education as a Basis for Secondary and Higher Music Edu- cation Q. Lawrence Erb), 851 Elliott, Edward C. — How Shall the Efficiency of Teachers Be Tested and Recorded ? 469 Ellis, Mrs. Don Carlos — The Southern Association of College Women, 1109 Ellis, Florence E. — Discussion, 820 Engineer, The Education of the, 223 EngUsh Education since 1900, Changes in, 144 English Grammar (William H.Maxwell), 565 EngUsh Teaching, The Cost and Labor of, 114 Erb, J. Lawrence — Elementary Music Education as a Basis for Secondary and Higher Music Education, 851 Essence of Success in Evening Vocational Work (Frederick H. Evans), 430 Eurhythmies of Jaques-Dalcroze (Grace Smith), 869 Europe since 1900, Educational Prog- ress of Continental, 199 Evans, Frederick H. — The Essence of Success in Evening Vocational Work, 430 Evans, Paul L. — School Savings Banks, 904 Evolution of the Training of the Worker in Industry (Charles A. Prosser), 296 Extension Courses in Education, Normal- School, 771 Extension Courses in Five States, Normal- School, 777 Extension Service for Iowa Teachers (Homer H. Seerley), 781 Extra-curricular Activities: Their Rela- tion to the Curricular Work of the School (V. K. Froula), 737 Factors of Efficiency in Secondary Com- mercial Teaching (John E. Treleven), 893 Farley, George L. — How Boys and Girls Respond to Home Work in a Large City, "43 Farm Statistics and Standardized Accoimts (J. A. Bexell), 925 Farrington, E. A. — An Important Func- tion of the Home-School for Children with Permanent Mental Defects, 11 00 Farrington, Frederic E. — Educational Progress of Continental Europe since 1900, 199 Ferguson, James — Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions, 1162 Field for the Corporation School and Its Relation to the Public Schools (W. L. Chandler), 319 Financial Support of the Public Schools (M. P. Shawkey), 415 Financing PubUc Education (James Y. Joyner), 76 FiNLEY, John H. — Should Our Educational System Include Activities Whose Special Purpose Is Preparation for War ? 344 Foght, Harold W. — Efficiency and Prep- aration of Rural Teachers, 100 Forces at Work for the Betterment of School Music (Frances E. Clarke), 848 Foreman, North H. — Gardening and Farming in the Philippine Schools, 1156 Foster, William T. — Athletics as Edu- cation and Athletics as Business, 233; Reed College and Civic Service, 757 French Schools, Moral Education in, 73 Frost, Joseph M. — Discussion, 464 Froula, V. K. — Extra-curricular Activi- ties: Their Relation to the Curricular Work of the School, 737 FuLLAN, M. Thomas — Correlation of Physics and Manual Training, 996 Future High School (Lewis B. Avery), 748 Future Outlook and Possibilities, A (Grace C. Strachan), 616; B (J. Stanley Brown), 616; C (Guy Potter Benton), 621 Gardening and Farming in the PhiUppine Schools (North H. Foreman), 1156 Garrison, LiNDLEY M. — Should Our Edu- cational System Include Activities Whose Special Purpose Is Preparation for War ? 335 Gary System, The Pros and Cons of the, 363 General Federation of Women's Clubs (Mary G. Barnum), 1106 ii84 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION General Science for the First Year of High School (Ida Welch), 1022 Geography Contribute to the Survey of Vocational Opportunities for Girls, What Can the Teacher of ? loi 2 Germany's Recent Progress in Secondary Education (Anton H. Appelmann), 137 Giles, J, T. — Discussion, 483 Girls, A Chemistry Course for, 1019 Girls, Deviations for Standardized College- Entrance Courses for, 1015 Girl's Education, Applied Science as the Basis of the, 1020 Girls in the Rural Schools, Special Science for, 1015 Glen, Irving M. — College Preparation for Teachers of Music in Secondary Schools, 858 Grammar, EngUsh, 565 Grant, Robert A. — The Training and Field of the Amanuensis, 897 Green, Clyde C. — The Promotion of Teachers on the Basis of Merit and EflBciency, 473 Green, James M. — Principles Underljdng the Determination of a Course of Study, 350 Greenwood, James M., In Memoriam, 533 Greeting from Guatemala (Natalie G. V. DE Morales), 229 Griffin, F. L. — Secretary's Minutes, De- partment of Rural and Agricultvu*al Education, 1131 Griggs, William C. — Current Practices in the Appointment of Teachers, 466 Growth and Organization of the National Union of Teachers (C. W. Crook), 127 Guatemala, A Greeting from, 229 Guatemala, Education in, 152 GuLiCK, Sidney L. — ^The Teachers of America and the Problems of Asia, 186 Gwinn, J. M. — Discussion, 412 Gymnastics, The Distinctive Functions of Games and, 981 Hall, Mary E. — Report of Committee on High-School Libraries, 1064 Handwork for Young Children, The In- fluences of Modem Education upon, 647 Hargreaves, R. T. — The PossibiUties of the High-School Library, 730 Harmony in High Schools, The Teaching of, 8ss Harrison, C. K. — Agricultural Education in the State of Victoria, AustraUa, 1154 Harrison, Gail — Modem Psychology in Its Relation to Discipline, 658 Hartwell, S. O. — The Administration of Compulsory Attendance Laws, 485 Hawaiian Music (Helen G. Cadwell), 875 Health, Report of Committee on School, 1113 Health Problems in Education, A (Thomas D. Wood), 583; B (John M. Dodson), 584 Health Supervision of Schools in a Small City (Peter Olesen), 963 Health Work, The Teacher's Field in Public, 676 Henderson, Wilson H. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Vocational Education and Practical Arts, 815 High-School Efl&ciency and What It Means to a Community (William H. Snyder), 742 High-School Extension in Agriculture (C. H. Lane), 1132 High-School Libraries of California (Ella S. Morgan), 1071 Higher Education (Guy Potter Benton), 621 Higher Education (Elmer E. Brown), 599 Higher Education (Frank Strong), 610 Higher Education in the Philippine Islands (Frank L. Crone), 760 Higher Ideals in Education (Charles F. Thwing), 232 History and Development of American Education, A (Charles E. Chadsey), 593; B (Elmer E. Brown), 599 History of the Extension Movement in Illinois (Walter P. Morgan), 777 Ho AG, Ernest B. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Child Hygiene, 941 Hoffman, Ruth C. — ^The Kindergarten- Primary Course in the State Normal School, 637 Hoke, George W. — ^What Can the Teacher of Geography Contribute to the Sur- vey of Vocational Opportunities for Girls? 1012 HoLDEN, Perry G. — Our Rural Schools, 97 HoLMAN, Henry — ^Way of Approach to the Supreme Ideal in School Education, 239 Holmes, Ida H. — ^American History m Elementary Schools, 1078 Home Economics, School Credit for Boys' and Girls' Club Work and Extension Activities in Agriculture and, 1144 Home Economics AppUed to Life (Martha Van Rensselaer), 821 Home Work in a Large City, How Boys and Girls Respond to, 1139, 1143 Hopkins, Edwin M. — ^The Cost and Labor of English Teaching, 114 Horn, P. W. — Discussion, 415 HoRTON, Marion L. — Secretary's Min- utes, Library Department, 1055 How Boys and Girls Respond to Home Work in a Large City (Clayton F. Palmer), 1139; (George L. Farley), 1 143 How Shall the Efficiency of Teachers Be Tested and Recorded? (Edward C. Elliott), 469 Hughes, Percy M. — ^Discussion, 501 Hyatt, Edward — ^Address of Welcome, 33 Hygiene of Exceptional Children, The Mental, 945 Ideal Education the Foreruimer of Uni- versal Peace(MiRZA Ali Kuli Khan), 205 INDEX ii8s Illinois, History of the Extension Move- ment in, 777 Illiteracy and Industrial Efficiency in Large Cities (Albert SmELs), 433 Imagination of the Little Child, Education in Relation to the, 661 Immigrants, The Education of Adult, 439, 440 Important Function of the Home-School for Children with Permanent Mental Defects (E. A. Farrington), iioo In Memoriam — James M. Greenwood (Ben Blewett), 533 Indiana, Ten Million Dollars for Sanitary School Buildings in, 967 Industrial and Social Efficiency, A State Program for, 292 Industrial Arts, The Kindergarten and, 647 Industrial Efficiency in Large Cities, lUiteracy and, 433 Industrial Training (Ella Flagg Young), 125 Industrial Values, Practical Connections between Aesthetic and, 654 Industry, The Evolution of the Training of the Worker in, 296 Influences of Modem Education upon Handwork for Young Children (Marion B. Barboxtr), 647 Instrumental Music and Instrument Study in the Oakland Schools (Glenn H. Woods), 865 International Spirit thru Education, Devel- opment of the, 244 IntemationaUsm, Child Education as a Basis for the New, 667, 668 Inui, K, S. — Japanese Education in America, 157; Music of Japan, 872 Investigation of the Efficiency of Schools, and School Systems (James H. Van Sickle), 379; (Leonard P. Ayres), 384; (Calvin N. Kendall), 389; (William H. Maxwell), 395 Iowa Teachers, Extension Service for, 781 Is a National Standard of Education Practical ? (William Howard Taft) , 3 73 Is the Board of Education an Incubus on Modem Education? (Reynold E. Blight), 1037 Issuance of Work Permits and Its Bearings on Other School Problems (Helen T. Woolley), 489 Japan, Music of, 872 Japanese Education in America (Kiyo Sue Inui), 157 Jaques-Dalcroze, The Eurhythmies of, 869 Jara, Josefa — Music of the Philippine Islands, 879 Jenkins, Anna I. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Kindergarten Education, 629 Johnson, David B. — Agricultural Edu- cation in Normal Schools, 227; The Efficient Country School, 683 Jones, Mary Ethel — A Chemistry Course for Girls, 1019 Jones, W. Franklin — ^The Problem of Handedness in Education, 959 Jordan, David Starr — President's Ad- dress—The Teacher and War, 38; The Administration of the American Uni- versity, 522 Joumal of Proceedings of the General Sessions, 21 JOYNER, James Y. — Financing Public Education, 76 JuDD, Charles H. — Normal-School Ex- tension Courses in Education, 771; Reading Tests, 561; The Protection of Professional Interests, 269 Junior College (Alexis F. Lange), 119 Keith, John A. H. — The Place and Scope of Sociology in the Normal School, 764 Kendall, Calvin N. — ^The Investigation of the Efficiency of Schools and School Systems, 389; The Training of Teachers in Service, 287 ELhan, Mirza Ali Kuli — Ideal Education the Forerunner of Universal Peace, 205 Kindergarten and Industrial Arts, A (Marion B. Barbour), 647; B (Cath- arine R. Watkins), 654 Kindergarten and the Elementary School, A (Ruth C. Hoffman), 637; B (Mary C. C. Bradford), 641; C (Lillian B. Poor), 642 Kindergarten Course of Study in the Ele- mentary School, Progressive Develop- ment of the, 642 Kindergarten Legislation, A (Mrs. H. N. Rowell), 631; B (Lillian M. Clark), 632 Kindergarten Legislation in California — How We Secured It and Some of Its Results (Lillian M. Clark), 632 Kindergarten-Primary Course in the State Normal School (Ruth C. Hoffman), 637 King, Henry Churchill — Education for World-Living, 251 King, W. F.— Ten Million Dollars for Sanitary School Buildings in Indiana, 967 Kirk, John R. — Unconscious Discipline — ^The Blend of the Self-Acting Group, 706 Labor Problem, Vocational Education and the, 828 Lane, C. H. — High-School Extension in Agriculture, 113 2 Lange, Alexis F. — ^The Junior College, 119 Lapp, John — National Aid for Vocational Education, 322 Large versus the Small Unit for Rural- School Administration and Supervision (Edith K. O. Clark), 710 Lasher, G. S. — Secretary's Minutes, De- partment of Normal Schools (Oakland Meeting), 785 Latin-American Field and Opportunity (John Barrett), 934 ii86 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Lee, Herbert — Secretary's Minutes, De- partment of Secondary Education, 723 L^al Education, Some Defects in Our, 207 Lewis, E. P. — ^The Place of Pure Science Iq Our Public-School System, 1024 Libraries, Report of Committee on Elementary-School, 1073 Libraries, Report of Committee on High- School, 1064 Libraries, Report of Committee on Normal- School, 1056 Libraries of California, High-School, 107 1 Library, The Basis of Selection of an Elementary-School, 1075 Library, The Possibilities of the High- School, 730 Library as a Continuation School (Ber- nard C. Steiner), 108 1 Library Instruction in Normal Schools, Report of Committee on Standardizing the Course of Study in, 1059 Library Training in the Normal Schools (Carroll G. Pearse), 807 Linking School Work with Business Enter- prises, A (R. R. McMasters), 903; B (Paul L. Evans), 904; C (E. W. Barn- hart), 980; D (L. Gilbert Dake), 910; E (Clyde Blanchard), 913; F (P. E. Quinn), 916; G (Daisy Fox Desmond), 918; H (N. O. SmvELY), 921 LocHNER, Louis P. — Should There Be Military Training in Public Schools ? 217 Long, Fannie S. — ^The Council of Jewish Women, 1112 Long, Mary G. — ^Secretary's Minutes, Department of Physical Education, 971 LoRAM, Charles T. — ^The Educational Situation in South Africa, 135 McDonald, A. A. — Discussion, 500 McKiNNEY, W. S. — Report of Committee on Research, Standardization, and Cor- relation, 930 McMasters, R. R. — ^The San Jose Junior Chamber of Commerce, 903 McMuRRAY, Orrin Kip— Some Defects in Our Legal Education, 207 Manual Training, Correlation of Physics and, 996) 1000 Martinez, Rupino — Standard School Buildings and Grounds in the Philippine Islands, 955 Martzoltf, Clement L. — ^Normal-School Extension in Ohio, 782 Marx, Charles D. — ^The Education of the Engineer, 223 Matthews, A. J. — ^What to Stress and What to Slur in the Preparation of Ele- mentary Teachers, 793 Maxson, Henry M. — Discussion, 482 Maxwell, William H. — English Gram- mar, 565; The Investigation of the Efficiency of Schools and School Sys- tems, 395 Meetings, Calendar of, 13 Mental Hygiene of Exceptional Children (Lewis M. Terman), 945 Mentally Defective Pupil (Frank B. Cooper), 447 Methods of Extending the Propaganda for the Improvement of Sanitary Conditions in Rural Schools (John M. Dodson), 584 Military Training in Public Schools, Should There Be? 217 Miller, Frank W. — ^The Demands of Rural-School Districts, 358 Miller, Hugo H. — The Development of the Philippine Public-School System in Co-operation with the Home and in Relation to Industrial Conditions, 11 16 Miller, James Collins — ^The School Shop and Bread winning, 824 Mills, J. M. — ^Educational Values of Work, 1 136 Modem Implications of Secondary Edu- cation (Ernesto Nelson), 82 Modem Psychology in Its Relation to Dis- cipline (Gail Harrison), 658 Montessori, Maria — Education in Rela- tion to the Imagination of the LitUe Child, 661; My System of Education, 64; The Mother and the Child, 1121; The Organization of Intellectual Work in School, 717 Moral Education in French Schools( Fer- dinand Buisson), 73 Morales, Natalie G. V. de — A Greeting from Guatemala, 229 Morals in the Public Schools Q. H. Phillips), 574 Morgan, Ella S. — High-School Libraries of California, 1071 Morgan, Walter P. — ^History of the Extension Movement in Illinois, 777 Mother and the Child (Maria Montes- sori), 1121 Music, Forces at Work for the Betterment of School, 848 Music and Instniment Study in the Oak- land Schools, Instnmiental, 865 Music Education, Elementary Music Edu- cation as a Basis for Secondary and Higher, 851 Music Education, Uniformity of Stand- ards in Secondary, 863 Music in Secondary Schools, College Prep- aration for Teachers of, 858 Music of Japan (K. S. Inui), 872 Music of the Orient, A (K. S. iNxn), 872; B (Helen G. Cad well), 875; C Qosefa Jara), 879 Music of the Philippine Islands (Josefa Jara), 879 My System of Education (Maria Montes- sori), 64 National Aid for Vocational Education (John Lapp), 322 Nelson, Ernesto — ^Modern Implications of Secondary Education, 82 New Citizenship (Fannie Fern Andrews), 702 New Zealand since 1900, Educational Progress in, 56 INDEX I187 Night School as a Factor in Business Edu- cation (Daisy Fox Desmond), 918 Normal School, The Kindergarten-Primary Course in the State, 637 Normal School, The Place and Scope of Sociology in the, 764 Normal School, The Relation of the High School to the, 786 Normal School, The Spiritual and Pro- fessional Assets of the, 279 Normal School and the University, The Study of Education in the, 539 Normal-School Extension Courses in Edu- cation (Charles H. Judd), 771 Normal-School Extension Courses in Five States, A (Walter P. Morgan), 777; B (Homer H. Seerley), 781; C (Clem- ent L. Martzglff), 782 Normal-School Extension in Ohio (Clem- ent L. Martzolff), 782 Normal-School Libraries, Report of Com- mittee on, 1056 Normal-School Point of View (Homer H. Seerley), 539 Normal Schools, Agricultural Education in, 227 Normal Schools, Library Training in, 807 Normal Schools, Report of Committee on Standardizing the Course of Study in Library Instruction in, 1059 Normal Schools, The Question of Federal Aid for, 766 Normal Schools and the Training of High- School Teachers, The State, 809 Nyi, Z. T.— The Recent Educational De- velopment in China, 175 Officers of General Association for 1914-15, 15; of Departments, 17 Ohio, Normal-School Extension in, 782 Olesen, Peter — ^Health Supervision of Schools in a Small City, 963 Organization and Management of Play- grounds and Recreation Centers (George E. Dickie), 972 Organization of High Schools into Junior and Senior Sections (P. P. Claxton), 747 Organization of Intellectual Work in School (Maria Montessori), 717 Organization of Public Education (Pay- son Smith), 88; (Ellwood P. Cubber- ley), 91 Orient, The Music of the, 872 Our Rural Schools (Perry G. Holden), 97 Owen, Herman E. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Music Education, 847 Owen, William B. — Secretary's Minutes, National Council of Education, 527, 587 Palmer, A. N. — Penmanship, 888 Palmer, Clayton F. — ^How Boys and Girls Respond to Home Work in a Large City, 1139 Panaretoff, Stephen — Education in Bul- garia, 190 Parrott, Ava L. — Abolishing the Rating of Teachers, 1168 Parsons, Frank A. — ^Art in Its Relation to National Growth, 816 Parsons, Gertrude B. — ^Uniformity of Standards in Secondary Music Edu- cation, 863 Payne, A. C. — Discussion, 480 Payne, Bruce R. — ^The Spiritual and Pro- fessional Assets of the Normal School, 279 Peace, Ideal Education the Forerunner of Universal, 205 Peace, The Education of the World for a Permanent, 246 Pearse, Carroll G. — Library Training in Normal Schools, 807; The Purpose of a National System of Education, 588; Vocational Education and the Labor Problem, 828 Penmanship (A. N. Palmer), 888 Personahty in Supervision (J. W. Crab- tree), 516 PhiUppine Islands, Higher Education in the, 760 Philippine Islands, Music of the, 879 PhiUppine Islands, Standard School Build- ings and Grounds in the, 955 Phihppine Islands, The Secondary Schools of the, 734 Philippine Public-School System in Co- operation with the Home and in Relation to Industrial Conditions, The Develop- ment of the, 1 1x6 Phihppine PubUc Schools, Physical Train- ing in the, 984 Philippine Schools, Gardening and Fanning in the, 1156 PhiUppines, Pubhc Instruction — ^America's Work in the, 166 Philippines, School Buildings and Grounds in the, 1047 Philippines, Some Social Phases of Voca- tional Education in the, 843 Phillips, J. H. — Morals in the Public Schools, 574 Physical Education Essential (Albert E. WiNSHIP), 993 Physical Training in the Philippine Public Schools (Frank L. Crone), 984 Physician, The Education of the, 212 Physics and Manual Training, Correlation of, 996, 1000 Place and Function of the High School in the American System of Education (J. Stanley Brown), 724 Place and Scope of Sociology in the Normal School (John A. H. Keith), 764 Place of Pure Science in Our Public-School System (E. P. Lewis), 1024 Placement Bureau (L. Gilbert Dake), 910 Playground for Women, A University, 975 Playgrounds, Athletics in, 979 Playgrounds, The Educational Value of, 989 Playgrounds and Recreation Centers, Organization and Management of, 972 ii88 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION PLtTMMER, O. M. — President's Address, 103 1 Poor, Lillian B. — Progressive Develop- ment of the Kindergarten Course of Study in the Elementary School, 642 Possibilities of the High-School Library (R. T. Hargreaves), 730 Potter, John S. — Some Social Phases of Vocational Education in the Philippines, 843 Power, Effie L. — Report of Committee on Elementary-School Libraries, 1073 Practical Connections between Aesthetic and Industrial Values (Cathaiune R. Watkins), 654 Preparation of Teachers for the Elementary Schools, A (Allison Ware), 786; B (A. J. Matthews), 793; C (M. Madi- lene Veverka), 797 Present Activities and Accomplishments, A (H. B. Wilson), 602; B (Payson Smith), 609; C (Frank Strong), 610 President's Address (O. M. Plummer), 103 1 President's Address — The Teacher and War (David Starr Jordan), 38 Preston, Josephine Corliss— Commu- nity Center Work, 687 Principles, Declaration of, 25 Principles Underlying the Determination of a Course of Study Qames M. Green), 350 Problems of Handedness in Education (W. Franklin Jones), 959 Problems of Vocational Guidance (Frank E. Spaulding), 331 Progress of Education in North Africa — Particularly in Tunis (Benjamin Buis- son), 171 Progress of Elementary Agricultural Edu- cation in Nova Scotia (L. A. DeWolfe), 520 Progressive Development of the Kinder- garten Course of Study in the Ele- mentary School (Lillian B. Poor), 642 Project Teaching (J. A. Randall), 1009 Promotion of Teachers on the Basis of Merit and Efficiency (Clyde C. Green), 473 Pros and Cons of the Gary System (David Snedden), 363 Prosser, Charles A. — ^The Evolution of the Training of the Worker in Industry, 296 Protection of Professional Interests (Charles H. Judd), 269 Psychology (Modem) in Its Relation to DisdpUne, 658 Public Instruction — America's Work in the Philippines (Frank L. Crone), 166 Pupil, Current Methods of Dealing with the Exceptional, 445 Pupil, The Anemic, 452 Pupil, The Backward, 445 Pupil, The Bright, 457 Pupil, The DeUnquent, 449 Pupil, The Mentally Defective, 447 Pupils, A Satisfactory Basis for the Pro- motion of, 477 Purpose of a National System of Edu- cation (Carroll G. Pearse), 588 Question of Federal Aid for Normal Schools (William C. Bagley), 766 Qxjinn, p. E. — ^Trade Possibilities between the United States and Australia, 916 Randall, J. A. — Project Teaching, 1009 Rating of Teachers (J. W. Crabtree), 1165 Reading Tests (Charles H. Judd), 561 Recent Educational Development in China (Z. T. Nyi), 175 Reed College and Civic Service (William T. Foster), 757 Relation of the High School to the Normal School (Allison Ware), 786 Report of Committee on Classification and Terminology of the Exceptional Child (Samuel B. Allison), 1090 Report of Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary Education — Minimum Essentials of a Course of Study — ^The Objectives and Guiding Principles of the Report (Harry B. Wilson), 402 Report of Committee on Elementary- Sdiool Libraries (Effie L. Power), 1073 Report of Committee on Health Problems in Education (Thomas D. Wood), 583 Report of Committee on High-School Libraries (Mary E. Hall), 1064 Report of Committee on Normal-School Libraries, 1056 Report of Committee on Research, Stand- ardization, and Correlation (W, S. McKinney), 930 RepKjrt of Committee on School Health (Florence E. Ward), 1113 Report of Committee on Standardizing the Course of Study in Library Instruc- tion in Normal Schook, 1059 Report of Committee on Tests and Stand- ards of Efficiency in Schools and School Systems, A (Ben Blewett), 560; B (Charles H. Judd), 561; C (William H. Maxwell), 565; D Q. H. Phillips), 574; E (George D. Strayer), 579 Reports of Organizations Affiliated with the Department of School Patrons, A (Mary G. Barnum), 1106; B (Mrs. Don Carlos Ellis), 1109; C (Fannie S. Long), 1112 Response to Addresses of Welcome (Frank- lin B. Dyer), 266; (Joseph Swain), 37 Ripley, Ellor Carlisle — Should Essen- tials of the Course of Study Vary to Satisfy Social Demands in Different School Districts? Within the Same District? 354; Secretary's Minutes, Department of Superintendence (Cin- cinnati Meeting), 253 Roman, Frederick W. — ^Vocational Edu- cation— Its Dependence upon Ele- mentary Cultural Training, 11 73 INDEX 1189 Rosier, Joseph — A Satisfactory Basis for the Promotion of Pupils, 477 Round Tables — State and County Super- intendents, 415; Superintendents of Cities with a Population of over 250,- 000, 430; Superintendents of Cities with a Population of from 25,000 to 250,000, 445; Superintendents of Cities with a Population under 25,000, 466; Child Relations, 485 Rouse, John E. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Higher Education, 755 Rowell, Mrs. H. N. — What the California Congress of Mothers Has Done for Kindergarten Legislation, 631 Rural-School Administration and Super- vision, The Large versus the Small Unit for, 710 Rural-School Districts, The Demands of, 3S8 Rural Schools, Child Welfare and, 104 Rural Schools, Methods of Extending the Propaganda for the Improvement of Sanitary Conditions in, 584 Rural Schools, Our, 97 Rural Schools, Special Science for Girls in the, 1015 Rural Schools, Standardization of the, 679 Rural Teachers, A Decade of Progress in the Training of, 801 Rural Teachers, Efl&ciency and Preparation of, 100 Sadler, Michael E. — Changes in English Education since 1900, 144 Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions of Teachers, 1162 San Jose Junior Chamber of Commerce (R. R. McMasters), 903 Satisfactory Basis for the Promotion of Pupils (Joseph Rosier), 477 ScHAEFFER, Nathan C. — Should Our Ed- ucational System Include Activities Whose Special Purpose Is Preparation for War? 337 Schallenberger, Margaret E. — Secre- tary's Minutes, Department of Ele- mentary Education, 671 School, Extra-curricular Activities: Their Relation to the Curricular Work of the, 737 School, General Science for the First Year of High, 1022 School, Progressive Development of the Kindergarten Course of Study in the Elementary, 642 School, Some New Problems for the Old, 691 School, The All-Day Trades, 313 School, The EflBcient Country, 683 School, The Field for the Corporation School and Its Relation to the Public, 319 School, The Future High, 748 School, The Kindergarten and the Ele- mentary, 637 School, The Kindergarten-Primary Course in the State Normal, 637 School, The Library as a Continuation, 1081 School, The Organization of Intellectual Work in, 717 School, The Place and Scope of Sociology in the Normal, 764 School, The Relation of the High School to the Normal, 786 School, What Becomes of the Grammar- School Graduates and the High-School Non-Graduates? 708 School Administration and Supervision, The Large versus the Small Unit for Rural, 710 School-Board Members (William E. Chan- cellor), 1033 School Buildings, Some Problems to Be Considered in the Selection of Sites for, 951 School Buildings and Grounds in the Philippine Islands, Standard, 955 School Buildings and Grounds in the Philip- pines (Frank L. Crone), 1047 School Buildings in Indiana, Ten Million Dollars for Sanitary, 967 School Census, The Taking of the, 496 School Codes, State, 415 School Credit for Boys' and Girls' Club Work and Extension Activities in Agri- culture and Home Economics (O. H. Benson), 1144 School Curricula and Organization, A (James M. Green), 350; B (Ellor Carlisle Ripley), 354; C (Frank W. Miller), 358; D (David Snedden), School District, The Determination of the, 427 School Districts, The Demands of Rural, School Extension Courses in Education, Normal, 771 School Extension Courses in Five States, Normal, 777 School Grounds and School Architecture (John J. Donovan), 1041 School (High) Efficiency and What It Means to a Community, 742 School in the American System of Edu- cation, The Place and Function of the High, 724 School Problems, The Issuance of Work Permits and Its Bearings on Other, 489 School Savings Banks (Paul L. Evans), 904 School Shop and Breadwinning (James Collins Miller), 824 School Supervision in New England (Payson Smith), 509 School Surveys (Edward P. Cubberley), 1032 School Surveys of Backward and Retarded Children (J. Harold Williams), 1095 School System, The Place of Pure Science in Our Public, 1024 iigo NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION School S5r5tem in Co-operation with the Home and in Relation to Industrial Conditions, The Development of the Philippine Public, 1116 School Systems, Report of Committee on Tests and Standards of Efficiency in Schools and, 560 School Systems, The Investigation of the Efficiency of Schools and, 379, 384, 389, 395 School Work in Wisconsin, Continuation, 308 Schoolroom Window (William E. Watt), 942 Schools, American History in Elementary, 1078 Schools, Child Welfare and Rural, 104 Schools, Financial Support of the Public, 41S Schools, Library Traimng in the Normal, 807 Schools, Methods of Extending the Propa- ganda for the Improvement of Sanitary Conditions in Rural, 584 Schools, Morals in the Public, 574 Schools, Our Rural, 97 Schools, Physical Training in the Philip- pine Public, 984 Schools, Preparation of Teachers for the Elementary, 786 Schools, Self-Govemment in Secondary, 109 Schools, Should There Be Military Train- ing in Public? 217 Schools, Special Science for Girls in the Rural, 1015 Schools, Standardization of the Rural, 679 Schools, The Question of Federal Aid for Normal, 766 Schools, The Use of Tests and Scales of Measurement in the Administration of Schools, 579 Schools, The Wisdom of a Wider Use of the Probational in Discipline in the Public, 694 Schools in a Small City, Health Super- vision of, 963 Schools into Junior and Senior Sections, The Organization of High, 747 Schools of the Phihppine Islands, The Secondary, 734 Science for Girls in the Riiral Schools, Special, 1015 Science for the First Year of High School, General, 1022 Science in Our Public-School System, The Place of Pure, 1024 Secondary Education Q. Stanley Brown), 616 Secondary Education (Charles E. Chad- sey), 593 Secondary Education (Payson Smith), 609 Secondary Schools of the Philippine Islands (Frank L. Crone), 734 Seerley, Homer H. — Extension Service for Iowa Teachers, 781; The Normal- School Point of View, 539; The State Normal School and the Training of High-School Teachers, 809 Selection of County Superintendents (William E. Chancellor), 423 Self-Govemment in Secondary Schools (Richard Welling), 109 Severy, Hazel W. — Apphed Science as the Basis of the Girl's Education, 1020 Sewall, May Wright — Child Education as a Basis for the New Internationalism, 667; Development of the International- ism Spirit thru Education, 244 Sex Hygiene and Sex Morality as the Aim of Sex Education (Thomas M. Balliet), 148 Sexton, Elmer K. — Discussion, 441 Shawkey, M. p. — Financial Support of the Public Schools, 415; Some New Problems for the Old School, 691; Sec- retary's Minutes, Department of Super- intendence (Oakland Meeting), 502 Shiels, Albert — Illiteracy and Industrial Efficiency in Large Cities, 433 Shtvely, N. O. — ^Advertising and Sales- manship, 921 Should Essentials of the Course of Study Vary to Satisfy Social Demands in Different School Districts? Within the Same District? (Ellor Carlisle Rjp- uey), 354 Should Our Educational System Include Activities Whose Spedd Purpose Is Preparation for War? (Lindley M. Garrison), 335; (Nathan C. Schaef- fer), 337; QoHN H. Finley), 344 Should There Be Military Training in Public Schools ? (Louis P. Lochner), 217 SissoN, E. O. — Books and Education, 1085; The State Department and Edu- cational Statesmanship, 511 Sluss, Homer O. — Discussion, 489 Smith, Grace — ^The Eurhythmies of Jaques-Dalcroze, 869 Smith, Payson — Organization of Public Education, 88; School Supervision in New England, 509; Secondary Edu- cation, 609 Snedden, Davh) — ^The Pros and Cons of the Gary System, 363 Snowden, Mrs. Philip — ^Woman and War, 54 Snyder, Edwin R. — ^Discussion, 841 Snyder, William H. — High-School Effi- ciency and What It Means to a Com- munity, 742 Social Demands in Different School Dis- tricts? Within the Same District? Should Essentials of the Course of Study Vary to Satisfy ? 354 Social Efficiency, A State Program for Industrial and, 292 Social Phases of Vocational Education (Richard G. Boone), 837 Sociology in the Normal School, The Place and Scope of, 764 INDEX II91 Some Adjustments That Might Secure Closer Integration (Mary C. C. BI^AD- ford), 641 Some Defects in Our Legal Education (Orrin Kip McMurray), 207 Some Factors Making for Growth of Ele- mentary Teachers in the Field (C. LomsE Boehringer), 672 Some New Problems for the Old School (M. P. Shawkey), 691 Some Problems to Be Considered in the Selection of Sites for School Buildings (F. B. Dresslar), 951 Some Social Phases of Vocational Edu- cation in the Philippines (John S. Potter), 843 South, Supervision in the, 506 Southern Association of College Women (Mrs. Don Carlos Ellis), 1109 Spaulding, Frank E. — Problems of Vo- cational Guidance, 331 Special Science for Girls in the Rural Schools (Blanche Olin Twiss), 1015 Special Teacher (Susan M. Dorsey), 713 Spiegel, Frederick S. — Address of Wel- come, 261 Spiritual and Professional Assets of the Normal School (Bruce R. Payne), 279 Standard School Buildings and Grounds in the Philippine Islands (Rufino Martinez), 955 Standardization — Wise and Otherwise (A. E. WiNSHip), 528 Standardization of the Rural Schools (E. F. Carleton), 679 State Department and Educational States- manship (Edward O. Sisson), 511 State Normal Schools and the Training of High-School Teachers (Homer H. Seer- ley), 809 State Program for Industrial and Social Efficiency (Arthur D. Dean), 292 State School Codes, A (M. P. Shawkey), 415; B (A. G. Yawberg), 419; C (Wil- liam E. Chancellor), 423; D (Francis G. Blair), 427 Steiner, Bernard C. — ^The Library as a Continuation School, 1081 Stenographer, The Student, 913 Sterling, Elizabeth C. — Community Center Work, 503 Stewart, Charlotte — The Distinctive Functions of Games and Gymnastics, 981 Stone, W. S. — Teaching the Fundamentals of Accountancy in Bookkeeping Classes, or Training Students to Think, 884 Stoops, Richard O. — Discussion, 463 Strachan, Grace C. — Elementary Edu- cation, 616 Strayer, George D. — The Use of Tests and Scales of Measurement in the Administration of Schools, 579 Strong, Frank — ^Higher Education, 610 Student Finances (E. W. Barnhart), 908 Student Stenographer (Clyde Blanchard), 913 Study, Principles Underlying the Determi- nation of a Course of, 350 Study, Should Essentials of the Course of Study Vary to Satisfy Social Demands in Different School Districts? Within the Same District ? 354 Study of Education in the Normal School and the University, A (Homer H. Seer- ley), 539; B (A. Duncan Yocum), 544 Superintendents, The Selection of County, 423 Supervision, PersonaUty in, 516 Supervision in the South (M. L. Brittain), 506 Surveys, School, 1032 Surveys, University, 755 Swain, Joseph — Response to Address of Welcome, 37 Taft, William Howard — Is a National Standard of Education Practical? 373 Taking of the School Census (John W. Davis), 496 Tao, L. K.— The Deeper Problem of Edu- cation in China, 229 Teach, Charles E. — ^Athletics in Play- grounds, 979 Teacher, The Special, 713 Teacher, Working Plans for the Home, 698 Teacher and War, The President's Address, 38 . . Teacher Training, The Compelling of Efficiency thru, 544 Teachers, A Decade of Progress in the Training of Rural, 801 Teachers, Abolishing the Rating of, 1168 Teachers, Current Practices in the Appoint- ment of, 466 Teachers, Efficiency and Preparation of Rural, 100 Teachers, Extension Service for Iowa, 781 Teachers, Rating of, 1165 Teachers, The Appointment, Salary, and Tenure of, 419 Teachers, The Growth and Organization of the National Union of, 127 Teachers, The Promotion of Teachers on the Basis of Merit and Efficiency, 473 Teachers, The State Normal Schools and the Training of High-School, 809 Teachers, The Training of, 279 Teachers, What to Stress and What to Slur in the Preparation of Elementary, 793 Teachers Be Tested and Recorded? How Shall the Efficiency of, 469 Teacher's Field in Public Health Work (Elizabeth Wilson Allison), 676 Teachers for the Elementary Schools, Preparation of, 786 Teachers in Service, The Training of, 287 Teachers in the Field, Some Factors Making for Growth of Elementary, 672 Teachers of America and the Problems of Asia (Sidney L. Gulick), 186 Teachers of Music in Secondary Schools, College Preparation for, 858 1 192 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions (James Ferguson), 1162 Teaching, Project, 1009 Teaching of Fundamentals of Accountancy in Bookkeeping Classes, or Training Students to Think (W. S. Stone), 884 Teaching of Harmony in High Schools (Alice C. Bumbatjgh), 855 Tejada, Federico S. de — Education in Guatemala, 152 Ten MiUion Dollars for Sanitary School Buildings in Indiana (W. F. King), 967 Tenure of Office (Grace DeGraff), 1051 Terman, Lewis M. — ^The Mental Hygiene of Exceptional Children, 945 Textbooks — Educationally, Commercially, and PoUticaUy (A. E. Winship), 274 The Trap (William Lowe Bryan), 268 They Who Sit at Our Feet (M. Madilene Veverka), 797 Thomas, Harriet P. — Child Education as a Basis for the New Internationalism, 668 Thomson, Harriet W. — A University Playground for Women, 975 Thwing, Charles F. — ^Higher Ideals in Education, 232 Trade Possibilities between the United States and Australia (P. E. Quinn), 916 Trades School, The All-Day, 313 Training and Field of the Amanuensis (Robert A. Grant), 897 Training of Teachers, A (Bruce R. Payne), 279; B (Calvin N. Kendall), 287 Training of Teachers in Service (Calvin N. Kendall), 287 Treleven, John E. — Factors of Efficiency in Secondary Commercial Teaching, 893 Twiss, Blanche Olin — Special Science for Girls in the Rural Schools, 1015 Twiss, George R. — Correlation of Physics and Manual Training, 1000 Unconscious Discipline — The Blend of the Self -Acting Group (John R. Kirk), 706 Uniformity of Standards in Secondary Music Education (Gertrude B. Par- sons), 863 University, The Administration of the American, 522 University, The Study of Education in the Normal School and the, 539 University Playground for Women (Har- riet W. Thomson), 975 University Surveys (Ellwood P. Cubber- i^y), 755 Use of Tests and Scales of Measure- ment in the Administration of Schools (George D. Strayer), 579 Van Norman, H. E. — ^What Becomes of the Grammar-School Graduates and the High-School Non-Graduates? 708 Van Rensselaer, Martha — ^Home Eco- nomics Applied to Life, 821 Van Sickle, James H. — ^The Investi- gation of the Efficiency of Schook and School Systems, 379 Verplanck, F. A. — Discussion, 495 Veverka, M. Madilene — ^They Who Sit at Our Feet, 797 Vocational Education, A (Arthur D. Dean), 292; B (Charles A. Prosser), 296; C (Robert L. Cooley), 308; D (E. C. Warriner), 313; E (W. L. Chandler), 319; F (John Lapp), 322; G (Frank E. Spaulding), 331 Vocational Education — Its Dependence upon Elementary Cultural Training (Frederick W. Roman), 1173 Vocational Education, Its Wider Impli- cations (Thomas M. Balliet), 832 Vocational Education, National Aid for, 322 Vocational Education, The Social Phases of, 837 Vocational Education and the Labor Problem (Carroll G. Pearse), 828 Vocational Education in the Philippines, Some Social Phases of, 843 Vocational Guidance, Problems of, 331 Vocational Opportunities for Girls, What Can the Teacher of Geography Con- tribute to the Survey of? 1012 Vocational Work, The Essence of Success in Evening, 430 Waldo, D wight B. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Normal Schools (Cin- cinnati Meeting), 763 Walker, Frances E. — ^Discussion, 495 War, Should Our Educational System Include Activities Whose Special Pur- pose Is Preparation for? 335, 337, 344 War, The Teacher and, 38 War, Woman and, 54 Ward, Florence E. — Report of Com- mittee on School Health, 1113 Ware, Allison — ^The Relation of the High School to the Normal School, 786 Warriner, E. C— The All-Day Trades School, 313 Waters, Henry J. — ^Agricultural Edu- cation, 193 Watkins, Catharine R. — Practical Con- nections between Aesthetic and Indus- trial Values, 654 Watt, William E. — ^The Schoolroom Window, 942 Way, Alvah B. — Secretary's Minutes, Department of Business Education, 883 Way of Approach to the Supreme Ideal in School Education (Henry Holman), 239 Welch, Ida — General Science for the First Year of High School, 1022 Welling, Richard — Self-Govemment in Secondary Schools, 109 What Becomes of the Grammar-School Graduates and the High-School Non- Graduates? (H. E. Van Norman), 708 What Can the Teacher of Geography Con- tribute to the Survey of Vocational Opportunities for Girls? (George W. Hoke), 1012 INDEX "93 What the California Congress of Mothers Has Done for Kindergarten Legislation (Mrs. H. N. Rowell), 631 What to Stress and What to Slur in the Preparation of Elementary Teachers (A. J. Matthews), 793 Wheaton, H, H. — Discussion, 443 Wilbur, Ray Lyman — The Education of the Physician, 212 Williams, J, Harold — School Surveys of Backward and Retarded Children, 109s Wilson, H. B. — Elementary Education, 602; Report of Committee on Economy of Time in Elementary Education, Minimum Essentials of a Course of Study, 402 Window, The Schoolroom, 942 WiNSHip, Albert E. — Physical Edu- cation Essential, 993; Standardization — Wise and Otherwise, 528; Textbooks Educationally, Commercially, and Polit- ically, 274 Wisdom of a Wider Use of the Proba- tional in Discipline in the PubUc Schools (J. W. Crabtree), 694 WiTHROW, John M. — ^Address of Welcome, 264 Woman and War (Mrs. Philip Snowden), Women, The Council of Jewish, 1112 Women, The Southern Association of Col- lege, 1 1 09 Wood, Thomas D. — Child Welfare and Rural Schools, 104; Report of Com- mittee on Health Problems in Education, 583 Woods, Glenn H. — Instrumental Music and Instrument Study in the Oakland Schools, 865 Woolley, Helen T. — The Issuance of Work Permits and Its Bearings on Other School Problems, 489 Wooster, Earl S. — Correlation of Chem- istry and Agriculture, 1005 Work, Community Center, 503, 687 Work Permits and Its Bearings on Other School Problems, The Issuance of, 489 Working Plans for the Home Teacher (Amanda Mathews Chase), 698 Yawberg, a. G. — ^The Appointment, Salary, and Tenure of Teachers, 419 YocuM, A. Duncan — The Compelling of EflSciency thru Teacher Training, 544 Young, Ella Flagg — Industrial Training, "5 L National Education Association 13 of the United States *■ N3A13 Addresses and pro- ^§F 1915 ceedings... > PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY \